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IMI -LIFE
LIBRARY OF AR
The World
I
of
Rembrandt 1606 -1669
bv Robert Wallace and the Editors of Time-Life Books
Time-Life Books,
New
York
BRIGHTON
FOUNDER
About rhe Author Robert W allace has published
BOOKS
TIME-LIFE
Horn R
Lute
I
898-1 967
EditorinCbief Hedlev Donovan
Western Culture.'
Chairman of the Board Andrew Heixkell President
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Chairman Rov
W
Janson
A B
Director of Photography Mclvin L Stott
Assistant Art Director
Ogdcn Tanner. Diana Hirsh
Arnold
C
Holcvwcll
New York
Department of Fine Arts
of the
Man
series
of
the
and of three
where he
University,
Washington Square College
at
are his History of Art
is
also
Among
his
and The Sculpture of Donatello.
General Manager John
Slive
is
Professor of Fine Arts and Chairman of the Department of Fine Arts at
He
has also taught at Oberlin College and
Scholar, the recipient of a
government
articles
at the
on
Museum
at
in
1962 Dr S live
Dutch painting
7th Cenrury
I
discovery of a previously
Pomona College was
a
In
I
is
has been honored by the
the author of
965 he made
unknown Rembrandt
and has
Fulbnght Research
Order of the House of Orange-Nassau
Haarlem
in
He
University of Leningrad
Guggenheim Fellow ship, and
as an Officer of the
Frans Hals exhibition
his
Book
Consultant for This
been an exchange professor
and
D Manlev D McSwecney
isnfR Joan
of
is
Editor
Professor of Fine Arts at
Harvard University
Beatrice T, Dobie
Assistant Text Directors
The
Seymour
Art Director Sheldon Coder
ft bi
Books Great Ages
He
Whipple
(.
Marnn Mann
Chief of Research
is
numerous publications
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on the Renaissance
article
numerous
"The History
series
Time Life Library of Art: The World of Leonardo. The World of Van
The Consulting H
l.arsen
t.
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the
in
s
Gogh and The World of Bernini
Chairman iijiior
which he contributed an
articles as well as
was for Life
writing on art
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Editorial Director
Vice
A
to
more than 100 nonriction
first
author of Rise of Russia for Time Life other volumes
James R Shcplev
Chairman, Executive Committee James
Group
poems His
short stories and
painting,
art
now
for his
Dutch
w ork on
news headlines w
in
a
numerous books
the
ith
Fo»» Art
Harvard
Busmen Manager John Steven Maxwell Salt
i
G
Director Ctrl
On
Jaeger
the Slipcase
Promotion Director Paul R Stewart Puhlu Relation! Director Nicholas Benton
Rembrandt
faced himself
detail, the full painting
Mill IBKAKi Oh ARI
IIMI
sinus IDITOR Robert Morton
I
dltonil Stall lor
I'ututr
I
Man
Jitnr
H
he
I
in this self-portrait of his
m Id of Rembrandt
mid-50s
I
his
is
a
1
Knd Papers The Bend
Strmhaiicr
\
I
Rembrandt frequently w alked and sketched along
Diana Hirsh
Attoaate Editor
w ithout pretension
shown on page
is
in the
Amstel River with Kostveloren
1652 Back The Amsteldijk near I
rustees
the
<>i
the
the banks of the Amstel River Front
and Tuo
Castle
Trompenburg
Men
on Horseback, c 1650-
1650 Bv permission of the
Estate, t
Chatsworth Settlement, F.ngland
Dengner Haul Jensen .\\wiant Designer Leonard V\ Staff Writer (
hiel
Martha
Re\rarthtr
lift
MaHood
Janus
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Rtmtrtbtn Muriel Clarke Lynda Kcfauver, Su/annr Snxas Susanna Sc\ mour
Nam\
Art AuiMant
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Die following individuals and departments Produi tion
tiN.il (
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Quality Dirr.tot
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Peter
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(Paris),
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hsaheth
Young (MOSCOW
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Library
helped to produce .
this
book
I
Stubl
©1968
l
Ion
Published simultaneously
A
littles
I
time Im
ihran ol
(
ditonal
imi Lifi News Service. Murray J (.art. Van der Horn (Amsterdam). MargotHapgood (London). Maria kracmcr (Bonn' r.iudl Leasing (\ ienna) Ann Natanson 1
I
Man
Johnson (Stockholm),
1 1.1
Stichova (Prague
All rights reserved in
I
Peter Draz; Picture Collection Doris
I
I'murr Department DolorCS
Sutanm
(Rome
ol
Nicholas Cos tino J t
,,.
(
|
(
Aires
Photographic Laboratory. George Karas;
orrespondents Letje
iion
i
Prnduilion Editor
(
Norman
Canada Reprinted 1971
ongress catalogue card
number 68 22121
School and libran distribution h\ Siher Burden Company
Mornstow
n
New
Jersey
Contents
The Legend and
the
Man
1
7
Prelude to Greatness
3
7
III
Prodigal Years
61
IV
Rembrandt's Holland
89
I
II
V An VI
VII
Exploration of Styles
Triumphs and
The
Last Full
Trials
1
Measure
Appendix: 180. 181
Chronology of Artists: 182 Bibliography: 183 Credits and Index: 185
Acknowledgments
105
:
1
84
3 3
159
JT-
/
KJM
1
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1
An
Autobiography
without Words
i_\lo
artist
has
left
sonal testament than
90
a loftier or
more penetrating
Rembrandt van
portraits of himself that date
In
Rijn.
per-
more than
from the outset of
his
career in the 1620s to the year of his death in 1669, he
created an autobiography in art that finest ever
produced
in literature
is
the equal of the
â&#x20AC;&#x201D;even of
the intimately
analytical Confessions of St. Augustine.
As
a
young man Rembrandt probably had no thought
of addressing himself to future centuries through his portraits. Often, like
an actor practicing before a mirror,
he sought simply to increase sion
â&#x20AC;&#x201D;
his
mastery of
facial expres-
as seen in the greatly enlarged etching opposite, in
which he registered .horror or alarm. (The etching produced ever, as
in
its
actual size
on the following page.)
Rembrandt aged and experienced the
emotion instead of merely studying used
self-
his face to
its
tides of skepticism
of his
own
re-
reality
of
surface si<ms. he
convey a deeper meaning,
traying the slow ruin
is
How-
flesh,
pitilessly por-
reflecting
the
and courage, melancholy and calm that
coursed through him. In so doing he captured the universal,
describing not only his pilgrimage but also that of
humanity toward a final peace with
this
all
world and with God.
R
.embrandt was homely, and he knew
have relished thai
fact
when
in
1630,
the small etchings above (show n \\
i
hn.li
he experimented with
appears also to have been
.in
\
it
ar 24.
in their
lit-
he
seems to
made
actual size), in
arious expressions.
"angn
\
oung man."
I
le
Self-Portrait as a
challenging a society that had not vet given him acclaim.
The oil
painting above, also reproduced in
measurements, shows Rembrandt
at 2
3
.
its
actual
The bold
aspect
YoungMan. 1629
end of his brush. But he had another aspect: a romantic as well as a realist,
he loved to dress
dream of other realms.
of his character appears both in his expression and in
as a
the accents vigorously scored into his hair with the butt
revels with his bride.
in rich
costumes and
On the following pages he appears
wealthy grandee and
as a cavalier in
flamboyant
Seif-Portrak
man Oriental Costume
with a Dog, 1631
Self-Portrait with Sasku.
c.
1
6
;
I
t
would be presumptuous to read a left-to-right
narrative into this self-portraits,
but
group of Rembrandt's at least his
times they were produced to about his 54th is
â&#x20AC;&#x201D; can be
circumstances
â&#x20AC;&#x201D; from
his
set forth. In
1
fading. In
wife
is
Ten
dead, and his popularity
1652 he seems to sense
bankruptcy.
his
the
640 he
the most successful artist in Amsterdam.
years later his
at
34th year
is
oncoming
The self-portrait of about 1657
(directly below)
shows him
pained and wearv, but
in
after this disaster,
1658 he sees himself as
ennobled and calm. In the next picture, an sketch, he appears to be relating his
oil
own
experience to the vulnerability of all mankind.
Yet around the same time,
in
paintings, he could celebrate
the
last
of these
man's majestic
capacity to survive and to continue his struggle. Self-Portrait.
Small Sell
1
640
rtraitofl6S8
Self- Portrait.
Self-Portrait. Study,
c.
1650
1
Large Self-Portrait. 1652
660
Self- Portrait.!:
13
16 Mi
X
.hree centuries after his death, discoveries are
being
made about Rembrandt's
believed that the self-portrait
art.
still
final self-characterization,
costume but modeled
Experts long
below was painted around
he did not linger over
his face (enlarged, opposite)
consummate skill. As though summing up.
1663. but a recent cleaning has revealed the date 1669
6
â&#x20AC;&#x201D; the vear Rembrandt
with a trace of philosophical humor.
died. In
what was perhaps
his
3
with
the
-year-old artist turned toward death not with fear but
Portrait oftbePamtei in
14
his
Old Age, 1669
\s
><
SKfci.
.
yy»*^^F
16
I
The Legend
Man
and the
In life
Rembrandt
more misfortune than
suffered far
of an ordinary man, and he bore
endure such a thing, continues.
him both
fashion for critics to attack
day the injury
who mean
version of Rembrandt's
with near-miraculous
girl
life
to
named
man
a
long deceased can be
be sure,
it
is
no longer the
and human being. To-
as artist
honor him. Their
standard
Dutch
peasants,
Rembrandt was born
As an uneducated voung man. he
skill in art.
Amsterdam, married
Saskia,
revised
runs approximately' as follows:
child of poor, ignorant
lished himself in
if
To
done with a fond smile by writers of romantic biog-
is
raphies and films
"The
to the lot
with the utmost nobility. Three
it
centuries after his death the misfortune, said to
falls
estab-
a beautiful, wealthy, sympathetic
and enjoyed a brief period of prosperity and fame.
However, because men of genius are always misunderstood by the public, fate snatched city,
who may gave
liked,
throat. The important burghers of the known much about art but knew what they
him bv the
not have
him an enormous commission
which the burghers were to be painted lights.
Rembrandt responded with
— the
Watch
a fact unfortunately-
from the burghers
was
would
in
and
—
dreadful.
Rembrandt's
patrons hooted in rage and derision, demanding changes that the secure in the knowledge that posterity
—
postures
else,
a masterpiece
apparent only to him and his wife. Everyone to the herring-peddlers, thought the painting
Night
traditional
in
artist,
vindicate him. stubbornlv
refused to make.
"At
this point,
because
single setback but to
it
is
brandt's wife died, the Night
A belief in active rather than passive Christianity
was central
Rembrandt's intense expressed for
it
in this
faith.
to
He
Holland's prince by portravinsj
of the dead Christ
sion a painting from him;
3 3
his friends deserted final
vears
him and he
no one would commis-
he was reduced to making
self-portraits,
which he did whenever he could cadge the necessarv materials from
his
art-supplv dealer. His only comforters were his son Titus and his mistress
Descentfrom the Cross, 16
Watch was ripped from the wall and
some indecorous location, was hounded into bankruptcy. In his placed in
work produced
himself next to the right hand
not customary for a genius to suffer a
be overwhelmed bv multiple catastrophes. Rem-
Hendrickje
— both
of
whom
died in heartrending circumstances.
Prematurely aged at 63, he passed away
in
such obscurity- that the
'Who was
burghers, observing his pathetic funeral, inquired.
even
ever,
and
in
own
our
in favor
time the verdict
How-
of Rembrandt's greatness has
New
been amply reaffirmed bv the trustees of
Museum, who
be?'
dark hour the mills of the gods were slowly grinding.
at that
York's Metropolitan
not long ago paid S2.3 million for his Aristotle Con-
templating the Bust of Homer and were very lucky to get Indeed, as the Metropolitan's director
marked. 'Look
at
it
Thomas Hoving
the price.
recently re-
[on Aristotle's shoulder). That alone
at that chain
is
worth two million three!'"
Th,he foregoing
summary
an interesting and tidy one. and presents
is
the view of
Rembrandt generally seen by the world.
however,
is
it
The Night Watch
uneducated.
most
In
did not bring about his downfall;
remained more than a few people
who
held him in the high-
est regard. Nonetheless, mvths die hard, and that of Rembrandt
United States the myth
rable. In the
because of a 1936 film
Despite
property,
is
frequentlv
sumably accepted
upwards of 100 in private life
was obliged film
is
in
which Charles Laughton portrayed the
shown on
television,
However, through no
million.
work was not
who
the script with which he
Whenever
a masterpiece of accuracy.
new
but whenever a scholar ferrets out a
an
in
it
fellow-scholars are aware of situation
â&#x20AC;&#x201D; Michelangelo.
it.
art journal,
There
the
than the rules of the
is,
scrap of truth about
of course, nothing novel in this
game should
â&#x20AC;&#x201D; but
Rembrandt has endured more
allow.
Rembrandt's case myth-making comes
tact-finding.
Rem-
onlv a relative handful of
Leonardo, van Gogh. Toulouse-Lautrec and
others have been similarly treated
of
art.
number of people
fault of Laughton's.
shown, another half-million viewers are exposed to the myth
brandt and publishes
In
artist.
and has been seen and pre-
value bv an enormous
at face
was a serious connoisseur of
to
du-
is
particularly widespread, in part
Laughton's Rembrandt remains a valuable commercial
age.
its
is
in-
And when he
deed, he never had a "downfall" in the dramatic sense. died, there
respects,
dead wrong. Rembrandt was not a peasant nor was he
Romantics and scholars
alike are
easily as an alternative to
handicapped by a scarcity
contemporary information, not only about Rembrandt but about
most
of the artists
who
participated in the great sunburst of painting in
the Netherlands of the
17th Century.
notebook, and only seven of to the
same man. concerning
his letters
a specific project
thought or personality. Yet even hoard,
from
Rembrandt
this thin sheaf
Trans Hals, Jan Steen and Jacob van Ruisdael
likely that their
artists rarely
of his art
17th Century sources ol real
it
is
is
ol history
wrote
almost mute
necessar)
of his
comparatively
a rich
not
a
letters,
solitary note has
but
it
seems more
except
in
the majestic
to turn for information to other
The Dutch archives, however, contain only one
interest: the
inventory of Rembrandt's possessions
the time he declared himself insolvent.
bones
is
addressed
little
correspondence was not thought worth keeping.
Because Rembrandt himself
document
all
and revealing
the hands of other major artists of Rembrandt's time
been found Possibly Dutch
eloquence
no journal or
left
have been located
at
Otherwise there are only the bare
records of baptisms, marriage and deaths
The
accounts
IS
.
of contemporary biographers are few and
The
first
in several instances misleading.
treatment of Rembrandt, which appeared
town of
history of his birthplace, the
burgomaster, Jan Orlers. Nothing
be inaccurate, but his early vears
covers
it
â&#x20AC;&#x201D;and
two meager
Orlers'
work
memoir
artistic career
in length. In
Joachim von Sandrart,
him, produced a
a
1675, six
German
artist
of about 800 words. These
some observations
accounts, plus
has been found to
than half of Rembrandt's
less
only a few hundred words
is
years after Rembrandt's death,
who had known
in
1641 as part of a
in
Leiden, was written by a onetime
the autobiography of
in
the Dutch scholar-statesman Constantin Huvgens, constitute almost the
body of material written by men who had
entire
first-hand
knowledge
art historian, Filippo
Baldinucci,
of Rembrandt.
1686 an
In
who obtained a brief
churchman and
Italian his
information from one of Rembrandt's pupils, published
commentary about him as part of a volume dealing with many artists. It was not until 1718, nearly a half-century after Rem-
graphic
brandt's death, that the that
is
first
modern
verv slim by
full-dress
biography appeared
standards. Written by Arnold
whose De Groote Schouburgh
â&#x20AC;&#x201D; and
even
Houbraken, (Great
der Nederlantsche Kumtschilders
Theater of Netherlandish Artists) remains the best source-book on
Dutch
of the period,
artists
brandt's
work
as
it
comments on Rem-
contains valuable
was then viewed. In
it
areas outside art. however,
it
has proved as vulnerable as earlier accounts. Sandrart had implanted
Rembrandt was an ignoramus who "could but poorly
the legend that
read Netherlandish and hence profit but left
the misinformation that
den.
When
it
little
from books." Baldinucci
Rembrandt worked
was Houbraken's turn to
set
for the court of
down
located the artist's birthplace, added five years to his
he was an only son (Rembrandt had four
I
may appear picayune
the life
facts,
Swe-
he mis-
and noted that
brothers).
on these errors, but they make it some of the tales Houbraken supplies when he sets out to describe Rembrandt as a man. Houbraken says, for example, that Rembrandt was a miserly soul whose avarice was such that "his pupils, who noticed this, often for fun would paint on the floor or elsewhere, where he was bound to pass, pennies, two-penny t
difficult
pieces
to dwell
not to raise an eyebrow at
and
shillings
.
.
.
after
which he frequently stretched out
in vain,
without letting anything be noticed
through
his
mistake."
who willfully broke all colors
The
his
hand
he was embarrassed
as
biographer also reports that Rembrandt,
the "rules," once "painted a picture in which the
were so heavily loaded
that
you could
from the
lift it
nose." Other stories, however, are not so easy to
reject.
by the
floor
There
is
some
evidence that Rembrandt was at times irascible and whimsical. According to Houbraken, in
"One day he was working on
a great portrait
which man and wife and children were to be
half
completed
it,
his
aforesaid
picture.
tolerate the disgusting
no:
When
group
he had
monkey happened to" die. As he moment, he portrayed the dead ape
[Rembrandt'sl
had no other canvas available in the
seen.
at the
Naturally the people concerned would not
dead ape alongside of them
He so adored the model offered
in
the picture. But
by the dead ape that he would rather
19
keep the unfinished picture than obliterate the ape in order to please the people portrayed bv him." Possibly the tale
man
is
Rembrandt was
true;
of highly independent mind, delighted in drawing and painting
may have thought
animals, and
the particular family he
The
the dead
monkey more
interesting than
was dealing with. contemporary accounts of Rembrandt
relative lack of accurate
not the result of carelessness or loss through the centuries, nor
cause he was not widely
The
stems
difficulty
who
people,
bretto.
With one or two notable
rank.
Thev
is
be-
it
he was.
painting
â&#x20AC;&#x201D;without the
exceptions, the
reflective or de-
to be looked
is
beer
at.
aid of a tedious
li-
Dutch have not pro-
novelists, letter-writers or critics of the first
duced poets, playwrights,
and wordlessly to contemplate, not to involve
prefer to act
themselves
his lifetime;
world of
at ease in the
to be lived
life is
is
from the temperament of the Dutch
in large part
Thev take the view that a
drunk and
to be
known and admired during
have never been
scriptive prose. is
a
comment or analysis, and thus during the golden century made only sparse notes about their greatest painters.
in
of their art thev
This reticence lifetime the
prose had
in
They threw
plished prodigies.
On
independent nation.
counterpart in
During Rembrandt's
art.
off the
million,
power
North Sea, the green,
The Channel and
into second place.
and West heard the
rich Indies of the East
thunder of their cannon and saw the triumph of their
But Dutch
flag.
such things; instead they perfected the
artists rarely glorified
accom-
yoke of Spain and established an
the sea they challenged England and for a time
forced that great maritime
the
its
Dutch people, numbering fewer than three
R
ortunatelv the advanced research
commemoration Rembrandt's death, have made it
spurred by the
techniques
still life.
modern
of
scholars,
1969 of the 300th anniversary of
in
good
possible to extract a
made
information from the silent past and to correct errors
new
deal of
in the inter-
vening centuries. Sandrart's view of Rembrandt as a semi-literate has irandi never traveled farther than
60
miles from \msterdam, passing his entire
m
ithin the ariu
map above
I
\mstcrdam.
show
n in the
low it
\\
.
he had
rli.it
I
bold tor
.iIm>
ngland
I his landscapes
peon
parti) far
m indmills (pagt
-
â&#x20AC;&#x201D;
among
at least
downturn in Rembrandt's went to Sweden, nor did time
becausesome <>ii
students of art history
Watch marked
has been the notion that the Night
in
England or
fortunes.
It is
now known
he. as other old
travel in Italy.
legends
Thus, even
scholars
locales
if
sudden, dramatic
a
that the artist never insist,
reside for a
frequently through the
correction of mistakes, the store of
knowledge about him has been
considerably
to
increased.
depth of Rembrandt's
relation
In
art
it is
remarkable
the
fascinating to find, at long
and
breadth
last,
that
he may
outside
Mong the banks of the tid)
the
isited Ital)
resembled
hed the
tin-
t\
\ i-.irs
\
la) jusi
t.lim
the top
lure he ÂŤ orked and t<>u ns he
map Although
Sweden and
<>n
eiden. his birthplace;
visited arc indicated in
assumed
box
been demolished, and so too life
\mstel
97 100) that
still
never have life
hamlets and
dot
left his
homeland; indeed, that he probablv passed
within a radius of only a few
done on the inward
sea of his
Hit i(niMtr\ side
In
any case the
and even
a hasty
real
is
spirit.
measure of Rembrandt
glance
myth. Although he
own
them
at
commonly
reveals
is
much
to be found in his works, that
is
ings
The Anatomy lesson of Dr.
Drapers' Guild, the Aristotle and Homer, and
has
known
he was. \s
been identified
m
man)
fact,
as
not included
Ti/lp.
the Night Watch,
2,300 of
his
works survive
The Syndics
two or
one of the most productive
60me 600
in his
associated with only a half-do/en paint-
of the
portraits
his entire
score miles. All his voyaging was
artists
My<\
three
self-
the world
have thus
far
paintings. 1.400 drawings and 300 etchings
possible that
It is
identification of
still
others will
come
One
to light in our time.
one of his paintings was made only
in
recent
1962. Although
it
work of art, it has considerable importance because it is Rembrandt's earliest known dated painting. Executed on a wooden panel, it depicts his version of the martyrdom by stoning of St. Stephen (pages 26-27). Long the property of the museum of Lyons in France, it was attributed vaguely to "the school of Rembrandt" and relegated to a storeroom until two Dutch scholars, suspecting its true authorship, suggested that a corner of it be cleaned. A few swipes of the swab revealed the undoubted monogram of the master and the date, 625, when is
not a great
1
he was only 18 or
Although there
is
19.
a possibility that
a cache of them, will turn
some Rembrandt drawings, or even
up one day
the likelihood of a major discovery
an old chest or bureau drawer,
in
not great. Collectors and connois-
is
However,
seurs have apparently exhausted the field. still
occasionally found.
brandt
The task of firmly
by no means easy; he was a prodigiously
is
rarely signed his small sketches
his
bills
in
No
—60
of
and drawings. In addition, Rem-
rest etchings
brandt's face appears in at least five other participant in the action.
stylistic
unanimous agreement.
the 2,300 works there are at least 90 self-portraits
them paintings and the
who
and even of funeral
drawings can be identified only on
grounds, and in this area scholars are not
Among
drawing to Rem-
active draftsman
and used whatever paper he happened to
handy, including printed pages, the backs of
find
announcements. Most of
single drawings are
attributing a
other great
works artist
as that of a spectator or
known
is
to have repre-
sented himself so frequently, which suggests a well-developed vanity on his part in his
—
until the portraits are studied.
Although there were occasions
young manhood when he may have wished
than he was, and although he sometimes used his
model, contorting
handsomer
to appear
own
merely
face
as a
into expressions of anger, joy or shock, he took, in
it
general, a very penetrating, even merciless
overriding artistic concern was with the
appears in one of his
letters,
view of himself. Rembrandt's
human
phrase that
spirit or, in a
with expressing "the greatest inward emo-
A
1
7th Century view ot the section of
Leiden where Rembrandt'* family lived
tion." In his quest for an understanding of
mankind he found
ly
followed the ancient Greek dictum,
"Know
thyself,"
age that such a seemingly simple injunction demands.
autobiography can be extracted from turn
with
A
his self-portraits,
to the physical events of his early
first
neces-
it
no one has more
sary to begin with self-searching; in the visual arts
all
it
s
two windmills overlooking the Rhine
River.
The loweronewas
the cour-
father
and grandfather to grind corn, and
moving but
show
close-
used by the
artist'*
Rembrandt himself may have been born spiritual
is
best to
one of the buildings behind the
Such
"aerial'' perspectives
\\
in
mills.
ere produced
by talented map-maker* « ho combined
life.
hundreds of measurement* taken on the
R
ground with sheer cartographic guessw
embrandt Harmenszoon van Rijn was born
miles south of
men, was lived for
in Leiden,
Amsterdam, on the 15th of July, 1606. His
a miller
some
whose surname, van
about 25
father,
Har-
Rijn, indicates that the family
had
generations beside or near the Rhine River. His mother,
Cornelia (or Neeltgen) Willemsdochter van Zuvtbrouck, was a baker's daughter. Traditionally their large family nine children vitality
and
from
his
there
is
— has been described
his
as
— Rembrandt was the eighth of
poor and struggling. The
almost ferocious energy, some
"peasant" background and his desire to
no evidence
that the van Rijns
critics
rise
artist's
suggest, derived
above
it.
However,
were impoverished potato-eaters.
21
ork.
When Rembrandt's florins.
The
now. but
it is
10,000 culate
man
â&#x20AC;&#x201D; a weaver,
hour dav. Thus
mother died
1640 she
in
an estate valued
left
precise value of that currency
known
for
wage of a
that the
1
7th Century
example â&#x20AC;&#x201D; was only three or four
Rembrandt chose
his earlv self-portraits
some
Dutch
crafts-
florins for a 12-
appears that the family was fairly well-off. In
it
at
very difficult to cal-
is
some of
to represent himself as a beggar
young rebel who appeared to have a grudge against the world; was wide, with small eyes, a broad nose and powerful jaw. But these are not necessarily the features of a country clod, and if Rembrandt and
as a
his face
had some quarrel with the world
man
the inhumanity of
it
may have been
rooted in his anger at
rather than in his family circumstances.
Rembrandt's birth coincided closely with that of the Dutch nation. For generations the
1
Low
7 provinces of the
Countries (the Netherlands,
Belgium and Luxembourg) had been under the rule of Catholic Spain.
However
1609,
in
when Rembrandt was
three, the seven northern prov-
under the leadership of the noble House of Orange,
inces,
the freedom for which they had been struggling for
40
finallv
years.
achieved
Spain did
not formally recognize their independence, but in fact the Spanish were
seldom again a serious menace to Dutch as the nation
was then
liberty.
derland, Overijssel, Friesland and Groningen.
wealthiest and most populous
â&#x20AC;&#x201D; and
The United
Provinces,
Holland, Zeeland, Utrecht. Guel-
called, included
Of
these,
for that reason
Holland was the
its
name was
fre-
quently used bv foreigners to refer to the whole countrv. to the annovance of the citizens of the other
.he new Ihe Iii
the
(
Low
.it
countr)
l.nrs
I
his
ilc.-t.ul
contemporary painting
from
i
\\
.ins directl)
depend soleh on
the relative!) rare wealthy patron Ordinary -
numbei priceless
in <>l
nun. could afford to ow n
l>\
spending onl)
.1
its
institutions
and
vigilant
of Orange, however successful
it
in
had
and leading the people, was unable to form a strong
government. The various provinces sent representatives to the
modest court
tonomous
at
in all
The Hague, but
each province regarded
itself as
au-
matters save defense and foreign policv.
In this loose federation, the
were no longer
artists
dom
two
available.
the egalitarian Dutch cared
traditional sources of patronage for
During the little
first
for titles
decades of their free-
and the courtlv
life,
and
.1
some now
original paintings
The House
potter) and
instruments are being hawked
to the public rather than
in rallving
central
Vinckboons shows a picture stall flanked by
could thus oiler their
safeguarding them.
been
a
l>v l).i\ id
two other booths where clothes,
Krtists
nation was democratic in
'oun tries during Rembrandt's
time paintings wereroutinel) offered for sale
six provinces.
few florins
although the at least
gible. ofi.
House of Orange
seven paintings bv Rembrandt), aristocratic patronage was negli-
The other source of patronage, the Catholic Church, was also shut
While Catholics
when
did commission works of art (including
still
formed a
the United Provinces
merged
in
More and
the
rising
came of
tide
more, the Catholic
vate; their churches
sizable
segment of the population
into being, gradually thev
Protestantism,
faithful
were stripped of
Calvinism.
particularlv
were compelled their altars
to
were sub-
worship
in pri-
and often were taken
over lor use bv Protestants. In these circumstances, the Church could no longer supply the rich commissions that had nourished
artists since
the
beginning of the Renaissance,
Thus, for the
first
time
hut precarious position
17th Century Dutch
in
history, painters
in society that
artists,
of
they
whom
assumed the independent
still
occupy. Fortunately for
there were literally thousands,
the ordinary citizens of the country replaced the Church .\nd the aristoc racj
2 2
.is
purchasers ol paintings. (Sculpture never
became
a
major
art
form among the Dutch. There it
no
is
explanation for this; perhaps
facile
was because monumental sculpture seemed out of place home, or perhaps
fortable decor of a middle-class solid burgher,
who might
pay a
fair
sum
for a canvas,
in
com-
the
was because the
it
found
his sense
of
propriety offended by the notion of something so grandiose, and reminiscent of "popish" church art, as a statue.)
The extent ket
is
which the average Dutchman participated
to
almost beyond
belief.
when
uation will be comparable
ticular
art,
there
form of
enormous
the
sit-
As
why
to
the Dutch were so fasci-
again no ready explanation. This was simply the par-
is
creativity that appealed to
talent.
the art mar-
every second family in the United
States possesses an original painting.
nated by
in
may be drawn,
a rough parallel
If
To
be
them and
sure, the typical citizen
which thev had
for
was
inclined to regard
painting merely as wall decoration, and his taste tended stronglv to an
almost photographic naturalism
in portraits
and scenes of everyday
The
but he bought canvases in remarkable quantity. ter
Mundy, who visited Amsterdam
ment
that
"As For the
in
art off Painting
1640, noted with
I
Country
Many excellent Men
astonish-
them there having been
in thatt Facullty,
brantt, etts.. All in general striving to
some
and the affection off the people to
thincke none other goe beeyond
Pictures,
life,
English traveler Pe-
some att
in this
present, as
Rim-
adorne their houses, especially the
much manv tvmes
outer or street roome, with costly peeces, Butchers and bakers not
which are Fairely
inferior in their shoppes,
blacksmithes. Coblers,
and
it
.
.
it
can be believed,
was
natural for artists to be extremelv productive.
recorded that Michiel van Miereveld, an able
it is
Delft painter, produced
more than 10,000
reveld lived to be 74, and
60
years, his
have some picture or other bv their Forsje
."
in their stalle.
In such a climate If
will
etts.,
yea
sett Forth,
if
Still
portraits in his career.
he began painting
at
14 and continued for
output averaged better than three portraits a week.
also recorded that Cornelis Ketel, another
good
Mie-
artist,
who
It
is
apparently
standing
life-size
in the heart
of Rotterdam, this
hronze representation of the
Netherlands' foremost scholar, the great
humanist Desiderius Erasmus, bv the sculptor Hendrik de Keyser, public statue erected in the
became bored with the
endless turning out of portraits, used to
amuse
himself and his clients by painting with his toes.
in
the
1
7th Centurv
been due
â&#x20AC;&#x201D;a
in part to a
rarity that
A, may be suggested by Miereveld's and lS
of the
1
7th Century
Ketel's activities, the
was frank to acknowledge himself
Dutch
as a crafts-
man, a producer of goods. Although such masters of the High Renaissance as
Leonardo and Michelangelo had made
it
very plain,
in
the Italv of the
preceding century, that art was no mechanical exercise but the callings,
Dutch painters had
cepted their
fairly
little
loftiest
of
of that sentiment. In general thev ac-
humble status (Rembrandt took exception
to this) and
asked no special deference. As a rule thev did not feel called upon, as
had the
Italians, to
and their theories
write argumentative treatises to explain themselves
â&#x20AC;&#x201D; and therein
lies still
another reason for the sparseness
of knowledge about them.
Despite the vigor of the prospered and died the result that a florins.
ingly
rich.
An
art
market, exceedinglv few Dutch painters
oversupplv of paintings depressed prices, with
good canvas sometimes
Rembrandt,
sold for as
little
as
at the height of his popularity, received the
handsome sum of 1,600
florins for the
10 or 15
resound-
Night Watch, and
mav have
democratic aversion to
hero worship.
artist
was the only
Dutch Republic
later
23
mismanagement come tavernkeepers
But other
of his affairs.
or ferrymen in order to
that Hercules Seghers.
whose romantic
make ends
and Meindert
Hobbema had grim
the time of his death
owed
of 6 1 7
bill
—
Hals
Jan Vermeer
florins, for
at
which the bak-
—
their
that might have made his descendants incalculably
rich.
(no doubt grudgingly) was obliged to accept two paintings
identity since lost
said
It is
alcoholic. Frans
financial problems.
a baker's
meet.
scenes influenced Rembrandt's
withdrew from the struggle and died an
landscapes,
er
good commissions but through fine artists were forced to be-
lack of
became bankrupt not through
R.
.embrandt's decision to
become an artist, or perhaps more accurately him in such a chancy career, was not taken
his parents' decision to establish
As
early.
boy he must have impressed
a
of their children
came
—
a cobbler
first
ingly they sent
and then
Rembrandt
his parents as the
who
of their other sons
a miller,
survived to
most promising
manhood, one be-
and another a baker
— and accord-
to the Latin School in Leiden to prepare
for a learned profession. In the
United Provinces
him
was not unthinkable
it
any position, however high, and
that a miller's son could aspire to
Among
parents evidently
knew
drawings there
one which shows a small family group, probably
is
own, seated around
a
the value of an education.
book on
ten portrayed with a Bible a
model
a candlelit table. His mother,
on her knees and
who
his
Rembrandt's
whom
his
he of-
several times served as
was a devout reader of Scripture; doubt-
in his Biblical paintings,
he first absorbed from her the sense of God, man and nature that was make him the most profoundly Christian of all Protestant artists. The Latin School, which Rembrandt attended from his seventh to his 14th year, placed heavy emphasis on religious studies. Its curriculum, apparently unknown to earlv writers who commented on Rembrandt's igless
to
norance, also included the reading of Cicero, Terence. Virgil, Ovid, Horace. Caesar, Sallust,
The students
Livy and Aesop.
Rembrandt became accustomed
brantus Harmensis Leydensis (Rembrandt the son It
was
for this reason that
RHL. Rembrandt tail; his historical
It
he signed
his earlv
and mythological paintings
works with the monogram.
reflect
in
Discourse on
Method while
which
living in the
time there, as did other scholars of never had
much contact with
in
Nor
versity, but this point,
Rembrandt's time was the
;
withdrew apparently
sometime
in
is
a
unknown.
Rembrandt
tar as to
type that appears frequently his
first I
lis
after only a
teacher,
formal education
be matriculated
It
was
at
art.
mentioned only
second, under
much
the Uni-
in
month or two.
1620. that he turned to
The name of Rembrandt's old accounts,
who wrote his
his caliber. In all likelihood.
Rembrandt pursue
did
for admis-
such men, but he early developed an admira-
beyond the .atm School he went so I
de-
United Provinces, passed some
tion tor the "old philosopher" in general in his paintings.
in
based.
Europe. The French philosopher Descartes,
equal ot any
it
meticulous attention
was the purpose of the Latin School to prepare young men
sion to the University of Leiden,
m
own name. Remof Harmen of Leiden).
not only passed the course, but later recalled
on which thev were
to the texts
conversed in Latin, and
to the Latin form of his
whom
as
"a painter"
he sened
a three-
year apprenticeship, was an obscure ami none-too-talented Leiden painter
named Jacob van Swanenburgh, who and views of hell. Van Swanenburgh.
specialized in architectural scenes
like
many
other Dutch
time, had studied in Italy but apparently had not profited
experience.
He
of the
artists
much from
the
taught Rembrandt the fundamentals of drawing, etching
and painting but does not seem to have made a deep impression on
Rembrandt turned
pupil. In later years
mav
that
occur to an
appears in
many
artist
â&#x20AC;&#x201D;except architecture and
treated
it
the time he was 17 or 18.
per
se.)
Rembrandt had absorbed
Swanenburgh could teach him and had shown such promise him to Amsterdam
sent
(Architecture
hell.
of Rembrandt's backgrounds, to be sure, but unlike van
Swanenburgh he never
By
his
hand to almost every subject
his
to studv under Pieter Lastman,
van
that
all
that his father
who was
then one
of the foremost painters of historical scenes in the United Provinces.
Lastman, too, had been to
Italv,
works of Caravaggio and
who
painter
where he had been much impressed by the
Adam
particularly of
Elsheimer, a
German
Rome. The outstanding qualities of Caravaggio were dramatic power and especially an atmosphere of mys-
lived in
a bold naturalism, terious depth
conveved bv chiaroscuro, the interplav of light and shadow.
