Humanisation of cell complexes Creating balance between equality and hierarchy
Kate Piotrowska Interior Architecture Master Research Paper June 2015
Table of contentS 1. Scope
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1.1 Case Outline 5 1.1.1 Sector 5 1.1.2 Problem 5 1.2 Project
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1.2.1 Objective 1.2.2 Client 1.2.3 Discussion Issues 1.2.4 Discussion Issues - Briefing 1.2.5 Discussion Issues - Debriefing 1.2.6 Design & Research Approach
6 6 8 8 10 14
2. Research
2.1 Target Group
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2.1.1 Detainees 2.1.2 Police Sergeants 2.1.3 The Police Department
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2.2 Psychology and Wellbeing
2.2.1 Humanisation in Custody Suites - Theory of Supportive Design 2.2.2 Influence of Senses 2.2.3 Sense of Control 2.2.4 Deprivation Model 2.3 Spatial Interpretation
19 20 22 24
2.3.1 Public and Private 2.3.2 Territorial Zoning & Hierarchy 2.3.3 Natural Surveillance
25 26 28
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Table of contents 3. Final Design
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3.1 Research & Design Analysis
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3.1.1 Daylight 3.1.2 Reference Point 3.1.3 No Dead-Ends 3.1.4 Materials & Colours 3.1.5 Equal Surveillance 3.1.6 Control Panel 3.1.7 Welcome-Relief Zone 3.1.8 Routing 3.1.9 Softer Transitions 3.1.10 Human Size 3.1.11 Private Space 3.1.12 Uniforms 3.1.13 Visible Hierarchical Borders
30 31 31 32 32 33 33 34 35 36 37 38 38
3.2 Generic Design Tools
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4. Conclusion
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5. Bibliography
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Foreword
Abstract
During my masters degree of Interior Architecture at the Academy of Arts in Utrecht, I was given the chance to get to know myself better, as an individual as well as a designer. It was the perfect time to undertake this personal investigation and go on this self exploratory journey. This master course has thought me much more than just expertise in the field of spatial architecture. I have learned how to deal with clients, co-workers and competition and realised how crucial psychology is in the sector of spatial architecture and interior design.
The following essay is a master’s degree final research paper within the field of interior architecture, which provides the reader with findings on how the spatial qualities of a police station can affect the structure of the Dutch police. It also investigates how these qualities have an influence on the psychological wellbeing of police sergeants as well as suspects in custody. The aim of this paper is to define certain spatial standards, which could be applied in Dutch (and international) police stations where custody cells are present. The process of research is supported by a Dutch police station, in the city of Breda. The design is applied to this building, however the intention is to be able to apply the generic spatial qualities at diverse police station locations using minimal adjustments. It is a live architectural project meaning the design has the potential to be realised.
The word ‘design’ is usually incorrectly associated with products that must aesthetically please the senses or mind, which derive from art and are shaped by creative minds. I believe that true design includes these qualities, however its main purpose should always prioritise the user, functionality and timelessness of the space. It is the user who is the central point, around which all aspects of design revolve. I perceive (spatial) design as a process of thorough research and in-depth analysis, which in the final stage eventually reaches its full, also aesthetic, potential.
I would like to outline the current situation of the above mentioned police station and stress the importance of this undertaking on a (inter)national scale. Furthermore, I will present the framework of the client’s requirements and expectations and share my personal findings suggesting a potential solution to the problem. I intend to provide the reader with a wider scope of my own literary research related to the effect of environment on a human being. Subsequently, I will focus on the professional needs of police sergeants that are necessary in order to optimally conduct their policy. I will simultaneously study the needs of detainees and sketch the relation between these two target groups. The research question is therefore: how can the police cells environment be optimised in order to contribute to the psychological wellbeing of suspects and employees?
I derive my personal inspiration, influence and conceptual force for my ideas from today’s modern world, everyday life activities and my international background. I find intuition an important phenomenon, which plays an important role in decision making and assertiveness. My mission is to enjoy every design challenge, which I have so far achieved owing to my adaptability skills. They guarantee positive attitude, enthusiasm, and commitment to any project, in which I always find a part of myself. I strive to create balanced design, where ‘the obvious’ meets ‘the unexpected’ to deliver a surprising and practical solution. This final project is a good example of balance between staying in line and ‘sky is the limit’, innovation and most importantly - empathy.
The link between architecture, psychology, law and human rights is the inspiration trigger to conduct the following study and write this paper.
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1. Scope 4
1. 1 Case Outline
1. 1. 1 Sector
The sector of Justice and Public Safety is a crucial part of any well functioning nation. In the Netherlands, The Ministry of Security and Justice has a number of legal tasks. Preventing crime, in order to build a safer society is among them. The Dutch police belongs to the Public Safety sector and according to Article 3 of the Dutch Police law their mission is to “(…) in subordination to the authorities and complying with applicable law, take care of the actual upholding of the legal order and to supply aid to those who need it.” In practice, however, the mission comes down to four main tasks:
1. 1. 2 Problem
All police cells in the Netherlands fall under national and European rules and regulations, and they legally meet all external requirements about safety and comfort. However, the current 2015 Dutch custody suites differ substantially on many levels. The physical design and character of the buildings (external and interior), the orientation of the cells to each other, condition of the cells, treatment of detainees, amenity provision, facilities and the ways of work (the internal policy) vary from city to city, even within 25 independent regional police departments. All of these factors have an impact on how people perceive and experience such a custodial setting. The reason for this lack of unity is the independent and location-specific distribution of money.
- prevention (preventing offences and crimes), - investigation of crimes and offences, - upholding the legal order, and - supplying assistance to civil authorities. This paper will focus on the ‘investigation of crimes and offences’ section, namely on a custodial facility and the importance of spatial qualities within this institution. How can spatial architecture optimise psychological wellbeing of those related to a custody suite whilst maintaining strict regulations and laws of Justice and Public Safety?
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In the past, larger police stations would invest in modernising their local custody suite, employee training and thorough refurbishing, whilst other smaller stations would not spend money on their custodial facility, besides minimal work such as repainting in order to meet the necessary standard requirements. The other difference is the number of employees and the culture of working. In some police stations detainees are treated more strictly than in others, they are not allowed extra blanket when cold and access to the exercise yard more than twice a day. Such, some could say, banal situations have a big impact on the suspects emotional and psychological wellbeing resulting in increased level of stress and aggression. This in turn nagetively affects the police sergeants looking after the detainees and the whole policy system at custody suites.
The research is of uniform nature, meaning, it aims to accommodate findings in multiple locations, nevertheless the design is based on a specific site - Breda police custody suite. The police in this case, can be seen as the general client and not the specific. This is the reason why the Breda location has been chosen to act as an example, sample or model for all the design outcomes. The Breda police chief as well as a policeman working at the custody suite are the specific clients, who have direct contact with the Breda police station and they are the ones who communicate with the author of this research paper and require the conditions to meet a certain standard. The Breda police custody suite was built in the late 90’s as an extension to the already existing police station. From its look and spatial arrangements it can be concluded that the extension was built with no thorough psychological, spatial or architectural research, or analysis of the users. The Breda custody suite has been functioning as a 21st century custodial facility, in which modern policing takes place. However, the state of the building and its spatial aspects are far behind the contemporary, which affects the image of the police as well as the psychological state of everyone related to the building.
1. 2 PROJECT
1. 2. 2 Client
1. 2. 1 Objective
The objective of this research paper is to study the conditions of a police custody suite in Breda in relation to the spatial architecture. The aim is to enhance the psychological wellbeing of all involved target groups, with emphasis on detainees and the police station’s employees whilst maintaining safety and security required in a custody suite. Policy must also be optimised in order to create an effective and structured program, enabled by a well designed tangible place. Subsequently, the aim is to design a spatial arrangement based on literary as well as individual research (observation, interviews, surveys). These spatial qualities are to be used in the police custody suite in Breda, keeping in mind the generic nature of this research. The paper does not address policies and procedures unless they specifically relate to design considerations. There is also, throughout the paper, the tension of police staff needs versus the needs of those held in custody. 6
Breda police station
Breda cells complex 7
1. 2. 3 Discussion Issues
A number of discussion issues appeared to be of particular importance at several meetings with the two Breda police station representatives.
1. 2. 4 Discussion Issues - Briefing
This paper targets the issues listed above as well as other problems, which were raised during personal observation and interviews with other police staff related to this building. The author of this paper was asked to tackle the previously mentioned concerns by changing the interior architecture & design of the existing cells complex. The following spatial alterations were defined and requested by the clients (some of them were discussed and clarified in co-operation with the author of this paper):
- One of the main crucial issues is the misfitted spatial relationship of the cell complex to the modern organisational structure of the police. Qualities of the police department are not visible in the spatial arrangement of the custody suite. These qualities are: safety, order, trust and authority. - Deprivation of individual control is the second major concern; detainees are unable to control some features in their cells such as temperature, lighting and flushing water. The cells lack multiple other features (unlike few new cell complexes in Netherlands) such as radio, tv or access to pen and paper.
1. There should be significantly more daylight (windows/ other wall or ceiling openings), especially in the central area, hallways, cells and near the interrogation rooms (the employees suggested a glazed dome above their control room). 2. The number of cells could change, but not significantly (There should be ±40 individuals cells, at least one larger group cell, observation cell and parent&child cell). 3. The control room should be bigger than the current one, with at least 5 working spaces. 4. A new room/area is required, which the employees can use during lunch breaks. 5. Access to the outside should be created, so that the employees can air or smoke a cigarette. 6. The cells can be more luxurious in terms of being able to control lighting, temperature, tv and radio, however all fixtures have to be anti-ligature and be able to withstand repeated tampering. There should be an ‘entertainment’ panel, which can be controlled by detainees. This panel has to withstand physical abuse. 7. Floors/walls and other furniture have to be durable and easy to clean. 8. An extra work area near the entrance to the building is necessary, where finger print scans and personal check can be carried out before the detainee is passed on to the cell complex police sergeants.
- Traffic routing within the custody suite, which results in uneven distribution of police sergeants’ attention. Another problem is lack of a centralised cells locking system, which affects the safety of the facility in case of fire or other calamity. - Absence of daylight in hallways, control room and main traffic routes. The amount of daylight in cells is minimal according to national police cell complex regulations. - There is no private area for the employees, which results in increased stress and lack of privacy. - What needs to be addressed with high importance are interaction considerations between detainees and the police representatives, the problem of human stress, anxiety and aggression, which relate to the circumstances of arrest, but also to spatial factors in the police environment. - Last but not least, the problem with the insufficient display of authority. This is due to the chaotic nature of the central point of the building which results in the incorrect shaping of the police department image.
The problem of the built environment misfitting modern policy has been stated without any design restrictions or requests. The designer is responsible for the translation of the general police qualities (safety, order, trust, authority) into spatial elements.
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1. 2. 5 Discussion Issues DEBriefing
In order to be able to redesign this custody suite and provide the clients with an outcome that meets their requirements, it is essential to understand the target groups, which include detainees, police sergeants and other groups influenced by this topic (the police & society). It can be done by interviewing the employees as well as by analysing scientific studies carried out on these target groups. Researching modern ways of humanisation of prisons and police cells is crucial, and so is understanding how space subconsciously influences our behaviour. These are the areas of research this paper will focus on. Besides, one of the biggest problems is the fact that the building does not reflect the general qualities of the police (safety, order, trust, authority). It is essential to define these qualities, understand their meaning, and subsequently, be able to translate them into spatial arrangements. Safety - the building provides safety to everyone inside —> The building is designed and built in such a way that its spatial arrangement reduces stress and enables safe work. Here, there’s a question of architectural (not programmatic) interventions, which shape and define the space intended for all target groups.
Order - the way of work is ordered/structured and tasks are optimally carried out ensuring optimal policy equivalent to modern policing —> The program inside the building ensures optimal police work.
Trust - trust between the detainee and the police e sergeant / a detainee feels they can trust the police / the police shows it can be trusted by providing a detainee with trust-building signs —> The detainee can feel that they’re treated equally, in a humane way, that they’re not inferior to the police sergeants.
Authority - the police is superior to the detainees / there is a visible hierarchy, which ensures respect and modesty —> The police sergeants wear uniforms to show their rank and the police has a strong identity.
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+
=
A programmed space makes a place, which aims to optimise the ways of work and to lower stress of all target groups. There has to be a certain balance between maintaining order & structure of the police department and fostering stress reduction to create an optimal place for the police to carry out their policy.
+
=
Equality and hierarchy are contradictory, which makes them difficult to combine. They do, however, define the people (detainees and police sergeants). Therefore, there must be a solid balance between these two groups in order to objectify their importance and not to emphasise one whilst the another remains in the peripheral.
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People, in this case, detainees and police sergeants are a group that’s placed inside a space, where every individual has equal rights and where the aim is to improve everyone’s psychological wellbeing by stress reduction.
Place, in this case the Police department, is programmed to optimise work and create hierarchy in order to magnify the importance of the police and show their superiority.