Elsheimer responded to Caravaggio's innovations, but instead of making life-size
paintings as the Italian did, he specialized in small, cabinet-size,
highly finished paintings with exquisite davlight and nocturnal
Rembrandt's early
art training included
practice in the useof perspective
effects. Last-
by reference
to intricate architectural studies like
man was
what he had
influenced by both artists and in turn transmitted
learned to his
own
pupils.
Rembrandt,
who was
Caravaggio and Elsheimer, remained
thus indirectlv a pupil of
Lastman's studio for only
in
six
months, but he quickly seized the chiaroscuro device and, within a short time, began to use
it
with a
no other
skill
artist
has ever surpassed.
above. as the
1
le ejuickb
depiction ot the winding staircase and
effectively
employed
the painting below 27.
As
a
.
this
complex device
mature artist. Rembrandt often
sketched city walls, cottages and ruins, but
subordinated to
E in
paintings of fairlv small scale.
spired
his
Rembrandt
to
become
It
lively,
pnmarv objective
of his earlv style
sometimes
theatrical gestures
was probably Lastman,
a history painter
painting was not notably fashionable
among
â&#x20AC;&#x201D;
at a
too.
who
in-
time when history
the Dutch. Theorists ac-
cepted the idea, as they had since the Renaissance, that there was a hierarchical order in the genres of painting.
was the famous of everyday
The
noblest subject for the artist
past, particularly the Biblical past,
landscapes and
life,
However, the ordinary
art
still lifes
buyer
in the
United Provinces paid
art theory;
he preferred subjects from daily
to him,
and so gave
his trade to painters in the
theless
Rembrandt not only chose
ed himself to ally
worked
almost
portrait, so far as at least six years
is
"minor"
that
were
little
familiar
specialties.
None-
all
his
life.
Although he eventu-
the specialties, he did not paint a commissioned
known,
until
he had been established
in his career for
and did not venture seriously into landscape
in his late thirties. all
all
life
to take up history painting but dedicat-
with a fervor that lasted
it
in
while portraits, scenes
were of secondary importance.
heed to
until
he was
His preoccupation was always with history and above
with the Scriptures.
At 18 or 19 Rembrandt self
up
as
left
Lastman, returned to Leiden and
set
Stephen, a product of that period, reveals flashes of his genius, but reveals
him-
an independent master. His recently discovered Stoning of
what a steep road he had
it
St.
also
to travel before he could fully express
in
motifs were
portrayal of human character.
rom Lastman Rembrandt derived other elements
in
produced when he was
his paintings architectural
the use of bright, glossy colors and
thcone
mastered such problems
it.
25
â&#x20AC;&#x201D; the
Sources of Inspiration
Oo distinctive was Rembrandt's own imprint on art that his
debt to other painters
is
often overlooked. Yet the
influences that helped shape his formative years can be
traced as clearly as
in
the case oi lesser
men; even genius
has us artistic ancestry.
Rembrandt's most notable forebear was the Italian master
who
(
iaravaggio,
revolutionized the use ol light and
shadow (pages 30-3 I), an innovation ardently pursued
l>\
an entire Dutch school of painters (pages 32-33) popular in
Rembrandt's youth.
in
the
\\
ork
ol
Adam
Rome who was painted
in
much
and setting 28).
his
I
le
found another fount of ideas
Elsheimer, a
beholden to
also
(
German
iaravaggio hut
smaller scale, usually
mood
plates
with landscape backgrounds (page
communicated Elsheimer's
pupil along with his
who
usmo copper
Rembrandt's teacher, Pieter Lastman,
in Italy,
living in
own
who studied
ideas to his eager
loudness for forceful gestures
aw\ dramatic scenes (page 29).
Man)
ol
these familial elements appear in
Rembrandt's
earliest
known
dated painting, the recent
discovered Stoning of St. Stephen (opposite). (
It
l\
has
laravaggio's lighting, the small-scale details and a hint of
the landscape ol Elsheimer, and the multi-figured
excitement
ot
painting this far
lastman. Rut w ithm
work
at
I
9,
decade
Rembrandt was
more personal statement of
brilliant
a
alter
able to fashion a
his artistic ideas
Blinding of Samson (pages 14-3%).
m
the
Only about size, this
3
crow
by 4 tied
feet in actual
drama
oi St.
Stephen's martyrdom represents the-
young Rembrandt's vigorous
synthesis of older painters' styles. I
lis
own
head appears
|ust
above
the kneeling saint
"
Stuni)
_ :
1625
Adam
Elsheimer: Tobias and the Anqel,
Hcndnck Goudt
I
:
1610
Tobias and the AnofU 1613
lercules Seghers: Tobias and the Angel, date
Flight into Egypt. 1653
28
c.
unknown
Pietei
X .
1
he transmission of subject matter and style from one
manner
that
may seem plagiaristic to the modern eye. Of shown here, the earliest is the painting bv
the five works
Adam
Elsheimer
the Apocryphal
(opposite, top). It illustrates
Book of Tobit
in
an incident
the Tigris River.
About 20 years
who had been influenced bv in
mind when he painted
picture
is
by no means
later Pieter
Elsheimer,
this
in
which Tobit's son
Tobias, accompanied by an angel, captures a huge
theme
still
(above),
fish in
Lastman,
had
his
gifted printmaker
works
7th Century master to another often took place in a
works
although the
a slavish imitation.
Elsheimer had other Dutch followers, amonsj them the
from
Lastman: The Angel and Tobias and tbe h lib,
Count Hendrick Goudt, who copied
as exactly as possible;
top, opposite)
is
such a copv. with the composition
reversed. After this print
landscape
artist
was
circulated in Holland, the
Hercules Seghers adapted
purposes (thirdfrom plate
top. opposite).
it
for his
own
Later Seghers' copper
was purchased bv Rembrandt,
figures of Tobias
his
Goudt's engraving (second
who burnished out the
and the angel and replaced them with a
grouping of the Holv Family, transforming the subject into a Flight into Egypt (bottom, opposite).
Rembrandt entirelv
left
much
changed the
Although
of Seghers' plate intact, his alteration
mood and meaning of the work.
29
c.
1630
M,
.ichelangelo Merisi da Caravaggio,
among the
high
masters
Western painting. onl) in
I
I
who
influence, radiating
lis
lolland but throughout
from
in
Italy,
Europe during
Among his
generations thereafter.
who died
1610. ranks
have given decisive impetus to
was
felt
his lifetime
not
and for
most widely imitated
innovations was a powerful new use of chiaroscuro, the contrasting of light and shadow, by which he unified his complex compositions
obtained highly dramatic, naturalistic effects
.ind
Martyrdom \t
.
ording to tradition
order of to
Matthew
of St.
its
king, but
have taken place
in blax k
well
in
some
fantastic, allegorical
At the right stands
rhreehall nude figures
round the appalled, tooffei
a
in
Ethiopia by
realm rather than
screaming boy
i
their role
assistants
lothed figures
at
the
m.n represent the world
M.n thru the palm
Ki mbrandt,
w ho
ne\
ei
ol
mart)
left,
is
who might
knowl
in
unclear, although
sprawlinthe
some
indifferent,
some
\n angel descends from heaven
rdom
visited Italy
and thus could not ha\
helesshadan excellent
thispaintin
it
e
indirect
work obtained from Pieter Lastman, Dutch
arti
ibl)
lulK captui
the
Matthew was executed
St.
!aravaggio chose to depict a scene that seems
m.n be the executioner's
oiIh-1
as in his
mbolize Panic, desperate to run hut rooted to the spot
s\
tenor the)
Africa
(
â&#x20AC;&#x201D;
at right.
in
from prints and drawings. pirit;
Martyrdom
Delilah
also
n
10
â&#x20AC;˘
vÂŤ rse, in
f
I
He
the shrieking boy in
Rembrandt's figure of rgn 14 15X
Michelangelo Mensi da Caravaggio
:
.\
lartyrdom ofSt A lattbew,
c.
1
600
lendrick Terbrugghen Young Alan Lightinga Pipe from a Candle. 162 :
/ /â&#x20AC;˘,
\l."j.
i
(
'banger,
162
7
Gerrit van Honthorst Supper Party. 1620 :
c
laravaggio's influence in Holland
applied to a school of
Dutch
painters
was so strong
â&#x20AC;&#x201D; the Utrecht
that his
name has been
Caravaggisti.
Among its
foremost exponents were Hendrick Terbrugghen and Gerrit van Honthorst,
both of whom studied of light and
his pictures in Italy, seized
shadow and
exploited
Terbrugghen's paintings
(above,
them
left)
in their
upon
aspects of his treatment
own talented ways.
the source of light
In one of
â&#x20AC;&#x201D; the candle â&#x20AC;&#x201D;
is
exposed, with the shadows presented in deep contrast. Honthorst's picture (above) contains a device characteristic of his paintings: the principal light
source
is
screened from the viewer by a figure in the foreground, while the
background
figures are illuminated
both directly and by
must have had the opportunity to study paintings of this
was intrigued by the screened
light
and used
it
reflection.
Rembrandt
sort at close hand.
with greater dramatic
He
effect
than any of his contemporaries, even in such tiny works as The Money Changer (left),
only about
1
2 inches in height,
which he produced
at the
age of 2
1
33
R.
.embrandt's Blinding of Samson, the most violent of all
paintings, contains certain elements that derive figures are large, almost life-size,
and the lighting ranges from
gloom. But by the time he produced
brilliance to the deepest
work â&#x20AC;&#x201D;in 1636, when he was 30
â&#x20AC;&#x201D; Rembrandt had
also
Baroque, Rubens had depicted a similar
showing the capture of Samson Rubens by
in a
moment
in
this
been
influenced by Peter Paul Rubens, the Flemish master of the
included no bloodshed.
his
from Caravaggio: the
High
the Biblical story,
wild melee, but his scene
Rembrandt seems
injecting a note of horror, for
to have set out to surpass
which there was an avid
among contemporary viewers. The artist's composition employs emphatic diagonals
taste
the viewer's attention toward Samson's face,
agony
as a Philistine soldier
diagonal begins
at
which
is
to
compel
contorted
plunges a long dagger into his eye.
(
in
)ne
the upraised hand of Delilah (right) as she scurries
from the scene holding the betrayed hero's shorn
hair;
it
extends
through Samson's upraised leg and the armored forearm of the soldier,
and ends
m
the dagger-thrust.
A
second, stronger diagonal
is
achieved by the weapon of the halberdier.
Rembrandt's
intent
this initial effect has
is
to shock,
diminished,
it
ami he succeeds mightily. But is
alter
impossible lor the viewer's
glance not to return to Delilah; with the mingled terror and gloating reflected
on her
triumphs
oi
5
\
lace,
she emerges as one of Rembrandt's greatest
characterization
R9
1
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d
36
II Prelude to Greatness
When Rembrandt
established himself as an independent artist in Lei-
den, after his apprenticeship in
Amsterdam, he was not yet
he was not notably precocious;
However,
20.
great contemporary, the
his
Italian
sculptor-architect Gianlorenzo Bernini, produced superb portrait busts in
marble
at
the age of
painting.
Dutch
them
1
3.
What
development
sive speed of his
In his late teens
artists,
but
— and was
in a
still
Leiden was a
remarkable
is
—
in
Rembrandt
and drawing
in etching
is
the explo-
as well as in
he was merely one among many talented
half-dozen years he had surpassed almost
all
of
growing.
lively place to
be
in
those years.
How
appeared to
it
Rembrandt's particularly perceptive eye when he returned
home from
Amsterdam around 1625 is impossible to tell; he made no scenes of the town or at any rate, none that are known to survive. There are. however, a few sketches bv other artists, plus some contemporary written accounts, that suggest what Rembrandt must have seen. Lying alon<i the Old Rhine a short distance from the sea. Leiden in the 620s had a population of about 50,000 and was second among Dutch towns onlv to Amsterdam (about 110,000). Architecturally it was typically Dutch.
—
1
Rows
of narrow houses, with gabled roofs and bright-colored shutters,
leaned together beside the streets and canals.
Looming above them
stood
the imposing ruin of a medieval castle; there had been a major settle-
ment
in
Leiden
countryside was
at least as earlv as the flat as
12th Century.
Visitors found Leiden conspicuous for
scrubbed Holland, but paradoxically its
The familiar criticism
of the
somberness of Rembrandt's works
— one contemporary labeled him an owl-like belied
by
"man of darkness"
this brilliantly
—
is
his wife
even
in well-
town was
often racked
epidemic diseases:
so high that the cemeteries could not hold to be buried in Leiden's earthen ramparts.
Against such calamities Leiden could measure a number of blessings.
Anna.
and Anna. 1626
cleanliness,
had an abominable stench:
that then included several deadlv
some years the death toll was all the corpses, and many had It
Tobit
its
also
were almost currentless and were often clogged with rotting
by "plagues," a term
illumined
it
flotsam and sewage. Perhaps because of this the
confrontation between the blind
Tobit and
canals
The surrounding
a slate.
had a great university, the
intellectual excitement. It
first
to be founded in Holland, a center ot
was increasingly prosperous both
as a
market
J
7
town and as the site of a thriving textile industry, which eventually involved most of Leiden's workers. Underpaid and illiterate, they presented a sharp contrast to the professors and students at the University,
among them Englishmen, Germans, Swedes.
whom came
number of
from noble
families.
foreign dress of the a keen eye for such
he made from
were
subjects
life his
voung men, but the poor.
not wealthy
In
The
who had
students must have intrigued Rembrandt, things, although in the early sketches
Poles and Hungarians, a
Leiden Rembrandt worked closelv with Jan Lievens, an excellent
who was
artist
1
months vounger than he and who had
6
Amsterdam under
Pieter Lastman.
From
a clear predilection for history painting
amounted
at
power
his stvle
had absorbed
for forceful statements that
would have
fact,
and to channel
in his art
away from the
innate passion and boldness
1620s
and
times almost to bombast; Rembrandt, in
to struggle for vears to control the
also studied in
their teacher both
In the mid-
sensational.
and Lievens' were remarkablv similar; both used the
same models and props studio for a time
â&#x20AC;&#x201D; and
â&#x20AC;&#x201D;
it is
may have
quite likely that they
shared a
sometimes requires expert knowledge to
it
Thev probablv
an earlv Lievens from an earlv Rembrandt.
A
known that thev retouched each other's paintings. made in 1632 of works owned bv Prince indicates that even their contemporaries
tinguishing their hands.
arms, done bv
in his
One fied
earlv
work
Stoning of
reads:
It
in the
had
that
his career.
the figures in the
indisputably Rembrandt's
is
If
it
is
is
left
One
is
bv placing the
and thus immediately
on the
right.
And he
none-
directs the
creates the
of planes that recede irregularly from the
martyrdom on an
witnesses to the saint's
official
it
Rembrandt's work
the use of shadow, by which he submerges
half of the panel
illusion of depth, of a series
the newlv identi-
not an outstanding success,
attention of the viewer to the action
eye.
Henrv of
difficulty in dis-
Temple, holding Christ
theless contains features that are characteristic of
throughout
is
Rembrandt or Jan Lievens."
Stephen.
St.
"Simeon
it
note in an inven-
Frederick
tory
tell
did not go
so far as to collaborate in blocking out their compositions, but
Orange
his
elevation in the background.
The work reveals not only Rembrandt's debt to Lastman. outlines, the preoccupation with detail
crowded
intense expressions of the
tendency to overstatement. The at
the saint; one of
dreadful scene, and feels
about
ol the
face,
is
about to crush
Rembrandt
lifts
lets
first
second vcr\
which
but also his
his lather
own
youthful
merely throwing stones
his skull
the viewer
with a rock.
know
It
is
a
how he
precisely
below the elbow
at
the murderers (page 27).
It
is
Rembrandt's
of his self-portraits.
Another of Rembrandt's hallmarks in a
the strong
the rock with both hands, there appears an anguished
with revulsion
the
figures,
assassins are not
Just above the head of St. Stephen, and
man who
laee. staring
own
it.
them
in
and the emphatic gestures and
earl)
an interest
in
costume
appears
work. The Money Changer of 1627 (page 32), for
may have
brandt adorned the figure
served as model is
perhaps
ordinarily have been found in the
The coat with which Rem-
a trifle
wardrobe of
more opulent than might a
Leiden
citizen.
I
le
took
unusual delight
the ornate. Oriental costumes, sumptuous fabrics.
in
home bv Dutch
jewels and strange objects brought
rapher Baldinucci notes:
"He
went
often
seafarers.
His biog-
to public sales by auction; and
here he acquired clothes that were old-fashioned and disused as long as
thev struck him as bizarre and picturesque, and those, even though at
hung on the
times thev were downright dirtv, he
among the beautiful
which he
curiosities
modern arms
such as every kind of old and
and so on
sabers, knives ings,
walls of his studio
also took pleasure in possessing,
— arrows,
halberds, daggers,
— and innumerable quantities of exquisite draw-
engravings and medals, and even other thing which he thought a 7
During
painter might ever need."
lacked
monev
to
interest so passionatelv that
Leiden years Rembrandt probablv
his
buv such objects
in quantitv.
but later he pursued this
mav have been one
it
of the factors
in his
His imagination was stimulated bv the mere sight of an
financial ruin.
outlandish turban, a golden helmet or a rich brocade; with the aid of these he
was able
plunging himself
To be sure, tears
to transport himself across space and time without
books or journeving farther than the auction room.
in
he was not a shallow sentimentalist
bv contemplating
often a curious studio prop served
thought that ended
B,'evond
could be
him
moved
is
departure point for a train of
as a
in a great painting.
interesting also for
its
use of hidden lighting; the
holds a coin up to the light to examine
backward and to
to
Homer, but
hint of Rembrandt's fondness tor the picturesque.
its
Money Changer
darkness.
who
a plaster cast of an antique bust of
right
and
left,
it.
throwing the illumination
while the foreground remains
Rembrandt appropriated
of Dutch painters centered in the
this device
town of
The
man
in relative
from the works of
a school
Utrecht. These men.
them Hendrick Terbrugghen. Dirck van Baburen and
in
among
particular
Gerrit van Honthorst. had studied the art of the great Caravaggio in
and had brought back their personal variations on the master's
Italv
original light
and shadow
effects.
gisti are frequent lv illuminated
The
pictures of the Utrecht Caravag-
bv a hidden
gio seldom used, but which his
the scene.
lamp,
influence
Rembrandt had seen the work of the on him
The concealed another use
—
in his early
light in
vears
was
its
is
to exploit.
darkly silhouet-
glow on the
rest
and
— and some two vears
later
Emmaus,
to His disciples. (This subject
a strong one.
in
he emploved
which the
was of
that
it
could be put to
outmoded halo around it
risen
in
the
first
the head of
of his painted
Saviour appears brieflv
particular fascination to
Rembrandt;
he would return to
it
later vears.) In the
Leiden painting Christ's figure screens off the
which appears
To
those
as a
who
repeatedlv in etchings, drawings and paintings
Christ at
in
light,
supernatural radiance emanating from His body.
think of
Rembrandt
vases, the diminutive scale of his first
of
their
The Money Changer serves no function bevond
as a substitute for the
versions of Christ at
a trick Caravag-
Caravaggisti,
However. Rembrandt quicklv saw
that of drama.
Christ
foreground
or candle that casts
fire
—
Dutch followers were happy
In their paintings, a figure or object in the ted, screening off a
light source
Emmaus
is
as a painter of
Leiden works
monumental
may be
surprising.
can-
The
onlv about 15 bv 16 inches. Other early works
3
9
—
and sometimes smaller;
are scarcely larger than the pages of this book,
shown on page
the Self-Portrait
So
actual size.
far as
known, only one
is
Esthers Feast
the Leiden period
Rembrandt's. In the
er than
— and
first
life-size
few years
after
in
its
painting suryives from
may be
this
reproduced
is
Lievens'
Rembrandt
work
rath-
himself
set
as an
independent
artist
he adhered to a tradition that Pieter Last-
man had
learned from
Adam
Elsheimer
up
Rembrandt was 25 or 26 frequently, and
still
Night Watch, which but
now
X
here
approximately 12 bv 14
mutilated Conspiracy of Julius
no handy explanation for
is
small scale; possiblv he
feet,
ambitious dimensions, although the
until
paintings
life-size
as the
and the even larger
Civilis.
keep
his decision to
was not vet readv
that he
felt
was not
It
he executed such massive works
later that is
plates.
began to produce
that he
with marvelous
in Italy, painting
on small wooden panels or copper
precision
-t^''-
9. for example,
skill
his early art in
works of more
for
of a painter scarcely relates to
Whatever the
the size of the area he chooses to cover.
Rem-
reason.
brandt's choice of scale seems to have been especially appropriate in the case of his favorite subjects of the Leiden period: narrative scenes from
the Bible.
As Rembrandt grew older Rembrandt made these two parents shortlv before he
Amsterdam
1
1
is
left
portraits of his
home to live
in
father appears heavy-
hearted Mid oblivious to the outside world this
saw
drawing completed only
a feu
in
months
before his death Bv contrast. Rembrandt's
his spirituality
deepened and he no longer
the Bible merely as a source for dramatic narrative, but at
he chose subjects that suited
He
his great gifts as a storyteller.
first
turned
Numbers XXII 27-28 to illustrate the storj known as The Angel and the Prophet sparkling work, painted when the artist was about
readilv to such passages as
:
of Balaam and his ass in a painting
Balaam. This colorful,
etching ol his mother makes her seem the picture ot self-confidence and contentment
Reportedly
woman
a
deeply devout and serious
she outlived her husband
l>\
a
decade
20,
was evidently highly regarded bv Rembrandt's contemporaries; the
the Netherlands, bought ings
who
Alphonso Lopez,
art dealer
it
crown
served as agent for the French
and placed
it
in
alongside paint-
in his collection
by Raphael and Titian. In the same year, Rembrandt produced an-
other jewel-like panel
— 12 bv
16 inches
— showing the confrontation of
and Anna (page 36). The "storv" of the painting is very slight. Anna, who supports her blind husband by doing "woman's work," has Tohit
been given
a
young goat by her employers. The
cannot believe that the animal stolen
it.
is
a gift
ultra-righteous Tobit
and accuses
wife of having
his
Ordinarily, an artist might find scant stimulation in this trivial
misunderstanding, but Rembrandt brings to that illuminates
all
it
the deep sense of humanity
of his greatest work. The sightless old
be rocking back and forth
shame and
in
grief,
while
his
man
appears to
wife stares
at
him
with a wonderful mixture of compassion and indignation. Although
Rembrandt was not
yet 21
when he
painted Tobit and Anna, he had
ready achieved a depth of perception that no other
artist in
al
the Nether-
lands could match.
Rembrandt's mother served out his
them
life
m
as the
he was to paint those who were
fantastic
costumes from
eiden or
Amsterdam were
figures of the Bible, created
lor
In
but alw
his view,
essentially
by the same
no
through-
\nn.i: indeed,
closest to him. often dressing
his collection,
reflections of universal emotions. I
model
the
different
i'n\\.
a\
s
seeing
common
m
them
people
of
from the towering
sharing the
same mysteri-
ous destiny, feeling the same passion and despair. Rembrandt's biog-
40
much time among "the
rapher Sandrart criticized him for spending too
lower orders" of society, and maintained bv implication that Rembrandt
might have been a better
But
was
it
among
exactly
artist if
he had learned to "keep
the "lower orders" that
his station."
Rembrandt perceived
King David or Christ Himself.
Rembrandt was
In studying the people of Leiden.
whose
pressed by the aged, in
up
stored
in
local citizens,
now unknown,
whom
of philosophers,
spiritual riches
all
possiblv from the ranks of the farmers and
were models
his father dealt,
for a brilliant series
and apostles that he painted from
saints
1631. Although
of these works are
1627 to
the typically small scale of
in
appear monumental because of Rembrandt's roman-
this period, several
treatment of the background architecture.
of a scholar's
particularly im-
he saw the glow of
years of experience, endurance and meditation. Various
tradesmen with
tic
faces
The worn, rounded
walls
or the archwavs in a theologian's retreat do not seem
cell
to have been constructed bv
erosion of wind and water,
masons but shaped
as in
the
the stone bv the
in
Anastasius of 1631. There the
St.
lonelv. rapt figure occupies less than six inches in a panel onlv
about 23
inches high, but to the observer he exists in a limitless world of space
and thought.
I
t is
among
his pictures of old
original use of chiaroscuro first
appears to great
men
that
â&#x20AC;&#x201D; the major
effect.
Rembrandt's highlv personal,
stylistic principle
Chiaroscuro (an
bright and dark) refers to the contrast of light artists
work
of his
word
that
means
and shadow.
Italian
Italian
make
of the Renaissance developed ways of using chiaroscuro to
appear
figures
Dutch
and
three-dimensional,
later
Caravaggio
and
his
followers achieved a striking sculptural quality with the device.
But the areas of
light
and shade employed bv Rembrandt's immediate
predecessors were sharplv contrasted, almost in checkerboard fashion,
with few in-between tones. Their figures did,
in fact,
appear rounded,
but because a sense of space was lacking they might have been statues placed against a wall. Rembrandt, working in the
penumbra between
bright illumination and darkness, developed a pictorial space that ap-
peared boundless, surrounding his figures on
medium
a living
in
which the
figures
light
stantly fluctuating,
emphasizing voids
first
as well as solids.
of 1627 and the
later.
St.
Paul
Both gave promise of
Rembrandt's chiaroscuro served him
ligious experience.
He did
He used
and shadow
â&#x20AC;&#x201D;
were The
two or
far greater paintings to
as a
come.
means not merelv of sug-
human
character and of re-
the intangible qualities of the visual world
to evoke the mysteries of the
mind and
spirit.
not master this effect during his Leiden years, but again the loom-
ings of his genius in this regard can
Originally.
by the
became
Among Rem-
in Contemplation of
gesting space but of expressing the depths of
light, air
itself
successful attempts in the use of this device
Money Changer three years
Space
sides.
and shadow created a mysterious twilight, con-
weaving together of
brandt's
all
were inextricably embedded. The
late
Rembrandt used the
be seen
in
works of
vivid colors favored
that time.
bv Lastman; but
1620s he turned to more delicate hues, using cool harmo-
nies of light blue
and yellow, pale green and
olive,
with backgrounds
41
often in gray. Already, bv this time, his color
was used
his chiaroscuro. It
was indissolublv linked
to transmit light
to
and shadow, not merely
to achieve a decorative effect.
Rembrandt's handling of paint
him
set
Dutch
apart from other
orthodox manner but
in a consistently
showed
itself
He
artists.
set
a boldness that quickly
did not apply his pigments
out to exploit the
effects that
can be achieved by varying textures and the weight of paint. In his SelfPortrait of 1629. the wall behind his head
on
gray, while the accents of light
impasto
To
vas.
richly textured in shades of
is
on with
his collar are laid
heavy
a
â&#x20AC;&#x201D; almost volcanic eruptions of paint upon the surface of the cangive
mane
to his shaggy
life
the wet paint with the butt end of
of
he repeatedly scratched into
hair,
his brush. In his
Jeremiah of 1630,
which shows the prophet mourning the destruction of Jerusalem. Rembrandt
scraped the colors
in places
down
to the red-vellow ground of his
panel as though to suggest the embers of a burned chroniclers.
Houbraken wrote of gemstones and
brandt that were "so thick as conjured up a picture of an clothes
to
were constantly
wipe
In
his
on
so engrossed in laving
dirty, "since
it
was
his
paint that his
when working,
custom,
brushes on himself."
etching as in painting
Rembrandt worked with an
even more than
prints enjoyed a his death,
earlv
bv Rem-
thev were chiselled." while Baldinucci
if
artist
seen before his dav. In time his etchings
Among
citv.
pearls painted
good
1
his
work
As
late as
to prize
his career his
1669, the year of
myth he was languishing
to
came
and throughout
in oil,
international market.
when according
inventiveness not
7th Century connoisseurs
in
impoverished
nobleman bought 189 etchings from him.
obscurity, a Sicilian
Before Rembrandt's time the technique of engraving was more
fre-
quently used bv printmakers than etching. In the former process, the artist
works
he laboriously cuts
a metal plate, usually copper; to create his design
lines into
rod called a burin.
steel
bv the burin
cut
on
directly
is
prints are pulled
its
The
surface with a thin, diagonally sharpened
excess metal
carefully scraped
from
it.
The
thrown up beside the furrow
away before the
plate
is
visual effect of an engraving
inked and
one of
is
neat, regular lines.
In etching, the plate artist
merses the plate
Rembrandt did not regard
lines of a slight-
this as a
draw-
but as a challenge.
copper plate lends
itself
fairly
may be removed by pounding
readily to
change and correction.
anil burnishing,
and added
at will;
etcher simply re-covers his plate with a fresh coat of resin and makes
new scratches through finish
a
it.
Rembrandt sometimes took
plate to his satisfaction,
states o| his
work
It
is
different states of the
and sometimes tors
The
bath of acid, which "bites" the metal wherever the
vibrating quality;
back, however,
tin-
in a
been removed. The action of the acid produces
Iv irregular,
\
resin.
then scratches his design through the resin with a needle and im-
resin has
Lines
covered with a protective coat of
is
radical.
not
several years to
and he sold prints from the various
uncommon
to find as
main
as four
same etching; sometimes the changes Almost from the
were eager to purchase the
start
variations.
or five
are minor,
of his career. Dutch collec-
Houbraken, who seems
to
have been poking fun that the
at
the foolishness of
demand was "so
who
true amateurs
some of
great that people
these buyers, noted
were not considered
as
did not possess the Juno with and without the
crown, the Joseph with the
and the dark head and so on. Indeed,
light
matter one by Stove — — both with and without the stove-key." on engraving or etching the image of course reversed —
every one wanted to have The
Woman
for that
the
of his least important etchings In
right,
is
Most printmakers take this into consideration by reversing their designs at the point when they transfer their preparatory drawings to their plates. Rembrandt, however, seems not to have cared much about this; his concern was with the quality rather than the pedantic accuracy of his work. Thus some of his etched self-portraits show him working with what seems to be his left hand although he was in fact right-handed, and some of his signatures apthe plate, becomes
pear
on the sheet printed from
it.
backward mirrorscript.
in
H
left
was so superb an etcher
e
discovered a secret process.
"He
and finishing
ually treating
that critics
his
.
.
.
own
his
all
of grad-
etched plates," wrote Houbraken, "a
method which he did not communicate vention
were persuaded that he had
had also a method
to his pupils.
.
.
.
Thus the
in-
has been buried with the inventor." Indeed, etching has al-
ways been regarded
as a
somewhat mysterious proceeding, and
there are
"secrets" involving the ingredients in the protective coat, the strength of
the acid bath and the time allowed for the acid to bite into the plate.
Occasionally the physical or mental health of etchers has been impaired
by excessive inhalation of acid fumes, and of strangeness and mystery. But genius.
He was
van Dyck in his rare
20,
contributes to the aura
the greatest etcher in the history of
in certain of his portrait etchings,
ventures in the
Rembrandt's
was
this, too,
Rembrandt had no art,
secret
beyond
his
matched only by
by Whistler and by Degas
field.
earliest etchings
may be
dated around 1626,
when he
and the very few surviving impressions of such a work
as
The
The process by which engravings and etchings
were printed was
itself the
subject
made in the 1640sbva French artist. Abraham Bosse. The worker at the of this print
rear dabs ink
design.
on
a metal plate bearing the
The man at his side wipes off all of
the ink except that in the design's grooves
As the man
at right turns
press, a sheet of damp
the handles of a
paper
is
against the metal plate to pick
pressed
up an inked
impression. Finallv. the finished prints are
strungon
a "clothesline''
mav have tackled
singlehandedlv. using
one shown hereto
i
.-a
in,-
lions
plmidv* Motrin Loininconymprimclesuu /<•..
,
todrv Rembrandt
the entire process i
nress similar to the
pull proofs of his etchings.
e/i
,
lM~«l.fU.L, Mil *mt '•!•"
-
43
Rest on the Flight to Egypt exhibit both his inexperience and his lively
response to the medium. like
was
ins on his plates
fluiditv of chalk or tal,
He
an engraving, but used a soft,
and to manv eves
As
in
permitting him to
pen on paper. The Rest
is
However, the etching
almost
his print look
the protective cover-
move
his needle
all
serves notice of
might
artist
what
work. Rembrandt approached
his
with the
unfinished and experimen-
appears to be a botched job that the
it
better have destroyed.
to come.
had no thought of making
free, scribbling stroke;
soon
is
his subject
Holv Familv not in the traditional Marv feeds her Son while Joseph, who
with great warmth, conceiving the
way but quite literally as a family: is
often relegated to the background in such scenes, holds the dish.
R,.embrandt's
sense of humanitv
small etchings of beggars and outcasts
was considerably influenced 7
even more evident
is
made
in subject
the late 1620s. In these he
matter and even
works of the great contemporary French seen at
in
group of
in a
in
pose bv the
etcher. Jacques Callot. Having;
hand the horrors resulting from the Thirty Years' War.
first
maimed wretches such as might have been found on anv highway in Europe. The prints were widely circulated, and there can be little doubt that Rembrandt was familiar with them. Powerful as Callot's prints mav be. however, thev still contain a faintlv satirical Callot produced a gallery of
quality, as
though the
Gallic manner. cripples
were asking the viewer,
artist
but
not "interesting."
are
of suffering.
full
man. and
feeling of wrath at the plight of
himself with them: on an etched sheet there appear the heads of an old
couple hobbling on
sticks,
its
print,
shown here
in
actual size, reveals his earl) interest in the
exotic dress
<>t
the foreigners
Amsterdam when he
who
lived there
frequented I
le
minuscule work. The
produced
this
Polander,
m hen he was
2
5
v.istk
w
a
master of etching.
is
a
plain that he identified
1630
of about
of studies
man and woman, an aged beggar face.
after his first efforts
The
Thev arouse
Rembrandt had
portrait of his mother, dated 1628.
be-
is
an
extraordinarily penetrating character study, executed by the 22-vear-old artist
Little
a
in
shadow and
network of very air
with a
fine lines
skill far
that capture the play of light,
exceeding that of Callot or of anv Dutch
and trying to
master the technique ol etching; he soon applied
come
it
and Rembrandt's
Within two or three years Rembrandt's smallest
detached
a
in
"Are thev not interesting?" Rembrandt's beggars and
hat he had learned to larger
more complex compositions
and
The refinement of
etcher.
his
technique appears to even greater advan-
tage in a later portrait of his mother, in 1631, in which countless scurrying, hair-thin strokes are used to build I
[owever
as in the total of
up
his
chiaroscuro and texture.
Rembrandt's production during
his
Leiden
years â&#x20AC;&#x201D;delicacy appears side by side with boldness, even coarseness. In his oils of the period, the contrast
cision
with the handle of the brush. In is
may be
seen by comparing the pre-
and polish of Tobit and Anna with the 1629 his etching.
Self-Portrait, scored
Rembrandt's muscular
vividly apparent in another self-portrait of the
same
\
experimented with the use of a blunt instrument, probably
a
style
which he
ear. in
broken or
double-pointed one. exposing the copper beneath the coating with vigorous slashes of
like
those
in a
spontaneous pen drawing. The twin currents
refinement and dash, of the smooth and the rough, emerge
work from
brandt's dictory.
They
was able achieves
the very beginning and are by
indicate instead the
to accomplish in a lifetime
more
tremendous range
in a
in
Rem-
no means contra-
o\ a
young man
few years than main another
\\
ho
artist
Rembrandt made
In the course of his career
impressions from the etchings size
many
by
larger than 21
is
scores,
even hundreds of
The
or smaller, and one.
18
many
inches;
measures only three-
Polander,
Little
brandt's income from the sale of his prints
of
are of postcard
wide and two and one-quarter inches
quarters of an inch
None
of his approximately 290 plates.
Rem-
high.
impossible to determine,
is
although the celebrated "Hundred Guilder Print" apparently was so
was willing
called because an early collector
pression of
Today, when a particularly
it.
brandt etching changes hands, the price in
least
sum
an im-
for
Rem-
impression of a rare
may be
the present buoyant state of the art market
At
to pay that
fine
it
79 of Rembrandt's original plates are
high as $84,000, and
as
will doubtless still
go higher.
in existence. All are
of thin metal, the thickest being only about one twenty-fifth of an inch,
and many of them are worn or have been ruined by the reworking of
no fewer than 75 of the
later hands. Astonishingly,
plates are
owned by
one man, Robert Lee Humber of Greenville. North Carolina,
who
international lawyer,
place
them on
acquired them in 1938
in Paris
a retired
but did not
exhibition for almost 20 years, during which time the
question of their whereabouts continued to mvstifv
Rembrandt
scholars.
Humber permitted his treasure to be exhibited at North Carolina Museum of Art, at once settling all the scholarly In
1956 Mr.
The
flement.
plates are genuine, and, as recent
181), a few are
still
.embrandt's disdain for tradition
the third category of his art
garded drawing primarily
making of
as
The
in his
â&#x20AC;&#x201D;drawing.
etching also manifested
Earlier artists
had
Rembrandt made only
a
itself
as a rule re-
an indispensable preliminary step
a painting or print.
paratory studies.
photographs show (page
in fine condition.