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Creating an ideal place for people, where stress reduction is optimal, as well as a place where the police can carry out their tasks and show their significant power over the detainees would not be successful without a balance between these two aspects. It is paradoxical to create a humane environment in a place, where human rights, such as freedom, are taken away. It is also paradoxical to create a structured and authoritative police department, where people should be to some extent equal. This project deals with constant clashes between a humane,
comfortable and worthy place Vs a space, which must maintain a certain level of hierarchy, show off superiority and not be too luxurious. In order understand these opposites a certain balance must be maintained. Finding balance between these 4 points, keeping in mind optimisation of police work and reduction of stress, is the base and the starting point of this research. The main aim of the design is therefore to create a space which balances police work and stress reduction focusing on police (department) and people (sergeants & detainees).
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1. 2. 6 Design & research approach This topic is of particular difficulty as there has never been any research done in the field of police cell complexes in relation to psychological wellbeing of detainees and staff. What the client requests is the general optimisation of wellbeing of those who are in custody and those who look after them. There has been a case study done in Australia (Gennady N.Baksheev), however there has been none carried out in the Netherlands or anywhere else in Europe. This is the underlying reason why this research is a challenge.
a temporary, transit-zone place, where qualities such as privacy, personalisation of space and home-like environment play a less significant role. According to the study of Baksheev, where he researched ‘frequency and percentage of major concerns among police cell detainees’ it could be concluded that short term matters, which are beyond the control of detainees are of bigger concern than long term issues such as privacy or safety. Common concerns reported were about legal outcome at court, not being able to smoke in the cells or loss of freedom in police custody. After having spoken to the police sergeants in Breda, similar concerns were named and asked to be addressed.
The information that is gathered comes mainly from articles and books referring to prisons or psychiatric clinics, as well as environmental design. Debriefing of the problem is of high importance and interest for the clients as the design could potentially be realised. The building in Breda has multiple limitations, which have to be taken into consideration whilst carrying out the research and, above all, during the design process. These limitations, however, should not be an obstacle in this extensive research. Some findings or data-to-design translations go beyond the potential of the Breda cells complex.
Having analysed briefing and presented debriefing to the clients, it is important to to be able to receive all necessary information as well as help from the Breda cells complex. The intention is to visit the Breda location as frequently as needed and on the basis of interviews, surveys and observations gather all data, which can later be analysed and translated into spatial qualities. The client is asked to provide technical plans, preferably including cross sections and any other relevant drawings. These technical plans cannot be shared with anyone, including teachers and other people involved in this paper. Such agreement has been signed and it is legally binding.
It is crucial to understand the differences between a prison and a police cells complex in order to be able to adapt all the information. Many prison cases refer to long-term incarceration, however a custody suite is
“The environment of concern to the environmental psychologist is more often the background. It consists of countless elements and is unbounded in space and time. The subject is unaware of much of it. Its influence is often subtle, or, rather, the influence of any one element may be subtle. Cumulatively, these elements make up an environment, which may be powerful but complex and difficult to understand. A person’s relationship to such an environment is equally complex . . . we remain convinced that a key aspect of this relationship is emotional.” (Russell & Snodgrass, 1987)
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2. Research
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2. 1 Target group After having visited the Breda cells complex twice, it is clear that the heretofore process of the custodial environment has a bad influence on the internal atmosphere. This leads to the development of a negative environment, in which police sergeants do not feel comfortable. It is therefore imperative to the project that the custodial setting is carried out optimally to modern, 21st century standards keeping in mind the wellbeing of detainees as well as staff and other related parties. Good design solutions, usually result in an environment which works better for everyone involved.
Detainees, being one of the main target groups should have their main needs taken into consideration. In Breda, according to the police sergeants who had spoken to the suspects, the detainees need distraction in order to prevent boredom, as well as the feeling of personal control in order to increase their self-respect and respect for others. The principal focus is to reduce stress of detainees and prepare them for interrogation with police officers.
2. 1. 1 detainees
Detainees are the obvious target group and the main user of a custody suite. A detainee is any person with (pending) criminal charges that is suspected of disobeying the law, captured by armed forces, such as the police, and held in custody. During this process the held citizen is lawfully deprived of their freedom of liberty at that time. Cell complexes are built to accommodate the suspects in a safe and secure place for the duration of a criminal investigation, which usually takes between 6 hours and 3 days. The suspects are arrested until trial or sentencing. In modern society it is often perceived that those who have been taken into police custody are law or criminal offenders, and therefore, should be treated as potential criminals who could possibly jeopardise the rest of the society. However, almost a half of held citizens are innocent or charged with minor offence, yet they are treated in a way that many would call inhumane. No detainee should feel as if they are being punished before sentencing, regardless their suspected transgression. In many custodial environments this is usually the case. All detainees in the Breda custody suite are treated equally (unless they have special physical needs or mental issues), but it does not necessarily mean that their treatment is of the correct standard. The police should be the organ that provides suspects with safety and security whilst their right of liberty is temporarily removed. The custody suite should therefore be an institution that could be trusted and respected by those who experience it. 16
“When they see the criminal, they just see the crime - they don’t see the person behind it”
(Healthcare in Police Custody: Users’ views)
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2. 1. 2 police sergeants
A slightly less evident user of a custody suite are police staff. Generally speaking, when designing a place, people tend to think about the direct user, for whom the institution is meant, thus detainees. However, those who work at that facility tend to be forgotten. Police sergeants are however equally important users who can not be ignored or be given less attention during the design process. They spend long daily shifts at a police custody suite, looking after detainees and simultaneously carrying out other administration-related tasks. A detainee is out of this built custodial environment within 3 days, whereas a police sergeant can spend their entire professional life bound to the same place, which is the case with many police sergeants in Breda. Staff’s ironic question, “Who is in jail anyway, them or us?” really takes on a new meaning when put in this context. Police sergeants as representatives of the Police (Public Security), ought to strengthen the reputation of this institution by being a strong example of authority. The built work environment, however, disables them to optimally carry out their policy, which in turn, affects their image and weakens their hierarchical position.
and fear of miscommunication. This data is later sent to other police departments, which are responsible for decision making before trial and potential sentencing. If the questioning process does not provide policemen with sufficient information, the detainee has to stay in custody (usually in a different, less strict, building) until there are no more questions. In the Netherlands 46% of all detainees are kept in prolonged custody due to insufficient information, which requires more extensive research. Not only does extended research cost the police money and time, but it also negatively affects the reputation of being effective and efficient. According to the police chief, many suspects are too tired, mentally and physically, to be able to answer all the questions. Optimally, detainees should be sharp minded and co-operative during interrogations, so that further procedures could go smoothly without exposing the police to the loss of their authoritative image. Therefore, not only does it affect the entire police department but it also partially affects the society (via those who had experienced such a situation) and the way we perceive our security system, creating distance and distrust.