R in
the baf-
in
the
few such pre-
majority of his drawings are self-contained works
of art with an independent
life
of their own. Ordinarily, he
made them
very rapidly, almost journalistically, with the intention of capturing an idea or impression with a
them,
just as a writer
fleeting ideas,
wished.
of
lines.
He
seldom disposed of
although evidently he could have sold them had he
Not long
after
Roger de
Piles,
noisseur.
minimum
does not dispose of the notebooks that contain his
Rembrandt's death, a French
critic
and con-
noted that he considered Rembrandt's drawings
superior to the etchings.
Rembrandt was
a
compulsive draftsman; so
many subjects engaged his mind and eye that he must have been involved in drawing almost daily. The 1,400 surviving sketches probably represent only a fraction of his total output.
That Rembrandt
mav be in his
seen
work:
in
women
birds, vignettes of
landscapes.
as a
draftsman worked primarily to please himself
the great range of subjects that seldom appear elsewhere
and children
random
These he
listed
his declaration of insolvency in
were
signed or dated them
them
in
homelv domestic
;
for his
among
between blank pages
in
his possessions at the
bound
time of
1656). Another indication that
own
as a result,
scenes, animals,
the streets, views of towns and
carefully preserved
books (24 of which were
brandt's drawings
in
activity' in
use
when
is
Rem-
the fact that he almost never
there
was
a revival of interest in
the 19th Century, art historians were hard put to arrange
them
45
in
chronological order, although today the
makes possible
brandt's style
known
Rem-
evolution of
judgments about their
fair
Among
dates.
the perhaps 60 drawings that can almost certainly be placed
summary
Leiden years there are chalk studies of beggars, more
his
in
in style
but fully as powerful as his etchings. At least three self-portraits, drawings
known
of his father and mother, and another
have been produced during both the
this period.
The Reading, must
as
he became expert with
Later,
and the reed pen. which he often used
quill
with a wash of drawings, such
warm brown color. Some as A Woman Sleeping (page
also
conjunction
in
of his most breathtaking
were made with a
55),
brush alone.
R
.embrandt had several pupils
Dou.
is
when he was
early in 1628,
Leiden of
in
Dou became
of particular consequence.
whom
only one, Gerrit
apprenticed to the master
not yet 15 and Rembrandt only 21, and he
rapidly assimilated the highly finished style of Rembrandt's small, early paintings.
However, while
Dou was
content with a dwarfish
his
master
later
went on
become
to
The
elegant stature.
if
a giant.
polished,
enamel-like surfaces of his paintings and his almost microscopic detail
were very popular paid artists in
all
in Leiden,
and ultimately he became one of the best-
of the Netherlands, making a fortune by elaborating on
only one facet of Rembrandt's genius. His vogue, that his paintings consistently
Dou made
little
more
in
compete with Rembrandt's use of chiaro-
effort to
scuro for dramatic
was so great
in fact,
brought higher prices than Rembrandt's.
concentrating instead on details that seem
effects,
the province of a jeweler than a painter. At one point,
was complimented on
his skill in painting a
broom no
he remarked that the broom was unfinished
fingernail,
when he
larger than a
â&#x20AC;&#x201D; he
still
had
work to do on it. Dou's success is typical of that of numerous other Rembrandt pupils in later years; it is doubtful that any of them three days'
understood the great man. but several of them managed to grasp a
really
him and
fraction of It
was
to
make a very good thing of it. Rembrandt should sooner
parted from Leiden, which despite
town.
or later have de-
inevitable that
The
great opportunities
University was
were to be found
Amsterdam. One of the
tan city of
its
in
a provincial
still
the rich, cosmopoli-
factors that precipitated
Rembrandt's
move was undoubtedly a visit made to Leiden around 1629 by one of the most remarkable Dutchmen of the 7th Century, Constantin Huv1
gens,
who
had personal contact with Rembrandt and Jan Lievens and
an account of them
Constantin
luygens
left
autobiography. it
is
impossible not to salute the
man
across
was an exceptionally well-informed connoisseur of
the centuries
statesman,
I
in his
who spent much
of his
life in
art. a
the sen ice of the princes of Or-
ange, and the founder of a most distinguished family.
1
lis
son. Christian,
was the astronomer and mathematician who. among other
scientific
achievements, perfected the pendulum clock and discovered the true nature ol the rings of Saturn. Latin,
corresponded
Balzac and translated
4r,
in
tjtrcc
in
Huygens composed
his
autobiography
French with the writers Corneille and
languages
with
John Donne from English
the philosopher
into
Dutch (he was
Descartes. a
in
Guez de ,\\^\
good poet
in
own
his
Moreover, he was a student of nature, took a most com-
risjht).
mendable
interest
in
women
horse merely by leaping onto
and was said to be able to mount back.
its
—on the outside — the dizzying
He
his
had the courage to climb
also
spire of the Cathedral of Strasbourg. In
the field of painting, he was an accomplished amateur; he might, indeed,
have become a professional, but
had to paint art.
having
in secret.
when he observed
respectively
—were already
soon surpass them,
his
worthv of
—
at first
note.
at
Con-
24 and 23
most famous painters and would
peers of the
word
artist
Rembrandt and Lievens
that
carried weight.
Huvgens found both Lievens and Rembrandt in fact,
subject of
and England and also having studied
traveled in Italv
hand the works of almost everv Netherlandish sequently,
not approve, and he had
his father did
Huvgens knew whereof he wrote on the
to be tireless workers;
he expressed concern about their health. In
this,
mav be
perhaps,
found some refutation of the idea that Rembrandt had only to daub
gested to
Rembrandt and Lievens
to Italy to perfect their
the best of exemplars, but the
Italian paintings
was not at the
make
the customary journev
mentioning Raphael and Michelangelo
art.
were too busy to interrupt
that thev
his
Huvgens sug-
panel to produce a great work; he labored long and hard.
young men were unwilling
their
work. Moreover, thev
could be seen close at hand
said,
time was not very impressive. But particularly is
the finest
the Netherlands. This
in
Dutch hands
accurate: the quantity and quality of Italian art in
brandt, the lack of interest in a trip to Italv
as
to go; thev
of
in the case
He
significant.
Rem-
was not
then concerned with classical models; the anatomically improbable perfection of Michelangelo's figures
human bodv
as
it
actually
order to find his models ly to
keep
his eves
open
it
as
is.
mav even have amused
not as the
classicists
was not necessarv to
him.
He saw
would have
travel to
Rome
it.
the
and
in
but mere-
down the street. Rembrandt had no demanded the superhuman. The human was
he walked
special "pictorial" sense that
The statesman Constantin Huygens, quite enough.
Rembrandt's
first
influential admirer,
dignified sub|ect of this portrait
de Keyser.
R..embrandt's
desire to stay
home did
not shock Huvgens.
He
believed.
but he had a supple mind and did not
feel that a classical style
was
necessarv. Indeed, he gave the highest praise to a notably unclassical
work of Rembrandt's, the Judas Returning the Thirty Pieces of of 1629. To modern tastes there are many other of Rembrandt's ings that have
much
stronger appeal, but to
eye
in
frantic, his
it is
its
it
hands clasped
in
there are no
*-\
mbolic references to another :
paint-
Frederick
Henrv of Orange, Huygens was
leading arbiter of Dutch taste, and he used hi--
station to bring young artists like
Rembrandt before the public e\
knows
impossible to obtain.
failed to turn
of so eminent a
man
as
Huvgens cannot
Rembrandt's eves toward Amsterdam. Moreover.
Huvgens was not an ineffectual dilettante who contented himself merelv with words of praise. In his capacity as an aide to the Prince of Orange, he soon arranged valuable commissions for the early in
1632 moved to Holland's greatest
artist,
who
city to find
late in
Through
painting.
hiske) position as private secretarj to Prince
particularly
supplication for the pardon that he
including a cbittarrone (a kind of lute) and globes of the earth and heavens Curiously,
Silver
depiction of the emotion of Judas, his clothes torn, his
The enthusiastic endorsement have
with an attendant.
before a desk strewn with
ot his favorite subjects
Huvgens the Judas compared
favorably with any painting. Italian or Dutch; he found
outstanding
Shown
sits
the
objects symbolizing the range of his interest-..
with the traditionalists, that history painting was the highest form of art.
Huvgens
is
bv Thomas
1631 or
almost immediate
fame and wealth.
47
e
a
rVcmbrandt was one history of
way
the
journal
Because he usually regarded
a novelist regards the ideas he jots
â&#x20AC;&#x201D;
feelings
art.
his
drawings
down
in his
and
as a purely private record of observations
â&#x20AC;&#x201D; thev are often deceptively simple. Yet the very
spontaneity and his
of the greatest draftsmen in the
impressions
economy with which Rembrandt sketched
make them
dazzling to connoisseurs.
His production of drawings was
About 1,400
brilliant.
probably
at least
reasons tor the
attributed to
an equal
loss,
as prolific as
him
survive,
number have been
aside from
fire,
was
it
and
lost.
The
flood and negligence.
may be divined from the drawings that remain. Rembrandt made relatively few preparatory studies for his paintings and even fewer highly finished "presentation" drawings gilts for friends
were unrelated to
and admirers. Usually his
his
drawings
major works and were, moreover.
unsigned; only about 25 that bear his signature are known.
Thus
it
is
inexperienced collectors, misled
likely that
b) the simplicity of
the drawings and ignorant of their
authorship, discarded them.
Experts estimate the elates of Rembrandt's drawings by
studying
his style
and the way he used
red and black chalk, ink
washes
All of the
and
his favorite
quill or reed pen.
of a
4.S
brush and
drawings on the following pages,
unless otherwise specified, are in actual size, their range-
media:
and quality they reveal the
man who deeply
loved
all life.
and
in
warm humanity
v
/
I
-*-
A /T n cf-/=ki*'o
1
J-lv^
T^\ -L^ J-
IVAdOLv^l O "
Cl
W 111M O
'
,
•'fy~
*_
60
Ill Prodigal Years
At the time of Rembrandt's move to Amsterdam city
1631 or 1632 the
in
was the leading seaport of northern Europe. Merchants and seamen
swarmed along
of a dozen nations
wharves, creating such a polyglot
its
tumult that one observer noted: "It appears
anv particular people but to be
common
not to be the city of
at first
to all." Crates, bales and barrels
overflowed the warehouses: craftsmen plied their trades outside their
wagons and
front doors:
sledges groaned through the streets, and above
hammering and shouting could be heard the sound of innumerable church bells sprinkling sanctity on the sharp dealers below.
the rumbling,
The
citv
was not without
and a theater
â&#x20AC;&#x201D;
cultural interests
but commerce was
its
â&#x20AC;&#x201D;
philosopher Descartes wrote that "everyone ing his
own
interests that
it
had a fledgling university
The
preoccupation. is
so engrossed in further-
could spend the whole of
I
French
visiting
mv
life
there with-
out being noticed bv a soul." In
its
general plan
exchange and town
Amsterdam was fan-shaped, with hall at the
Manv
connected bv smaller ones, forming the framework.
were arched high enough above water
Some were
boats to pass.
move
a sledge over
the harbor, stock
base and three large semicircular canals,
so steep that
them; on the
level
it
of
bridges
its
to permit small-masted
required
immense
exertion to
ascent, teamsters eased the
way bv
down
throwing fat-soaked rags beneath the runners and on the way spread straw to provide a brake. material,
and
brick,
were used
for
The most
fine houses, churches
buildings. Because the citv. like Venice,
reservations
choice of such weighty material and expressed them
when he was happiest of moods
and public
was constructed above
swamp. Dutchmen of Rembrandt's time had Rembrandt made this lovelv
same
bridges were of stone: the
in a
a
huge
about the
popular verse:
silverpoint of Saskia in
the
explained bv his words beneath
The gnat town of Amsterdam
it:
is
drawn
"This
is
when
she was 2
third
day
after
after 1
mv
built
on
piles,
until
wife,
the day the whole place tumbles
years old. the
our betrothal
â&#x20AC;&#x201D; the
then
who
will
pay the
down:
bill?
8thjune. 1633."
The verse was Saskia, 163
3
correct in part: every large building in the citv
supported bv long, heavv beams formed into
trestles
was
in fact
and driven through
61
the estuarial
mud
into solid ground.
enormous weight
tures of
presented a catastrophic
Amsterdam was rels
and
crates of
still
But today many
1
7th Century struc-
stand firmly in place, and no one has yet
bill.
colorful as well as clamorous. Canal boats, carts, bar-
merchandise were painted
red, blue
and green. Bright
ornamental signs hung from the houses to advertise the trades of the occupants; pastry-cooks used pictures of St. Nicholas, the patron saint of children, while surgeons displayed poles painted in red, stripes.
The
patients, the
red indicated that the surgeon
white that he would pull teeth or
that he would,
if
there
was nothing more
white and blue
was prepared set bones,
to bleed his
and the blue
serious to be done, give the
customer a shave.
X
.he sights and sounds of
Amsterdam were
attractive,
but Rembrandt
was not to be deflected into painting the everyday scenes so strongly to his countrymen. his chief
demand
As a voung
artist in
that appealed
search of fortune,
concern was portraiture, and soon his portraits were that patrons reportedly
in
such
had to beseech him to produce them.
Rembrandt's reputation had preceded him from Leiden, and he was regarded, at 25 or 26, as an artist of considerable stature. his arrival
Soon
after
he made a business arrangement with a painter and dealer
named Hendrick van Uvlenburgh, who operated an "academy," part of which could be more accurately described as an art factory where young men made copies of paintings that van Uylenburgh sold. Rembrandt was already too important an
artist
however, he lived and worked
what
services
he performed for
in
to bother with such hack work;
van Uylenburgh's house. Precisely
his landlord are not
known, but
his paint-
ings
were among those routinely copied by van Uylenburgh's appren-
tices
and exported
for sale in the provinces. (In 1637, after the death of
the moderately talented artist Lambert Jacobszoon. his effects were found to contain six copies he had
made
of pictures by Rembrandt. Although
not intended to deceive anyone, such "Rembrandts" caused serious prob-
lems for
Amsterdam's port, seen
in tins
1
7th Century
panoramic engraving, mushroomed when the
itv's
i
shipowners cornered Europe's
"I
it)
s
its
oppressive rule of the
chiel mercantile rival,
northern Netherlands
tin
Antwerp, after
won independence
from the Spanish Manyol Antwerp's Protestants, mi hiding experienced
nun
h. ints
fled to
Amsterdam
to escape the
persecuting zeal oi the Spanish Inquisition, .ind .in
soon helped native residents launch
economic boom
the
hub ol
FETt.-IiH .IriV^^ ;^Vif4Tliru
AWS1
I
urope
that s
made Amsterdam
trade
62
in
Europe and the United
t
States,
i-irfg-i.-iT-Tiinriin ""rtTTnlMn Tiff'.i
LLODAMLM IOIILS
prosperitj to hostile Spain,
its
which continued ÂŤ.
Today, both
\msterdam owed
freight traffic. Ironically,
much
later art experts.
IlKOI'l
IMPOK
more than
there are
few
a
It
who
collectors
works bv the master, when
in fact
believe that they
own
thev
was probably under van Uvlenburgh's roof
some of his
first
commissioned
out and express the inner
life
of his subjects
—
plished technicians as painters
knew
in a
genuine
Rembrandt painted was to seek
his genius
this
the time-worn faces of the old had fascinated
was obliged to compete
that
Although
portraits.
own
old copies.)
was why,
him
—
in
Leiden,
in
Amsterdam he
conventional framework with such accom-
Thomas de Kevser and
Nicolaes
Elias.
These
very well what the public wanted, and thev delivered
a
it:
good likeness, with proper attention to details of dress and ornament, and small attempt to probe beneath the obvious. financial success la;
still
to
Young Rembrandt, with
be won. showed no desire to revise the formu-
he met the Amsterdam portraitists on their
instead,
own ground and
surpassed them. His earliest commissioned works, the Portrait of a Scholar and Nicolaes Ruts, are excellent performances within the acceptlimits.
Thev
are half-length, with
and hands
in full
or almost-full
ed
light.
neutral
Their
backgrounds and
vitality
faces
and strong modeling
are far superior to that in the paintings of the fashionable artists, it is
only
in
comparison with Rembrandt's
may be seen. Both the scholar and er,
later
work
and
that shortcomings
Nicolaes Ruts stare directly
at
the view-
seeking to establish a self-conscious communication with him. to
him know must be
that thev are substantial
Dutch
paid. In the portraiture of his
citizens to
whom
mature years Rembrandt would
continue to produce fine likenesses but would add spiritual depths
dom found
In
in his
work of the
portrait.
of Dr. Tulp (pages 75-77), that quickly lifted
Dutch
The group
institution, arising
table societies, militia
sel-
1630s.
1632 Rembrandt painted a group
public esteem.
let
attention
portrait
was
him
The Anatomy Lesson to the highest level of
a long-established
from the desire of the
and singularly
officers of guilds, chari-
companies and other organizations to decorate
the walls of their meetinghouses with memorials to themselves. Cus-
tomarily a group portrait included at least a half-dozen and sometimes as
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63
*
many
20 or more
as
The commissions were
painter's fee.
whom
individuals, each of
lucrative,
was formidable. Each member of the group,
Dutch democratic
paid a portion of the
but the
problem
artistic
accord with the sturdv
in
expected equal prominence with the others,
spirit,
with the result that the subjects were often arranged
rows or crescents a glance
at a
;
modern
monotonous
in
college vearbook, with
its
pho-
tographs of the members of the debating team or the fencing squad, reveals the difficulty.
In Dr. Tulp,
Rembrandt used
a roughly pvramidal composition.
—evidently not popularitvof the painting—
eight
men he portraved
excellent likenesses, to judge arbitrarily arranged;
are
all,
The
from the
with varying
degrees of involvement, are witnessing an important event, the dissection of a corpse bv Dr. Nicolaas Tulp. a prominent physician of Amsterdam,
and there corpse
is
a unity in the picture that earlier artists had not achieved.
ivory in color,
itself,
attracts the
first
eve because
the largest area of light on the canvas, but beside
Tulp provides a powerful
it
it
the dark figure of Dr.
Save for the crimson of the
contrast.
The
occupies
partially
dissected forearm, the other colors in the painting are cool and tend to-
ward monochrome, adding
further to the sense of unity.
still
extraordinary feature of the painting
by
use of
his
shadow on the
right
his
way the artist
Another
achieved balance;
and the prominence he gives to Dr.
men
Tulp. Rembrandt poises seven
throwing
the
is
against
one without
the least
in
work askew.
T
JLhe resounding success of Dr. Tulp soon brought Rembrandt more
commissions
At
dle.
least
for single portraits than
produced
that several others he
than
— Rembrandt's
artistic difficulties
were narrow and, life-size
fore
double
made
portraits.
—
that of
to.
han-
such paintings
rule,
could
lost.
is
In an-
double portraits of husbands
production was very
a
as
decade have been
in that
other tvpe of portraiture, however
and wives
he could, or perhaps cared
65 such works date from the 1630s. and the probability
not
slight.
less
Practical
popular.
conveniently
Most husband-and-wife
not attempted on a single large canvas
Dutch houses accommodate
portraits
bur
rather
were there-
on two separate
smaller ones. In the hands of journeyman artists these proved unimagina-
with
tive efforts,
or no psychological relationship established be-
little
tween the two fibres. Occasionally, however, an or Rembrandt's caliber could
Rembrandt did
as
1634
in
his wife to
while she lightly plucks slight
his
portraits of
how
makes
little
difference
problem was
to
a
skirt,
man
artist
together,
left
and gestures
as
has just entered the room.
seemingly about to make
window, door or
a
make
a piece ot
it
a
these two
furniture,
it
Dutch house
for a large
double
portrait, the
the painting a coherent whole and not merejusi
as well
usually did no better w
separate canvases. But
lals's
obviously the) belong together.
K two likenesses that could journev
her
I
Marten Soolmans and
or nod to acknowledge the introduction. Even
When there was space in artistic
someone who
at a fold in
paintings are separated In
Frans
tie a pair ot pictures inextricably
in
wife Oopien Coppit. Soolmans stands on the
his
though presenting
64
artist ot
be cut apart with ith
a knife.
The
such portraits than with the
in his life size portrait ot
The Shipbuilder and His
Wife of 163
3,
which
now one
is
Rembrandt captured
ace,
indivisible
â&#x20AC;&#x201D;
shipbuilder, his caliper barely lifted
work by
deliver a letter; her
ment of drama
hand
his wife,
in
making,
is
Rembrandt skill
who was more
far
in-
is
room
door handle. Bv adding the
showing a
is
The
Leiden.
has suddenly entered the
to the accuracy of likeness,
of the time save Hals,
Pal-
of interaction that
from the design he
who
clasps the
still
the double portrait problem, artist
moment
and Anna he had produced
as in the Tobit
terrupted in his
Buckingham
of the adornments of
his subjects in a
to
ele-
beautifully solved
beyond
any
that of
than 20 years his senior.
R.
.embrandt's portraiture was financially the most rewarding facet of
but
his art in the 1630s,
He
continued
hand
represented only a portion of his output.
it
ventured into mythology, tried his
his Biblical paintings,
(late in the
decade) at landscape, and kept on with his non-com-
missioned portraits of himself and of anonymous people discerning eye
A Man
â&#x20AC;&#x201D;types
known only
with a Turban.
Many
as
An
A
who Young
caught
his
Officer or
of his works of the period reflect an un-
usual joyousness, and for this the reason in
Old Jew,
not hard to
is
find.
While
living
van Uylenburgh's house he met the dealer's orphaned cousin, Saskia.
town of Leeuwarden
the daughter of a wealthy burgomaster of the
province of Friesland.
Evidently
he began to court her
in
the
1632,
in
when she was 20 and he 26 he made his first painted portrait of her that The young couple became engaged on June 5, 163 3, and a few days later Rembrandt made an exquisite drawing of Saskia (page 60) in silverpoint, a medium he rarely used, and surely one of the most exacting in ;
year.
all art.
Upon
a specially prepared surface (in this case
drawn with
are
a thin silver stylus; there
one or two slipped
a
no
and the drawing
strokes,
no errors and produced
is
work
but his obvious love for the
white vellum)
lines
possibility of correction
ruined.
is
Rembrandt made
that reveals not only his technical
skill
girl.
Rembrandt and Saskia van Uylenburgh were married
in
1634. She
brought him a large dowry and through her family connections intro-
duced him to
into his
He
life
Amsterdam society that he might not otherwise The demand for his work increased still further, and
levels of
have penetrated.
and
art
came an
ebullience he never before or later displayed.
when he went
indulged his passion for collecting;
to auctions, ac-
cording to Baldinucci, he "bid so high at the outset that no one else
came forward
to bid; and he said that he did this in order to emphasize
the prestige of his profession." In
one
self-portrait (page
10),
he
pic-
tured himself in the dress of an Oriental potentate, with robes of silk
and velvet and a feathered turban, and by casting side of his face
he somewhat narrowed
a patrician look.
dominated European
art in his century.
ment and melodrama of the work,
it
so-called
indicates that he
Soon, when he came ish
on the
right
His rather theatrical pose, the curving rhythm of the
silhouette and the strong chiaroscuro are
this
his light
"peasant" breadth and achieved
its
briefly
all
in
the Baroque style that
While the exuberance, move-
High Baroque
had begun to tend
are absent from
in
that
direction.
under the influence of the flamboyant Flem-
master, Peter Paul Rubens,
Rembrandt was
to plunge into the
High
Baroque with a vengeance.
6>
which Rembrandt repre-
In his Self-Portrait with Saskia (page 11), in
plumed
sents himself as a sword-carrving cavalier in a
hat. lifting a great
beaker of wine with one hand while he clasps his wife around the waist
own momentary
with the other, both the Baroque stvle and his
ment, however, to place
Leiden miller's son. having
of a laughing
man had
It
won fame and
Dutch
in riotous living. In
art the
fortune in the big
image of
city, revels
maiden seated on the
a
well-known meaning:
a
absorp-
would be an unfair judgthe obvious interpretation on all of this: i.e..
tion with material comfort are marked.
lap
referred to the Prodi-
it
Son of the Scriptural parable, in gav company before his downfall and homecoming- Rembrandt was thoroughly familiar with this story and
gal his
later
based one of his most moving paintings on
Indeed, in 1636,
it.
within a year of the Self-Portrait with Saskia, the theme of the Prodigal
Son
first
appeared
etched work.
in his
bv no means inconceivable
It is
Rembrandt had some subconscious feeling he was wandering from his spiritual home and that he would return
that in this prosperous decade
that to
it.
In the 1640s he did return, both sadder
greater art
â&#x20AC;&#x201D;
might not have been so
art that
and wiser, to produce a lofty
if
he had not expe-
rienced this interlude. In any case. Rembrandt's religious feeling never deserted him. even in
the 1630s:
works from
it
would deepen constantly
this
decade
until the
illustrate the point;
end of
may be
it
his
life.
Manx-
well to select one.
some early viewers regarded with unalloyed shock many modern viewers find themselves estheticallv unable
at the outset, that
(and one that
to cope with). This (page 15?).
The
front of the inn to
human
an etching of The Good Samaritan, dated 163
is
injured wayfarer
shown being
is
lifted
from
A
which the Samaritan has taken him.
figures, all of
them
soft-fleshed
3
a horse in
number of
and lumpish, occupy the center of
the composition, and prominent in the right foreground
something
is
worse: an unattractive dog squatting to perform a natural function. Prince Frederick
Henry of Orange, the
subject ol this engraving .1
actually a
Anthon) vanDyck the
was the titular head of
Dutch Republic during much of
Goethe took note of true Christianity
Prince failed to build a
favored decentralization anil also because
also
the) disapproved of his court. Frederick lenrj
's
intimates spent
in
active,
recognized until
an essav almost two centuries later
not passive. it
is
his duty.
â&#x20AC;&#x201D;
is
that
very well for the Samaritan
It is all
put into the world people whose bodies
man
I
it
But
if
the Creator chose to
as a
strong government, parti) because the Dutch
more time gambling,
.Irmkin'j fussing over finer)
is
â&#x20AC;&#x201D;which seems not to have been
to help the wayfarer; in fact,
Rembrandt's career. Although popular militar) leader the
Rembrandt's point
copy of
painting by the great Flemish portraitist
and making
love than worrying about affairs of state
is
not to quarrel with this or be revolted bv
saw
fit
to give
life
to ugly dogs
who
that, either.
of
it
A
it.
Further,
are under the
Christian must have reverence for
all
if
same
man cannot
Orange,
relieving themselves as a Prince of
Greek
short of the
fall
life,
ideal.
the Creator necessity of
quarrel with
even
aspects
if
occasionally disgust him. This at least seems to have been
Rem-
brandt's understanding of Scripture.
R
( did not .embrandt
find
it
Samaritan, to be simultaneously Passion tor Prince Frederick
ment probably obtained
for
I
incongruous, while etching The Good at
work on
Orange
him by
his
By 1633 he had completed two of the from
the Cross.
a series of paintings ot the
lenrv of
a verv
important assign
admirer Constantin Huygens.
series,
an Elevation and
66
Descent
Later an Entombment, a Resurrection and an Ascension
were ordered, and Rembrandt worked on these intermittently vnd
,i
of the decade,
until the
he faced a
In attempting to please the Prince,
Henrv and Huvgens
Frederick
brandt)
end of
that Peter Paul Rubens, then nearing the
felt
was the superior
liant career,
problem. Both
difficult
Rem-
(despite the latter's regard for
his bril-
Rembrandt must have been aware
artist.
of this but did not choose to imitate Rubens' style. In the case of one of
the commissioned paintings, the Descent (page 16), he did rectly
from a Rubens work but considerably altered
He
it.
borrow
di-
both simpli-
composition and boldly moved the central action back into the
fied the
middle ground, an idea quite foreign to the consummate showmanship of Rubens. Moreover, Rembrandt did not to
make his
a realism that verged
the Cross,
constrained, as did Rubens,
feel
figures classically dignified or beautiful but painted
is
on
brutality. Christ, as
is
them with
tenderly lowered from
dead body, without a trace of
a pathetically limp,
might make His muscles appear
He
"artistically" rendered.
contrived in the attitudes of the
men engaged
Rembrandt used himself
model
as the
in their
for the
There
nothing
melancholy task;
who
one
is
that
life
stands on the
ladder holding Christ's arm. In the Elevation the artist also appears
prominently, as the green-garbed soldier erect the dreadfully is
recalled,
itan,
weighted Cross.
If
in
the center
who
struggles to
Rembrandt's view of Christianity
with his capacity for including the dog
in
The Good Samar-
not particularly remarkable that he should have inserted him-
it is
self into these paintings; indeed,
No other
artist
the opposite of vanity
involved here.
is
has entered so personally and subjectively into the stories
Rem-
of the Bible, and in showing himself helping to raise the Cross,
brandt appears to be making a statement frequently heard from the pulpits of today: Christ
is
must share the
it.
guilt for
I n connection to
Huvgens
â&#x20AC;&#x201D;
still
figuratively being crucified,
with the Passion
all
series
and
men
all
Rembrandt wrote seven
letters
of his correspondence that has been preserved.
They
are the usual letters from artist to patron, indicating gratitude and dis-
money (Rembrandt hoped
cussing tain
one phrase of
for
more than he
got), but thev con-
special interest. In a note of 1639,
Rembrandt
ac-
knowledges that he has taken a long time to complete two of the paintings,
adding that
this has
been because he has sought to express "die
meeste ende die naetuereelste beweechgelickheijt." This can be trans-
two ways
lated in
â&#x20AC;&#x201D;
either as "the greatest
and most innate emotion" or
The difference between movement" has occasioned a prolonged and sometimes heated debate among scholars. Many thousands of words as
"the greatest and most natural movement."
"innate emotion" and "natural
have been written
in
learned journals bv students
strongly in the matter; it
it
does, after
known
remains the only
phrase
all,
in
who
concern the
have
very
felt
artist's intent,
which he ever mentioned
and it.
A
convenient means of avoiding the controversy, and possibly the most satisfactory one.
is
to assume that both interpretations of the throat-
clogging
word "beweechgelickheijt" mav be
emotion
is
as
one
critic
frenzied
One
valid. In the
the overwhelming force; in the Resurrection has put
it,
the painting
is
it
Entombment, is
action, or
a "turbulent composition with
baroque movement."
of Rembrandt's letters to
Huvgens expressed the wish
to
make
67
him
another painting "10 feet long and 8 feet high" as a token
a gift of
of appreciation. Huvgens' reply does not survive, but he seems to have
been reluctant to accept
from the dimensions,
for such subjects, there
Rembrandt
this offering.
from what
as well as
good reason
is
is
sent
known
anyway, and
it
of Huvgens' taste
assume that the painting was
to
The Blinding of Samson (pages 34-35). The storv of Samson was a Baroque favorite because of its violence and sensuality, and in the Netherlands of the 1630s
had an added attraction: the Dutch had
it
was an admired
the Jews against Philistine oppression,
The Blinding, by
In
became more
"movement."
special case; in
mind
in
it
was
_
mrrm
made
W
cover I
h
i
v
all
unique glimpse of Rembrandt a class in life
drawing
\\ .is
sketched during the I650sb\ oneofhis students pupil's
I
seems to be criticizing one
le
work
.is
another peers over
li<>
poses on
i
that,
rlu-
small dais
Mthough students sought him out from Riinlir.niilr
w
most
1111K
,iv
mi
<>\
ol
i
rpow
Delilah
as
on
armor gleaming
opening of the over-
in half-light,
but
monstrous
in
forcefully than in a
museum
;
at
it
painting
Rem-
not a
It is
owner would
a private
he be forced to look
too. with a curtain lest
The
pain.
words can do.
everv day. For
no mere melodramatic piece of Grand Guignol. Rem-
— are altogether
apparent.
—
as in the face
of
he wished to make plain that he
If
style,
he surely did
Q
Rembrandt's mythological paintings of the 1630s
many
then
or. for that matter,
during
so.
their own
parably the most beautiful I
lermitage
in
is
the
— he did not — incom-
his entire career
.1
them stayed with Inm
bricfh before striking out
brilliantly illuminated
could handle the highest of High Baroque
paint triiiL;
more dramatic bv Rem-
brandt's pictorial powers and his psychological insight
t
the stan to the close ol his career.
tc.u her that
more
mav hangam-where is
the
terrify-
The Blind-
case.
of them plunges a dagger into Samson's eve. and the
itself far
it
of Huvgens'
Ins
shoulder Others continue sketching
nude w
it.
any
a curtain. In all
blood gushes forth while he writhes speaks for
brandt that
conducting
triumph toward the
One
him.
One
shadow: Delilah, having cut off Samson's
tent while Philistine warriors, their
whelm
com-
on "emo-
falling increasingly
head of Medusa bv Rubens, said to be so
a
was usually kept covered bv
hair, scurries in
never
very likely that The Blinding was a
his sponsor's taste for the appalling.
brandt's clash of light and
'>-..
emphasis
It is
ing boils with horrific action,
^T^
He
attempting to please Huvgens. Rembrandt must have
favorite paintings
ing that
works. Rembrandt
his
but after this painting he slowly
style,
restrained, with his
tion" rather than
figure.
he was inclined to go.
as far as
abandoned the Baroque
pletely
borne
most gruesome of
far the
High Baroque
carried the
fresh
and Samson, the champion of
their struggle with Spain,
memories of
Danae of 1636.
(It
is
now
in
the
Leningrad, which contains one of the greatest collections
of Rembrandts
them amassed by the Empress 18th Century.) Although the meaning
the world, almost
in
Catherine the Great
the late
in
all
of
Danae has been much discussed, it almost certamK refers to the fableoi the Greek king Akrisios, who was warned by an oracle that his daughter. Danae. would give birth to a son who would kill him. 1'luis
ot the
he attempted to keep her ing (pages tered,
into a
is
I
IS-
1
19). the
symbolic of
this.
shower of golden
prophecj was
in a state
I
at
upper
the paint-
in
right, his
hands
fet-
low ever, the god Zeus, transforming himself
rain,
found
his
w
a\
to
Danae and
in
time the
fulfilled.
The nude figure of Danae
model
is
explicit;
however
the lowliest 1
68
of permanent chastity;
weeping cupid
,
it
is
for
which Saskia max well have been the
Rembrandt ever painted and
sexually the most
saved from excessive sensuousness or vulgant)
by
its
Rembrandt
In his composition
artistic strength.
substituted
the shower of golden rain a celestial light that enters from the
washes over the
The
girl.
kev to the
The
Danae
is
stvle of the
the
girl's
work
High Baroque.
again
is
upraised hand, which both welcomes
her arriving lover and separates the planes between her
own
lishment of depth, and
in this
and
figure
Rembrandt was alwavs much concerned with the
the background.
estab-
instance he succeeded with an ease that can
onlv dishearten other men. Moreover, his modeling, his color, his sight
—
the ingredients of a masterwork
all
plating the Danae,
German he
it
Impressionist
—
Max Liebermann. "Whenever but
said. "I feel the desire to paint;
when
see a
I
I
made bv
it
L,uke
his
see a Frans Hals."
Rembrandt.
The
etchings are
realistic,
the romantic he chose to
work
but
during
the
orderlv,
when Rembrandt wished
his first years in
the
in
to express
painted scene — the Stormy A — sums up the nature of work single
in oil.
Landscape of 1638 (pages 102-10.0 this field
from
treat quite different aspects of nature
landscape etchings, which began to appear in quantity onlv
flat,
want
I
mythological works. Rembrandt's landscape paintings are not
numerous, and most of them
1640s.
the
up."
to give
his
in-
Contem-
are breathtaking.
easv to sympathize with a remark
is
tor
and
left
his
Amsterdam.
It
bears utterly
wind-washed Dutch countryside;
no
instead,
in
relation to it
contains
mountains and a shadowed viaduct lying beneath a mottled, menacing
Overwhelmed, almost
skv.
figures that, for
lost in the
foreground, are
their insignificance in
all
brandt's eternal preoccupation: even
when
forces of nature, he could not leave out well, in his rare
still lifes;
human
two
the painting, his subject
tiny reveal
human Rem-
was the dynamic
mankind. (This holds
true, as
figures appear in all of them.)
Rembrandt's production during the 1630s was so vast that onlv surface can be
skimmed
here. In his paintings,
its
drawings and etchings he
turned repeatedly to Saskia as his model. His early studies of her show
voung
a very attractive
ladv.
bv the wholesome standards of the time,
and seemingly the epitome of robust Dutch health, but
Rembrandt could only record what was
true; she
as
time passed
was slowly being worn
down by some unknown illness. In 1635 she bore a son. Rumbartus. who lived for onlv two months. In 1638 Saskia's second babv. Cornelia I,
also died in infancy, as did her third. Cornelia
during the brief
life
of Cornelia
of Saskia with a babv in her lap.
woman
be that of a
However much art in general did
in
Rembrandt made a touching drawing Her face she was then 26 appears to
—
—
—
a
become
mav have
ly
handsome town house
in
Todav
burden, and
was forced to move. upper storv and appearance gO\
it
ins:
it
1
it
both
bidding at auctions
the house
is
a
660 Rembrandt
^w ing
bears. In
eminent made
— preserx
The house became
A new owner added
roof,
still
in
a
1
it
9
— with
a
felt
—
1
|
the Dutch
as a shrine to a
I
7th Centurv
Dutch
architecture.
heavy
—
Rembrandt museum.
It
revered
national artist and as an imposing example of
that his financial suc-
his belief that fine artists are not
the
the
Rembrandt museum
the St. Anthoniesbreestraat in
as in
mere-
craftsmen but fully the equals of rich merchants and important
cials.
a financial
depressed Rembrandt, his
would continue, and perhaps he wished to demonstrate again
his profligate
ol his children died here.
infused with melancholy, and he continued
the Jewish quarter of Amsterdam. Manifestly he cess
1
twice her age. weary and resigned.
to liveinazestful, extravagant stvle. In 1639 he purchased
mortgage
1640. Perhaps
Amsterdam Purchased bv the artist in 639, when he was 3 3, it proved to lie the scene ot personal tragedy: his w jfe and three
I,
Saskia's illness
not
II,
Rembrandt produced many ol his mature in this fashionable town house in
works
offi-
has been increased in
height and there have been changes in the facade, but plainly even in
69
â&#x20AC;&#x201D;
1639
must have been a massive investment and
it
Bv artists
Rembrandt had manv
the late 1630s
Among the
served their apprenticeships with him.
imposing
a very
pupils; at least
sight.
50 Dutch
foremost of the
Amsterdam decade were Govaert Flinck. Jacob Backer and Ferdinand Bol, all verv good men whose paintings still command substantial prices. Rembrandt had so manv pupils, indeed, that according to Houbraken, he was obliged to rent a warehouse to accommodate them. They worked in cubicles while the master wandered from one to another to make his corrections and suggestions. Houbraken is not alwavs accurate first
but he records a master-and-pupil tale that
in his dates,
mav
well belong
to the late 1630s or to the earlv 1640s.
H
.oubraken writes of an incident
people, especiallv into mischief, so
if
it
there are
happened
manv
warehouse. In one of the cu-
in the
voung student was sketching
bicles a
a female model, and "since
them
of
also here.
.
This aroused the curiosity of
.
.
young
together, will sometimes get
the others, who, in order not to be heard, in their socks, one after the other,
looked on through a chink
pened, on a
warm summer's
in
purpose.
Now
The merry
jokes and
model
words which passed
be retold bv the spectators of
easilv
hap-
it
dav. that both the painter and the
stripped so as to be stark naked.
between the two could
made on
the wall
this
comedy.
About the same time there arrived Rembrandt to see what his pupils were doing and, as was his custom, to teach one after the other; and so he came
room where the two naked ones were sitting next to one another." It can safelv be assumed that Rembrandt was a man who was not easily shocked; this mav be deduced merelv from the titles of some of his etchings, without the necessity of reproducing the prints in this volume A Man Making Water and The French Bed. The likeliest supposition is that he was much amused bv the incident described by Houbraken. but that he to the
still
felt,
as a master, the obligation to take
As Houbraken goes on to
"He
say,
through the chink that had been made, heard,
'Now we
naked."
are exactly as
On this he knocked
used by an
artist as a
Adam
support for
Paradise."
Having forced
Adam
and
his pupil
I've play,
|ust able,
you
his
mahlstick
are naked
treatmeni of etchings
The
at
Adam and
arn\c naked
Adam
in
the
subject
is
ot
that
course
we
are also
padded
stick
called out.
you must get out of
his Eve, so that the)
with
stairs,
to put
on
part of their
the street."
about the same time,
Eve
[a
by threats to open the door, he entered,
However amused Rembrandt mav have been coincidence engaged,
other words he also
in Paradise, for
transformed comedy into tragedy, and
when running down
clothes, in order not to
for a while their pranks
hand while painting] and
drove away with blows the pretended
wereonly
action.
among
and Eve
his
to the terror of both. 'But because
spoiled the
watched until
door with
at the
some
at this affair in a
he was
profoundly serious
ranks as one of the finest o\
among
the oldest
l>\
in
Western
all
art,
his
and
among the most famous representations of is the 5>04 engraving by the German Renaissance master Albrccht Diirer. A comparison ot the two works, side by side, reveals much about Renaissance and Baroque viewpoints and much about Rembrandt as man ,\nd artist. At first glance Diirer's engraving may appear to be mere!) decorative, it
70
1
come
failing to
to grips with a storv that
predicament of mankind. fruit
lies,
after
all,
the center of the
at
magnificently proportioned Eve accepts the
from the inconspicuous serpent with apparently no more thought
than a
accepting an hors d'oeuvre. while an equally magnificently
girl
proportioned in a
A
Adam
looks on
somewhat
gesture of protest but to display
its
primary intent was to present two
mindlessly, extending his
musculature.
arm not
true that Diirer's
nudes, perfectly posed, but
classical
more than
It is
was a scholar and theorework may be found all manner of thoughts and symbols that are not apparent to the modern eve. The scholar Erwin Panofskv, in The Life and Art of Albrecht Diirer. points out several of them. The relationship between the mouse and cat in the the engraving contains far
tician as well as a great artist,
lower foreground
perched on
parallels that
Adam
ash to which its
in
in his
between
Adam
clings alludes to the
fig tree
"humors" or "temperaments." The
elk melancholic
random but fall
work
Adam
is
complex
relate to a
with the theory of the
cat denotes choleric cruelty, the
gloom, the rabbit sanguine sensuality and the ox phleg-
matic sluggishness. Altogether Diirer's approach ful
and the parrot
Life,
and the devilish serpent. The ani-
the engraving are not chosen at
philosophical doctrine that connected man's
four
and Eve. The mountain
Tree of
branch symbolizes benevolence and wisdom. Juxtaposed
with these are the forbidden mals
and
that. Diirer
that of a Renaissance intellectual
;
in his subtle
and beauti-
the classical proportions of
and Eve themselves were actually developed with the aid of com-
pass, ruler
and geometry.
Rembrandt, although he admired Diirer (the serpent or dragon etching a
is
closely patterned after a creature engraved
bookman and had
Adam and Eve.
little
bv
Diirer),
in his
was not
use for theoretics. There are no symbols in his
His approach
highly emotional, and his figures in their
is
nakedness bear no resemblance to the Apollo Belvedere or the Medici Venus. faces
They
may be
are only poor mortals, capable of error and of tears. In their
seen a maelstrom of feelings
innocence, boldness and
man's
fate
fear.
The
â&#x20AC;&#x201D; doubt and
tension between
desire, craft
them
hangs here suspended, and Rembrandt does not
is
and
frightening:
call
upon the
viewer to think but to cry out in warning and despair.
Albrecht Diirer:
Adam andEve, 504 1
Rembrandt Adam and Ezr. :
1
6
3
8
71
Tbhe oroup
portrait
is
uniquely Dutch. Alone
Europeans, the Dutch conceived this special
hrought left
it
it
to a peak of excellence in the
an enduring
as
monument
art
among form,
7th Century and
1
to their satisfaction with
The
Prideful
Burghers
themselves. Often called "corporation portraits," these paintings memorialized
and of town councils,
members
of militia companies
officers of guilds,
and
administrators of almshouses, hospitals and other institutions.
included
Occasionally 30 or 40
in a single
were
life-size figures
work, resulting
in a
canvas as colossal
as a billboard.
The two
masters of the corporation portrait were
Frans Hals and Rembrandt. Their approaches to the subject offer a clue to their differences in temperament.
Hals painted three of
his
groups
in convivial
banquet
scenes;
Rembrandt's four known group portraits
was
but destroyed bv
all
Two
ot his
fire
â&#x20AC;&#x201D; struck
a
â&#x20AC;&#x201D; one
more sober
note.
groups attend an anatomy lesson, another
convenes on guild
Amsterdam
the fourth
affairs,
falls
into step
on an
Rembrandt's
gift tor
presen ing
individual likenesses within the
street.
broader context of the group
\\ hether seen roistering or intent
people portrayed
l>\
I
lals
on business, the
and Rembrandt shared an
understandable vanity; since each
member
of a group
portrait appears in this close-up
of Captain Frans Banning Cocq, the central figure of the
guard depleted
paid part of the artist's
tee.
each expected not to be
slighted in the finished work.
(pages 82
t
But a sense of pride also
motivated them; Dutch burghers had
and were not ashamed to glorify
'
Watcb
ei\ ic
the Nigbt
in
it.
a
strong civic spirit
,un
I
>,im
Cocq and Lieutenant
WiUem
Ruytenb
H
Banning
van
atcb). detail
iM
Thomas dc
Kevser: The Anatomy Lesson of Dr. Sebastiaen Egbtrtsz., 1619
EX
"utch painters found an intriguing
theme
in
the
anatomy lessons given by the surgeons' guild of Amsterdam. Sometimes the) were publicly performed, and on these occasions the corpse of an executed criminal
was
dissected before a large audience,
(part ot the proceeds
banquet
of ticket
sales
which paid to attend
went
lor a lavish
for the surgeons).
The Anatomy Lesson ofDr. Sebastiaen Egbertsz. (left) prominent Amsterdam portraitist. Thomas de
In a
is
The Anatomy Lesson of Dr.
Keyser. For
all
composition.
his proficiency
The picture
is
vertical line of the skeleton
The effect has
faces.
static
by the
and balanced by triangles of
more excitement than might be
men examining a statue rather the remains of a human being once clothed in flesh
found than
little
de Kevser produced a
carefully bisected
in a painting
of six
and inhabited bv dreams. In
Rembrandt's Anatomy Lesson of Dr.
affair
of deep
of the observers are involved, in varying decrees, in an
significance.
The effect
is
one of
drama, not of mere reporting, and the composition balanced more subtlv than de Keyser's. Dr. Tulp
wears
his hat as a
mark of his eminent
stature*
is
is
(who
given
such psychological power that he successfullv counterpoises seven men. Yet Rembrandt has not violated the canons ot
Ti/lp (right), all
human
Ti/lp.
good
portraiture: as
may be
seen in the
enlarged detail on the following pages, each face
rendered with stunning
skill.
75
is
1
6 ?2
1 I
-
'
Wg&<
1
I
ns
Hals ranks with Ren
one ofthe triumvirs of] for the palpitating
78
life hi
ndJanVermeeras is no precedent >
-
01 for his
spontaneous brushwork.
In this portrait o\ tin- senior
ami
junior officers of one of the militia companies of the town of
I
laarlem,
a
hidden order underlies the lustiness B\
Frans Hals Assembly of Officers and Subalterns of the Civic Guards of St Hadrian at Haarlem. [633 :
varying
movement and
officers to
expression, Ha's relates the
each other and to the viewer. And. as always, he
achieves a rhythmical unirv: the positions of the heads
suggest the placement of musical notes on a stave, while the upthrust of weapons provides accents that can almost
be heard as well
as seen.
79
t/?\
V
V,
M
ft
lj^
^^^
i^«
B
B in § I'V
•^y
*jn
^^r
^V
w
^^L
"^^^^H
^A
"
is «
' 1 :
yf* 1^ ^^m >^^
r ^fi
f&'Wi
^^|
4'W
^H
fa
^B
^^^J
^^^'^^1
JBTjb
TJ
j||
^fl
'.»
u^
•
cWnjttr
Frans Hals: Lai/y Governors oftbe Old Men's
H
.als lived
to a ripe old age; he
was more than 80 when he died
In his final vears, he produced this painting of the
Men's
Home at Haarlem,
legend,
touch
was
work.
1
1
666.
Lady Governors of the Old
the charitable institution that, according to erroneous
his last refuge.
in this late
in
Home at Haarlem, c. 664
Another mvth holds that the aged
He was.
in fact, still in
the detail on the opposite page shows, his
deepened, and there was a gain, not a
artist
had
supreme command of his
lost his art.
As
power of psychological penetration
loss, in his
matchless ability to use bold,
powerful strokes that simultaneously model form and suggest texture, while creating lively spatial and surface accents. in
Western
It is
a passage that
is
seldom equaled
painting.
81
8
R
.cm Brandt's great Night Watch did not
meet the usual
criteria
of his time. Save lieutenant
and
the center foreground, the
in
who paid
militiamen
of group portraiture
for the captain
not receive the prominence they
hoped
for.
engulfed
which
1
for the painting did
may have
found themselves
Instead, they
an enormous Baroque work,
in
not methodically representational
is
but furiously dramatic
â&#x20AC;&#x201D;
a revolutionary
To their
explosion of color and movement. credit, the
militiamen never recorded an
objection to this extraordinary treatment.
or to the
1
(who paid
6 extraneous figures
nothing) added by Rembrandt
to heighten
the sense of drama, or even to such details as those
unorthodox
following pages. ,i
shown on
The scurrying
the
little girl
white bird with bluish-grey
feathers
at
scarcely merits a
her waist
proper place
among
bold soldiers, but she
echoes Rembrandt's central accord
and yellow
colors.
vcllow
dad
urchin
musket close to the ear
next to her. firing a of the
of red
The mischievous lieutenant,
seemed improper
would
also
to a lesser artist
.
actually the flame of the blast blends into
the plumes of the officer's
li.it
While
there
were no quarrels with Rembrandt's masterpie< c durin for filer
it
remained
i
that the artist failure,
Ins lifetime,
i
pedants to on< lude, incxplicahK
one
82
had produced
that
pro
ipitated his downfall
,
The Company of Captain
From Banning Coca and Lieutenant Wittem
van Ruytenburcb (Niebt
1 \
atcb)
I
642
-fy*
*++-
jjK:-
i
'% ..^S^v ^m
W速
^-"----^
t54
m< &&.
'^Z&g-l'-
**&&
m^-
A
.nihV/v inatomy Lesson ofDi Tulp JO years earlier,
Rembrandi made serve his
Guild
I
own
the requirements of group portraiture
purposes
in
The Syndh of the Drapers'
acking so dramatic
86
j
.1
"prop"
.is
a
corpse, he
sought another means of creating an
found
it
bv involving the spectator
cloth merchants appear
deliberations to focus
air
in
momentarily
tlu-ir
attention
of tension and
the picture: the to interrupt their
upon the entering
Tbe Syndics of tbe Drapers' Guild.
viewer. Soon,
it is
sensed, thev will turn back to their
work; but the moment of drama
What is most remarkable
is
had no reason to
established.
in this painting,
Rembrandt's probing analysis of his
subjects.
however,
inclination is
While he
a
was
flatter
businessmen,
to esteem
shrewd appraisal of men
all his
1
66
his natural
fellow men.
who will
The
result
is
acquit themselves
with great respect for the guilder, but with honor
87
as
welL
88
IV Rembrandt's Holland
1640 Rembrandt was 34 and. bv the standards of
In
his time,
proaching middle age. Both the round-numbered vear and the
he was about to enter must have prompted him
life self,
and
to take stock of
his Self-Portrait of that year (page 12) hints at the
mind. There
his
something searching and
is
He has come a long; wav trom admired,
wealth, but in his eves
dane success and Unlike manv
is
now
Leiden, and
is
of
him-
working
of
faintly quizzical in his look. in
Amsterdam he
is
much
men
of authority and
a suggestion that he has seen
enough of mun-
house and mingles with
lives in a great
was apstag;e
becoming disenchanted.
Rembrandt was never
artists.
be examined
society; his art will
in
to
become
alienated from
vain for extremes of bitterness or
indignation. Occasionally he produced satirical works, such as his small etching; of a
was simply
monk and a peasant woman fornicating; in a field, but this comment on human behavior rather than an attack on the
a
Catholic Church.
He
also satirized art criticism in a drawing; in
which
a
pundit with donkey's ears discourses pompously on a picture before a gullible
crowd while
a
man
foreground scatolog;icallv expresses
in the
(and Rembrandt's) opinion of the
comments. In
similar
his
manv
critic.
Few
studies of tramps,
beggars and peddlers (pages 146-147), Rembrandt his
have
artists
failed to
peasants, cripples,
made
it
economic
privilege.
Yet there
is
Nevertheless,
Rembrandt's son
sat for this
work, research indicates that it
when
in
rich
Once
1965 for $2,234,000.
and
socially
more at ease with hi^ family and a few The well-to-do Dutchman of the 7th Century, as a rule. thought religion and money seriously of only two things but not in the way Rembrandt thought of them. The stern, implacable God of the Cal-
values were not his; he was
1
vinists
â&#x20AC;&#x201D;
was not credible to him; he never painted
shunned apocalyptic themes. His was the Portrait of a bov. (usually called Portrait of tbe Artist's c.
1653-1654
Son Titus
it.
Rembrandt did not remain comfortable prominent whose portraits he painted. Their
appears that
â&#x20AC;&#x201D;
acquired for a shilling, the picture
was sold
among the
it
friends.
was painted Titus was older
than the bov shown.
where
no evidence that he wished
to change his world radically or that he longed to escape
Despite the recent romantic belief
clear
sympathies lav and. bv indirection, that he hated oppression and the
callousness of
that
his
make
New
Testament.
The
letter-strict
a Last
Judgment, and he
loving;. torg;iving
morality
God
of the
of the Calvinists was also
I
foreign to him.
He
did not ridicule
it:
he ignored
it.
S^
As
money. Rembrandt had
for
of what could be done with for his wife
and on objects of
a healthy appreciation of
He
and rare
art
curiosities for himself.
its
own
eminent male preoccupation, even exceeding sex
A
1
Among
however, the accumulation of
not as a means to an end but for
ers found.
or rather
it,
spent freely on clothing and jewels
contemporaries,
his business-oriented
money
it.
sake was the pre-
â&#x20AC;&#x201D; or so foreign observ-
7th Century English ambassador to the
Dutch Republic.
"One meets pleasant voung gallants, but no mad lovers." When a Dutchman sought diversion from business affairs he was inclined to look for it in drink rather than in women; it was simpler. As a result of this foreigners thought Dutchwomen were in a continual state of frustration, and when thev were presented with opportunities thev took full advantage of them. "To make love like a Dutchwoman" was a common saying in Paris. To be sure, male frigidity was by no means a national affliction, but it does appear that among William Temple, noted that
Sir
â&#x20AC;&#x201D;
â&#x20AC;&#x201D;
the bourgeois and upper classes, at early into in
The
brandt.
was not a
.he major fortunes of the
in shipping. Fullv half of
built in
'
"
in all,
.
Europe's trade was carried
'ML'"'
English
1
,000 tons.
number considerably
a
flags, plied
woman was
in
the wealth of
7th Century
I
Amsterdam found expression like
the one
in this
the
freighters,
More
than 2,000 merchant ships
The
under the French or
efficiency of the
made
it
Dutch and difficult for
foreign shipowners to compete.
Dutch merchantmen, moreover, were
in allegories
engraving
Dutch
from the Baltic and boast-
larger than that
the world's ports.
in
iron
the beggarly wages paid to their captains and crews Local pride
Rem-
a necessity to him;
Dutch during Rembrandt's time were made
Amsterdam of wood and
ing a capacity of as high as M
A
fairly
it.
X manv
situation that could have appealed to
intimate companionship of a
he could not do without
U
marriages degenerated
frequent and fanatical housecleanings. while husbands pursued the
guilder. Again, this
I K
least,
unimpassioned arrangements. Wives exhausted their energies
In
1639 Spain, trying to reclaim
its
easily converted into warships.
authority over the northern Nether-
frontispiece lor a history of the city
published as a
queen
in
1
66
*
Amsterdam
regally accepting
figures thai
is
Liitts
personified
from
symbolize lour continents; the
woman
with the parrot represents Asia, the
Moor M
ith
the
queen, Europe; rolls i
<
aim
\lriea
,
Hollander. Although his force was outnumbered,
the kneeling
Indian with two
of tobacco the Americas is
The bearded
Neptune, the
This armada
was met by about two dozen ships under Admiral Maarten Tromp. a
drive the I,
mi<\ the
harai tei at low er right
Roman god
lands, sent several score vessels into the English Channel.
there. in
enemy
into the English roadstead near
to
Dover and pin them
For a month, thousands of Dutch shipwrights worked frantically
the yards along the rivers Scheldt.
men
Tromp managed
tor war,
Maas and
Ij.
fitting
out merchant-
and thev were able to increase Tromp's small
fleet
to 70
ol the sea. s\ robotizing to
\mstcrdamers the oeeans on which flung trading
empire depended
their far-
combat
vessels.
With
these the
Dutch demolished the Spaniards; only
10 of their badly battered ships survived. sailed
Tromp. the story goes, then
through the Channel with a broom lashed to
his
masthead
in
token
of his boast that he could sweep the seas clean. In addition to shipping,
another source of Dutch riches stemmed from
the far-flung ventures of the East and the East India
ernment
at
The
I
and
90
the
and equipment
a fleet of
India Companies. In effect.
than the weak central go\
[ague; through the pooling of the funds invested bj
many stockholders, capital
West
Company swung more weight
some fO
Company enabling ships.
its
concentrated the nation's resources of it
to maintain an
army of $0,000 men
These heavily armed vessels rounded the
Cape of Good Hope and cruised the Indian Ocean, the Java Sea and the Pacific as far north as Formosa and Japan, establishing fortified outposts of islands and coastal enclaves.
in scores
Dutch, conservative and cautious
when
long chances
men and rival
large profits
The
risks
were great but the
other matters, were willing to take
in
might be made. Although thousands of
countless ships were lost to typhoons, tropical diseases, and
adventurers from Portugal and England, the East Indiamen brought
home
fabulous cargoes of
By 1650
indigo and spices.
rice,
Com-
the
pany's stock certificates were returning 500 per cent a year, and
it
was
with complete justification that the statesman-poet Constantin Huvgens could write:
How com' st tkou, golden swamp, by the abundance of heaven; Warehouse of East and West,
Two
all
water and all street.
Venices in one, where do thy ramparts end?
Dutch burghers were so
made
ing specially
had
earth, although thev often
the Chinese potters.
and Biblical or decorations
affluent that they
— and
difficulty in
The Dutch
historical scenes
thought nothing of order-
Canton on the opposite
porcelain from
making
side of the
their orders clear to
preferred floral patterns, coats of arms
— the
plates
were sometimes used
continually admonished the
Oriental
for wall
craftsmen to
"paint no dragons or other animals" and "avoid your Chinese fantasies."
However, the potters
persisted in producing Biblical heroes in Chinese
robes and hats, and angels with
almond
eyes.
One
wealthy Dutch house-
wife, wishing to replace a dinner service, sent a chipped
cup to China
as
a pattern and in time received her order, fulfilled with absolute fidelity.
Every item had an identical nick
West
In the Americas, the
traders in the East but
still
in
it.
India
Company
fared less well than the
extracted fortunes in
mahogany and sugar
from the coasts of Brazil and Guiana and from the Caribbean Valuable
furs
—
Amsterdam, the ware River
especially beaver capital of a
and otter
Dutch colony
to the Connecticut
and
islands.
—were taken out from New that extended
as far inland as
from the Dela-
Albany. In 1667, two
Still
thriving todav. the manufacture of
Dutch
tiles
was at
subjects as a
years before Rembrandt's death, the this colony,
New
New York — in coast.
The
Dutch would be compelled
Netherlands, to the English
— who
to cede
would rename
it
exchange for Surinam, a jungle on the South American
loss of
New it
Netherlands was probably inevitable, but the it
longer
if
they had administered
with an eye for quick
it
skillfully
profit, failed to build
a strong colonial population and had small idea of
ice-skating.
its
up
potential.
mopping. Thev were so households that
is
no record that Rembrandt ever invested a guilder
or East India Companies. in the objects
in
brought
1656
kets, a "great
lists
However,
as
an
artist
home by seafarers. The
the
after Indian miniatures of the
like
delicate
Mogul
powerful chiaroscuro
West
bamboo wind made at least 20
school, using subtle, al-
washes on Japanese paper.
most European maritime nations
in
them
subordinating such
East Indian bowls, a Japanese helmet, Chinese bas-
also
frequcntlv
interestinglv. never used
he was much interested
He
notablv Jan
included them in their domestic scenes.
quantity" of shells and marine specimens,
most Oriental pen strokes and
The Dutch,
in
common in Dutch
manv artists,
inventory of his possessions
instruments and weapons from the Near East.
drawings
made into
Vermeerand Pieterde Hoogh.
details to his
.here
Rembrandt's
Holland, the tiles served as built-in fireplace decorations and were also
in his interior settings,
X
in
bov rolling a hoop and a man Found in almost even- home in
Rembrandt,
made
peak
baseboards to protect the walls during
Dutch might have retained Instead, they exploited
its
time. Often thev depicted such lighthearted
Rembrandt's day.
91
effect s.
5
were heavilv engaged
in the slave trade.
Negroes a vear
florins a
30
at
Thev bought
manv
as
as
1
5,000
head on the African coast of Angola and
them in the Americas at 300 to 500 a head. Devout, Bible-reading Dutch captains saw no immorality in the practice and even imagined that
sold
God would
aid
them
When
in adversity.
their chained cargoes, thev
would
tention of the Deitv to the
economic
however, was prohibited
how managed
in
epidemics broke out
muskets into the
fire
losses thev
were
Dutch
freed.
Rembrandt made
and mummers, perhaps during a pageant held
Hague to and
who
But
exotic.
ment of
a
if
Negro some-
pen-and-wash drawings of Negro musi1638
in
The
at
celebrate the marriage of a sister of the Princess of Orange. In
these drawings his attention ful
the at-
he was automatically
soil
cians
several
among
sustaining. Slavery,
the United Provinces, and
to gain the sanctuary of
air to call
was
fixed, as
it
frequently was, on the color-
one painting of Negroes,
his
European hands,
their treatment at
if
not an outright indict-
two
reveals
men
dignified
obviously have Rembrandt's respect and svmpathv.
At a time when the Netherlands was regarded
as the richest nation in
Europe, the great prosperity of the upper classes did not descend to the lower. Peasants and urban laborers endured poverty and hardship
com-
parable to that in England a century later at the start of the Industrial
By 1640 Rembrandt's
Revolution.
workers, most of whom lived
tile
In a traffic that
was
little
birthplace of Leiden had 20,000 tex-
huts furnished onlv with straw
in
from the slave
different
work
in the mills; in
one decade, Leiden alone imported 4,000 of
them, procured from Liege by one businessman.
was
bv
scarcely pricked
officials
in
whose
a
"espite their
cal rebellions,
The Dutch 1646
in
it
work more than 14 hours
in their
windows, "for
may
hearts the sight
a day. In
that
Am-
must not over-
fear of
saddening
arouse covetous instincts."
penury and their occasional unsuccessful
Dutch workers remained
conscience
was decreed
ruled that bakers of fancv cakes
decorate the wares displayed
poor people
although
this practice,
children should not be forced to
sterdam, city
were
Germany
"recruited" from the highways and orphanages of Flanders and to
litter.
trade, children
— so
strikes
foreigners noted
and
lo-
— remark-
ably good-humored. Seemingly unaffected by the puritanical morality of Although painting was tlu-.m form most
popular «
iih ilu
1
iti
1
hobb)
amateur artists was glass engraving iih h
roemcr,
Rotterdam I
le
<>r v,
from
Jacques <
allot,
beautiful!) that
piece
rhis
li\
he
but he executed it is
now
tin-
prized as a
ins<
ribed
.1
name and
then signed his \l
\
who
could be readily understood by Rembrandt, the miller's son
want to give
an
(
.1
Idei
hie>
This
is
his station."
my mind
and
who
diversion, then
not to imply that the
shops
his
spent
little at
it is
said to
is
not honor
museum
ement,
artist
was
have remarked. "If I
seek, but
a frequenter of the
biographer Houbraken makes
work so
couplet below the
two figures praising his own a< exec ution
.1
the French etcher
rhe hobbyist was so proud ol the
result thai
men
who
would not "keep
1
incised b)
to.duel beneai
prim
.1
.is
the two irritable
his motil
gnomes preparing arboi
w
the upper classes, they were sturdy brawlers and drinkers, the sort of
I
freedom."
mcr< hant and tax collector
flax
borrowed
ine goblet,
ol
intellectuals,
taverns"
Among
a
I
lolland gin-
point of recording that "he
— or that he did not also seek out the companj
the latter were a
number
oi
of Protestant theologians.
including Jan Cornelis Sylvius, Cornelis Claesz Anslo and Jan Uytenbogaert, too. with
whose
le was on good terms. community who lived near
portraits he etched or painted.
members
of the well-to-do Jewish
I
the date ol I
659
the St \t
Anthonicsbrccstr.i.n this time,
intolerance
was
where
most of the Jews leveled
primanK
at
his
m (
house stood. the Netherlands
'athohes
— where
religious
were Spanish and Portu-
guese Jews. or'Sephardim, refugees from persecution
in
the
Iberian
Manv.
peninsula.
like
Rembrandt's friend Menasseh ben
were men of considerable learning and
who
north-European Jews, or Ashkenazim, that part of the continent
Rembrandt appears to have had
a
wide
the Sephardim. including scholars with
Testament
Jews
—
in friendly
at least
for the love of
had
and whose cultural
Israel, a writer,
There were
sensitivity.
fled
among
of acquaintances
circle
in
was somewhat lower.
level
whom
some
also
from countries
he could discuss the Old
and advanced terms. Through
his contacts
with
35 of his portraits of them survive, most probablv painted it
on commission
rather than
vinced that these
men
Testament from
whom
— Rembrandt
became conOld
physically resembled the great figures of the
thev were descended, and that idealized Renais-
sance versions of Jewish heroes were incorrect. This conviction caused
him
make some
to
example,
is
of his rare deviations from Biblical
described in the
Old Testament
soothe the half-mad King Saul (pages 174-175), the for
quarter
VJo
David a voung man
—who was not
—
known about Rembrandt
little is
tured about his attitude toward
he had
world
frail
as
a
and dark-haired.
much
that not
Amsterdam
can be ven-
else
society in general except that
which material success was equated with
habits he seems to have been an abstemious
The Dutch, although
ments.
harp to
used
enthusiasm for a conformist and essentially hypocritical
little
in
his
artist
presumably from the Amsterdam Jewish
not handsome, but
fair,
David, for
and handsome; how-
as fair
Rembrandt's magnificent painting of David playing
ever, in
model
text.
execrable cooks,
visitors
were prodigious
man
virtue. In his personal
of fairly simple require-
from abroad found them to be
eaters.
Yet Rembrandt, according to
Houbraken, "lived but simply, often content with some bread and cheese or a pickled herring as his whole meal." His round face suggests that he
was
also
plump
in
body;
his full-length self-portrait in Oriental
costume (page 10) would seem to confirm the notion. However, he mav well have chosen to exaggerate his girth in that painting for artistic rea-
drawn sketch of him-
sons. In another full-length portrait, a powerfully self in
studio
the drawing
attire,
he also appears to be rotund. But the season
was made
is
unknown;
was undoubtedly swaddled
observe that "the true
world.
.
.
.
He
was made
in winter.
in
which
Rembrandt
of clothing to protect himself from
in layers
the penetrating cold and damp. later to
if it
The British writer Oliver Goldsmith was Dutchman cuts the strangest figure in the
wears no coat but seven waistcoats and nine pairs of
trousers, so that his
haunches
somewhere under
start
The
his armpits."
One bv-product of the craze for tulips that inexplicably swept the 1
630s was
this
Dutch nation
in
the
resplendent tulip vase
Probablv fashioned for a
rich burgher,
it is
a
Delftw are version of a Chinese pagoda Fach
probability
is
that
Rembrandt was
a stocky rather than a fleshy
The tremendous energy he expended
in his
work does not
man.
coincide with
for
its
10 compartments, stacked
elaborate
Rembrandt's personality,
at least as
it
emerges from the scanty
art,
it
appears that he did not suffer
and that he detested interruptions. Baldinucci reports
second hand) that he was "different
in his
people as regards self-control." and that
have granted an audience to the
i*.
like
an
actually a separate
coveted and so costly were some of the bulbs that a tine
evidence to be found outside his fools gladly
wedding cake.
\ase holding four blossoms. But so rare, so
the idea of flabbiness.
As
of
first
(at
mental make-up from other
when he worked "he would
monarch
in
the world,
house could be purchased for the
price of onlv three exotic specimens, kir.ii's
stock
all
of the
tiers
of this vase.
not
who would
have had to return and return again until he had found him no longer
engaged upon the work." Rembrandt could also be abrupt
in
and a
ransom would have beep needed to
dealing with
9>
In
clients.
1654 he became involved
who had
merchant. Diego Andrada.
and given Rembrandt a 75-guilder deposit for he decided that
result,
painting be reworked
Andrada.
agreed that
it
He
settled,
but
it
a proper likeness and asked that the
would, he
Guild of
There
auction.
no record of
is
Rembrandt was not
Of
outlook on
his
work became not melancholv but flecting the
mood
of a
they
if
Furthermore,
man who
life
richer,
how
if
the matter was
bowing and
the verge scraping.
only a small insight into the
far greater relevance are the tragedies in
world that tempered
it.
when he was on
time
at a
in the habit of
Ihe .he dispute with Senhor Andrada provides artist.
Luke, and
St.
he would change
likeness,
does appear that even
of bankruptcv.
be willing to submit the work
said,
arrangement. Rembrandt would keep the paint-
like that
sell it at
girl
Andrada saw the
monev be returned. Rembrandt told not much care for the opinions of any
his fellow artists of the
was a poor
Andrada did not ing and
he did
in effect, that
committee of
When
it.
or that his
Portuguese merchant. to a
was not
it
with a Portuguese
in a dispute
ordered a portrait of a voung
and
art
Rembrandt's private
during the
1
640s. His
deeper and more restrained,
re-
has heard '"Time's winged chariot hurry-
ing near." In the seven vears between 1635 and 1642. death struck at his
family
He
six times.
lost his three infant children, his
van Uvlenburgh.
favorite sister-in-law. Titia
Rembrandt's household: he named
visitor in
born the year she died,
With extraordinary and of her during her exactly as he
mous and
his
Rembrandt made an etching
rendering her sunken, death-haunted eves
own. and
a beautiful posthu-
though to obliterate the memory of her suffering
for this
he used the most precious surface he could
find,
and costly mahogany panel.
This long siege of
illnesses
and deaths cannot have
impact on Rembrandt, although
its
came the worst of
saw them. The following vear he made
portrait of her. as
a rare
had been a frequent
few weeks before her 30th birthday.
painful objectivity
final illness,
his
onlv surviving son Titus,
her honor. Finally, in 1642.
in
calamities, the death of Saskia. a
all
who
his
mother and
against the prodigal stvle of
life
his increasing
of his
first
failed to
have had
age and his reaction
vears in
Amsterdam must
have affected him as well. Nonetheless, he did not remain depressed.
About
a vear after Saskia's death
he was able to produce a drawing called
The Widower, a delightfullv humorous work that shows a man attempting to spoon-feed an infant with the frustration of a plasterer trying to a hole in a wall that sometimes clamps shut and at other times
fill
some
about. Although brandt's
own
scholars relate The
situation, the
drawing
reason to suppose that the infant
drawing his
work \
is
that
reveals a
it
in cruel
man
is
is
Widower
moves
directly to
not a self-portrait, and there
Titus.
What
is
significant
Remis
no
about the
with the spiritual strength to resume
circumstances
few days before her death. Saskia made
kindliest of feelings
a will,
no doubt with the
toward her husband, that would
great difficulty. According to the
common
later
cause him
law. half of their joint estate
belonged to Rembrandt, while Saskia was permitted to dispose of her half as
she saw
tit
She
receive the interest
04
left
from
it
it
to Titus, stipulating that her until Titus
husband should
married or came of age In drawing
up the cess
she could not have foreseen that Rembrandt's financial suc-
will,
would not continue. Thus, perhaps assuming
that her
husband would
never have trouble providing for their bov. Saskia added a further stipulation:
if
Rembrandt were
Not long
widow
terical allv
woman
in
his
he to care for an infant? Accordinglv. he hired a
named Geertghe
nurse the
it
The Widower: with no
light of in
how was
would go not
would go the interest. Rembrandt was confronted with the and with
sisters,
after Saskia's death.
problem he made household,
to remarrv. her half of the estate
one of her
to Titus but to
who was
Dircx.
probablv of peasant stock, and
of a trumpeter. Apparentlv she had a difficult and even hvs-
temperament. Rembrandt made two drawings of a
woman
gener-
thought to be Geertghe. In one. she appears heaw-faced. with an
abstracted look; in the other, her back
turned to the
is
artist.
Geertghe probablv entered Rembrandt's household around 1642; but she became a burden to him. and after seven vears he dismissed her. She
then brought a lawsuit against him. maintaining that he had promised to
marrv her and had given her a ring denied the allegation. In
he done
so.
fact,
token of
in
he was
in
his intent.
Rembrandt
Had
no position to remarrv.
he would have been obliged, under the terms of Saskia's
to forfeit the
Although the income was not
large.
will.
voung son's inheritance. Rembrandt was alreadv in straitened
income he was receiving from
his
circumstances and needed everv guilder he could get. Despite his denial of anv promise to Geertghe. the Dutch court was unconvinced, and he
was ordered to pav 200 guilders
a vear for her support. In
town of Gouda;
confined to a house of correction in the
1650 she was there
is
good
reason to believe that Rembrandt was responsible for her commitment.
him from
In anv event, this circumstance did not free
his obligation.