The main needs of police sergeants, based on interviews with staff from Breda and Amsterdam cells complex are privacy and desired consideration from detainees. Besides, pleasant work surroundings are particularly sought after, such as daylight, outside view, friendly colours and materials and a possibility to air.
An improved and less hostile environment might therefore lead to a better cooperation with the police (mainly with those who are not guilty) and contribute to improving the image of the police. A person treated well, even if traumatised by life events, will have a more positive memory/attitude towards the police than a person who’s mistreated.
“Who is in jail anyway, them or us?”
2. 1. 3 police department
Target groups can also be indirectly connected to the police custody suite. This influence is naturally less significant, however it can affect a larger number of people and therefore have a collective impact on the image of the police. According to the custody suite police chief, a detainee, who due to a stressful environment is unable to answer questions correctly during the interrogation process can provide police staff with invalid information. This is mainly due to an increased level of stress, distrust 18
2. 2 Psychology and wellbeing Is it possible to reduce stress and anxiety in custody by a careful consideration of existing physical environmental factors, design elements, and procedures in police custody situations?
2. 2. 1 humanisation in custody suites A Theory of Supportive Design One of the main requirements defined by the clients is to optimise psychological wellbeing of detainees and police sergeants. A Theory of Supportive Design aims to promote wellness through design, which fosters coping with stress. It is usually adopted in healthcare facilities in order to alleviate stress related to illness. This however, does not mean that the theory cannot be applied in other facilities where increased stress is evidently present, such as custodial settings. Stress is linked with psychological, physiological, and behavioural dimensions of wellness. Based on the theory of behavioural sciences it is justified that institutions will promote health and wellbeing if the design fosters: 1. a sense of personal control 2. access to social support 3. access to positive distractions in physical surroundings. One might argue that supportive design should not be applied in correctional facilities, as detainees do not deserve comfort and special treatment (which patients receive in healthcare institutions). However, it cannot be denied that every citizen held in custody is a mentally fragile human, whose primary rights are taken away. Looking at detainees from a perspective of a doctor, they too, ought to be exposed to an environment which significantly reduces stress and promotes physical and mental health. The Theory of Supportive Design must however be simplified seeing custody suites have some restrictions. As much as points 1 and 3 can be applied in cell complexes, point 2 could raise a few discussion
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issues. Contact between detainees is strongly prohibited and so is the access to other external social support (the only exception is legal or medical aid). This could mean that the Theory of Supportive Design can only be partially applied to the detainees target group, which would nevertheless contribute to reduction of stress, seeing that any stress relieving features have a positive impact on psychological wellbeing. Design approaches for fostering social interaction could however be applied in areas designated for police sergeants, for instance, providing pleasant indoor or outdoor areas where human interaction is amplified and creating comfortable break zones where staff can socialise. The introduction of supportive design, can benefit employees by reducing workplace stress, improving work satisfaction and improve capability of workplace to attract new qualified employees. Not only does such a spatial ‘investment’ have a positive effect on psychological health of target groups but it also reflects the authority of the police as an institution with integrity. Research with environments characterised by isolation and confinement has demonstrated certain common emotional and behavioural reactions. These include problems with thinking clearly. motivation, feeling of helplessness and worthlessness and changes in mood. (Harrison & Connors 1984) In order to prepare detainees mentally for questioning, the environment should reduce social isolation, sensory deprivation as well as emotional disorientation which is strongly linked to increased stress.
2. 2. 2 influence of senses
Everyday we’re flooded with a broad palette of sensory stimuli - images, sounds, colours and different smells and flavours. Some of them come naturally, but others are deliberately created to make us behave or feel a certain way. They also influence our perception of the environment. How can senses and sensory triggers affect violence, aggression, safety, anxiety and stress?
and a smaller chance of the material being destroyed. This however, does not mean that a cell can be made of materials such as silk, wood or leather. There has to be a certain balance in choosing the right finishings of the police cell. This example shows how powerful sight can be and how different arrangements of colours, materials and objects can influence a detainee’s behaviour and perception of built environment.
The first sense, which is the strongest for the general population, is sight - therefore, light, colours and materials. According to various research studies, darker colours induce different emotions that lighter colours. Darker colours are usually associated with strength, dominance, anger and aggression, whereas lighter colours with weakness, good and compliance (Valdez&Mehrabian,1994). Also the presence of nature, plants, or natural motifs has positive effects, it fosters stress reduction and makes people feel more relaxed and pleased with the environment (Dijkstra, Pieterse & Pruyn, 2008, 2009). Colour blue and green are mostly associated with safety, they have calming effects and reduce stress (colours such as red, purple, orange and black, on the other hand, are never associated with safety).
The knowledge about the sense of scent is commonly used in areas where safety is an issue. Tunnels, central stations and other violence-prone areas use the scent of oranges or lemon to make people less anxious. This scent is associated with cleaning detergents which impose a certain behaviour. It is also scientifically proven that interaction between people is significantly more friendly and people feel less anxious and irritated. Also an environment with pleasant scent is perceived as cleaner than the one without it. This has later impact on how people treat the space and are willing to maintain the condition of the environment (Lilenquist, 2009). There is a possibility, that detainees would not have the urge to destroy the property of the police custody suite. In Amsterdam cells complex, the scent of lemon is used upon entering the building, however its intensity is too strong, which has adverse effects.
In custody suites, it’s important to use colours being aware of their strong associations and their ability to ‘manipulate’ one’s behaviour. Areas, where people need stimulants should have warmer and energising colours, such as red, purple, orange, and areas where calming effects are desired, blue, green and white should be applied.
Sound is a strong sensory trigger, which people are usually unaware of. We use our hearing to receive various sounds, recognise materials, determine distances and identify sound sources. Noise, according to various studies, has negative effects on those who are anxious or aggressive. Namely, it stimulates aggression (that’s already there due to other triggers), but it does not cause it (Job, 1993; Fields e.a, 1998). In cell complexes, the majority of the detained, as well as staff, are stressed and anxious, therefore it is important to reduce noise by using sound absorbing materials. On the other hand, peaceful, classical music has positive, calming effects on those who are under pressure. However, it does not mean that every detainee and police sergeant should be exposed to classical music 24/7. If one wishes to do so, there should be such a possibility to control the sounds.