He
continued to pav for her maintenance until her release in 1655.
This self-portrait of Rembrandt
kJome
time
in
the
mid-1 640s Rembrandt had brought
woman named Hendrickje The daughter of a soldier from
household a second
him
as a
maid.
Stoffels.
From what mav be
discerned
in
served
first
temperament from
Rembrandt's manv drawings
and paintings of Hendrickje. she was a gentle, simple, warm-hearted
dentlv her relationship to
til
soul,
him
model
to wife in
Rembrandt verv soon changed from all
still
in
references to his craft characterizations
â&#x20AC;&#x201D;
a
â&#x20AC;&#x201D; rare new
(The
artist,
Cornelia
II.
gave that
name
series
of self-portraits he
made during his
last
decades.
her earlv twenties. Hendrickje
who died in infancy, and two vears later who survived both Rembrandt and herself. I
and
to Hendrickje's daughter as well.)
Bv 1648 Rembrandt had more or less reassessed his world and his The etching he made of himself at that time reveals a man who is not melancholv. but who knows misfortune: not grim, but charged with an awesome determination. In his personal life he was sustained bv the
art.
presence of Hendrickje and of Titus,
and
as
other
an
artist
in
whom
he took immense delight,
he was about to enter a new realm of creation that
men have been
work, the
in this
beginning of the
that of
unshaken bv the deaths of Saskia's children Cornelia
in earlier self-
searching analysis
of personality appears
bore him an illegitimate child, she bore another, a daughter,
42 shows
etching needle. Along with the practical
but name, and she remained with him un-
her death at 37 in 1663. While
at
window, holding an
at his studio
be the companion of an increasinglv troubled man. Evi-
ideallv suited to
servant to
his
Bredevoort, she was 20
vears vounger than the artist and of a far different
Geertghe.
who
into
few-
privileged to discover.
95
D.utchmen of the landscape pictures. sensitiye.
own
Many thousands of these works,
simple and
connoisseurs.
So
7th Century were extremeh' fond of
1
of charm,
full
great
was the yogue
time that landscape,
into sub-specialties.
still
suryrve to delight
for
them
itself a specialty,
Some artists
in their
was diyided
dealt only in scenes of
canals and dunes; others concentrated
Landscapes:
Real and
Romantic
on town
panoramas, marine views, woods, winter pictures or moonlit ones.
Rembrandt's involvement with landscape
lasted less
than 20 years, from his early 30s to his late 40s. His
outdoor scenes constitute total production, yet
little
more than
a tenth of his
they reveal the same wide-ranging
quality that marks his
work
in
other
fields.
Some
of
Rembrandt's landscapes are romantic and visionary; others are wholly
With
realistic.
rare exceptions, he used the
to express his
medium
more imaginative concepts of
of
paint
oil
He
nature.
reserved his realism in landscapes almost entirely for This pen and
etchings and drawings. Even here, however, he developed a tree,
"shorthand" style that went beyond mere
reproduction.
Not only
faithful
did he reduce the complexities of
wash draw
combines Rembrandt's for the
dramatic with
appreciation ot the
.1
nig c.irh rl.ur
tresh
homeh
charm of his native countryside.
the visible scene, but, through a process of exquisite selection, he
emphasized what was important
scene, providing the viewer with exactly the material,
none
other, that enables
the artist's world.
96
him
to follow
The passing storm
in that
Rembrandt
hast\
and
\
is
people with deliberate M\d affectionate precision
into
drawn w
ith
lolence. the cottages and
97
Six's Bridge,
164?
<a*
View over the Ij from
o
"n
enlarged, Ij
c.
Rembrandt's excursions into the open country around
Amsterdam he river
the Diemerdijk,
is
a
frequently followed the waterways. Above, slightly
drawing of the early
1
650s, showing the expanse of the
and the small town of Spaarndam on the
horizon divides the picture almost exactly effective device for
landscape.
With
far shore.
in half,
emphasizing the overpowering
his
economy of line. Rembrandt
The
an especially flatness of the
has only to note
the bending of a few reeds in the foreground to evoke the clean
breeze that washes over
all.
Bv
reiving
on blank
areas of his paper
and a few sensitively placed accents, he suggests the lightness of the air,
while bv leaving untouched the whiteness of the surfaces of a
few crude boards, he
The etching at famous
instantly
summons up
slightly
reduced from
left,
Six's Bridge,
hour or two while
the idea of sunlight. its
actual size,
visiting the
the
country estate of his friend Jan
Here again the artist's extraordinary economy of means These
is
which Rembrandt purportedly produced
are not particular but generic trees,
is
in
an
Six.
apparent.
and the bare rigging of the
boat responds not to any one meteorological condition of the day but to the eternal winds that Shakespeare called "viewless."
99
II
1
6 50- 1653
The Windmill, 1641 '
o
y
The
100
1
Omul. 1645
A,
.t first
glance, these three scenes
summing-up of the most countryside,
still
familiar to travelers in
windmill, a low-lying village wintertime. Yet each in
its
Rembrandt's complexity
Windmill (opposite, study
seem no more than a
typical aspects of the
top)
in personality;
standing guard over
is
Dutch
Holland today: a
vista, a placid
farm
in
own way says something about
as
an
artist.
His etching of The
no mere representation but a
the mill becomes a sturdy sentinel its
owner's fortunes.
The etching
more than a simple view of a hamlet near Amsterdam called The Omval; but Rembrandt has hidden two lovers in the dark recesses of below
it is
ostensibly no
the willow at
left,
and
in
the prominence given the figure
on the riverbank he makes
bond between man and
a point
He reverts to this theme in the work
that
is
an exception anions
for several reasons. It
is
about the inexorable
nature.
Winter Scene above, his
one of Rembrandt's
rare ventures
into landscape realism in a painting moreover, he in tinv
dimensions
â&#x20AC;&#x201D;
it is
shown
actual size
when he was producing canvases and, unlike most of his
a
painted landscapes
fully
â&#x20AC;&#x201D;
in a
50 times
more ambitious
made
it
period
as large;
landscapes,
it 1^
signed and dated. In the self-confidence of his maturity,
Rembrandt seemed
to be offering this
testimony of his abilitv to break with
little
his
work
own
as
artistic past
whenever he so chose.
101
w,
'hen Rembrandt wished to
take a romantic approach to nature, as he did in
most of his
landscape paintings, he pulled
out
all
Stormy
the stops. His
landscape has no real relation to the Dutch scene; instead
it
tenures skull-eyed ruins.
decaying towers and tist
a
general
-shaking vehemence. In this
work Rembrandt was notably influenced
by the fantastic
panoramic landscapes predecessor
ot his
lercules Seghers.
1
One admiring Dutch contemporary, trying to explain the broad
sweep ami imaginative
scope of Seghers' that "it
is
as
wrote
vistas,
ifheweni pregnant
with entire provinces to which he
gave birth with enormous expanses, strangely illustrated.
.
description that
." It
is
a
sums up
Rembrandt's visionary landscapes as well however, he .
abandoned
when
In-
this
type ol painting
was aboui
returned to
it.
102
1
5
and never
Stormy Landscape,
105
c.
165
8
1(14
V An
Exploration
of Styles
customary and convenient to compartmentalize the lifework of
It is
ists
â&#x20AC;&#x201D;
youth, middle, mature, late
impertinent about brandt,
whose
some
is
also
This seems particularly true
it.
artistic
legacy
celestial
was so
dark
and
large
The thought
self-explanation or defense.
hence, in
â&#x20AC;&#x201D; but there
who
in
the case of
left
so few
of encountering the
Rem-
words of
artist
ages
who
pre-
should give pause to anyone
alley,
art-
something colossallv
sumes to make pronouncements about him now.
What follows,
it
should quickly be
said,
is
not an individual judgment
but a consensus. Perhaps without exception, students of Rembrandt agree that he did indeed have a "middle" or "'transitional" period, and that this occurred approximately
the
42nd years of his
of the transition
life.
He
is
between 1640 and 1648, the 34th to also general
â&#x20AC;&#x201D; the problems he faced and
Rembrandt was an tradition.
There
artist
agreement
as to the nature
resolved.
of the Baroque; he was born and died in that
could no more have escaped the Baroque than anv
can escape the style of his time. Around
1
artist
640, however, having explored
and employed the Baroque elements of turbulent motion, dramatic diagonals, curving lines
other means
He found the means
the masters of the Renaissance.
Baroque elements and
was 1
far
at
Dutchman
Himself. Early versions stress
his maturity.
stresses
mature work
the Saviour's serenity.
If
classical ran
never became an outright
too independent of mind, too
7th Century
tain classical devices that
revelation; this
Throughout the 1640s Rem-
tendency to the
together
the end of the decade the classical became pre-
To be sure, Rembrandt
resurrected Christ revealed
moment of
his
feelings
by looking back to the
sometimes mingling, sometimes with one assuming ascendancv
dominant. A favorite Rembrandt theme was
more profound
in classicism,
brandt's
over the other, until
the excitement of the
and shadow. Rembrandt sought
work of in his art,
Emmaus. where the
light
of expressing the simpler, quieter,
within himself.
the supper at
and clashing
for that.
much
a
realist,
classicist;
he
and too much a
But slowly he did come to accept
cer-
he found suited to the calmness and wisdom of
one reads the accounts of Rembrandt's early biographers or looks at of his early pictures, it seems remarkable that he ever accepted any-
many
What the German artist Joachim von Amsterdam, wrote about him had some truth
thing from the classical world. Christ at
Emmaus, 1648
Sandrart,
who knew him
in
105
mm
in
"[Rembrandt] did not hesitate to oppose and contradict our
it:
â&#x20AC;&#x201D;such
art
tive
as
anatomy and the proportions of the human body
and the usefulness of
judicious pictorial disposition, and the academies
necessary for our
ly
which are so
from
Indeed,
profession."
â&#x20AC;&#x201D;
drawing and
Raphael's
statues,
classical
a
tended to
His etching of a pot-bellied Nude Seated on a
Works of
Andries Pels had
He chose
human
antithetical
poem
in a
Mound
the goddess-types
to
of
being whose body, seemof the
were no doubt what the Dutch writer
this sort
mind
in
Rembrandt
ferred to
was
custard,
ingly soft as
years
pronounced vein of anti-classicism that sometimes ex-
about 1631 (page 152) reveals a gross
Renaissance.
particular-
earliest
his
Rembrandt had satire.
rules of
perspec-
published
1681
in
in
which he
re-
thus:
no Greek Venus as his model,
But rather a washerwoman or a treader of peat from a barn
And called this whim Everything
else to
"imitation of nature."
him was
idle
ornament. Flabby
breasts,
Ill-shaped hands, nay, the traces of the lacings
Of the
corsets
Must be This
is
on the stomach, of the garters on the
visible, if nature
his nature,
was
to get
legs,
her due.
which would stand no
rules.
No principles ofproportion in the human body.
R
.embrandt objected not only to the implausible
also to classical pictorial cliches.
abound
and
in rapes,
classical
nude, but
For example, the myths of antiquity
classical painters
could hardly avoid this subject; in
fact they welcomed the opportunity it provided for drama. In conventional rape scenes it was customary for the victims to throw their arms in
Y-shape
own Rape
this
was
is
a
drew the
Up by the ing,
â&#x20AC;&#x201D; and from
annoyed
w Inch has often been regarded
come from
grotesque works ever to is
what might today be
as
woman
drawing the
this
inspiration for a mythological painting.
Eagle,
cheek with the
at his
wonderfully animated scene of an
that the painting
art-
Ganymede Caught
one of the most
hand. But
revolt-
is
highly likely
called a "put-on."
Michelange-
his
it
Correggio, Rubens and other painters had been able to treat seriousl)
lo,
the
myth
oi
Ganymede, the youthful
the lecherous god Zeus,
in
Olympus; Rembrandt could
prince
who was
so
handsome
the guise of an eagle, flew oil with not.
lous in the idea of a muscular in
for
genre drawings of around 1635, The Scream-
struggling with a squalling, kicking brat ist
his
showed her clutching
one hand while she clawed
One of Rembrandt's
ing Boy.
up a struggle? In
incredible: does not a lady put
of Proserpine of the early 1630s he
Pluto's throat with other.
To
the air to indicate the dire fate that was overtaking them.
in
Rembrandt
that
him
to
Apparently he found something ridicu-
young hero about
mid-air by a gigantic bird. Rembrandt's
to be sexuall) assaulted
Ganymede
is
not a Greek
hero but the above-mentioned Amsterdam brat, and the entire painting
which onl) the most forthright of Dutch burghers would have wanted hung permanently in his house is not dramatic but coarsely funny. Rembrandt's anti-classicism, however, was by no means all-inclusive it
106
simply reflected the view of a
man who
believed what he saw
in
the
world around him and refused to believe what was manifestly the context of
least in
silly
aside the elements of classicism that he found ludicrous, there
had been made
at
set re-
still
He
had a large collection of
prints
after the paintings of
such Renaissance giants
as
mained much that he deeply admired. that
—
Rembrandt had
7th Century Holland. After
1
Ti-
Leonardo, Mantegna, Diirer and (Sandrart's statement to the
tian,
He made
contrary) Raphael.
both close and free copies of these prints
and on several occasions used their motifs
own
in his
in his
own
He
work.
collection (Sandrart again to the contrary) a
of antique statues and busts, which he employed as models
— not
had
also
number of
casts
order
in
to echo their unlikely physical perfection, but because of the stimulus
they gave to his
spirit, as in
world were
classical
qualities but
came
and solemnity, of the
qualities of breadth, simplicity
Or
timeless and the true.
the
the Aristotle Contemplating the Bust of Homer
But primarily what the mature Rembrandt took from the
(page 125).
perhaps more accurately, he did not take these
to share them, as have
Western
great
all
artists
from
5th Century to the 20th.
1
A
foreshadowing of
clear
toward classicism can be seen
his turn
Rembrandt's Self-Portrait of 1 640 (page
for sale at an
had more than a passing interest unsuccessfully for
margin that
it
it;
A year
earlier
in
Amsterdam
in the painting
Rembrandt
auction.
he made a hasty pen sketch of
it
and noted
in the
brought the high price of 3,500 guilders. Around the same
peared on the lively
Amsterdam
art
market
his Self-Portrait has great is
roughly pyramidal,
sill
as
his face
on which Rembrandt
and even of his
He
soon his
^
#qhS „ *+J^** '**) tffi^tfb+^-i* :
s
calm and balance. The composition of the
Raphael or Titian might have made
and there are stabilizing horizontal stone
in the late 1630s.
and Titian's works into
translated the classical spirit of Raphael's
picture
j/'V"
and may even have bid
time he must have seen Titian's so-called Portrait of Ariosto, which ap-
own:
-£>
he had seen a
by Raphael, painted around 1515,
portrait of Baldassare Castiglione
which had been offered
12).
lines typical of the
rests his
arm, the arm
it,
Renaissance: the the lines of
itself,
At an
art auction in
this sketch of
Italian
hat.
163 9
Rembrandt made
Baldassare Castiglione. an
diplomat and writer, from a portrait
bv Raphael.
The hurried copv
Rembrandt's increasing
Renaissance painters, whose
Ihe .he appearance of classical signal that
would not
classical
in
one
Rembrandt had suddenly taken
a
painting, however, did not
new
direction in his art and
retrace his steps. His "transitional" period
he alternated between one ture, the
elements
mood and
was a time when
another. In his most famous pic-
in
the background architecture
— can be
seen.
The
painting
is
Amsterdam's busv
scnbbhngon
art
market. His
this sketch indicates that the
Raphael was part of the collection of a
prominent Amsterdam connoisseur.
a
masterpiece of the Baroque.
Since this celebrated
and since those that
it
is
who
work
will
always be
have not seen
it
known by
an incorrect
title,
continue to believe, quite logically,
a nocturnal scene, a discussion of
its
name and
seems worthwhile before turning to the painting
itself. Its
its
"darkness"
formal
title is
The Company of Captain Frans Banning Cocq and Lieutenant Willem van Ruytenburch, and not until late in the 18th Century did it acquire the
name by which "Watch"
it
are wrong.
is
now known.
The
civic guards
Unfortunately, both "Night" and
who
Rembrandt painted them, become quite sary for
them
are depicted had, bv the time
pacific;
to defend the ramparts of
it
was no longer neces-
Amsterdam or
to
work he was
occasionally exposed to at the auctions in
Night Watch of 1642 (pages 75, 82-85), only a hint of the
—
reflects
interest in the Italian
go out on
107
watches bv night or bv day. Their meetings had been diverted chiefly to social or sporting purposes;
if
thev
destination in the painting,
it
is
shooting contest or to take part
"Night"
even
is
darkened bv
and
dirt
be said to have anv particular
apt than "'Watch."
When
lavers of varnish that
the
was
it
in
end of World War
II
and the pub-
critics
had become so
canvas
to the painting, the
until after the
came from the sun or was the painting fullv re-
refreshed work, journalists promptlv re-christened
Rembrandt, possiblv more than am' other
had when
work, not
monotonous
his.
and so too
colorist
who
is
it
artist,
"Day Watch.")
the
has suffered from the
The infamous "Rembrandt brown"
ministrations of picture restorers.
is
it
Rembrandt's hand more than 300 vears before. (Upon seeing the
left
their
whether
difficult to tell
it
stored so that the viewer could get an idea of the brightness it
fields for a
in a parade.
Rembrandt had provided
the illumination
moon. Not
less
word
attached that
lic
mav
perhaps to march into the
worked with
invariably
a low-keved palette.
true that the forceful use of chiaroscuro in his paintings, with
on the mvsterious. evocative
phasis
disturbed certain
Ruskin. the
1
9th Centurv English art
perb knack for being
wrong
and
critic
in just the right
its
It
em-
of shadow, has always
qualities
and so occasionally has
critics,
is
the widespread impression that he was a
his subject matter. essavist.
who
John
had a su-
words, remarked that
"it
is
the aim of the best painters to paint the noblest things thev can see bv
Rembrandt to paint the foulest things he could see bv However even Ruskin. if he had seen a cleaned Rembrandt panel or canvas, might have directed some of his vitriol at the men who applied laver upon laver of toned varnish on the artist's pictures. In the past generation not onlv the Night Watch but manv other Rembrandt
sunlight, but of
rushlight."
paintings have been stripped of their dirtv and discolored overlays a consequent reappraisal
X
.here
bv
an understandable,
is
not a good, reason
if
why Rembrandt's
works were so slathered with varnish. As he matured he became inglv free in his technique, using bold strokes, passages of
heavy impasto applied with the palette his ringers.
the late tv.
1
7th and
1
would make to
frightened you.' "
and areas scumbled with
and colors
who wanted
away by
The
attributed
his
probability
to laxness or pervcrsi-
fuse.
According to Houbraken,
look
to
that
at
his
ot
works
is
closely
the colors
Rembrandt was not
about the smell of fresh paint, which
work
so that the intervening space
saying, 'The smell is
it
critics ot
to have suggested indirectly that his
at a slight distance,
his strokes
studio
his
who
8th Centuries,
was to be observed
tors
knife,
increas-
broken color.
This highlv personal stvle proved a m\ Men to most
Rembrandt himself seems
â&#x20AC;&#x201D; with
of his genius as a colorist.
critics
pleasant to
at
many
will
all
"visi-
were bother
concerned
people, but that
he did not care to answer dim questions from his guests.
lo their
credit,
it
should be recorded that there w ere
w ho admired Rembrandt's rough strokes and writer on
Man's
1
art.
John I. Num. published
lead. b\
a
a few early critics
700 an English dedicated to " \n Old
said so. In
poem
I
Rembrant":
What
a coarse rugged
W
ay of Painting's here,
Stroaks upon Stroaks, Dabbs upon Dabbs appeal
08
The Work you'd think was huddled up
But mark how
truly ev'ry Colour
With such Oeconomy
in haste.
placed,
s
in such a sort,
That they each mutually support.
Rembrant! thy Pencil plays a This Roughness
One
two
or
is
Part
subtil
contriv'd to hide thy Art.
Rembrandt's era agreed that
theorists of
his paintings, in
rugged Way," would appear more coherent
their "coarse
if
one stepped
back from them, but they noted that a similar coherence could be obtained
As
with varnish.
Rembrandt's death
many
applied to
fortunate
â&#x20AC;&#x201D; by
a
more than
for
result,
liberal applications
of his paintings bv dealers and
collectors. Theoreticallv, the
stvle
areas.
he would ultimatelv
full
its
and complex
â&#x20AC;&#x201D;what
paint
on page it
1
80,
some wonderin
it
the freest
achieve. Nonetheless, this masterpiece received
gallonage of Golden
color plate
even more un-
is
contains
it
Rembrandt did not
Glow and
(How
Toner.
brandt's paintings suffered from such applications
the varnishers.
after
Night Watch should not have
been a candidate for such treatment. Although fully rich
century
a
of varnish, frequently tinted, were
which shows
must be
severely
may be
Rem-
seen in the
a half-cleaned work.) In fairness to
said that their intention
was
to protect the
"improve" certain of them by making
paintings from dirt as well as to
the strokes and colors blend. Inadvertently, the varnishers also rendered a great service to the world of
art.
when
In 1911,
Watch was
the Niqbt
still
covered with a thick layer of hardened varnish, an unemployed ship's
cook went
at
it
with a
of apparent madness
was
not.
tacker
But
its
knife.
He seems
bevond the
to have had no reason for this act
fact that
the painting was famous and he
surface coating proved as resistant as glass, and the at-
was unable to cut through
it.
The Night Watch was commissioned by Captain Banning Cocq and members of his civic guards; that this was the total of Rembrandt's clients for the work is assumed from the fact that 8 names, added by an unknown hand after the painting was completed, appear on a shield on 17
1
the background wall. Doubtless the in
which each member would be
not of equal prominence; ior
members of a group
for
which they paid
less
it
guardsmen expected
group portrait
a
clearly recognizable, although perhaps
was often the
practice for less affluent or jun-
to be represented only by heads or partial figures,
than did those
who were
portrayed
full length.
The guardsmen, most of whom must have been familiar with Rembrandt's Anatomy Lesson of Dr. Tulp of a decade earlier, may also have foreseen that the artist
would not produce
none of them could have been prepared
a standard, static painting.
for the
But
thunderous masterwork
with which thev were confronted.
X
.he Night
proximatelv
Watch 1
3
by
1
is
colossal. In
6 feet
16 other figures added by already tumultuous scene.
its
original dimensions
and contained not only the
Rembrandt It
was by
to give
far
8
it
measured ap-
guardsmen but
more animation
to an
the most revolutionary painting
Rembrandt had yet made, transforming the trait into
still
1
traditional
Dutch group por-
a dazzling blaze of light, color and motion, and subordinating
the requirements of orthodox portraiture to a far larger,
more complex
109
but
Rembrandt's hands what was.
unified whole. In
still
monplace
affair
became
filled
drum and musket,
the sound of
after
all,
the thud of ramrods, the barking of a
Cocq
dog, the cries of children. In the forefront Captain Banning
—and
with a red sash
black,
drive of the
unformed
still
converging diagonal
his lieutenant in
The
ranks.
on the
lines:
the captain's
left,
and the banner. The
effect
and the lance
line repeated
staff, its
on the viewer
is
by
reinforced
still
higher; and
above by another musket he
direct;
is
in
foreshortened spontoon in
right, the it
—
yellow lead the forward
movement
sense of
the lieutenant's hand, the musket above
on the
com-
a
with Baroque pictorial splendor, loud with
he had
feels that
best get out of the way.
The powerful ment, but in
many
others,
He
point.
shadow
from an
by the
cast
at
is
shadow of the
The
picture
captain's
own
The
sun-god."
hand on the lieutenant's coat might suggest
an apparent angle of about 45 degrees to the
but
left,
captain's extended leg indicates quite a different angle.
was of course composed and painted indoors, not while the
ticular detail
may be
true to nature, that
regulated and manipulated light
—
move-
a strictly logical view-
"his
critic,
posed for him out of doors, and although
officers
studio
from
esthetic rather than
was, in the phrase of one
that the sun
the
contrast of light and shade heightens the sense of
well to regard Rembrandt's use of light in this painting, as
it is
for his
own
is
—opening or
his lighting in
any par-
He
not the case overall.
closing the shutters in his
purpose, which was to create an atmosphere both
dreamlike and dramatic.
The Night Watch of all
the center of the most persistent and annoving
lies at
Rembrandt myths. As
recently as the tourist season of 1967,
Roval Dutch Airlines featured the painting by their
man
an advertisement inviting travelers to
in
Holland. "See Night
visit
Watch," said the advertisement, "Rembrandt's spectacular caused him to be] hooted
.
.
has been attacked by various
.
down
critics,
Critics.
a
But since the
few of Professor
and a few years ago
wrote a word
in dispraise
had a watercolor made of
copy of
London,
it
in
it
was
utterly de-
Rembrandt and His
tale has a phoenixlike capacitv for self-resurrection,
he painting was not poorlv received; no
oil
The mvth
Slive's observations will bear repeating here.
X
lifetime
'failure' [that
the road to bankruptcy'. "
molished by Professor Seymour Slive of Harvard
KLM
country-
illustrious
it
of
it.
during Rembrandt's
critic
Captain Banning Cocq himself
album, and a contemporary
for his personal
by Gerrit Lundens, now owned by the National Gallery
offers further
was never hidden
in
in
proof of the picture's popularity. The Night Watch
some obscure
location;
it
was
first
hung
klo-
in the
veniersdoelen, the headquarters of the civic guardsmen, and in 1715
was moved to the Amsterdam town have been found for
no doubt suits.
it.
hall, as
(Probably on the occasion of
for reasons of space, the painting
The
greatest loss
prominent
was on the
containing three figures,
left,
where
was
cut
a strip
its
Prince ol
10
1
about two
was removed.) Nor did painting
lor
two smaller works.
all
feet
this
tour
wide,
supposed
Rembrandt
,600 guilders for the Night Watch, and four years
Orange gave him 2.400
and
transferral,
down on
"failure" result in any abrupt withdrawal of patronage;
ceived about
it
a place as could
re-
later the
—
The fable of the Night Watch may owe that
it is
ter.
In
1642 Rembrandt was
thereafter he slowlv
?
One
the
at
height
of his
faet
complex mat-
a
and
popularitv.
What were
the reasons for his "de-
of them, certainlv. was a change in Dutch tastes in
During the 1640s wealthv security,
stubborn survival to the
out of public favor, though never to the extent
fell
that romantic biographers suggest. cline"
its
means of disposing of
a simple and convenient
citizens,
perhaps growing a
trifle soft in
art.
their
developed a fondness for showiness and elegance. They began
and graceful manner that had been
to prefer the bright colors
initiated
such painters as the fashionable Flemish portraitist Anthonv van
who. however
fine
an
artist,
of chiaroscuro dissatisfied
them
— what
they devote
some thought
to
kjeveral of Rembrandt's
Dvck
lacked Rembrandt's depth. Rembrandt's use
who seemed
"dark" and
by
too,
and thev turned away from an
was perhaps worse
what thev were looking
that
at.
among them Jacob Backer and
pupils,
artist
— demanded
nand Bol. were quick to adapt themselves to the new
Ferdi-
taste for elegant,
highly finished pictures and soon began to receive richer commissions
than their master. There
is
no evidence that Rembrandt ever expressed
the slightest resentment of this; indeed, studio props to others
not
make
concessions in his
creasingly acute.
On
the financial future
found.
even though
art,
the contrary, while the
lay, his
Not many Dutch
work became
rapport with him. In the late
widowed
Princess of
Orange
Huis ten Bosch ("the house near
The Hague, he
need for
new vogue
indicated
in-
where
and more pro-
1
640s,
and patron Constantin Huvgens
when Huvgens was
who might
the woods"), one of the royal residences
list
of
And
years
later,
artists
although he frequently
*: <*
Bw»..
-
!
'<£
in
^
\tftsrim
jwtfit
Amsterdam
that
commissioned Rembrandt to paint Nigbt
Watch
(pages 82-85).
was apparentlv m>
it made for his ramik The opposite page of the album still intact after more than >()() \ ears bears the elegantly penned legend, "The young Captain Banning Cocq ordering his
watercolor cop\ of
album
(below).
—
Lieutenant. William van Ruvtenburch. to
march the company out."
painters.
mi sSjS&rmm
decorate
some of Rembrandt's pupils, when Rembrandt died. Huy-
fact in his diary,
Frans Banning Cocq. ranking officer of the quasi-military traternitv
pleased bv the result that he had a small
in
a
;
l£ro
asked by the
make
many minor
>
But he would
money grew
steadily quieter
included the names of
but not the master himself.
of
did.
to
gens did not bother to note the
made mention
his
he
connoisseurs were willing to accompany him in
that direction; even his early admirer lost
said that he freely lent his
is
it
who made more money than
Another reason his
Rembrandt's decline
for
popularity
in
may have been
dedication to Biblical painting. At the outset of his career there had
been a fair,
dwindling, market for religious works. But in the mid- 1640s
if
Rembrandt stood almost alone among Dutch
He
Scriptures.
known works
was primarily a
portrait painter
lical
â&#x20AC;&#x201D;but
are in that category
â&#x20AC;&#x201D;about 400 of
many
New Testaments.
his
the
600
of the portraits are of
and anonymous figures
Christ, the disciples, the prophets
mind the Old and
artists in interpreting
who
call
to
Altogether there are about 160 Bib-
80 etchings and more than 600 drawings. There are
paintings, plus
few records of commissions for the Biblical paintings; Rembrandt seems
works to
to have produced these to
them
sell
although perhaps hoping
satisfy himself,
But Dutch buyers of non-commissioned paintings pre-
later.
spend their money for landscapes and genre scenes.
ferred to
In the auctions of
Rembrandt's possessions
1657 and 1658, a num-
in
went very cheaply. The works are not known, but the total amount
ber of his paintings were sold. Apparently they prices obtained for individual
was
realized
Among
pathetically small.
the auctioned paintings was one
described as "one large Descent from the Cross."
work on
that theme, dated 1634,
grad. If the auctioned
work and
Like most
it.
artists,
a now priceless Museum in Lenin-
Today
Hermitage
the Hermitage painting are one and the
same. Rembrandt must have had
out selling
in the
is
in his studio for
it
he kept some of
23 or 24 years with-
his paintings
on hand
for
extended periods, sometimes as a source of inspiration, sometimes in order to rework them. But
it
seems unlikely that he would willingly have
held one for nearly a quarter of a century
â&#x20AC;&#x201D;
particularly
when he was
in
need of money.
I n his
religious paintings, during his transition
from youthful exuber-
ance to the calm reflectiveness of middle age, Rembrandt became more
and more concerned with the inner reactions of the individuals he portrayed than with their outward actions. stories as narrative,
ofManoah,
reveals his
new
a
monumental,
preoccupation. As
classically
simple painting that clearly
Rembrandt
depicts the scene, an angel
has just appeared to the aged iManoah and his barren wife to
become the
that they will
caught years,
in
parents of the hero
the painting, the angel
is
departing
Samson;
at
upper
Rembrandt might have painted Manoah and
apparition, their
arms
raised in astonishment.
his
at
left.
the
tell
them
moment
In his earlier
wife staring at the
But here the old couple
kneel in silence, hands quietly clasped in thanksgiving. closed; they
Biblical
At about the time of the Night Watch he produced the
attracted him. Sacrifice
was no longer the
It
but their meaning for the individuals involved, that
Their eyes are
do not sec the vanishing angel but are wholly absorbed
in
the meaning, not the manner, of the miracle.
The increasing realization of true of the 1640s
may have grown
the several deaths
Such
troubles,
art.
12
\n
lost to
work
air ot
embroilment with Geertghe Diroc
led
him
to
become
bitter,
seemed
to
new strength ot faith, sufwarmth and intimacy that had
tenderness, a
Re-creating the world of
been temporarily
1
Ins family, his
effect,
values in Rembrandt's
out of unhappy personal circumstances:
which might have
have the opposite fused his
in
human
him, he turned repeatedl) to the theme oi the
Infant Christ; there are a
number of works from
this
time that show the
Holv Family and the Flight into Egypt. He filled his paintings with homelv details: the Virgin warming her feet at a tiny fire, a cat ready to snatch at the bowl from which the Child has just been fed. Rembrandt was able to place the Holy Family olating any sense of decorum.
in It
humble Dutch does
not
perfectly logical to see the Christ Child in the
Amsterdam
carpenter,
where the
might indeed be found,
vi-
seem anachronistic but
home
of a
7th Century
1
at least in spirit.
.embrandt's deepening perception of tender aspects of
without
devoutly supposed that the Child
artist
R, ple,
interiors
can be seen
it,
life,
in
his
and
upon the sim-
his stress
drawings and etchings of
secular subjects as well as in his religious works. In the 1640s he extended
and amplified what he had expressed things descend from
tan
God
in
The Good Samaritan of 163
and are not to be scorned. The
Good
3: all
Samari-
was another theme to which he often returned: around 1648,
example, he used
it
in
two
street scenes, of
pancake
and particularly
his studies
ter are
known
â&#x20AC;&#x201D;
are
full
paintings and three drawings. His drawings of
of quacks hawking their dubious wares,
sellers,
women
of
and children
to
â&#x20AC;&#x201D;some 60 of the
lat-
of affection and penetrating observation. His
drawings became wonderfully concise: Teaching a Child
for
his chalk sketch of
Two Women
Walk (page 52) contains an absolute minimum of
lines
yet perfectly suggests the bent brittleness of a grandmother, the suppleness of a
voung woman, the awkward anxiety of a child. Either adding to it would have injured it.
the sketch or subtracting from
Although Rembrandt often used chalk pen and ink became
his favorite
medium
in his early years, in
in
used the pen directly, seldom bothering to or chalk sketches that other
followed by scholars today
artists
in
make
who think
ly in
connection with painting. His magnificent
55),
which
rightly considered
executed entirely with a brush;
He
many
to look for traces of
drawings
copyists.
a brush alone
a contradiction in terms to those
is
is
strokes. If these are found, the
work of pupils or
Rembrandt often "drew" with
640s
found necessary. Indeed, a guideline
determining the authenticity of the
underdrawing beneath the pen
seem
1
so.
the preliminary pencil
pen sketches tentatively attributed to Rembrandt
are almost certainly the
the
drawing and remained
â&#x20AC;&#x201D;
a fact that
may
well
of this implement sole-
A Woman
Sleeping (page
among the greatest drawings extant, is many of its subtleties depend on the
weight of the strokes and the amount of liquid Rembrandt permitted the brush to carry. In other drawings
pen strokes, making ing a
wash with the
Rembrandt frequently combined brushwork and
his sketch first
brush. His
with the
quill or the reed,
economy of
line
were long misunderstood by 18th and 19th Century owners of further
his
then apply-
and delicacy of touch collectors;
some
drawings found them "incomplete," and sometimes had
brushwork added with the idea of "finishing" them. More than
one great Rembrandt drawing has been ruined bv
a collector
who
at-
tempted to "correct" what he supposed had been inadvertence or laziness
on the
artist's part.
It
should be noted here that none of the
drawings shown on pages 49-60 has been retouched; the reader
may be
11?
—
.
how and
interested in conjecturing
attempt to change them. could "correct" will
is
A Woman Sleeping,
be able to explain
alley
there
If
to
what extent he personally might
it is
Rembrandt van Rijn
this to
who
indeed someone
for example,
he
believes
hoped
to be
that he
dark
in the celestial
where they meet.
The third
great category of
Rembrandt's achievement
also reflect the transitional nature of his art in the
1
prints. Three Trees (pages 148-149), remains highly
matic atmosphere and
—
his etchings
One of his
640s.
Baroque
in
finest
dra-
its
strong contrasts of light and dark. In other
its
a greater breadth of view and an increased calm. Remmuch time working out of doors in the Dutch countryside Amsterdam a number of his small landscapes (pages 97-103) can
works he displays brandt spent near
—
be correlated with scenes that
exist
still
— and he seems to have absorbed
these quieter qualities from the natural world;
Baroque
theatricality does
not accord well with the vast stillness of earth and sky. This calmer manner appears in the etching he did in
Rembrandt
is
completely
1
645 of
realistic, faithfully
the land and the luminous, breeze-stirred
In
Century French
air.
Rembrandt worked with
his etchings,
all
suggested in an old story, recorded bv
who
art dealer
Here
Six's Bridge (page 98).
recording the broad reach of
Edme
great speed. His pace
Francois Gersaint. an
compiled the
first
brandt's etchings. Gersaint could not. of course, have
1
is
8th
catalogue of Remknown Rembrandt;
moreover, he had a Gallic predilection for collecting gossip. Perhaps, then, the story
is
only another of the fables that encrust the
ory. Still, a glance at
been
far
Rembrandt
at his
gether, the Servant illustration'- lor I
Rembrandt made
his etching
\\
books written by
as used
by Jan Si\
bis Friends. as the
frontispiece to Medea, bis long play based
on
(
ireek
bi-bmd the
(
,\n
mj
shows Medea hiding
th. It
altar as Jason
iolden Fleece
whom
betr.n
s
her love by
woman
Rembrandt chose
to illustrate this scene even
though
it
is
not
pan
iuriousk
ol Six's pla\
ing: the
Countrv-Seat.
came
down
has before been remarked that
to acquaint
One Day when them
that
Burgomaster immediately ordered
Village and buy some. Rembrandt, Servants, and that
when
his
who knew
Servant to go into the
they answer anstons [a-coming], arc an
man
the Wager, and Rembrandt, nished, immediately took
Wager
that he
always had Plates
at
Hand
up one and scratched upon
it
ready var-
the landscape
of the Parlor where they were
The Plate was indeed finished before the Fellow came back, and brandt
The
won
his
Wager.
Hour would
returned with the Mustard. Six accepted
who
Window
which appeared from the
as
Mustard was want-
the Slothfulness of Dutch
before thev appear, offered the Burgomaster a etch a Plate before his
they were there to-
Dinner was ready, and
to Table, thev perceived that
she led to
marr) ing another
(
they were sitting
It
Intimacy with the Burgomaster Six and that he
lived in great
was frequently rare occasions
mem-
wrong. '"This Plate." he wrote, "was produced bv an Incident
which deserves to be remembered.
On
artist's
Sixs Bridge indicates that Gersaint may not have
sitting.
Rem-
." .
.
darting grace and simplicity ot the lines ol Six's Bridge represent
only one aspect of Rembrandt's work on copper during
this period.
On
other occasions he used strokes so tiny that they can best be seen with a
magnifying
ow
s
glass;
minute, closel) time, for trait
I
14
he combined
and shadows so
set lines
example
in
literally
thousands of them
rich that they rival those in his
m.n be seen
Thomas
facobsz.
own
in
in several ot his finest
works
Haaru/g (page 1*1) and
masterpiece, fan Six. Reading (page 1*0).
half-shad-
paintings These
in
ot the
the por-
As he experimented with
technique Rembrandt began
his etching
in-
creasingly to use a "dry point" needle (stronger and heavier than the thin
etching needle) with which he scratched directly on his plates, using this device in combination with the lines etched on the plates by acid.
ying the pressure of his strokes he produced both thin
The
curl or
Bv
and
lines
"burr" of copper raised by the dry point needle was
awav
the plates, not scraped
as in
engraving;
it
var-
thick. left
on
retained the printing ink.
thus creating strong, velvety accents almost like those of charcoal. In
Rembrandt's
Drawing
Self-Portrait,
Window
at a
(page 95) heavy dry
point lines are particularly noticeable on his sleeve and around the open throat of his coat.
Often,
when he wished
to create very delicate layers of shading which
could not be produced either bv the etching needle or with dry point,
Rembrandt used the even
thicker engraver's burin as well. All three im-
plements, in what amounts to a whole his
most celebrated
new
style of etching,
were used
in
Healing the Sick (pages 154-157), which
print. Christ
was probably completed about 1648, although Rembrandt must have
worked on
it
work
— the
"Hundred Guilder
so-called
cause of the price one impression reputedly brought first
state of the
complete
was rapidly worn down
plate. in
The
in this
work
soft
was
rare in his art
is
combine
to
left
several
Print," be-
— survive from the
by the dry point needle
became
ruined by re-working.
finally
in-
The
— perhaps unique — because he does moment
not limit himself to a single dramatic stead chooses
burr
the press, and later impressions
creasingly pale until the plate
theme
Only 10
intermittently for at least several years before that.
impressions of this
in
episodes
the
life
the
in
of Christ but inBiblical
he
text
illustrated.
A, the time of
"Hundred Guilder Print" Rembrandt again took up the subject of Christ at Emmaus, which he had first painted about 20 years earlier in Leiden. The 1648 Emmaus (page 104) cannot be said to mark a sharp turning point in his career or the end of his middle period .t
the
and the beginning of
his maturity;
but
it
does afford an opportunity' to
Rembrandt's etching
was oneoi tour Old he illustrated
point out, in a single great work, the extent of his development during
The arrangement
the preceding eight or nine years.
the painting has a classical simplicity and
of the four figures in
symmetry
may
that
have come from Leonardo da Vinci's Last Supper, although
very well it
in
is
no
Gloriosa
imitative.
The
painting
around the head of Christ also suggested
very well ically
by a
how to use:
far
is
classical
restrained, hushed,
is
differs
in the figure
Son of Man. who had known tleness,
meekness and
representations of
love.
is
divinitv
is
learned
from Raphael or Michelangelo,
in that there
is
\nwcrdam\|c\\
i^h
his
suffering and death;
His if
Him
He was
not yet
in his
Israel
interested \\
a^
which
developed the mystical theon. that the stone
David slum;
at
Goliath symbolized the
coming of the Messiah and the
triumph of Jewish
spiritual leadership
who
as the
more human work had
"mature"
was
intrigued by the Rabbi's work,
capacity to produce so great a
at 42.
one of
home in
quarter,
qualities are gen-
any,
b\
Hebrew theology and probabl)
nothing occult or phvsi-
of Christ. Rembrandt presents
I,
Rabbi Menasseh ben
a piece of architecture that
In art there are few.
Him. The
been attained by Rembrandt
od and
The
the lofty niche above the figure of the Savior, phys-
Rembrandt
superhuman
halo.
Rembrandt had bv then
book, called Piedra
Rembrandt, who made
eventual
both inspired and repelled him. cally
from a sunburst or
device that
occupying so much of the painting,
speaks aloud. Yet
and the luminescence
for a
David and Goliath
estament scenes that
"The Glorious Rock''
his close friends.
in
way
<
ot
I
peri-
fruitful years lav ahead.
115
I
would
t
require an unreasonable partisan to insist that
Rembrandt produced his easel.
a masterpiece each time he faced
Not many people would rank
Roman
wife Saskia as the
his portrait
of his
goddess Flora (page 120) as
The
Breadth
of Genius
one of the imperishable monuments of Western Man.
Most museum forgo
it
for
directors,
if
they could choose, would
Woman Bathing (opposite),
sketch of his mistress Hendrickje. that in
more than 600
excellence
an intimate
However, the
oil
fact
is
paintings Rembrandt's level of
was exceedingly
hiÂŤh. and, moreover, that his
range was wonderfully wide.
While
his
fame
rests largely
Biblical paintings,
and everyday the
first
life.
on
his portraits
and
he also dealt with history, mythology
Not
until early in this
century
â&#x20AC;&#x201D;when
comprehensive catalogue of his paintings was
completed
panorama
could admirers appreciate the varied lie
had
set
before them.
It
astonishing to find that the sensuous
was. and
Danac
still is,
(pages 118-
119) and the heroic Julius Chilis (pages 126-129)
came
Rembrandt himself might well have been surprised
from the hand of one man. If
his
Rembrandt had an
technique,
think the
in
Ins
identifying hallmark, aside from
b) this small
personal approach.
by 18 inches
1
ledid not
terms of historical epochs or of dated "types";
in
for the
"pagan"
Homer
(page 124)
other works as an Old Testament patriarch.
o Rembrandt, humanity was the supreme concern.
did not matter
I
was
unknown model
appears I
it
16
ar
the
worldvi ide recognition achieved
where or w hen.
work, onl) about 24
An affectionate
gesture toward Ins faithful mistress,
it
ma)
a preliminary
also
have served aJ
study tor one
paintings of the Biblical
Bathsheba. It
Whnhin Batbmg, 1654
ol his
117
R
.
embrandt's Danae
painted.
But the most
is
by
far
the most beautiful of the few female nudes he
striking quality of this
work
is its
light,
which
relates
mvth with which the artist was dealing. According to the story, would an oracle warned the Greek king Akrisios that his daughter. Danae. chastity, bear a son who would kill him. He therefore kept her in enforced directly to the
the painting by the weeping, fettered cupid at top right. However, the god Zeus, taking the form of a golden shower, evaded her
symbolized
in
guardian maid servant and entered Danae's bedchamber; from their union came a son who eventually fulfilled the prophecy. Here Danae raises her hand,
both to shield her eves and to welcome her arriving lover, whose presence Rembrandt represents in the magnificent, unearthly yellow light pouring voluptuouslv over her face and body.
r-
..
!
Portrait afSaskia
R
embrandt made these two paintings of
Roman o!
w
goddess
more than 20 iic
ol sprint;, vines
years.
and flowers,
The picture above,
Flora, the at
lor
an Interval
which
Ins
posed, reveals the artist in a particularly Baroque
mood. The costume
is
Flora,
1
6
over-rich, the pose slightly artificial
ami the flowers more plentiful than are
make the point work opposite,
./>
that this
is.
really neccss.in to
indeed. Flora. In the later
painted after
Rembrandt had incorporated
H
Portrait of Hrndrkkje Stoffeh as Flora,
certain classical elements into his art, he took a
restrained approach.
painted in a
Using
monumental
his mistress as his
style,
more
model, he
with a splendid simplicity
and solem nity that are characteristic of most of his
mature work. Although artists since
it
had been the custom for most
the time of the Renaissance to represent
Flora as a courtesan,
Rembrandt paid no heed
to this
interpretation in either of his paintings.
121
c.
\6*~
â&#x20AC;&#x201D;
The Polish Rtier.c. 1655
I
I
Rembrandt ever
titled this
certainly did nor give
it
the
most romantie of all
name by which
Rider. The horseman's dress and
it
has
his paintings,
become known
he almost
The
Polish
equipment suggest that he could have come
from Poland or from any of several Central or Eastern European nations. In
Rembrandt's time, and
for centuries previous, such warrior-knights
lorth to light the infidel Turks,
appealed to
all
Christians.
and
Rembrandt
extremely sympathetic figure; the
had gone
doomed courage deeply intended to make Ins Rider an
their aura of high,
plainly
face, at
once angelic and bold, sums up
all
young manhood. The horse, which some critics have scorned as .\n awkward nag. is in fact an example of the perfect mot juste in painting: if Rembrandt had produced a full-rumpcd. galloping steed in the manner of is
best in
Rubens, the tremendous appeal of the picture might
at
once have vanished.
that
*1 -
m
• i I
-
^^
'
-^
~"V"<
Horner. 1663
LJupremel)
gifted with
both vision and Insight,
Rembrandt often turned, paradoxically, blindness
u
.is
that
in his
paintings. Perhaps
one docs not nerd mere
124
discern truth.
to the subject of
what he wished
to say
visual capability to
Both the blind Ho/ncr
(left)
and the
Contemplating the Bust of Homer were painted
The Homer
in
Aristotle
the
last
has been
two decides of Rembrandt's
life.
damaged, probably by
originally the aged poet w
lire
a>-
A ristotle Contemplating the Bust of Horner.
pictured in discourse with a scribe and perhaps also a
student
â&#x20AC;&#x201D; but
it
has weathered the
sightless eyes, his aimlessly
loss.
The bard's
groping hands, provide
perhaps the most poignant representation of blindness
in the entire history
of art. In The Aristotle
philosopher's thoughtful face
is
andHomer the
another of Rembrandt's
major triumphs, achieving an express iveness
few men could emulate
in
in paint that
words.
125
1
6
;
L,
like the last quartets
Rembrandt often
less
arc so
of Beethoven, the late works of
complex and profound
that the) are
appreciated than his earlier works of
straightforward
26
power
I
his
is
particularly true of an
fated
and misunderstood painting commissioned by
Amsterdam
eit\
authorities for the
town
hall: the
now
mutilated Conspiracy of Julius CiviHs. The scene records the ill-
start of an uprising in
69
\
D. againsi
Roman domination
Conspiracy* of Julius Civilis
by barbaric tribesmen, the Batavians, of the
Dutch and whose
name, Julius
Civilis.
chieftain had
(sometimes called Oath of the Batavians), fragment. 166 1-1662
who were ancestors
created a
adopted a Latin
subtle. Tragicallv. his official patrons failed to
Rembrandt, painting
as
though
brushes were dipped in liquid light and fluid shade.
his
work that was monumental and
the painting and rejected
it.
at
the same time
understand
for reasons that are suggested
on the following page.
127
—
Drawing
A
single
word never
suffices to interpret a painting, yet in the case
the Conspiracy ofJulius Chilis
With
one word
that in mind, the viewer
1661
for Conspiracy ofJulius Chilis,
— "Shakespearean" —
need no longer look for a
literal
is
of
fairlv apt.
representation
of history; instead, something of the mysterious ambience of KingLear or
Macbeth comes to mind slightest
— archaic, barbaric,
lordly, wild.
evidence that the two masters arrived independently
remote, strange
,1
There
is
at a
historic conspiracy
time and an emotion more than
a particular event.
every
is
astonishing: he painted
His preparatory sketch for
the work, above, indicates the majesty of his conception. But the
ordered the painting were not prepared for the
why
is
common view of the
past.
Rembrandt's treatment of the
asked
not the
evidence that Rembrandt ever read Shakespeare, but there
the face of Julius Gvilis
result.
was not turned
They may
in profile, to
men who
well have
hide his
empty eye socket. They may also have asked why the Batavians the Dutch were- proud to have. is ancestors were not nobly drawn.
hideous,
whom
an) event, the Julius Gvilis nit
down
its
central
Nation. il still
28
was removed from the town
the hugecanvas
group \\iis(
holds aloft
salable,
and
originally this
96 square
remnant
is
hall.
feet in.size
now the
Rembrandt
In
later
— hoping to make
prized possession of the
inn ol Stockholm. There the huge, half-blind B.u.ivtan leader hi
sword and the oath of rebellion
is
forever
sworn upon
it.
B;" -.''• *P
«K
V3»i** «.
~
r'
-•'^
*
«.
^
â&#x20AC;&#x201D;
a
ne of the most breathtaking of Rembrandt's
late
works, the so-called
may have been a commissioned wedding portrait of two members of Amsterdam's community of Sephardic Jews who allowed
Jewish Bride,
artist to
represent
them
as figures
from the Old Testament
:
as Isaac
the
and
Rebecca, perhaps, or Ruth and Boaz. In this painting the artist reveals the years; the light seems to
come from
immense coloristic power
of his final
within the figures, almost supernaturally
illuminating their faces and garments. In the detail below, Rembrandt's
technique of combining heavy paint and thin glazes
He modeled depth of as
his
forms with thick impasto
much
as a
pigment suspended
laid
is
particularly apparent.
on with a
palette knife to a
quarter of an inch. Then, using a small
in oil,
amount
of
he repeatedly brushed lightly over the surface,
adding the subtlest depths and variation to
his colors.
â&#x20AC;&#x201D;
VI Triumphs and Trials
The manv biographers of Rembrandt, as though thev were all members of some worldwide union, seem to follow certain rules in dealing with him. One of these is to announce that in the last two decades of his life from 1649 to 1669, when he was beset by personal disasters he lifted
â&#x20AC;&#x201D;
his art into
the realm of the soul or
soaring where few.
spirit,
anv. other
if
German.
painters have been able to go. This has been said in Dutch.
Uzbek
English and conceivably is
quite true.
able words,
it
However,
â&#x20AC;&#x201D; and,
since "soul"
requires a
in fact,
it
must be
said,
because
it
and "spirit" are essentiallv indefin-
roundabout approach to
arrive at the heart of the
matter.
A beginning can be found
in a
statement bv the English novelist Hen-
ry Fielding. In his preface to Joseph Andrews, Fielding wrote: "It hath
been thought a vast commendation of a painter, to sav breathe; but surely
it is
a
much
his figures
seem to
greater and nobler applause, that thev ap-
pear to think." In the portraits
figures did
Rembrandt made
young man
as a
in
Amsterdam,
seem to breathe, but thev did not vet appear to
think.
his
Most of
these early portraits conveyed an impression of imminent activity rather
than of thought.
The merchant was about to return to memory or anticipation.
his
warehouse, the
captain to his ship, without
As Rembrandt matured subjects
and paying
contemporaries
manded
was
disconcerting.
outward
more profound
reality,
The
To some
tradition of the
within
of
Dutch de-
and the idea of subordinating
reality that lies
his
man was
this
difficult
them to grasp. Rembrandt did not alter or distort the appearances of his subjects in order to impose on them his own view of what their "souls" or "spirits"
most search ng characterizations. i
very instant Six seems to
were
be turning his gaze from the world outside to a realm within himself.
him
like.
He
simplv chose to emphasize certain features that seemed to
quintessential.
portrayed bv other Portrait of Burgomaster Jan Six,
this
heed to detailed external description.
for
Rembrandt achieved one of his
this
less
a portrayal of
to seek out the
At
the 1630s and 1640s. the nature of his por-
changed; he penetrated deeper, emphasizing the inner state of
his
In his portrait of Jan Six. later Amsterdam's burgomaster.
in
traiture
1
654
Among artists.
his sitters there
A comparison
were
several
of the likenesses
and by Rembrandt confirms that he was
who were
also
made by them
faithful to visual appearances.
But he took
and deeper view, and tempered
a longer
sense of humanity.
Bv
with
it
the time he had attained the height of his
portraiture, his subjects not only
own
his
power
"appeared to think." but also to be
in
lis-
tening to inner voices that seemed to whisper to them from bevond the region of thought.
Not
all
Dutchmen, by any means, objected to Rembrandt's searching
characterizations.
during
Some of his greatest portraits when anv
his last decades,
would have known
that the artist
ionable." superficial likeness but
Among those who
are commissions ordered
Amsterdam
sophisticated citizen of
was uninterested
would probe
producing a "fash-
in
beneath the surface.
far
Rembrandt in the 1650s were his friend Jan Six. later to be Burgomaster of Amsterdam; Ephraim Bonus, a Sephardic phvsician and writer: Nicolaes Bruvningh. a young aristocrat; and sat for
Arnout Tholiax. Inspector of the Medical Colleges of Amsterdam. Oth-
who
ers
have been tentatively identified
Clement de Jonghe.
and the Spanish poet Miguel
men who commissioned
de Barrios. Perhaps bv no coincidence, the
from Rembrandt during
traits
common, among gence.
them
It
is
other qualities that radiate from the canvases,
and has moved sober grapple with
them
Town
people, perhaps to the
those with
whom
crowds before him.
in his
expression in these words:
He
about to go out
is
a reflective,
He listens to their
deals.
secret thoughts
and
interests.
.
.
somewhat melancholy
.
among
smile comes into his features.
a trace, too. of the sympathetic kindness of the detached b\
is
and
is
not met with
Neumann's words their
in
anv other portrait
in
which seems
the world."
meanings merged into one nameless thing, that thing begins to
is
a
who
important dealings and
leader
who
goes to the town
can afford to be
[owever, there are other
men
a
detached
I
own, who
are not in that position. Yet the nameless
comes
Man
le
in
but does not quite strike the
close-
makes
this
hall, it
it
who
is
has
sympathetic
Rembrandt's world, and our
bystander.
I
-
"secret" and "otherworldly" are taken together,
only a beginning. Jan Six
too
di-
as all this
approximate what Rembrandt strove successfully to express. But
ty"
the
words, and
And
an otherworldly and penetrating look plavs over
inexhaustible,
and
percep-
Six's
stander. forming altogether a complexity of expression
t
all art.
Hall: there pass before him. as in a dream,
he regularly
more
vines also their
for him.
sit
arresting in
Neumann,
historian Carl
of thoughts.
full
is
to
one of the most
is
Rembrandt, described
"This man's mind
I
intelli-
to flights of lyricism in their attempts to
critics
The German an
it.
tive study of
There
in
not likely that he flattered them bv deliberately endowing
portrait of Jan Six (page 132)
his eyes;
por-
mature years appear to have had
thus, but rather that their intelligence led
The
all
his
Rembrandt's paintings were
in
a publisher of prints,
mark
very plain in his painting of
thingâ&#x20AC;&#x201D; "spirituali-
appears
Two
with a dilt Helmet: the sitter for this latter picture
who
believed to have been his brother Adnacn.
in
such
Negroes and is
followed
men
in his
traditionally his
lather's
trade as a miller. In
Rembrandt's view,
stature
was not necessary
or. tor that matter, to
Strange intangible; for
?4
it
it
was
to have
be of any particular
common
to
all
am special worldly ageâ&#x20AC;&#x201D;to possess the
mankind
I
le
saw
it
in a
boy
felt
how
in himself;
it
may an
better, indeed,
artist
than bv looking inward and then, by empathy, realizing
His
Above
(page 88), and in the philosopher Aristotle (page 125).
he saw and
from the
self-portraits
late
1
640s onward are
wholly defined. meditative tried to
—
that
touch
simply the quality
It is
—
in
never be
great religious leaders, and supremely Christ, have
all
can at
which
may
is
otherworldly, spiritual,
secret,
The artistic means by which Rembrandt way
it
the hearts of men.
in
sential quality
with this pro-
rich
found and mysterious current. But precisely what
it
others?
in
it
all.
grasp
least partially
his sitters glance
captured or suggested this es-
Of
be described.
—or
particular note
do not glance
—
is
the
the spectator.
at
Their eyes are not furtively averted, but neither do they stare directly
men
outward. These
listening,
sheer tery,
are of this world and vet not in
they are engrossed
fied,
and
skill in
it
human
Out
expressions.
gift to
his
of the depths of his genius he
shadow
presenting light and
Gravely digni-
convey that
But beyond
have possessed, lay
artists
it.
remembering and
thoughts,
was part of Rembrandt's
painting
which other
chiaroscuro.
own
their
in
unmatched
ability to use
summoned new ways
and half discloses both the tangible and the intangible,
in exactly that re-
I n the self-portraits of Rembrandt's middle and late years (pages circumstances.
1650
If in
1640
more
particularly to
His look
reflects
mood
the
the look of one
who
aged considerably.
larger. In the
The flesh around
his eyes,
1658
is
is
a
good
deal of steel in
later,
Rembrandt appears
his chin has softened, there
to have
is
a great
and the eyes themselves seem to have grown
portrait, the eyes are
brandt's expression
man who
of a 44-year-old
has searched himself and found his courage
undiminished. In 1652. only two years
furrow between
his
his face reveals a faintly quizzical expres-
has passed through melancholy times, but there it is
12, 13)
him and to
displays outright skepticism, not only questioning but
it
also challenging.
it:
of
may be caught.
there are other qualities that relate
sion, in
his
mas-
to create an atmosphere that half conceals
gion where a glimpse of the "soul"
own
by
fact
this technical
notably luminous, and
Rem-
— with
good
one of sadness and vulnerability
The impending disaster that he may have sensed in 1650 and 1652 has now overtaken him. By 1658 he has been forced to declare
reason.
himself insolvent, and the prints
final
and drawings, paintings,
remnants of
curiosities
his collection of treasured
and costumes are
in
the hands
of the auctioneer.
There appears to have been no
single calamitous transaction or loss
that brought about the tragic collapse of
Rembrandt's fortunes. In the
1650s he had fewer commissions than in the 1630s, but he was by no
means without patrons. The had paying pupils. There cal
sales of his etchings continued,
may
or historical paintings, but he had
them
Aristotle
some major commissions
Sicily,
still
his Bibli-
— among
Contemplating the Bust of Homer. Because of the circula-
tion of his prints, his reputation had
even to
and he
not have been a great market for
where
named Don Antonio
it
become
international, extending
engaged the attention of an
aristocratic collector
Ruffo. In 1652 Ruffo wrote to
Rembrandt from
Messina, commissioning a portrait of "a philosopher," and
in
1654 the
135
.
Homer w as
painting of Aristotle and
but
known
it is
Rembrandt than In
all.
it
for
works bv
would seem
delivered.
The
fee
is
not recorded,
was wealthy and willing to pav more
that Rurfo
his Italian
for a
contemporaries.
that a prudent painter
might have prospered on
Rembrandt's income, while even a man of moderatelv expensive
tastes
could have avoided catastrophe. But neither frugality nor moderation in financial matters
is
much mentioned
connection with Rembrandt. His
in
biographer Baldinucci provides an account, possiblv distorted but prob-
Hoping to increase Rembrandt "at intolerable
ablv correct in essence, of the artist as businessman.
the sales value of his etchings, savs Baldinucci. j.^
»——
v_ ^
«-
->• V,
r>
'
prices
"-
-
.
them, (Sf
v fall* XL_« W _ ».i.
«
I
—^ «-
had them bought back
anv
price."'
>ey^
sums
for his
deep
Amsterdam
authorities
compiled
rirst
leaf of this
document
plaster casts of children, five
one
most arrogant disregard
for the fair claims of his creditors,
insatiable in
more
two
lists
artists,
amassing
drawing and
1
Rembrandt's
print collection, an
"The trustees of the
.
.
will
the hereafter mentioned paper art
together with a good
pan of the
interest to accountants
Pass
Ri|n himself
which he had purchased
He
1
had bought
it
on."
Curattur obcr brn JtM--
iW
toon gtrtrimii B iMl an Bmb feaotiffc BiMMi/tol JUbfBre.e *annbaanaTjn<
'teMMUoMMnbeiirMniMiMpwM>MP>tf Cl iOT ifrM piHilMffcHiyMpB: i
ia*«*n enema ScrortJUnoct brratan*. tMa kr.'rfcjnwn MctMUMfmftib 3ulumW)e ;>««£* mfcflrarrtinacfr if flBtrtas
rr.ot
St
Dm (rtBra
ankan Ma Baa aw mi treotr tonmfbjw a tiitim onfimcU. 0cliirk twn met* ctn goebe partvc ban Xanoapfni tnar Actn&n tunon (mm Bnnapm Mb Ran Maaj
£)t Urrkopmgr
U uxftn ten bargtK/
urt tn&c 3atrt ais boUcn
,
it
.200 on account. About
He
ten l>uvCc
ban
Janft <&tljuueinan IPaert m be fcevfers Urocm mbt Ualbtr (teaet/ batrbtbcrtopmgcbooi Detents getoeeft. fiarent
7th Centurv
resale but
seems to
art.
handsome millstone of
1
1639 during
his
a
but at
house
happv. spendthrift vears with
for 13.000 guilders but
down
had put
onlv
5 vears later, he had not paid even half of the still
owed 8.470
guild-
house and moving to smaller quarters, but he was obliged to
protect his son's inheritance, which Saskia had entrusted to him. After
his debts
cessio
in
able to place the house in Titus' name, but
remained the same, and he was forced to pledge
When
1656 went to the
bonorum
—
literally, a
his creditors pressed for
citv council of
— bv which
to surrender his possessions to his creditors.
his personal
pavment. Rem-
Amsterdam and
cession of goods
applied for a
he would agree
Such recourse was usually
permitted to merchants and investors on the basis of 'losses
at sea
or
in
-
trade'
and was considered
less
degrading than a declaration of outright
bankruptcy. Rembrandt's appeal was granted, but the result was merely
form of facesaving. Although technically he was "insolvent," he was fact
a in
bankrupt.
legal actions by his creditors dragged on tor several years, and
probably not until 1660 that
Rembrandt was forced
to
move
it
was
out of his
house Meanwhile, however, the Amsterdam Court of Insolvency inven-
were sold
bv a court -appointed bailiff at a
number of auctions in 16 " and 16>"8 Apparentlv the inventory was made with Rembrandt's full cooperation, he was proud of his collections, which would creditably have rilled a small museum. There were 161 lots altogether, including such trivial items as
56
1
al-
and that he
and lawyers than to students of
toried his possessions, and they i&>ccrgttboo2t.
1
he had an
might perhaps have extricated himself from the dilemma bv
selling the
brandt
jfttnfrfr
to
regard either.
balance: he had neglected taxes and interest, and
possessions as securitv.
€
in
much maneuvering, he was
drawings and sketches of the same
Rembrandt van
collections. Like other
the root of the problem lav the great,
ers.
insolvent
property of Rembrandt van Rijn sell
his affairs, that
he also occasionallv bought objects for in this
is
real reasons for his ruin
.he actual mechanics of Rembrandt's insolvency are complex and of
Saskia.
658. a few
sale of
advertisement (below) was circulated that reads
own
his
But the
plaster head.
works bv other artists, four of his own
painting and one shoe. In
weeks before the hastv
pax-
Baldinucci's tale
poor manager of
X
(above),
if
a
The
detailed inventory of his possessions.
and
were simplv that he was
am inutelv
financial trouble,
declared himself insolvent in 1656
artist,
tactic failed.
have been none too successful in
were delighted to
collectors
works on occasion, most were apparentlv averse to
meeting the figures hoped for bv the
Dutch
Rembrandt,
over Europe wherever he could find
be believed. Rembrandt's
was
When
all
Although a few
It
large o*
.
.
at
\o
J60
six
handkerchiefs "at
the laundry" insight into
— but the
entire
Rembrandt
worth examining
in
an
as
some
list is
artist
so remarkable, and provides such an
and
as a
man
There were about 70 of Rembrandt's own brieflv as: "14.
One
hares by the same.
One
1
6.
One small
painting of a
15.
One
well
small painting of
hog by the same.
small picture of a herdsman and animals by the same."
of these paintings
is
it
paintings, identified very
Jerome by Rembrandt.
St.
of his time that
detail.
.
.
Only
— perhaps 10 of the 70 — have been located
.60.
a few
the cen-
in
turies since.
The
inventory also
etchings.
a large quantity of
lists
Merely to read the items involved can cause
lector or curator to gasp in envy:
"2 36.
with the best sketches of Rembrandt. the works of Rembrandt."
all
the British
Museum,
theque Nationale
The
a
20th Century col-
One book bound .
.238.
.
latter
black leather
in
Yet another book with
presumably referred to a com-
Although there are extensive collections of these
plete set of his etchings. in
Rembrandt's drawings and
the Rijksmuseum in Amsterdam, the Biblio-
and the Morgan Library
in Paris
in
New
York,
it
is
highly doubtful that a complete set can ever be assembled bv any muse-
um
anv
at
price.
Rembrandt's
interest in the
work of some of his contemporaries
manifest in the inventory. Adriaen Brouwer. a painter of low
is
also
life
and
peasant scenes, was represented bv seven pictures and a book of draw-
and there were works bv Rembrandt's teacher Lastman.
ings,
Lievens. Hercules Seghers.
Jan Porcellis. ing of
follow
whose landscapes Rembrandt admired, and in marine pictures. There was also a paint-
who specialized
two dogs bv Titus van in his father's path.
who
Rijn.
as a
vouth must have
(The painting has been
lost,
Apparently he abandoned the profession before
A,mongthe
his
tried to
some
but
surviv-
marked
ing drawings attributed to Titus indicate that he had no
One
his friend
skill.
death at 27.)
today
entries in the inventory that require explanation
is
man bv Abraham Yinck." Vinck. a German, w orked in Amsterdam early in the 7th Century, when it was a fashion not only to make death masks, but also quickly to paint portraits of the deceased. Item 142. "One child pissing." was probably a small statue. The earthy Netherlander took delight in matters that others found vul"86.
portrait of a
dead
1
and such statues were occasionally seen
gar,
even
in public squares.
Brussels in 1619: a replica of
it is still
than originals
— included
set
there, near the
Rembrandt's collection of sculpture casts rather
as fountains in
One famous example was
— most
up
town
gardens and
in
the city ot
hall.
were probably
statues of the
plaster
Roman emperors Au-
gustus and Tiberius, and numerous busts of other emperors, classical
heroes and philosophers. (Interestingly enough, the busts of the emperors
had been arranged bv Rembrandt, the supposed ignoramus,
in
chronological order in his gallery.) Item 345. with the startling listing
"One
little
child
bv Michelangelo." was probably another
well have been copied from the great Italian's ture in the
Church of Notre
Dame
in
cast,
Madonna and
and may
Child sculp-
Bruges, commissioned by a
wealthy Flemish family a century and a half earlier.
Rembrandt's collection of Renaissance
art included paintings ascribed
:
â&#x20AC;&#x201D;
"
Palma Yecchio. Jacopo Bassano and Giorgione. There can
to Raphael.
way
be no
of verifying these ambitious attributions, but he also had an
outstanding collection of prints after Michelangelo. Leonardo. Raphael.
Holbein and Rubens.
Titian.
Although works of
manv
comprise the bulk of the inventory, there are
art
other items that suggest the range of Rembrandt's interests.
"Two
include:
One box
globes.
Thev
of minerals. Forty-seven specimens
full
One hand gun and one One arbalest. Several rare cups in Venetian glass. One large lump of white coral. One East Indian basket full of casts and heads. One drawer in which there is a bird of Paradise and six fans. of land and sea creatures, and things of that sort. pistol.
Several walking sticks.
Thirtv-three pieces of ancient hand weapons, arrows,
assegais
staffs,
bows. Thirteen pieces of bamboo wind instruments and
A
fifes.
and
collec-
One small metal man and woman. The skins
tion of stags' horns. Five old helmets and shields.
One
cannon.
costumes for an Indian
[pair of]
of a lion and a lioness, with
Rembrandt had books of various
book
in high
two colored
coats.
One
a verv small library.
German
War
owned no
bv the
at least at the
works except
literarv
first
R,
.embrandt's collections were appraised at
However, onlv about 5.000 heavilv in debt.
still
guilders
The low
falling off of his popularity
one
were
members, fearing
â&#x20AC;&#x201D; was
that the
in
etched
some
rea-
the plav.
1
7.000 guilders.
realized in the sales, leaving
mav be
prices
attributed both to the
war with England. But
in
the Guild of St. Luke
-artists in
When
evidently conspired against him.
drawings and etchings
artist
and to an economic depression of the time:
Rembrandt's fellow
instance.
The
more than
the Dutch had lately suffered severe losses in a at least
Centurv
copv of Medea, an
edition of his friend's opus, but for
son chose to depict an incident that does not occur
him
First
time of the inven-
a
adaptation bv Jan Six of the celebrated classical drama. the frontispiece for the
"A
been.
also listed, as are
is
and "Albrecht Diirer's book on proportion
with woodcuts. " Otherwise Rembrandt,
have
subjects"'
edition of The Jenisb
historian Flavius Josephus.
tory, appears to
mav have
without indicating what they
sizes.''
Dutch [German] with military
an old Bible, a
item mentions "Fifteen
a collection of
"paper
art"'
about to go under the hammer. Guild
sudden release ot so voluminous and
rich a
stock might depress the market, arranged for the sale to be hastily held.
Before connoisseurs were aware of Italian.
fetched the ludicrous
When in
sum of 600
â&#x20AC;&#x201D; was placed on the block,
and
it
compelled him to leave
it
guilders.
the sale of Rembrandt's house
1660. he moved, with
mass of prints and drawings
a
it.
own
French and Rembrandt's
Titus.
final lv
daughter Cornelia, to a modest rented dwelling
dam beyond rent
it
is
likely that
without
{8
of Amster-
in
mind:
No
to live
after his
doubt the
away from
unhappv
ex-
seems to have been more than willing to withdraw from
However, he certainly was not friends.
It
is
true that a
abruptly disappeared from his
I
in a section
Rembrandt chose
the center of the city with another reason
society.
illegitimate
his
the outermost of the city's three great canals.
was cheap, but
periences, he
young
Hendrickje and
life
as the mvth would have him number of men (including Jar v
after the "disgraceful"'
bankruptcy, but
One was
others remained loyal.
must have had Rembrandt
in
named Jeremias de Decker, who
a poet
mind when he wrote these
As luck or money runs out, though
virtue
So friendship straightway falls with her I could tell In
many a
tale
about
may still stand,
nose in the sand.
that.
1666 Rembrandt painted de Decker's portrait
cording to the
— not
for
storw but for friendship and the love of
sitter's
be surmised from
lines:
late date,
its
money,
ac-
As may
art.
the painting penetrated to the man's core.
A few of Rembrandt's contemporaries
grasped the
One
artist's intent.
of
them, another poet named Jan van Petersom. studied the picture and wrote:
"O
Rembrandt, bv vour
X
.here
were other
you paint de Decker so
zeal
.
.
friends
who
his
former pupils, too. remained devoted to him.
er,
who
him bv manv
Alone among Dutch mature that
artists,
own
stvle until his
when he
who would, death. Some of
stood bv Rembrandt and
indeed, assume the guardianship of his daughter
survived
that his soul
."
shines through his face.
after his
One was
Aert de Geld-
years, living well into the
de Gelder continued to paint
death. His respect for
8th Centurv.
1
in
the master's
Rembrandt was
so great
painted a portrait (possiblv of himself) as late as 40 vears
he chose to picture the
after his apprenticeship,
sitter
with Rembrandt's
"Hundred Guilder Print" in his hand. Although it would be incorrect Rembrandt was surrounded bv a host of affectionate admirers
to
sav that
manv friends as he wished to have and was grave unmourned or unremembered.
he had
his final vears.
destined to go to his
Nor
did he
—
as
again, contrary to
mvth
— languish
in
in
not
poverty after his
bankruptcy. Legally he was obliged to turn over to his creditors anv
money he might
from future
receive
sales
of his
but an ingenious
art.
not altogether admirable means was found to circumvent the law. of Rembrandt's creditors were kindly his adversity,
and
fumed
art.
dummy
a
the
it
him
to
of works of art.
The resumption
He
him
in
collected whatever
as
up
as
his creditors
money Rem-
"salary." Moreover. Rembrandt
—
undimmed actually resumed his purchases although on a much smaller scale than in the past.
his passion for collecting
silience.