Sight is receiving various stimuli, which altogether create a whole image. A good example is internal landscaping/ design, finishings, furniture and fixtures of traditional custody suites (including Breda custody suite). They convey a very clear message about how a detainee confined in them should behave. The violence-proof materials used in the cells are designed to last, to withstand physical force and to be durable and easy to clean (blood, food, urine), however paradoxically, the stronger and more hooligan-proof material, the more likely is the material to experience physical force imposed on it. Detainees, knowing the surface is made with a purpose of withstanding repetitive tampering, will be more likely use the force and try to destroy it. According to Harm Jan Korthals Altes, more delicate, attractive and expensive looking materials will create more respect towards the material/space resulting in less violent behaviour
Touch is slightly less relevant to this research, however there is one area, which does have a direct relation with custody suites, reduced stress and aggression. Uncomfortable temperatures tend to trigger aggression (invalid 20
when talking about extremes), and so do higher temperatures (Anderson e.a., 2000). For instance, during summer time, as well as in hot countries, there is more aggression than during winter or in countries when the temperature is rather lower. It’s an interesting point to raise, considering custody suites and temperatures in individual police cells. Currently, there is no possibility of controlling the temperature, which often leads to irritation and frequent calling of police sergeants (requesting extra blankets, hot beverages).
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“Provision of actual or perceived control over stressors or unpleasant situations usually alleviates stress�
(Evans and Cohen, 1987)
2. 2. 3 sense of control
The problem of control is principal in any custodial setting and it appears to be a frequent issue in conversations with police sergeants and the clients. There are different kinds of control, which play a critical role in a custodial environment. Police representatives have institutional control, which means they control the daily routine of the detainees and, to some extent, their behaviour. This kind of power is the basis of an orderly working program within a custody suite. It is however, significantly different than personal control. Institutional control mainly focuses on the structure of the organisation and strengthening of the police image, whereas the latter focuses mainly on the psychological outcomes.
would no longer have negative associations. In fact, personal control, in this case over music, could reduce potential stressors or even eliminate them (Evans and Cohen, 1987). Staff also experience stress due to limited personal control and high responsibility (Shumaker and Pequegnat, 1989). The issue can be emphasised by incorrectly designed work spaces, routing and lack of break areas, which disable a brief escape from work commands. The question of control is particularly critical when human behaviour is restricted, which usually accompany imprisonment and being held in custody. The importance of feeling in control is equally important for staff as it is for detainees and the built environment can strongly determine the control feelings an individual has (Warner & Olsen 1980).
Sense of control is one of primary factors a human needs and its loss is a major problem for people who produce stress (Taylor, 1979). Without personal control, a detainee is exposed to negative consequences such as depression, passivity and reduced immune system functioning. This is why it is so crucial to implement features that foster the feeling of personal control. As an example, if a detainee hears music coming through the wall (another cell or police control room) the sound acts like a stressor creating disturbing noise, but if that person were to play the same music in their own cell, the sound
Control options in a custody suite should include some degree of privacy, comfort, information access, light and temperature control, control over extent of social interaction, daily activity control, and access to areas other than the cell environment. The stressful experience of being captured and exposed to an unfamiliar setting can be reduced by social contact with known or familiar cues. (The design of Safe and Humane Police Cells p.173)
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“Issues of personal control are also involved at many points in the process of coping with environmental stressors, since control determines whether and how one prepares for a stressor, how one responds when actually confronted with a stressor, and the delayed and cumulative costs of coping. Indeed, these applied studies suggest an intimate relationship between control, sled-efficacy and coping. Control attempts are made in response to environmental challenges, and exercising control is a way of coping with them, Successful coping, in turn, enhances feelings of control.� (Rodin, 1985)
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2. 2. 4 deprivation model
The Deprivation Model argues that institutional aggression is a result of the environment, in which prison inmates (and custody suite detainees) are confined, thus the criminal justice system itself. It isn’t therefore brought to the institution by the individuals from the outside, unlike the Importation Model argues. It is thought that it occurs due to various deprivations within a custodial or penal institution. This distress includes deprivation of:
institutional aggression being a result of the physical environment. As much as the Importation Model cannot be controlled by the environment in custody suites or police itself (seeing aggression is brought by a detainee from the outside), the Deprivation Model can definitely be a valid discussion issue, which can be tackled by improvement of the built environment. Liberty is limited in cell complexes, however, it does not mean that it has to be completely taken away. Some, quite primary liberating activities, such as a flushing toilet, airing for a longer period of time and the possibility to control temperature and lighting could contribute to mitigation of feeling deprived of liberty and autonomy. Services and goods are currently (in Breda & Amsterdam, according to police chiefs) of very low quality, including food, which some consider inedible.
1. liberty; as society thinks inmates cannot be trusted with freedom, hence civil rights are lost and an individual needs to ask for permission to do basic tasks such as flushing toilet. 2. autonomy; lack of independence and constant officers control can cause frustration leading to stress and aggression. 3. goods/services; cell conditions as minimal as possible which leads to a sense of failure. 4. (heterosexual relationship); losing other gender’s company reduces a sense of self-worth. 5. security; inmates feel insecure which leads to helplessness and aggression.
This feeling of failure due to poor conditions in cells and offered services could therefore be slightly improved by making cells look more humane, with bigger windows, energising colours and pleasant scent. A positive direct environment, which in this case is an individual cell, could have a significant impact on decreasing the level of stress and aggression.
All these deprivations increase stress, resulting in aggression in order to reduce it and to gain some control over social order imposed on them (Sykes, 1958). The Deprivation Model is mainly used in imprisonment, where prisoners are incarcerated for a longer period of time. This theory however, can be applied to a custodial setting where detainees also experience some deprivations. Lack of heterosexual relationship is not the case, as the time spent in a police cell is too brief to be able to notice any negative consequences.
Security can be understood as physical security inside a building or a cell ,and emotional security, which is linked to the loss of freedom and unpredictability of future events. Both points can be tackled by adjusting the built environment in order to optimise physical security and by adjusting the policy, thus the work of police sergeants to optimise emotional security. The feeling of safety will never be as strong as the one of the general population, nonetheless, it can be alleviated and improved. A Centralised locking system - which enables opening of all cell doors instantly in case of fire or other calamity, more daylight - which helps alleviate the feeling of isolation and no dead-ends - which help with perceived possibility of exit are examples of how built environment can be upgraded. The deprivation model is important to raise awareness of, and subsequently be able to tackle, aggression which takes place in prisons and custodial settings as a result of increased stress.
Unfamiliar factors and situations are ‘stressors’, but so are the lack of familiarity and a feeling of deprivation. Stressors in built environments have cumulative nature, which can result in a relatively high resistance to stress until a certain point, followed by a rapid disability to cope with stress, hence aggression and even suicidal behaviour. Many existing Dutch police facilities are neither neutral or stress-mitigating; they in fact significantly increase distress. It is, therefore, essential to minimise the occurrence of
“I’ve been in custody and I haven’t been able to eat anything because of my illness [coeliac disease]. Can they not have something in the freezer?”