While
as their adviser.
two "dealers"
brandt acquired and passed
—
loans to
corporation, setting themselves
and hired Rembrandt
in frustration,
men who had made
deserved to be repaid.) In 1658 Hendrickje and
formed
Titus, then 17,
dealers in
who
if
(Some
of collecting was only a small sign of Rembrandt's
also continued to
work
steadfastly at his art. through
re-
all
of
the disasters of the 1650s and through even worse personal losses that
were to follow
in
preoccupation.
It
commissioned
the next decade. Portraiture continued to be a major
seems
portraits
safe to if
assume that he might have made more
he had been asked, although
imagine him crustily rejecting requests from people
happen to
whom
like.
As
it
it is
whom
also easy to
he did not
developed, most of his paintings were of people
he asked to pose and
In selecting his sitters.
who
probably paid him
Rembrandt showed no
—
little
or nothing.
interest in faces that
had
—
some obviously striking quality beauty or ugliness that might appeal to a modern candid photographer. Instead he sought out individuals in
L39
whom
he could see intimations of the "soul" beneath the
human
the small compass of the
who
artist
man ist
—
Rembrandt
face.
God
and
redemption, even history. Another
art-
and expressions that served
his
has ever lived, to express
suffering, endurance, love,
might have chosen to invent
Within
flesh.
more than any
tried,
that he sensed about
all
faces
Rembrandt was too involved with mankind for that. In his non-commissioned portraits, where preserving a likeness was not an
purpose, but late
from outward
obligation, he mav. indeed, have departed
ennoble
tualize or
who might have been encountered
types 1
making them
his subjects,
7th Century
—or
last
davs of King Saul, in the
in the
Rembrandt crossed the
line
and religious portraiture; the men he encountered
were
invited into his studio
Rubens,
the Bible.
transcendental
week. But he portraved the faces of living men.
In these self-chosen subjects.
ular
realitv to spiri-
timeless,
in
he visualized
also the saints
in painting a series of apostles,
between
in his
had
sec-
the street and
reading of
tried to suggest
—
them as Michelangelo and Raphael handsome and phvsicallv powerful beings. But Rembrandt, who knew his Bible and was his own judge of the qualities of man, saw the apostles and other saints as ordinary mortals, rugged, their strength of spirit
had done before him
bv
—
who had
poor, wrinkled,
idealizing
as
been transfigured bv their religious experiences.
In 1661 alone he painted five portraits of apostles, using els
Rembrandt was
fascinated by exotic
costumes and personalities. In 163 at a carnival,
dressed
still
India.
shows
His portrayal of
type.
somewhat
a
built the Taj
R..embrandt's
Shah
riding attire, practicing falconry.
mausoleum
ple,
a
1
man who
8th and
—
1
appearance, not
Bartholomew,
St.
unattractive, crude
unknown modfor
exam-
bears no resem-
some
a fact that caused
9th Centuries.
Two decades later the
was Shah Jahan who a
is
ridiculous misunderstandings in the
an Indian miniature painting showing the
in
superhuman
one
in
interested; this time he copied
contemporary Emperor of Jahan.
and although some are patriarchal
blance to the conventional saintly conception
Negro kettle-drummers on
was
selected,
perhaps
he sketched two elegantly
horseback (above). artist
8,
he had
Mahal
It
as
intention in this
low degree who has seen the tion,
pondering
their
customarv attributes
for his wife.
sword
—
— is
Lord and
St.
Peter with his kevs. St. Paul with his
shown holding
was martyred by being flaved
Rembrandt made the
is a man of who sits rapt in reflecwho are pictured with
plain enough: here
is
Like other saints
this miracle.
Bartholomew
St.
tion that he
work
light of the
a knife, recalling the tradi-
About 100
alive.
years after
painting, an English artist, Charles Phillips, pro-
duced a mezzotint copy of seems to have doubted
it.
that
Although the copy
is
a faithful one. Phillips
Rembrandt would have painted an
apostle
with such homely features. In any event, he misinterpreted the symbol-
ism of the knife and
re-titled
mezzotint
titled his
Century some scholars became
dissatisfied
In the
his creditors;
end of the misunderstanding. As
Not
until the
artist
might
but even this re-titling was not the
late as
1
893 an eminent French
advanced the idea that the portrait was not
surgeon.
19th
bankruptcy, would have startled
a chef in 1661. after his
both Rembrandt and
riously
Assassin."
the picture "Rembrandt's Cook." The idea that the
have employed
a
"The
with that name and thereupon
cook
critic se-
at all
but of
20th Century was the matter of identity
at last
ol a
straightened out.
The freedom
.
freedom to rich
costumes
casionally,
140
that
cast
Rembrandt enjoyed with the
them
in
sitters
he chose himself
such roles as he wished and to dress them
was usually not possible
in his
in
commissioned work Oc
however, he was able to find patrons
who were
sufficiently
—
enlightened and appreciative of his art to allow him a good deal of liber-
This was apparently the case
ty.
in the so-called Jewish Bride (pages
130-
work painted a few years before his death. It appears to be the wedding portrait of a Sephardic couple; the reciprocal admiration between Rembrandt and members of Amsterdam's Jewish community may 131), a
account for the couple's willingness to be portrayed is
they were. There
as
man
a deep. Biblical solemnity in the gesture of the
he places
as
his
summing-up of the spiritual, emotional and physical aspects of marriage. Rembrandt seems to be portraying the couple in the guise of Old Testament figures perhaps Ruth and Boaz. Isaac hand on
his wife's breast, a
—
and Rebecca or Jacob and Rachel.
lations as to the real identity of these figures, settle
the question,
speaks for
it
itself. It is
would make one more
combine the worldly and the
to
Rembrandt's
fall
from
fiscal
advance
Critics continue to
but even
new
specu-
one were able to
The double
scant difference.
brilliant
if
portrait
example of Rembrandt's
ability
spiritual.
grace did not preclude a
number of com-
missions from even the most sober of businessmen. In 1661 or 1662.
about 20 years ined"'
supposed debacle of the Night Watch had "ru-
after the
won
him. according to the myth, he
the Syndics of the Drapers' Guild
—
in
an important assignment from
modern
terms, roughly equivalent
to the officers of a textile manufacturers' association. In response,
duced what
is
without doubt the greatest of
all
his
group
he pro-
portraits (pages
86-87).
The
Syndics
hind them.
shows the
The
five guild officers
with a servant standing be-
been that
traditional interpretation of the painting has
thev are portrayed in the act of making a financial report to the ship in the auditorium.
However, recent scholarly research
such public reports were not customary.
who
are
all
looking
one point
at
disturbance in their audience? In
Rembrandt has chosen
— appear
fact,
indicates that
do the Syndics
then,
at
someone
The device both
the entering spectator.
in
some
to be responding to
thev are not: there
is
no audience.
to give his group portrait a touch of
having his subjects glance not at
Why.
member-
drama bv
an imaginary assembly, but
unifies the
mation to the picture without detracting from the
group and adds ani-
brilliant characteriza-
tion of the individuals.
I
j
vaminarions of the painting by X-ray show
was moved three times before the
how Rembrandt
He shifted all the
gled to keep the picture in balance.
artist
was
strug-
figures; the servant
satisfied.
The
finished
work
has an unshakable stability, subtly maintained by three dominant horizontals: the
edge of the
table, the level of the
wainscoting. In this framework
heads and the
Rembrandt placed the
—businesslike, even calculating, but
still
line of the
faces of the
men
aware not only of the auditor of
ledgers but also of the Auditor of their souls.
After his past experiences with businessmen.
reason to be cool or even sis
bitter in his painting,
of character transcends
saw decency
as well;
if
all
Rembrandt may have had but he was not. His analy-
petty feeling. If he discerned self-interest, he
he saw self-righteousness, he also sensed the
tude and boldness that obliges
men
of this century, as well of the
1
recti-
7th. to
salute the Dutch.
41
E
or Europeans of Rembrandt's dav, a print
engraving or woodcut jointly
them
by
—
filled
work of art and
a
esthetic
a
enjoyment and
word
itself,
the
1
etching,
a need that today
is
met
news photograph.
It
gave
also satisfied their curiosity
about distant places and people; printed
—
it
The
Bite
of the Print
was, other than the
means of
7th Century's major
mass communication. Publishers — and — issued and circulated quantities of
artists
prints.
themselves
Some took
the form of simple broadsheets; others illustrated books; others reproduced privately
owned
paintings inaccessible
to public view.
Thus Rembrandt's fame while he
lived
was greater
as
an etcher than as a painter (he did no engravings or
woodcuts). turned
it
The acknowledged master
into a
wondrously
of the
medium, he
flexible instrument of
his art.
Biblical themes, genre, landscapes, portraits, nudes
these he found suitable for etching. ot tools as ot technique.
in
all
command
Rembrandt sometimes employed
even the V-shaped engraver's burin
combining
As much
—
in his etchings,
with the fine etching needle and thicker
it
dry point needle, as
in
the
work
opposite, for richer
Shown
in its actual size, tins detail
from The Three Crosses (page 145} pro\ ulcs an indication ol
pictorial effects.
Rembrandt's
\l>ovc
all
Rembrandt's great
gift as
an etcher lay
in
preserving a sense of spontaneity while scrupulously
attending to close detail. For him each etching, as the scholar K. felt
142
(i.
Boon
skill at
noted, "originated ... print.'''
in
.\n
etched work w ithout sacrificing an) intimac) otgcvturcorotl.ici.il
expression
need to make that particular
markedly
enlarging the dimensions ol
the deeply TbeTb
letail
/
I
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i
r-rr
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-
j
&3Mtt x"*^™^
I ft
&•
:-X^,
rja» v
«.--.»*
w
£$*
*
.
V.
| 'WL
JH^ L^Mtiii»
-
Tbe Three
I
n etching a plate.
went alone, pulling "states."
shown
The
in less
third
Rembrandt often made changes
23
:
.
was
44
\nd
And
as
he
prints of these variations, called
and fourth
states of
than hall their true
opposite, respectively. "
Crosses, third state. 16SI
size,
Tbe Three
Rembrandt took
there was
a
Crosses,
appear abo\ e and
darkness over
his text all
from
I
uke
the earth.
the sun w as darkened, and the veil of the temple
rent in the midst." In the third state the
two
thieves
The Three
who were crucified with Christ are clearly seen, as is the Roman soldier who was overcome with revelation and fell
others.
to his knees in worship. In the foreground are the "rulers"
deepened.
who had come to vilifv fainting;
hehind her
St.
Christ; to His right
John stands
in a
is
the Virgin,
posture of
desolation. In the fourth state.
Rembrandt
greatly altered his
composition, burnishing out several figures and adding
But the most
illumination:
significant
change
is
Crosses, fourth state.
in the
now the "darkness overall the earth"
The supernatural
light
has
descending upon Christ
has diminished, and the thief at right can scarcely be
detected in the gloom. Although each state of the print passionate admirers,
has
its
the
artist's
many
prefer the fourth: here
conception of the meaning of Christ's death
realized with
overwhelming power.
145
is
I
65:
,-*5ft<£-,:
I n his etchings of everyday
life.
Rembrandt moved from
a youthful zest for the comical and picturesque to a
mature
more
interest in the essential characteristics of every
human being. The three etchings on this page were all made before he was 30. In the Pancake Woman (left) one can sense
his
amusement
trying to keep a
at the plight
dog from
of the
little girl
stealing the treasure she has
bought. The Quacksalver hawking his nostrums (below, left)
and The
householder
Ratkiller peddling his services to a (directly below) are
on two seamv Dutch Giving of Alms date from
1
(top)
648,
types.
trenchant commentaries
The
prints opposite
— the —
and Jews in a Synagogue (bottom)
when Rembrandt was 42, and reveal his come to find of greater import:
concern with what he had the
human qualities of kindness and
humility, and the
reflectiveness of old age. Pancake Woman, 163 5
The Quacksalver, 1635
/•
ks
Ratkiller. I6.?2
j
I
98fr
'~1W.
Giving ofAlms, 1648
Jews in a Synagogue,
1
o4S
14;
Three Trees. 1643
•
'
'
*mm
m
*PM *
'"•'"'
>A* >
fe»
•
•
•
'i
R
.cmbrandt etched the Three Trees
completed the Night Watch, and
it
(opposite, top) a
contains
much
\
ear after he had
of the Baroque quality of
that painting: at this period of his career he seems to have been particularK inclined
toward the use of swirling action and
color. Ordinarily the
"action" and "color" would appear to be inappropriate
landscape
in
their
work
is
the
clump of trees, touched with
massed foliage interpenetrating, the etching
is
human activity as well.
twice the actual artist
size, lovers loll
sketches; a
man
at right a carriage
fishes; in
a
While the
light
alive
sunshine and storm, and with wind that sends the clouds flying.
teems with
words
connection with
black and white, but in this case they are apt enough.
principal motif of the
shadow,
in
and
with
The scene
In the detail below, reproduced here at
almost concealed
in
the distance farmers
the foreground bushes: an
move about
laden with passengers labors up the
richness the Three Trees does, indeed, rival the
hill.
In
its
the plain; and pictorial
most accomplished
of Rembrandt's landscape paintings.
yT -
-
8m
m
: fan Six. Reading. 16+
70
Tbomas facobsz. Haaring, 1656
'an Six, Reading (opposite) and Thomas facobsz. Haaring +Ja, are
among the finest of Rembrandt's
etched portraits.
manuscripts, the picture, and the old weapons that stamp
him
as a scholar, writer
Both were, moreover, commissioned works; more often
of Haarinu
paying customers preferred to be depicted
a portrayal.
in paint. In his
is
and wealthy
devoid of such
He was
details,
bailiffof the
collector.
but no
The studv
less
interesting
Amsterdam Court of
study of Six Rembrandt combined genre and portraiture.
Insolvency at the time of Rembrandt's financial collapse.
The sitter's
about him than
The artist must have
the
rendered his face with complete sympathy.
face, lightly etched, tells less
do the minutiae of his surroundings:
it is
liked the old
man
nonetheless, for he
151
Nude Seated on a
I
n his reaction against the incredibly perfect
Renaissance
art.
Rembrandt undertook
to
mules of
show what
another
Dutchwoman rcalk looked like. In this case he may have made his point a trifle too strongly and perhaps naked
unfairly; the
woman maj
not have been merely overfed,
but pregnant too. Curiousl)
Rembrandt's death that
.
it
critics
was onl)
took him to task lor
left
by garters on
flesh. In
Rembrandt's
the print met with such success that
152
it
own
in
artist to satisfy
the
classical proprieties
The Good Samaritan
lifetime
was soon copied by
demand w ere
tor
also
(opposite).
I
\<>unJ. c
realistic
it
The human is all
Some well-meaning Rembrandt
hand, but the
artist
w
16^1
Rembrandt's target
not idealized, and the posture of the do\Âą
tried to establish that the
after
creating such figures and lor revealing such details as the
dent
The
a
.
figures
arc-
too frankly
partisans have
animal was added by another
as clearK taking a
sw ipe
at
those
pnss\ people w ho preferred to avoid confronting the
embarrassing crudities that existed not only
world but
in their
ow
n as well
in
the Biblical
7"/'!-
Good Samaritan,
1
1> ;
5
â&#x20AC;&#x201D;
L-7hown aaual
size
Christ Healing the Sick (called the
"Hundred
Guilder Print" for the price
reportedly
it
fetched) combines several episodes
Matthew
from
19: the
healing of the sick (right); the Pharisees
arguing
(left);
young man
the rich
(left,
hand
on face)
who
give his
money to the
is
told to
poor.
Rembrandt conveys Christ as
beautifullv
conception of
his
among the
people and yet remote
from them by making
Him
slightly taller
than the others
although not heroic stature
in
â&#x20AC;&#x201D; and by the
use of gesture. Christ's
hand sums
raised left
up the
of verse
spirit
14 ("Suffer children.
.
little .
to
come
unto me"). His right
hand gentlv "rebukes" the bald St. Peter (center),
who
is
attempting to bar the
approach of a
woman
carrying an infant.
The detail on
the
next pages, enlarged five times, artist's
shows the
decisive
placement of each stroke to achieve the
sharpness of characterization which helps
make
this the
most famous of all
Rembrandt etchings
Christ with the Sick
around Hun. Receiving
Little
Children (Christ Heating the Sick),
c
.
I
64<S
-
1
6 n)
' t
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i
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t.
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»
158
—
VII The
Last
Full
Measure
In the final
20 years of
his
life,
bludgeoned by tragedies that might
have crushed a weaker man, Rembrandt achieved a power in
The
has never been matched.
last full
measure of
his art that
his creativity
can be
felt
not only in his religious works and in his portraits but also in such re-
markable
lifes
still
many
repelled
as
buy the painting
able to
Ox
The Slaughtered
The
(opposite).
subject once
people; about a century ago, agents of the Louvre were at auction for the relatively
minor sum of 5,000
no other museums or collectors cared to compete for it. Today The Slaughtered Ox upsets no one, except perhaps those who covet it yet cannot purchase it at any price now. The picture has the magfrancs because
combination of realism and mystery that
ical
The
left
side of the
shadow, and
ox
regard
in that
it is
Rembrandt
—
Life
comments of
revealing to read the
sor Emeritus Jakob Rosenberg of Harvard artist,
uniquely Rembrandt's.
is
not sharply outlined but subtly blended into
is
in his classic
study of the
and Work. Rosenberg makes the point
brandt always put truth before beauty
— "not only the
Profes-
Rem-
that
obvious, visual
truth of the physical world, but also, penetrating and conditioning spiritual truth."
and nature into being. life.
are
.
.
as .
.
There
.
combined
Rembrandt, Rosenberg
it.
the
man
writes, conceived of both
"dependent upon the Supreme Force that brought them
They
.
is
up with the
are tied
no such
creative process of
thing, for him, as nature morte.
in his still-life paintings
earthlv
all
Dead peacocks
with living persons. Rembrandt
is
unwilling to cut off anything from the continuous stream of creation
even a carcass,
as
...
in
his
Slaughtered Ox.
compositions, are not allowed to finality, since this
Reverencing all of God's creatures.
Because
Rembrandt saw nothing unseemly in
painting this gorv ox carcass
rather than the
more
usual subjects
The woman in the background may be the
of
Dutch
still lifes.
butcher's wife.
brandt's
art,
a place? His parents
took
its
is
in
his
anv
.
.
.
their contact with the life process."
itself
— but where within
were married
austere theology from
Forms,
definite or to have
"Supreme Force" was so
the question of his religion
certainly a Protestant
in that
The Slaughtered Ox, 1655
would break
his belief in a
become too
in the
central to
merits examination.
He
\\
as
that broad category did he find
Dutch Reformed Church, which
John Calvin. Rembrandt was brought up
church; his four children by Saskia were baptized in
much
Rem-
in his art that reflects Calvinist attitudes
—
it.
and there
particularly the
view
159
that religion touches everv area of
God. But
fore
to have had
much
Thus, although almost
formed Church,
the
all
The Church Council
than
in painting.
him within the Re-
spiritual affiliation.
1654 there are four
for
Rembrandt, although onlv the
relating to
seem not
emotional, intuitive
in religion
he also had another
Reformed Church
the archives of the
rationality
records place
official
likelv that
it is
svstem
rigid
totally helpless be-
is
who was
appeal for Rembrandt,
and no more inclined to follow a
In
and that man dogma and his
life,
Calvin's strictness of
entries
mentions him bv name.
first
of Amsterdam, scandalized
at
the arrangement be-
tween Rembrandt and Hendnckje. summoned both of them to account. Hendrickje was in
dren (one
of whom
more were
so three
the Council bluntlv put
living, as
â&#x20AC;&#x201D; with the
whoredom
had
it.
in Hoererij
â&#x20AC;&#x201D;
literally
artist,
and had borne him two illegitimate
died).
Nothing ensued from the
issued, but in these onlv
first
Hendrickje was
chil-
summons,
called. Ulti-
mately she appeared before the Council and was admonished and banned
from the sacraments. The ban was
when
lifted
baptism. In the traditional Calvinist view,
soon
as practicable after birth:
of the seeds of
Whv
she presented her child for
it is
vital to
baptize infants as
unbaptized children are believed to be
full
evil.
was Rembrandt ignored
summons? Probablv the member of the Re-
after the first
Council discovered that he was not
time a
at that
formed Church, and hence was beyond
its
jurisdiction. In his maturity
Rembrandt had turned away from Calvinism
in a direction that
indi-
is
cated bv his biographer Baldinucci. Himself a Catholic priest in the days
of the Counter Reformation. Baldinucci was disinclined to speak well of
anv form of Protestantism, but
wrote Baldinucci.
brandt,
in this case
"the
professed
[Mennonites], which, though false too. .
.
.
of
Thev do not
elect
humble condition
just people,
and
is
he was
as
men
long as thev arc esteemed by them honorable and
take their
Menno's followers
name and
who
all
good
Simons,
a
dogmas, sacraments and the Apostles at His
t>\
Sermon on
a
Menno
creed from
rejected
interpret the
doing they have suffered
refuse to bear
Rem-
Menisti
vet opposed to that of Calvin.
ceremonies that were not instituted by Christ or
for so
the
educated preachers but employ for such posts
16th Century Dutch theologian
and
of
for the rest they live following their caprice."
The Mennonites
order.
fairly gentle.
religion
the
Mount
literally
deal of persecution.
â&#x20AC;&#x201D;
They
arms or swear an oath: they oppose any infringement by
the state on their freedom of conscience anil have even rejected such materialistic practices as
Rembrandt's time lent
insurance and the collection ot interest on loans. In
their spiritual concerns centered
on Bible reading,
si-
prayer and the practice of charity. In accordance with Menno's view
they found "the poor in spirit" preferable to "the worldly wise and learned." and
drew
no
seemed most important
social
to
them
among themselves What Sermon on the Mount was the
distinctions in
the
injunction to love tin neighbor. In their theology the emphasis was on
Christ as the healer and teacher of (
iod ot
(
men
The simplicity, humility and liberalism appealed powerfully to
I
mi
rather than
on the formidable
!alvin.
a
ot the
Mennonites must have
man of Rembrandt's nature
ami these charac
—
teristics are at their is
no evidence
most prominent
and greatest works. There
in his last
that he actually joined the sect:
have approved of
its
members would not
of rich costume and his taste for the romantic,
his love
and thev would have been disturbed even more than the Calvinists by domestic
But
affairs.
his strongest spiritual affinity in his later years
his
was
with the Mennonites. Beyond that, he seems to have lived on the fringes of organized religion, reading and interpreting the Bible in his personal way.
ly
Rembrandt
So-called
almost every book
have essayed
in
this task
— more than 800
human
mav have
;
zarenus Rex
with a
first artist
1
"portraits" of
them emphasize the
It is
all.
believed that his
Rembrandt seems
(page 104).
to derive his Christ-type from studying the
For centuries painters had been carefully placing on the
Iudaeorum; but
—Jesus of Nazareth, was unthinkable to
classic
1
deepening
Rembrandt painted from
placard of the Cross above Christ's head the letters
it
il-
bears a notable resemblance to
Emmaus
the Saviour's face in the Christ at
been the
portrait
work
the sitter's face in this
faces of Jews.
own
influence or his
served for
model was a young Jew, whose own
brandt
on the
aspect of the Saviour and are so similar in general appear-
ance that the same model
meaning
who
New.
Christ in the vears between 1648 and 1661. All of
to have
artists
of Christ to
life
conceptions or both. Rembrandt painted no fewer than
1661
illustrations of
for example, focuses
a half-dozen pictures of the
Whether because of the Mennonite
life in
his
— have
have confined themselves wholly or largely to one
Old Testament, with only
tender,
all
"illustra-
in all
Old Testament and the New. Most
Testament or the other; the "Raphael Bible,"
lustrate the
most complete
its
Europe and the U.S. Thev contain
the
in
high-
with pictures selected from
Bibles,
and drawings
religious paintings, etchings
been published both
own
so thoroughly did he read the Bible that of
the Western tradition he has been
artists in
tor."
And
Greek or
a
pictorially
I.
had
they
—
I
Iesus
Na-
disregarded
the
N.R.I.
King of the Jews. To the mature Remcontradict the Bible by endowing Christ
Roman
he bizarre hat perched
like a
Italian princeling depicted
the similar creation
at
probably because of a growing tendency to interpret the Bible
(pages 143-145).
.
and
it is
hkeK
friends o\\ ned thi^
in
As
early as 1653,
mood
when
can be seen
in
In this large etching the emphasis
state
had transformed
ening gloom. Although the work affirmation
—
as
one
critic
has put
his original
is it,
filled
one
in
the
financial disaster
The Three falls
Crosses
on the dark
it is
above
all
scene into one of black-
with a sense of tremendous
"the Crucifix soars triumphantlv
into the light like the 'Hallelujah' at the
—
5th
left
tor
of
end of a great Baroque oratorio"
the terrible, final ordeal of Christ that concerns the
artist,
more deeply than in any of his earlier Crucifixion scenes. The same tragic spirit may be detected in the painting of Batbsheba (pages 172-173) of 1654 the year in which the Council of the Re-
far
—
formed Church disciplined Hendrickje.
It
was she who served
as the
161
ere
Remhrandt 's
that he or
drama on the hill of Golgotha and on Christ's suffering. As Rembrandt worked on his monumental plate, he produced separate states of it. and by the fourth
I
commemorative or decorativ e medals u
to retain his tender conception of Christ, but
light of his private calamities.
ionzaga, the
the extreme
the mid- 1650s a somber tone began to emerge in his religious art
began to loom, the new tragic
(
this
Rembrandt's Three Crimes (page I4>). Such
or a Nordic face.
da)
in
on
Century lead medal, was the inspiration
popular collector's items
R,.embrandt was always
giant cupcake
on the head ofGian Francesco
one
ot his
.
model finest
and Rembrandt's rendering resulted
for Bathsheba.
may have
nudes of the Baroque era; Rubens
ing sheer feminine beauty, but no painter equaled
thought and
feeling. In fact
very few nudes,
be particularly thoughtful.
said to
seems not to have a brain
in
surpassed
Venus on her
Botticelli's
in paint-
in expression
it
any period of
in
one of the it
art,
of
can be
scallop shell
her head; Fragonard's Bathers are wonder-
in
ornamental, but one shudders to think what any of them, could she
fully
no more promise. But
speak, might say; and the odalisques of Ingres give
Rembrandt's Bathsheba broods poignantly on her situation; she
aware of the web of
conflicting impulses, well
fate in
which she
full
is
is
of
caught
and of the tragedy that King David's desire for her will bring.
B
'iblical figures
brandt in his
them was that
final
of stature
their hours of
No
cup.
full
He came drop of
a
Rem-
than Bathsheba's concerned
what seemed to
trial.
one man, having tasted
drink the
far greater
decade, and
him most about
fascinate
to understand
them
in
way
the
may understand what
gall,
it is
to
vanity was involved in identifying his plight with
was
theirs or in inserting his face in scenes of the Crucifixion. Indeed, this
Dutch piety of the time, perhaps best expressed by the
a reflection of
contemporary theologian Jacobus Revius
famous sonnet containing
in a
these lines: It
was not
Steeped
in
moved with
Lord Jesus, who
the Jezvs,
Lord,
It is I,
the sadness and
he will be redeemed, but in his
force:
girl,
He
as
and ask what
guilt, loyalty
with
God's
David -but even
as
ideal,
Any man
what promise, he
9,
is
is
in
sight, tries to find solace in the
still
will
any century can
himself about to betr.n tilled
much
again apparent. The mighty king,
he wipes a tear from
within him. Saul
Samuel.
the
tear. In
had prophesied. But the painting does more
late religious art
has lost favor in
I
expressed with over-
is
Saul and David (pages 174-175) the somberness that
Rembrandt's
boil
him
His shoulder, knows that Peter
than merely illustrate the Biblical incident.
In
world, Rembrandt
illuminated bv a candle held
face,
innocence contends with
deny Him, exactly
it
own
of his
the conflict that racks
distance, Christ, looking back over
at
.
â&#x20AC;&#x201D;
time of trial. In Peter's
up bv a servant
look
.
doomed man not a condemned one, doomed to break and to reveal his human
Peter he portrays a tragically
for
powering
frailties
You
that to You.
great insight in the world of the Scriptures. In his Denial of
St.
weakness
crucified
who have done
it is I
oi
of
who
music of young
madness and violence
his eye,
wears the trappings
,
majesty; in the words ol
"There was not among the children of
Israel a
goodlier per
son than he: from his shoulder and upward he was higher than any of the people." Yet Saul's end blacks ot the
Rembrandt tears
is
not
far off,
and he
shadows so portend, and
partially isolates Saul
in
will die a suicide. a
superbh
stroke
by the curtain with which he dries
20th Century psychiatrist might well find
\
The deep
prescieni
in this a pictorial
gestion that the king's illness was schizophrenia: the "evil
spirit''
Ins
sug that
possessed Saul caused him to vacillate between gentle, repentant lucidity
and furious, uncontrolled lunacy.
Not
allot
ed with
162
Rembrandt's
gloom
In
late religious paintings,
however, are permeat-
1656, the year he was forced into bankruptcy, he
—
produced one of the most tranquil of
The
Sons of Joseph.
but an interesting point the half-blind patriarch
works
all his
Jacob Blessing the
shown and discussed on pages 169-171, remains to be made about it. The bed in which
painting
is
askew;
startlingly
lies is
footposts and head-
its
board have no relation to each other. Obviously Rembrandt, whose observation of realitv and accuracy of line can scarcely be faulted, simplv
when he
did not care about visual truth
cerned with darkening the foreground the quiet
communion
human
of his
this
is
was con-
order to throw his emphasis on
was the
figures. It
action, not the fact of a bed, that engrossed him.
drawing" when
similarlv ignored "proper
He
painted this work.
in
them
suited
it
the privilege of genius; absolute mastery
is
fact
of their inter-
Other great to
have
artists
do
But
so.
required before one can
effectivelv take leave of literalism.
Rembrandt's portraits
One
this
is
the so-called Polish Rider (pages 122-123).
a portrait. Biblical or historv painting, or genre scene.
must be categorized, perhaps "romance" this
The
chant.
was a commissioned
Christian warriors; in the
1
mav have been making
rider
heavily
is
war hammer
Rembrandt
armed
— but
as
an
able to "infidels"
be carried
far,
— he
far as
carries a
was
artist
it is
its
the artist
it
known,
in his entire
Amsterdam merthat he epitomizes
rode east to do battle
RemThe
also possible that
bow, arrows, a sword, a dagger and
also heavilv
a
look of vulnerability.
armed, and he too was vulner-
not understand him. This conjecture cannot
worth noting that last
1658,
in
when
"downfall"
his
of his precious possessions, he
In the print, a statue of a hero has
place has been taken
was
c
lertainly his
collector, Aristotle
Don Antonio
who
Ruffo,
in
The
Sicil-
1652 had
Contemplating the Bust of Horner (page 125),
other paintings from
Alexander the Great and &
pedes-
its
would endure.
independent attitude toward patrons persisted.
commissioned the
two
been toppled from
bv the bird of self-resurrection. Perhaps
defiantlv saying that he too
nobleman and
acquired
is
tell
If
etching called The Phoenix which also seems to be a personal
comment. but
still
is
in his sensitive face there is a
who could
but
it
is
hard to
a personal statement in the picture.
was completed by the auction of the
made an
men
7th Century
Turks and Tartars. But
brandt
ian
As
portrait of an
usual interpretation of the Polish Rider
against the infidel
tal,
the word.
It is
one of onlv two equestrian paintings bv Rembrandt
is
career; the other
all
is
his
in his last years.
is
of these
whether
by
late religious paintings are rivaled in their nobility
and bv a few secular works that he undertook
Homer
intriguing series of letters passed
Rembrandt
in
1661 and 1663
— an
(page 124). Concerning these works, an
between the
and the
Sicilian
artist,
and
although Rembrandt's part of the correspondence has unhappilv vanished,
what remains
attests to his
continued ruggedness of
spirit.
Ruffo
objected to both paintings, complaining that the Alexander was onlv a head, which had been enlarged ure.
Rembrandt fought
to paint the picture again
The
Sicilian also
ished. critics,
found
on four
sides to
make
it
back, informing RufTb that he if
a half-length fig-
would be
willing
Ruffo would pav an additional 500 guilders.
fault
with the Homer,
This was a charge that was often to be
in his
view,
it
was unfin-
made bv Rembrandt's
later
and, according to his biographer Houbraken. he had long since
165
formulated a crushing reply to
A ,—
-
achieved his intention bv
-
>
it,
one that has a
Rembrandt noted,
painting,
own terms.
his
made
Homer
it
he made them on
between painter and patron
669, the year Rembrandt died, Ruffo
1
ring.
for RufTb: the nature of
likelv that
is
In anv event, the relationship
scarcely suffered. In
>
not known, but
is
modern
it."
Eventually Rembrandt did add to the the changes he
particularly
completed when the master has
"is
with a handsome order for
came through
89 of his etchings, which Rembrandt
1
select-
ed and shipped himself.
X
.here
to
was
in
Baroque town
.ySM5 -
i'
- "'
V-"
-*»—
—
;rt,:
commission he undertook
a
hall
—today
the Royal Palace
thought to the decoration of
— the
would be
But
ry.
Roman
in
Rembrandt's daj was the construction of a
new town
hall.
The old center of n in the
as a
complex
withdrawal
ol dilapidated buildings
houses that stood nearh\ hall
that
w
)
I
he new
in
Rembrandt was one of man) its
artists
a
work
asked to
decoration, hut his
ot
as
one
name
1940s
has been renamed Djakarta, and
it
large
below the vaulted
enough
to
is
now
the
nation of Indonesia.)
Amsterdam town
accommodate
a
hall there are eight lu-
Each of these semi-circular spaces
ceiling.
monumental
painting.
It
was decided
is
to
who must
at that
sidered the foremost painter in Holland, and
time have been con-
who
presumably might
have been expected to produce large-scale masterpieces rivaling those
offering, the Conspiracy ofJulius Civilis,
replaced In
Dutch revere him
to this day the
give the commission to one man.
1655
as in a strong!) classical st) le
paint pictures tor
overwhelm-
the writings of the
town
depicted on the gold medal (below)
commemorates the dedication
new
In the south gallery of the
nettes
row of gabled
also sketched a
— and
in
themselves poetically as "Batavians." and gave the
in the
capital of the
with
no unity of design or construction.
(Saenredam
mentioned
Low
the
Batavia to the capital of their East Indian colonies. (Since the Dutch
drawing above by
the architectural painter Pieter Saenredam.
w
now
of their histo-
led a valiant uprising against the
his exploits are
historian Tacitus
ly referred to
Amsterdam during
government, show
—
is
of their greatest forebears. In Rembrandt's dav Netherlanders occasional-
The most ambitious architectural undertaking
one point Julius
at
power of Rome
ing
what
Roman Empire for most
of the
allies
appropriate. Julius
the Batavians. that had settled during
tribe,
the First Century in the Rhine delta, in the area of
They were
gave
fathers
city
huge south gallery and concluded that
its
scenes depicting the revolt of Julius Civilis
Countries.
closer
the 1650s, after the completion of Amsterdam's great
was the leader of a Germanic
*•
-
^
happy outcome to
a less
home. Late
w
one of his students.
as
produced by Rubens
for
Marie
Amsterdam
officials
chose?
Medici of France several decades ear-
de'
Luxembourg Palace
for the
lier
And who was
Paris.
in
The trumpets
the
man
the
sound, the lights blaze up. and
he steps forth: Flinck.
Govacrt Flinck of
is
by no means to be discounted; he had been
Rembrandt and was
once ranked above
a
good
may seem
artist. It
was the
his master, but that
would not have been given any opportunity
town
hall
had
it
\\
as
Rembrandt
to paint anything tor the in
1660.
The huge
several artists, including other pu-
pils
of Rembrandt, while the master himself was assigned to paint the
first
of the lunettes. Even this was not necessaril) an honor; the series
called for a nocturnal scene,
manner b\
I
s feet.
(
lathers.
same
and
this
was deemed
1662 Rembrandt delivered
In
Civilis (pages
164
case. Indeed.
not been for Flmck's untimely death
commission was then divided among
a pupil
astonishing that he
The
his colossal Conspiracy of Julius
126-129), the largest painting he ever
But the work
subject,
suitable to his "dark"
next year
which
it
still
in all its
was replaced by remains
made
rough!)
glorious s.u agery did not please the
in
the
a
20 citj
second-rate painting on the
town
hall,
by Rembrandt's pupil
Juriaen Ovens.
To Rembrandt, who by
had beeome indifferent
that time
was perhaps not a crushing blow.
to public opinion, the affair
was,
It
rather, a tragedy for art.
By grim on the
coincidence,
it
happened
Rembrandt was
that while
Julius Chilis his beloved mistress Hendrickje
wife Saskia had fallen
ill
It
will
and was described by him
feet
and
as "sick in
went
â&#x20AC;&#x201D;
work
at
just as his
women were
both
likely that
is
victims of tuberculosis. In 1661 Hendrickje
ill
was planning another
years before while he
huge masterpiece, the Night Watch.
fell
make
to a notary to
appearance though
her
on her
still
active."
The importance
He
calculable.