- Healthcare in Police Custody: Users’ views
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2. 3 spatial interpretation
2. 3. 1 public and private
For the employees: ‘safe nest’ is a familiar and trusted environment, where one can carry out their tasks without being disturbed by the physical surroundings and by others. It is necessary for an individual as much as it is for a group of people. This is the reason why a designated area for the police representatives is a must at any police cells complex.
luxury of privacy - a police sergeant can enter the cell, open the door or look through the door window at any time of the day or night. Observational cells, where the detainees are suspected of self-harm, have CCTV where in theory, they can be constantly monitored. Another interesting point is the border between private and public. Size of the room and arrangement of furniture defines the purpose of the room. If a place is too small for its purpose, it is inadequate, but so is a space that is too large. It might be big enough to carry out the activity, however it will not provide the users with the right feeling. This is why it’s essential to remember the importance of human size and dimensions that fit the users perfectly. A good example is an image of people sitting around a table, which is painters’ spatial starting point. Vincent van Gogh painted ‘The Potato Eaters’ (1885), taking the lamp as a central point, which together with the people around it create a fusion between space and users. This painting shows how people and space compliment each other.
“If you don’t have a place that you can call your own you don’t know where you stand” Herman Hertzberger This quotation refers to dwellings as well as places of work, where one can feel that a certain area of the building is theirs. Police sergeants who spend several hours a day in a custody suite are therefore no exception. Suspects held in cells have their own designated area, where they are enforced to be, however there is no question of ‘safe nest’. This is due to a lack of environmental familiarity and privacy. Even though the cells are private (unlike group cells) detainees do not have the
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2. 3. 2 territorial zoning
The question of territorial zoning in custody suites is of high importance. The character of each zone, corner entrances and in-between areas play an interesting role in a spatial arrangement. The layout of the building should be designed in such a way that there is no space for hierarchical inequality. Any spatial arrangement that looks to encourage increased levels of co-operation, creativity and innovative productivity can potentially benefit from such architectural and spatial ordering. Even in offices and other public places there is a tendency to create open-spaces instead of cell-like rooms in favour of brighter space and make the design more eclectic and approachable.
corners, corner entrances, pillars, various materials and visible yet not approachable zones, could enable territorial zoning maintaining a certain level of equality.
Difficult spaces, where the program within a building requires smooth transitions between zones is particularly interesting in custody suites. It is generally sought to create and maintain equality between all target groups, yet the importance of the authority of police must not be forgotten or neglected. In such situations the use of cut
Such layouts can be used in custody suites where zones between detainees and police sergeants should be softer in order not to impose superiority of the police on those in custody, simultaneously maintaining the theoretical zoning and a clear division between the two target groups.
A good example is Cineac Cinema, Amsterdam, where the corner with the entrance is left open. Such an arrangement gives a feeling that the corner belongs to the street, thus public space, when it fact it belongs to the cinema and it is theoretically a private (cinema) space. Such a subtle transition encourages an individual passing by to approach the entrance and to buy a ticket without being asked to actually enter the building.
Cineac Cinema, Amsterdam
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An elementary example of territorial zoning that contributes to some sort of inequality is a director’s office that’s on a raised level, so that he or she can keep an eye on the employees working below. Centraal Beheer Kantoor in Appeldoorn is a great example of such an arrangement. This approach is still practiced in many companies, where the higher one’s hierarchical position, the bigger (and usually higher up in the building) one’s office is. Some argue that if the boss was on the same level, he or she would have more contact with daily procedures, and thus would be able to judge work better and be more available to employees. It is crucial not to exaggerate this spatial power of raised levels, especially considering the design of a custodial environment and fragility of detainees. Centraal Beheer Kantoor
Floor plan of the Breda custody suite showing how certain areas of the building are occupied by the two target groups. Some territorial zoning spatial features could be applied to organise hierarchical zoning.
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2. 3. 3 NATURAL SURVEILLANCE
The term natural surveillance usually refers to urban planning, however some architectural guidelines can also be applicable in various architectural environments. Natural surveillance aims to influence the offender’s behaviour preceding an act of crime or aggression. Research into criminal behaviour states that the choice to offend is more influenced by higher probability of the perceived risk of being caught than by the possibility to reward or
ease of entry. Spaces which have a clear overview, lack of spatial obstructions, such as columns or ledges and sufficient lighting enable maximised visibility and make it difficult for a potential offender to escape. This architectural approach is commonly used in correctional as well as custodial facilities in order to influence the potential offender’s behaviour.
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3. final Design
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3. 1 research & design analysis Having analysed the problems, debriefing and information research, the plan is to design a space where the police department and people are the focal point. The balance between police procedures and reduced stress, as well as between equality and hierarchy must be constantly kept in mind during every design decision. Only by objectively approaching these qualities can a credible design be achieved. All the points mentioned below are changes or additions to the Breda cell complex.
3. 1. 1 daylight
Currently, the custody suite in Breda is a closed building deprived of daylight and outside views. The interior atmosphere is depressing causing anxiety, irritation and stress for police sergeants and detainees. It’s difficult to tell what time of the day it is, which affects personal control and intensifies the feeling of isolation and insecurity. In order to tackle these significant problems, the intention is to insert patios, which bring outside in and open up the building, exposing more daylight and greenery, which makes it look less hostile. Such a solution can also be provided by placing windows in long corridor ceilings, by making the interrogation rooms area more transparent and by enlarging the individual cell window.
Daylight in the Breda custody suite
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3. 1. 2 reference point
By placing a patio in the central part of the building, not only does the custody suite benefit from the view on greenery and the sky (which has stress alleviating effects) but it also gains a strong orientation reference point, which makes the space clearer for surveillance. Lack of a reference point, which is currently the case, influences personal control due to difficulty in determining one’s location within the building. It also intensifies not knowing what to expect (of the built environment), which has a notable effect on stress. A reference point becomes a part of the institution’s identity and an object/ spatial arrangement, which people remember and later associate with.
3. 1. 3 no dead-ends
A wall at the end of a corridor, or a corridor with no other possibly of exit than turning around, is not a psychologically soothing layout in custody suites. The Breda cell complex does not have dead-ends, however it does have views of empty walls at the end of hallways. Especially the corridor in the interrogation rooms area, which is long and narrow, disabling a clear overview, with oddly positioned corners. In order to maximise that space and enable easy routing, the rooms have been placed in the middle of the interrogation rooms area creating two parallel corridors. Such an arrangement enables more effective ‘moving’ of detainees from their individual cells to interrogation rooms with a smaller possibility of two detainees encountering each other. Additionally, semiopen walls have been placed at the end of hallways to foster the feeling of reduced isolation.
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3. 1. 4 materials and colours
According to the research, sensory triggers have a strong influence on human behaviour. In Breda, the design is to use a white epoxy paint to brighten the room and place the furniture which is made of sponge-like cushions to literally soften the look of the cell. In the areas where police sergeants spend most of their time, elements of wood and hi-macs material are used. Wood has stress-reducing, noise-absorbent properties to humanities the space, hi-macs solid material to modernise the image of police and to create a defined domain. The colours are light with green and blue motifs to reduce stress. Warm colours are used in areas in which detainees do not have a direct contact with to energise the space with visual triggers.
3. 1. 5 equal surveillance
One of the most important tasks of a police sergeant is to look after the detained. Without a well working system, which enables surveillance, either in a form of a CCTV, image reflecting ceiling domes or transparency, observation is not possible. Custody suites in the Netherlands do not allow constant observation via CCTV located in a cell, unless a detainee is suspected of harming themselves, or has other significant vulnerabilities, such as mental or physical disorders. In the Breda complex, there is one observation cell - the rest of the cells provide detainees with some privacy (unless a sergeant looks through a door window or opens the door). Nonetheless, all detained need equal attention. This is why a control room should be placed centrally, so that police representatives have equal walking distance to all individual cells. In Breda, the control room is designed slightly on the side, limited by the architecture of the building. Police sergeants have a good overview of the space, however, some cells are placed further away from the others, disabling objectively equal surveillance.
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3. 1. 6 control panel
As mentioned before, lack of personal control exposes a detainee to negative consequences such as depression, boredom and stress. In order to deal with these potential outcomes, there is a plan to insert individual control panels in each cell, which enable detainees control over lighting (intensity and switching on and off), temperature (with a preset max and min temperature), flushing toilet, radio and tv (with preset max volume) and ventilation. Not only does such a solution stimulate personal control and self-respect but it also helps fight boredom. According to police representatives, boredom is one of the biggest problems for detainees, and it results in irritation and aggression, which subsequently influences staff.
Example of the control panel (Amsterdam cells complex)
3. 1. 7 welcome-relief zone
In order to break the routine of long corridors and closed cells & rooms, as well as to provide police representatives and detainees with an area with a slightly different look, a welcome-relief zone has been designed to benefit all target groups. This zone is made for police sergeants to be able to tune out of their duty for a short moment, by drinking a coffee or tea and by being surrounded by a slightly different interior landscape. It can also be used during semi-private conversations between detainees and police sergeants in order to prevent discussing important issues in hallways and busy areas of the building (this currently takes place near control room, in the busiest area of the complex). The designated section has different finishing in terms of colours and materials and semi-transparent partitions, which enable seeing whoever is inside, without making the space too public and open.
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3. 1. 8 routing
Efficient routing is essential in order to carry out daily police tasks, such as: ‘checking-in’ of new detainees, walking to individual cells, taking the detainee to an interrogation room and back to the cell, and the release of those in custody. The routing is usually predefined by architectural arrangements of cells, interrogation rooms, entries and exits. Due to architectural limita-
tions, it was challenging to optimise already existing routing, thus only less statement-making solutions have been designed, such as removing a cell in order to create a passage (to avoid passing by the control room area) or designing two corridors on both sides of interrogation rooms (to avoid contact between detainees).
current routing
proposed routing
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3. 1. 9 softer transitions
Territorial zoning can negatively influence staff and people held in custody. The borders between various areas of the building are too sharp, unpleasant and unexpected. The Breda cell complex currently has strong transitions and vulnerable detainees tend to be even more stressed due to the unpredictability of the environment. This lowers their perceived personal control over the space resulting in even more stress. The designed patio is a strong transition-softener, which provides all
target groups with a clear interior overview, preparing them for what’s behind the corner. Glazed corridor doors, floor patterns and a smooth link between outside and inside (patio, glazed roof) are examples of spatial interventions, which reduce the feeling of strong territorial zoning. It is, however, essential not to make the interior too pleasant and borderless, in order not to diminish the desired authoritative identity of the police.
Centrally placed patio
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3. 1. 10 human size
Human size in indoor spaces is essential to maintain personal control over the space and to reduce intimidation by the built environment. In the Breda custody suite, the cells have a high ceiling (4.3m) compared to the floor surface area (6m2). Such an arrangement of the cell intensifies the feeling of submissiveness, anxiety, isolation and loss of personal control. By inserting larger windows and lowering the ceiling to 3m, the cell gains a more ‘normalised’ look, which people recognise and associate with. A suspended ceiling has been placed at an angle to be able to insert a higher window, simultaneously lowering the ceiling as much as possible. The height of the ceiling at its lowest point is still high enough not to be able to be touched by a detainee (even when jumping on the bed).
lowered ceiling in cells
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3. 1.11 PRIVATE SPACE
‘Private nest’, as mentioned before, is a crucial element of everyone’s life, whether at work or home. As the detainees spend a relatively short period of time in their cells, the necessity of creating a private touch is of less importance. Staff, on the other hand, spend long shifts in the building, hence the need and desire to design a private zone - where police sergeants can rest and ‘forget’ about their tasks, and can have a moment of privacy. This area is designed behind the control room (attached to one another), which disables detainees walking inside. The room is warm (colour & materials)
and has a large window, which provides an outside view and the possibility to air. The wall dividing the control room and the private police zone is designed in such a way that the detainees do not experience it as something completely closed, which they cannot see through. The wall is made of wooden vertical planks and it’s curved in such a way that no door is needed. People held by the police cannot walk inside or see the room, however, they can peak in and gain an idea of what it is and what it might look like, satisfying their curiosity.
private police space
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3. 1.12 UNIFORMS
Police Uniforms are not a spatial quality, however it’s an important feature that contributes to creating a whole identity of the police. It is, therefore, a part of various aspects that create the balance between equality and visible hierarchy. Police uniforms represent the police department and show the rank within it. If police representatives did not wear uniforms, detainees would feel less inferior to them, which could result in disrespect and rebellion. A group of policemen dressed in uniforms conveys a strong message about who is in charge.
3. 1.12 VISIBLE HIERARCHICAL BORDERS
In order to magnify the power of police, the control room is raised by two steps. According to the territorial zoning research, the higher the space (literally), the higher it’s hierarchical ranking. Such a spatial arrangement does insinuate a certain desired behaviour towards the police. The control room is also a zone, that should never be entered by detainees. Also, by designing the control room desk, where its front is at an angle to the detainees, suggests they should keep a certain distance away from it. Such spatial qualities benefit the image of the police, however it’s important to not overexaggerate it and make detainees feel threatened by the power of the police department. Assigning colour schemes, elements or other spatial features such as materials and shapes is important in order to maintain a strong identity associated with police, authority and power. This is the reason why the areas designed for police representatives have a visibility different look than the ones designed for dePolice control room tainees (cells).
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3. 1 GENERIC DESIGN TOOLS Based on the proposed design and used spatial qualities, it’s possible to make a list of generic design elements, which could foster the balance between stress reduction and optimisation of police work. The spatial values listed in the previous chapter are desired to be used in all cell complexes in the Netherlands and abroad. Some values, such as routing, equal surveillance and human sizes are ‘sub-optimised’ in the Breda complex, due to the building’s architectural limitations. Ideally, a newly built cell complex should have all the values optimally applied. 1. A patio is a design feature that significantly contributes to multiple values listed above. It could therefore be argued that a patio is a strong generic design tool fostering humanisation of cell complexes. 2. Slightly raised, centrally placed control room with a private extention brings many benefits, which stimulate effective work and define the authoritative nature of the police. 3. The information panel built in cells might seem inconspicuous, however its purpose to enable control over a few features, makes a notable difference to stress reduction, personal control, self respect and dealing with boredom. 4. Wall and ceiling openings (and windows) that let daylight enter the building, open up the space and foster the feeling of reduced isolation. 5. Selected zones with distinctive finish/look break the identity of a police station and let the users have a moment of mental repose. 6. Rounded or semi-rounded corners enable smoother transitions and provide the user with a clearer space overview. 7. Colours, patterns, forms and materials representing the police department create a strong identity, which enables a desired level of hierarchy, respect and distinctiveness.
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4. CONCLUSION
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Every individual taken into custody suffers in police cells, due to the detrimental physical conditions of the police cells, even if they’re confined for a short period of time. This is why it’s vital to embrace the innovations of the 21st century and go beyond the borders of what’s supposed to be right and just. Scientific research and raised awareness help the society, including designers, enabling the adjustment of outdated spaces, which are
purposed to optimise the program that takes place inside. This paper has shown that understanding human needs is the core of proceeding further into understanding policies and work trajectories. In this context however, designers must be careful not to de-politicise the nature of the material; to encourage contemporary cell design, while being far from luxurious, in order to strenghten the police identity and lessen the pain of confinement.
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“The architect is like a physician - there is no room for discrimination between values in his thinking; he must devote his attention equally to all values, and he must simply see to it that what he does makes everyone feel better.�
Herman Hertzberger
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5. BIBLIOGRAPHY 53
Books: Herman Hertzberger, ‘Lessons for Students in Architecture’, 010 Publishers, Rotterdam, 2010 Oscar Newman, ‘Defensible Space’, New York, 1972 Ita Luten, ‘Handboek Veilig Ontwerp en Beheer’, Bussum, 2008
Articles / publications: ‘Sociaal veilig ontwerpen in de praktijk: Opvangcentrum Omnizorg Apeldoorn’, Harm Jan Korthals Altes ‘De Prikkel’, Robbie Keus ‘Meer dan de Mosquito’, Marnix Eysink Smeets, Koen van ’t Hof, Henk Jelle Zandbergen, October 2012 ‘Multisensory Safety- Zintuigbeïnvloeding in de veiligheidszorg – Een verkenning van de mogelijkheden’ Marnix Eysink Smeets, Koen van ‘t Hof, Anke van der Hooft ‘Effects of Healthcare Environmental Design on Medical Outcomes’, Roger S. Ulrich ‘Effects of Interior Design on Wellness: Theory and Recent Scientific Research’, Roger S. Ulrich, ‘Psychopathology in Police Custody: The Role of Importation, Deprivation and Interaction Models’, Gennady N. Baksheev, ISSN: 1932-9903 online, International Journal of Forensic Mental Health, 2012 ‘The Design of Safe and Humane police Cells: A Discussion of some Issues relating to Aboriginal People in Police Custody’, Joseph P.Reser ‘Architectures of incarceration: The spatial pains of imprisonment’, Philip Hancock, Yvonne Jewkes, SAGE, 2011 ‘Healthcare in Police Custody - users’ views’, Revolving Doors Agency, 2013 ‘Hechtenis maar dan anders’, Raad voor Strafrechtstoepassing en Jeugdbescherming, ‘Juli 2011 ’Mental Health and Prisons’, WHO, Geneva, 2007 ‘Onderzoek Arrestantenzorg’, Inspectie Veiligheid en Justitie, juni 2014 ‘Effectiveness of the Direct Supervision System of Correctional Design and Management - A Review of the Literature’, Richard Wener, Polytechnic University, 2008 ‘Density, Personal Control, and Design’, Drury R. Sherrod and Sheldon Cohen
Seminars: International Space Seminar - Health Design, Groningen, February 3rd 2015 54
Websites: The Globe and Mail, ‘Open and friendly - the police station gets a new look’, Phillip Crawley Publisher, Toronto, 2012 <http://www.theglobeandmail.com/report-on-business/industry-news/property-report/open-and-friendly---the-police-station-gets-a-new-look/article4460923/> Van Mourik Architecten, ‘cellencomplex Meer en Vaart’, <http://www.architectenvanmourik.nl/projecten/utiliteit/cellencomplex%20meer%20en%20vaart/> International Center for Prison Studies, <http://www.prisonstudies.org/> World Health Organization, 2015 <http://www.who.int/en/> Veilig ontwerp en Beheer, Stichting Veilig Ontwerp en Beheer, 2014 <http://www.veilig-ontwerp-beheer.nl/> Institute for Criminal Policy Research, Birkbeck University of London <http://www.icpr.org.uk/> Spoedeisende Psychiatrie, Amsterdam <http://www.spoedeisendepsychiatrieamsterdam.nl/> Australian Institute of Criminology, 2015 <http://www.aic.gov.au/> Florida Department of Law Enforcement, 2015 <https://www.fdle.state.fl.us/Content/home.aspx> Penal Reform International, Promoting fair and effective criminal justice <http://www.penalreform.org/blog/build-success-prison-design-infrastructure-tool-rehabilitation/>
Interviews: John Bakker, Breda cell complex, March 26th ’15 Koen Geijsen, Breda cell complex, February 11th ‘15, February 26th ‘15, March 12th ‘15, March 25th ’15 Vivian, Amsterdam cell complex, March 25th ’15 Multiple police representatives, Breda cell complex, March 26th ‘15
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â&#x20AC;&#x153;When injustice becomes law, resistance becomes duty.â&#x20AC;? - Thomas Jefferson
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