Rembrandt
of Hendrickje to
was
in his late years
had never been a successful manager of
his affairs;
in-
was
it
who protected him from his creditors after his bankruptcy and prohome in which he could work undisturbed. She served repeatedly
she
vided a as his
model
;
his last, loving portrait of her,
have sensed that
life
was beginning to
slip
an of great and simple heart. She died
in
made
in
when he must
660,
1
away from
her, reveals a
1663, and in her will she
wom-
pathetic estate to her daughter Cornelia, with the stipulation that child should die, her possessions should
The will
go to
And
little girl.
that
the
if
Saskia's son Titus, then 22.
also speaks directly to the artist; she "friendly asks
to take care of her
her
left
Rembrandt"
was Hendrickje, one of the noblest
souls ever to serve a troubled genius.
No
lo loss,
He no
art.
however great, could prevent Rembrandt from pursuing
longer produced etchings, and his
been made
last
his
drawings seem to have
about the time of Hendrickje's death. Paint became
at
preferred medium, glowing with the
richest colors
his
he had ever used,
as
evidenced in the Jewish Bride (pages 130-13 1). In his self-portraits he unflinchingly recorded
the slow
approach of
own
his
death.
one
In
extraordinary picture he turns to face the viewer, laughing as he had
laughed long ago
in his earliest
man who
old
has seen through
Rembrandt was
still
now
etched studies of himself. But
laugh that grips the heart, so wonderfully does all
it
is
it
the vanities of the world.
occasionally visited in his studio by
men
of rank
and renown. Cosimo de' Medici, scion of a family that had patronized for
200
work The that
on Rembrandt
years, called
1667. C.
in
Medici, could find no kinder
words
Young,
F.
for
about the
and bigotry."
One
in his
art
famous
young Cosimo than
he was "vain, weak, tyrannical, entirely wanting
in superstition
a
express the feeling of an
in brains
and sunk
can imagine him mincing foolishlv
workshop. Not surprisingly, he seems to have found
artist's
among the
nothing that interested him
paintings
Rembrandt had
at
hand,
although he apparently did purchase (perhaps from a dealer) a Self-Portrait that
is
Another
now in visitor
the Uffizi in Florence.
was Gerard de
his portrait painted
resse
had become
blind,
book crammed with once had a at that
found
in
an
1665.
artist
Some
I
from Liege, years
he took to theorizing about
rules
later,
art,
who
when
had Lai-
and produced a
and regulations. "I do not want to denv that
special preference for [Rembrandt's]
time it
Lairesse,
by Rembrandt
manner," he wrote, "but
had hardly begun to understand the
necessary to recant
my
I
infallible rules
error and to repudiate
his.
.
.
."
of
art.
I
Lairesse
165
Rembrandt
also noted that because
noble rank and refined
failed to associate
taste, his subjects
with people of
were sadly bourgeois.
"The infallible rules of art" to which Lairesse referred were the result of the wave of rationalism that swept through Europe late in the 7th Century and culminated in the "Age of Reason" of the 18th. In art, the 1
French Academie Rovale de Peinture
home
head, the
apply reason to as art
in
all
matters
—did not reach
about
de Sculpture was the fountain-
et
of the law and the prophets.
its
— even those peak
until well after
700, however, the precepts generated
1
very high esteem.
It
The French tendency
Rembrandt's death. By
in the
Academie were held
was even thought possible that
signed numerical grades, and in
1
to
that are often unreasoning, such
artists
could be as-
708 a theorist closely associated with
the Academie, Roger de Piles, did exactly that. In a celebrated treatise
de
called Balance des Peintres,
He
ers."
Piles
graded 57 of "the best-known paint-
established four categories
expression
— and
in each
—composition, drawing, color
and
he awarded a grade, from zero to an impossibly
perfect 20.
B,'ecause de
Piles'
grading has considerable interest as a reflection of
authoritative critical judgments at a time
brandt was
still
fresh,
NAME Andrea
Rem-
of
in part:
DRAWING
COLOR
8
10
10
8
12
16
9
8
COMPOSITION del Sarto
memory
the
worth reproducing here
it is
Albrecht Diirer
when
I
XPRESSION
Le Brun
16
16
8
16
Correggio
13
13
15
12
Giorgione
8
9
18
4
Holbein
9
10
16
13
Leonardo
15
16
4
14
Michelangelo
8
17
4
8
Caravaggio
6
6
16
Veronese
15
10
16
3
Poussin
15
17
6
15
Raphael
17
18
12
18
Rembrandt
15
6
17
12
Rubens
18
13
17
17
Tintoretto
15
14
16
4
Titian
12
15
18
6
15
10
17
13
Van Dyck
In this abbreviated table
it
well, except for his miserable
will
be noted that Rembrandt
grade of 6
in
drawing:
his
fares quite
broken outlines
counted heavily against him. But overall, de Piles rated Rembrandt 10th in his list
of 57, and spared him the ghastly flunking grades given to Mi-
chelangelo and Leonardo
by
in color,
and the unmentionable grade received
laravaggio in expression.
( It
de
Piles' tabic
seems amusing today,
it
should
in fairness
be pointed
out that he and other rationalists were following the trend of their time
De
Piles
so.
Other important
had
a
high regard for Rembrandt, and critics
in
in his
other w ritings said
the half-ccnuir\ alter Rembrandt's death
almost invariably had kind words for him. although these were constant-
66
tempered bv regrets that he did not use enough
ly
follow "the infallible
seems to have thought ot
The
tortion.
it
only
in
human
expression of the
the portrait of Jan Six (page 112). give that painting a grade of only
1
Is
John Milton
The at
modern viewer who would
expression?
2 in
meant nothing to Rem-
"Age of Reason"
two other towering
dawned.
fully
figures of the
England and Blaise Pascal
in
it.
worth looking once more
is
it
there a
brandt; he was in his grave before the
ry.
con-
Rembrandt achieved
involves immeasurable quali-
it
critiques of the rationalists of course
interesting to note that
word but taeial
drawing and composition.
point need not be labored, but perhaps
is
tailed to
Piles used the
spirit, as
that include but transcend color,
The
and
terms ot pose and dramatic
can never be given an arithmetical rank: ties
De
concerned the matter of "expression."
critics
light
The cardinal point ignored by Rembrandt's
rules."'
France, also had
in
It
7th Centu-
1
little-
use for rationalism as a means of achieving the most important of
God
aims: an understanding of
denounced
cal,
thought and ordered
classical
in his efforts to
heart has
sand things. This. then,
reasons, ... It is
is
God
felt
by the
We feel
his
own
death he had a few
Hendrickje. he saw
it
in Titus.
premonition. Titus died
His
1663,
in
it
last portrait
same
the
at
in his art.
appointments with
final
he had been given to witness the onset of
Just as
reason.
by the reason." Rem-
had arrived
conclusion and. without recourse to words, had stated
Before
"the thou-
in a
it
God, and not the
heart, not
an intellectual,
scarcely
philosopher Pas-
in his Pensees that
which reason does not know.
the heart which experiences
faith:
brandt, although
the evil devices of Satan
The French
observed
reject reason,
all
Regained Milton
his Paradise
lotfic as
corrupt the truth of Christ.
although he did not its
and man. In
doom
of his son
God.
his
Saskia and
in
full
is
of sad
than seven months after he had
less
married; a daughter was born to him posthumously. Otherwise, there re-
mained only Rembrandt's far-off Java.
She had two
illegitimate daughter Cornelia,
children,
and
as the true
who went
to
daughter of her mag-
1
\\
o decades before
his death.
Westerkerk, where he w
nificent
mother she named them Rembrandt and Hendrickje.
Octobers. 166V built in
a
Dutch
me
179),
of Rembrandt's
and
it
Rembrandt peace.
But
has served
paintings
last
many
biographers as a convenient endpiece; in
God
has returned figuratively to in fact
wandered very
far
there
is
the Prodigal Son (pages 177-
is
some question
all
made an angry
what
his last illness was,
;
in
the Westerkerk near his
slumber he
lies
last
home
part of the city. After his death there
Simeon
preoccupied him since
second chapter of Luke, Light of the world, and say.
"Lord,
in
now
Iettest
in
standing,
Rembrandt
s
it
was
in
hi*,
son
1
itu-.
and
it
artist
ever
life,
appears that he
it
whose grave in his
his
in
is
in
long
another
studio an unfin-
The theme was one
that
had
There was surely something pro-
the story of the old man. described in the
who had lived who could then
long enough to see Christ, the cast
up
thou thy servant depart
his eves to
Heaven and
in peace.'"
16"
'>>
on
which was
the new parish church.
also shelters the
works, matched chro-
Amsterdam, and
was found
in the Temple.
his earliest days.
foundly moving to him
Rembrandt's time classical style,
1
near Hendrickje, not Saskia.
ished painting:
["he church,
He died in 669 at the age of no one can say. He was buried on October 8
or a bitter statement.
63
whether the
his
nologically against the repeated tragedies of his
never
Still
as buried
and has found everlasting
as to
from God. In a review of
Remhrandt
made this drawing ot Amsterdam
tombs of
his wife.
Ifa
particular area of
Rembrandt's painting
singled out for greatness,
Although
his maturity.
it is
and
Century.
was as
critics until fairlv
to be
the Biblical pictures of
their existence
known, these works were not artists
in
is
was of course
really "discovered"
near the end of the
Among the reasons for the belated
a sociological one: with the
1
by
A Man
and
His Faith
9th
revelation
growing concept of man
an individual rather than as a faceless and
inconsequential unit of society, Rembrandt's expression
of this idea
two
centuries earlier took
on
a
new and
modern dimension of meaning. In his late religious works, regardless of their themes,
humanitv
lies
always
at
the core.
was not
It
as stock
characters suitable for painting that Saul the king or
Bathsheba the beautiful adulteress or the prophetic Jacob captured Rembrandt's imagination. these people
conceived
known
felt
It
was
rather
and endured that moved him.
of Biblical figures in
what
He
terms of individuals
In rhis detail
to him, Hawed, fallible or suffering as the case
the
from Jacob Blessing
Sons of Joseph, the fingers
of
Joseph attempt to direct the
happened to
be,
and he painted them thus. For
Rembrandt the Old Testament was not "history shade," as John ("akin called
it.
a
luminous hand of his aged in
the
mere record of ancient
warnings, admonitions and demonstrations of an
implacable
(
rod. In the artist's
beginning chapter of
view the Scripture was the
a narrative
of man's situation, a
dramatic and continuing narrative saw himseli and
68
his
in
contemporaries
which Rembrandt
as
\
ital
participants.
father,
hut they prove as powerless as
those of a
a
man who
sunbeam. The
tries to
move
Biblical
significance of the subtle interplay ot
hands
is
made
elear
following pages
Jacob Blessing the Sons just-ph. dct.nl
<>f
on the
•
\/^
J*-
•&-'-W'
y^i
4
1
,^lkr-
170
he story of Jacob Blessing the Sons ofJoseph JLhe
is
.
told in Genesis 48. Joseph brings his sons
simply
Manasseh
and Ephraim to be blessed by their dying grandfather, the almost sightless Jacob. According to hitherto
immutable custom, Jacob should have used hand to
bless the first-born bov.
patriarch, enlightened
his right
Manasseh. Instead the
by God, places
his
hand on the
head of the younger boy, the fair-haired Ephraim. who. he foresees, will be greater than
his
brother and whose
"seed shall become a multitude of nations." In the Scriptural text Joseph
is
described as "displeased" with
move Jacob's right hand toward Manasseh's head and even remonstrates with his father's act;
he
tries to
Jacob. But in the painting Joseph does not really
determined
make a
effort to shift the blessing. It
he had decided that
it
was not
for
man
is
as
if
to intervene in
mysteries beyond his comprehension: indeed, he wears
an
air
of submission and even approval of what
taking place. His wife Asenath in this
incident in the Bible
â&#x20AC;&#x201D; who
is
is
not mentioned
â&#x20AC;&#x201D; watches the scene with a
tender smile. Rembrandt added her to create the
atmosphere of a warm family group, and he chose as his predominant colors harmonies of yellows and reds
which he often used message the
in his
Old Testament seems
of the words of the New: Jacob Blessing the Sons ofJoseph,
1
656
mature
years.
in this lofty pictorialization
The artist's
of a storv from
to be a direct expression
"Thy Will be done."
Batbsheba, 1654
X
le story ol
Rembrandt,
David and Bathsheba (II Samuel.
who
painted
it
in
1
greatest portrayal of it in 1654. In this conception,
hath and holds
m
1
)
had a particular fascination for
the 1630s and 1640s, slowly shaping his thoughts for his
Bathsheba has just completed her
her hand the newly arrived letter from
to his palace. In her face
and
in
the melancholy
tilt
King David, summoning her
of her head (X-rays reveal that
Rembrandt made changes in position before achieving precisely the attitude he sought) summed up the emotions that course through her. There is a sense of loyalty to her
are
absent husband, Uriah; balancing this king; ami overriding both her.
is
is
her physical desire to share the bed of the great
her anticipation ol the
doom
Meanwhile the servant, who knows nothing and
turmoil, goes
on methodically drying her
must surely overtake
that
senses nothing ol Bathsheba's
mistress' feet.
I
lendrickje was the
model
for
Bathsheba; coincidentally, she bore Rembrandt an illegitimate daughter during the year the painting
was completed. ,
172
^"-£
?!3lf,
^JL
1
_»
&
fe \
^0
*£2*3
_v-^'
I
m
SjuI and David,
I n his late vears Rembrandt's religious paintings were often charged with a deep sense of gloom and of awe powerful of them
at the helplessness
â&#x20AC;&#x201D; before God. He
in
of
men
no sense slackened
but turned to tragic themes perhaps because of his
â&#x20AC;&#x201D; even the most in his religious faith
own experiences. His Saul
and David shows the old king half-mad with grief because the Lord has withdrawn His favor from him and bestowed it on voung David, the shepherd boy who had become
Saul's armor-bearer and whose harp-plaving soothed the when the "evil spirit" was upon him. In the eve of the weeping Saul (detail, opposite) mav be seen the inner struggle that racks him. Love for David
king
contending with wrath, and we sense that soon the conflict will erupt in a mad attempt at murder. Dark shadows and somber colors intensify the mood is
of impending explosion:
on
it
his javelin, will clench,
seems that
and he
David even to the wall with
it" (I
in
another instant Saul's hand, relaxed
will hurl the
Samuel.
1
weapon with
intent to "smite
8).
175
c.
16*8
David and I
A
Lsinthe caseol several of Rembrandt's untitled
paintings, the subjec
debated b)
s<
holars
suggested, the
i
the
oi ( )t
likeliest
a
is
work above continues
number thai
it
1
to be
of ideas that have been
represents the incident
in
1
Samuel,
1
1
.
which King David
in
(right)
sends
Bathsheba's soldier-husband Uriah (foreground) to certain death on the battlefield.
foreknowledge oi
Ins
Ins fate.
dov
ncast look betraying
'riab, c
1
665
Return oftbt Prodigal Son,
There can be no doubt, however, about the subject treated above
â&#x20AC;&#x201D; the return of the Prodigal Son (Luke.
This painting constitutes Rembrandt's
final
the Christian idea of forgiveness and mercy.
prodigal kneels, his father's expression 1
5).
gentle,
and
his
embrace
(detail,
is
c
166^
consummately
next pages) symbolizes
statement on
Rembrandt's hope
As the
voyagers on the ocean of the world.
for the safe return of all lost
and troubled
177
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•
APPENDIX
Beilona. 16??
The
brilliance unveiled
T.
he restoration ot Rembrandt's paintings has dispelled
the centuries-old notion that he painted only
in
somber
torus This photograph shows a hall -cleaned portrait of Saskia, the
young Rembrandt's bride-to-be, dressed
Beilona, the
ol dirt ,ind
h\ well
Roman
goddess of war. The uncleaned
murk) amber
half has a
by
ai least
meaning
the painting
however,
that
The
1
east
two
left
caused b\ the accumulation
layers ol tinted varnish applied
9th Century picture restorers to protect
right h all 'cleat K
demonstrates,
Rembrandt's original work included natural
skin tones, brilliant whites and co<
ISO
as
il
greys.
in
The delicate task of lifting Beilona' s veil ol 1947 to The Metropolitan Museum of Art
varnish in
make
City. First, restorers anal} /cd the coating's chemical
up and selected
a solvent
fell
New York
potent enough to dissolve
it
without injuring the paint beneath. Then, using cotton swabs, they applied the solvent to the canvas at a
time.
When
the entire
cam
.is
a
centimeter
had been cleaned,
signature and date, which had been nearl) im isible
lower
left
corner,
were checked, and the
authenticity had been
doubted
bv
some
proved a genuine early Rembrandt.
picture, critics,
w
a
in
the
w hose as
8
Copper plate
The In
1
lost
956 the
art
world was stunned by the news that a
the copper plates in 1938 from Alvin-Beaumont. a French collector
which had been presumed missing
gallerv in
century, had suddenly reappeared
for a quarter of a
—
in
the possession of a
lawyer from Greenville. North Carolina. including the one
shown above
The 75
Carolina iWuseum of Art plates are
in Raleigh.
known
plates,
(an original print from
which appears on page 147) went on display
European
1648
recovered
fabulous cache of Rembrandt's original etching plates,
dozen other
for etching: Giving of Alms,
in
the North
Fewer than
to exist,
all
a half-
held in
collections.
Robert Lee Humber. the owner, had secretlv purchased
who had 1
last
exhibited
them
in a
New York
930. Although most of the plates are
worn and
have been reworked since Rembrandt's time, they are highly prized as collector's items.
the purchase price
—
halt a million dollars
in
rinallv
It
in a
New York warehouse
was not mere coincidence, however,
broke silence
Rembrandt's
birth.
not reveal
— nor did he explain why he
concealed his treasure years.
Humber did
1930 the collection was insured
in
1
95"6
for
1
that he
— the 350th anniversan
oi
for
<
i
,
APPI-'NDIX
Chronology:
Rembrandt's Era
Artists of
1650
1550
1700
LEIDEN
AMSTERDAM CLAESJANS2 VISS JAN PYN
<t
4-1631
LASTM VN
PIETEfl
JACOB VAN >WANFNBL~RGH
1550-c 1612
I c
US H IAS 1590/91 IHOM\SDF kt>SKR
JANLIEVENS
1660
1
REMBRANDT H\R AENSZOON VAN RUN JACOB BACKER .08-1651 WII.I.EM VAN Dl VEI Dl THE ELDER
KLEVE GOVAERT
VVILLEM K
Hi
CORNELISKETEL
I
15-
JAN BRLEGHEL
1619-1688
J*
1628/2!
M
\
VESMAES IN VAN
\I)RI
JAN
630-1677
i
I
\
I
I
1)1
:6-l6
_
-1712 \| ANDERHEYDFN 16} ME lp.DFRI HOBBEMA 16! B-1709 Til I S VAN RUN 1641 166
I
FRAN'S
S
I-
S
\l
I
IS
I
I
IIRDI MOLYN
I
CHAR1
I
159
ITALY LODOVICOCARRA
597-1665
OH/\\N|s\ IRSPROSK IETERCLAESZ
EUSTACHF
!%l
1661
159
•62
PALI M(OKI Ills (.1
I
M I
\l
s|
Rl i(-|
GL 'RCTNO
1618
VAN HONTHORsjl
RIT \
\N BAKl
N
Rl
III
SAI
R
I
l
I
,RI
(
()
\N
kill
Rl
VH
1567 1641
I)
EM AN
Willi
CARFI EAR
mis
I
I
PAULS! I'll
UK
Ml
HI
R
SAM!
I
II
I
I
K
I
I
RIRFRA
1588 1652
1
62"
JUAN
I6X
i
R I'-
C.I
\NIICMX.SIK\I 1)1
I
N
1)1
\
V DIM
I
\l
I
1622-16*0
Nl.l \NI)
I
PI II R
I
<** 1664
I
I59«
R\RT010MI fSTIBANMUKIIIO
I
M
*t
161
DIEGO VFLASQUEZ
i
ll 1
R(|N\
FRANCISCO DE ZURBtlRAN
1617 1602
HOOCH
M
C (
I
I
|AN VI
DORDRI
>
MOR
i,
15!
,LTA I5f-
JL!
Dl
I
\
>".,„
Nl
1541-1614
FRANCISCO f \
ORTONA N/ORIRN
IN
I'*
R?ORC
II
1581 -164
1591-1666
SIORI
I
I
1581 1641
PI FTIRO |)\(
< I
l«n
>
Nl
I
GFRARI)
MIC
RIJNI 1575-1642
BFRNAI DOSTROZZ1
1564-1651
1)1 \
I
1557-1602
)
GLIDO
16'
DRICKTERBRI C.GHI N n
DM k DM
I
DOME NJICHINO I
c 1619-1690
I
I
Bl(
FIR 16161655
BRUN
t
555-161')
1
C
1612-1695
LE
s|
1
1674
l6l>:
1607-1677
ANNIBUEC CCI 1560 1609 ORAZIOGEN1 FSC HI c 1565-c. 1640 MICHELANGEK Ml RISI D\C \RIU
i
II
(
AGOSTINOCSRRijc
II 1661
SALOMONS \\ Rl > !D AIL I6<hi iis-(i JANMOLFNAER 1600/ 10 1668 ADRIAFNVAN on ADF 1610-1684 GF KM bir( kimni
IRK
1
PIFRRF MIGNAI
91-1610 •
CNF
MATHIEULENAtt
on 16)1 ;,
•Jv 1682
HAM
PHILIPPE DEI
58!
I
ETER SAFNREDAM
\KR\II\M
593-1652
AUDI IORRMN
CI
III
I
592 -1
DE LA TOUR
1584 1612
i
ASVANOEVELDI
J
I
1593-1641
COLAS POUSSIN 1594 1665
M ILLEMCLAESZ HEDA I
FNAIN
lojuiSI
-
HE XLESSEGHFRS ES
1588-1
c-
1590-1649
JACQUES CA1.LOT
580-1666
I
JAN P0RCII
1610
1611-1 6>1
I
SIVON VOUET
2
JAN
HAARI M HFNDRICKGOL IJ/ll.
FY
\NT )INE LENAIN 1<
1593 1678
FRANCE
Jj-1707
I6H-I69:
1)1
rOBJORDAENS
1
GABRIF1 METSL 1629-166-
ANTHOh II VAN BORSSOM \NDEV LDE THE YOUNGER
1577-1641
1579-1657
ANTHONY VAN DYCI 1599-1641 ADRIAFN BROLW R 1605 06-1638 DAVID I1NIFRS EHE YOUNGER
c
I
568- 162
MYDERS
FRAN'S
1622 169!
JACOB V \N RLTSDAEL
I
PETER P UL RUBENS
1622-c 166-
LAMBERT DOOMIR c 1623-1700 1624-16 JAN VAN Dl CAPPELLE
II
IMCK 161'-I660
Fl
FLANDERS
1616-1680
I
16*5-161
GOUDA
1
KO INCk
1626-1679
FRAN VAN MIERIS
1603/04-1677
GERRIT LL DENS
161 2-c 16
KI3M675
1
sink
Jan
600-165
WOi
1606-1685/84
1674 X
66?
1
AERTVANDERNvEFR
\\
HFEM
160;
GERRIT DOl
SISKIN DF VI IFGFR
PHI MPS
1-I6?8
1
HARM EN VAN STFF NWIJCK
)|
FERDINAND
c
1596 1656
JAN DAVIDSZ DE
1583-1663
HEN DhlCK VAN UYLENBUR jH '84/89 -c HFNC RICKAVERCAMP 158 1634 NIC
NVANGOYEN
J
I
in
R\1 \N1
\I)\M
(.IIDIR 1645
I
SHI M I
I
IO\<
K
I
571 I6l(
HIM \ON
SV*.|)R VRI
Im«
!»*>
|55(>
Rembrandt' i
:
on
art grouped chronologically according to count ry
The bunds
co rrespond to the
lite
>/>.;//>
of tbt artists
Bibliography Note Since there :
is
-Paperback
such a wealth of literature on Rembrandt, this
is
a selected
of material that the editors believe would
list
be of most interest to the reader.
Smith Meridian Books. 1960.
REMBRAS.DI-11H VNDWORKS
White. Christopher. Rembrandt and Bauch. Kurt. Rembrandt Gemdlde ings
Walter de Gruvter
& Co
.
A
catalogue raisonne of Rembrandt's paint-
1964
A
his
world 'new edition)
readable biography emphasizing the
artist
s
I
he Viking Press.
work
liferatha than his
Berlin. 1966.
Benesch. Otto. Rembrandt Biographical and Critical Study. Translated bv James
Emmons.
Editions d'Art. Albert Skira. Geneva. 1957.
kND HISIORK
The Drawings of Rembrandt (6 vols.) Phaidon Press. London. 1954-1957. Rembrandt as a Draughtsman Phaidon Press. London. 1960.
Boon. K 1963
G
,
Rembrandt The Complete
Etchings.
I
I
Town Hall of Amsterdam. Haentjens Dekker Gumbert. Utrecht. 1959. Friednch. Carl J., The Age of the Baroque. 1610-1660 Harper & Brothers 19>"2
Rembrandt LJ.C Boucher. The Hague. 1961 Translation and discussion of Rembrandt's brief correspondence with the secretary of the Prince of Orange about the Passion series he painted for the Prmce. These are the only known letters bv Rembrandt. Goldscheider. Ludvvig. Rembrandt. Phaidon Press, London. 1960. Hind. Arthur M..
Methuen and
A
Letters b\
London. 1923 Reprinted
in
I
Benn Limited. London.
rnest
&
Noble. Inc.
Part One. second edition
196
P.irt
1
Two. 1964 Renier. (j J
The Dutch Saturn
.
G
Mien
L nw
cÂť
Ltd
in
.
London. 1944.
ranslated b\ Simon Watson Zumthor. Paul. Daily Life in Rembrandt's Holland Taylor The Macmillan Company. 196 3 First rate social history I
ART -HISIORK
VL
Bu KGROUND
iiber
Bcrgstrom. lngvar. Dutch
Still-Life
Painting in the Seventeenth Century
ed by Christina Hedstrom and Gerald
ry sources.
Landsberger. Franz. Rembrandt. The Jews and the Bible Translated bv Felix
Gerson.
^
one volume. Da Capo
Rembrandt (1575-1 721) Mar The Hague. 1906. Indispensable compilation of the documenta-
Hofstede de Groot. Cornells. Die Urkunden
The Jewish
Munz. Ludwig. The
N
Catalogue of Rembrandt's Etchings (2 vols), second edition
Co.. Ltd..
1967 Rembrandt. Harvard University Press. 1932
tinus Nijhotf.
&
Geyl, Pieter. The Setberlands in the Seventeenth Century. Barnes
Press. 1966.
Gerson. H., Seven
\
Publication Society of America. 1946.
Etchings of
Rembrandt
(2
vols
)
Phaidon
thorough treatment of Fnedlander.
Press.
London.
1952.
Rembrandt Harmenszoon Van Rim Ham N Abrams. 1954. Life and Work (revised edition). Phaidon Press. London. 964. The best monograph on Rembrandt's art and achievement. 1
of Rembrandt with a Selection of Drawings by His and Followers (2 vols.).* Dover Publications. Inc.. 1965. Rembrandt and His Critics: 1610-1710 Martinus Ni|hotf. The Hague, 1953 "The Young Rembrandt." Allen Memorial Art Bulletin. XX, 1963. Valentiner. VV. R., Die Handzeichnungen Rembrandts (Klassiker der Kunst) <2
Seymour. Drawings
Pupils
Deutsche Verlagsanstalt. Stuttgart. 1925. Not complete.
raisonne of Rembrandt's drawings
I
A
catalogue
he third volume was never published
Rembrandt and His Pupils. * The North Carolina Museum of Art. 1956 Rembrandt and Spinoza. Phaidon Press. London. 1957. Visser t Hooft. VV. A.. Rembrandt and the Gospel* Translated bv K Gregor
this
I
avlor
phase of Dutch
homas Yoseloff
ranslat-
I
Inc..
1956.
Lumsden,
A
art.
Max J On An and Connoisseurship .
I
*
Beacon Press I960.
Lev mane. Jean. Dutch Painting Translated bv Stuart Gilbert Editions d'Art bert Skira.
Rosenberg. Jakob. Rembrandt
vols.).
& Co
Boxer C. R The Dutch Seaborne Empire. 1600-1800 Hutchinson London. 196? Fremantle Katharine. The Baroque
Abraham. The Paintings of Rembrandt Phaidon-Verlag, Vienna. 1936. Clark. Kenneth. Rembrandt and the Italian Renaissance New York University
Slive.
B\< kl,KIIL\[)
.
Thames and Hudson. London.
Bredius.
Press.
\1
Al-
Geneva. 1956.
E. S.,
The Art of Etching
*
Dover
Publications. Inc.. 1962
Nicolson. Benedict. Hendrick Terbrugghen Percy Lund. Humphries
ÂŁ*
Co
1
rJ
London. 1958 Rosenberg. Jakob Great Draughtsmen from Pisanello
to Picasso.
Harvard Univer-
1959.
sity Press.
Rosenberg. Jakob, Seymour Slive and E. H. Ter Kuile, Dutch Art and Architec-
1600 to 1H00 The Pelican History of Art Series. Penguin Books. 1966. Seymour. "Realism and Symbolism in Seventeenth Century Dutch Paint" ing Daedalus. The Journal of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences
ture: Slive.
Summer.
1
962.
Stechow Wolfgang, Dutch Landscape Painting of the Seventeenth Century don Press, London. 1966 An excellent, comprehensive surxev .
Van
Gelder.
J.
G
.
Dutch Drawings and Prints Harrv
N
Abrams.
Inc..
1959
Phai-
—
Picture Credits The
si
sources for the illustrations in this book appear below. Credits for pictures
in
from
left to
right are separated by semicolons,
tispiece
\SI
—
91
1SDPVPERS
gen, Rotterdam photo. 93
— John R. Freeman bv
—© — of the Trustees of the Chatsworth Settlement — Bv courtesy of the Trustees of the British Museum. London. 100 — Robert Crandall — Bibliotheque Nationale, Pans. 101 — Robert Lackenbach from Black 102, 103 —
— Derek
maeldegalene photo
12
The
New
Frick Collection,
DC.
York.
photo; Erich Lessing from
—
courtesy of the Trustees of the British
courtesy of the Trustees of the
— Eric
—
Schaal. 11
— Dresden.
— Erich Lessing from Magnum; © 13 — National Gallery of Art. Washington. Magnum — Henry Ely. Aix-en- Provence;
Star.
Herzog Anton Ulrich Museum, Brunswick photo.
Baves
— National Gallery. London photo. chapteri 16 — Foto Blauel 20 — Maps by Rafael Palacios. 21 — Courtesy Leiden University. 22 — Herzog Anton Ulrich Museum. Brunswick photo. 23 — Hem dc Bouter. 25 — © Rijksmuseum. Amsterdam — Giraudon. 26. 21 — Campongara 28 — National Gallery. London photo — © Ri|ksmuseum. Amsterdam -Scala. 33 — Harry- RedL Marzan— Staat(3) 29 — Flarry Redl 35 — Foto Blauel. Museen. Gemaeldegalerie photo. (HMMFR2 36 — © Ri|ksmuseum. Amsterdam. 40 — The Metropolitan Museum of Art photo — © University of Oxford. Ashmolean Museum. 43 — Hein de 30.
3
1
— Erich Lessing from Magnum. Ill — © Rijksmuse— Hein de Bouter. — National Gallery. London photo. 118. 119— Karel Neubert; Dmitri Kessel. 120— Eric Schaal. 121 — TheMetropolitan Museum of Art photo. 122, 123 — © The Frick Collection. New York. 124 — Scala. 125 — The Metropolitan Museum of Art photo. 126, 127 — National Museum. Stockholm photo. 128, 129 — Staatliche Graphische
chapters 104
34,
— © Rijksmuseum. Amsterdam. — Derek Baves. 53 — The Pierpont
50
land.
Blauel
51
— Walter
Morgan
of Birmingham.
52
Steinkopf.
ton
— Foto
Fogg Art
I
—
I
—
—
—
150-153
— Robert Crandall. — Cliche Musees Nationaux. S.
— — © Ri|ksmuseum. Amster-
—
161 Bv courtesy of the Trustees of Museum. London 164 Teylers Museum, Haarlem photo GemMusea. Amsterdam photo. 167 Gemeente Musea. Amsterdam photo.
eente
—
169-171
— Robert
—
—
Lackenbach from Black
Nationaux; Eric Schaal. 174, 175
—
— —©
I
1
—
S. Crandall.
the British
—
—©
I
— Robert
dam. 154-157 chapter? 158
Museum
—©
—
30. 131
—
Crandall. 148. 149
—
— Staatliche
—
71
1
—
—
Kunstsammlungen. Weimar photo. 69 Robert Morphoto; John R. Freeman by courtesy ol the Ri|ksmuseum. Amsterdam. Trustees of the British Museum. London. 73 74 Ri|ksmuscum. Amsterdam. 75-77 Scala. 78-80 Hein de Bouter. r.tns l.ils Museum. Ri|ksmuseum. Amsterdam. laarlcm. 82-87 8 chvpiik* 88 kin/ Zinram. 90 Courtesy the New York Public Library. Fron68
credit
7
1
—
— Erich 57 — Eric
—
1
—
—
i
15
—
6
chives.
Library photo. 54
—
1
132 Lichtbeeldeninstituut. Amsterdam photo. 136 Municipal ArAmsterdam John R. Freeman bv courtesy of the Trustees of the 140 British Museum. London. John R. Freeman by courtesy of the Trustees 143 Eric Schaal Robert S. Crandall. of the British Museum. London 144, 145 The Metropolitan Museum of Art photos. 146 © Rijksmuseum. Amsterdam © Ri|ksmuseum. Amsterdam; By courtesy of the Trustees of the British Museum. London. 147 © Rijksmuseum. Amsterdam Robert S.
chapter
Eng-
Derek Baves. Lessing from Magnum. 55— Derek Baves. 56 Derek Baves by permission of the Trustees of the Chatsworth Schaaf ^8 Settlement. S9 Derek Baves 60- Staatliche Museen. Berlin photo. 62. 63 ciivfiik Kryn Taconis. 66 No
107
14.
Sammlung, Munich photo; National Museum, Stockholm photo.
— John R. Freeman bv courtesy of the Trustees of the British MuLondon 47 — National Gallery, London photo. 49 — Heinz Zinram
courtesy the Barber Institute of Fine Arts, University
1
© Ri|ksmuseum. Amsterdam.
Bouter 44 seum.
— Scala.
um. Amsterdam.
32.
Berlin.
liche
S.
Ge-
14, 15
Heinz Zinram.
—©
Rijksmuseum. Amsterdam on loan from the Roval Society of Antiquarians. Amsterdam. 95 Rijksmuseum. Amsterdam. 97 Erich Lessing from Magnum. 98. 99 Derek Baves by permission
Bv permission of the Trustees of the Chatsworth Settlement
Museum. London 8 — John R Freeman bv Scala. 10 British Museum, London (4). 9
top to bottom by dashes.
from Historische Beschrjvinghe van Amsterdam. Jacob van Meurs. 1663. Amsterdam (2). 92 Museum Bovmans van Beunin-
— © Ri|ksmuseum.
Heinz Zinram
imkodlctorv fssm 6
from
177— Dmitri Museum of Art
172.
Star.
— Mauritshuis.
Karel Neubert.
Kessel.
Metropolitan
photo. 181
178,
1
79— Karel
— Cliche photo.
Humber.
Museum
Musees 176
180— The
Neubert.
— Bruce Roberts from
lumette courtesy of Dr. and Mrs. Robert Lee
Carolina on loan to North Carolina
173
The Hague
Rapho Guil-
Greenville. North
of Art. Raleigh. North Carolina.
Acknowledgments For their help
in
the production ot this
book the author and
thank the following people and institutions: Fedja jeen,
West
Museum du
I
M
Auer
anil ices
Berlin. Director
ouvre; Baroness
Museum
arolina
(
Irwin
Vienna; Catherine Belenger, Sen.
(
\n/elevvski.
Petit Palais. Paris. Harriet
(
ross,
I
he Metropolitan
Musee
The North
Bier. Director
Musee du
Adeline (..nan. Conservateur du
Cooper, Deanna
Mu-
Georg kuglcr. Kunsthistonsches
;
Madame
Staatliche
des Relations Exterieures,
Bentmck. Switzerland Justus
ol Art.
editors wish to
Museum
of
Dc Graefl Oegstgeest; Department of Prints and Drawhi ings British Museum Department ot Prints and Drawings, The National i.illerv Sv K i.me dOngnv Chargee du Sen ice de Documentation de Photographies au Cabinet des Dessins, Musee du Louvre. Miss Y M De Vri), Associate vn. Prut JonkheerJ I
(
.
.
Professor ol
Fine
I
trechi
Arts
I
niversit)
Stockholm;
Pontus Grate, Deput) Keeper. National
Madame Guynei
W
Pechadre,
Conservateur,
Museum Service
Musee du Louvre; H Hamel Municipal Museum, Amsterdam. Historisch Museum de Waag, Amsterdam; Dr and Mrs Robert Lee lumber North (arolina. Caroline Karpinski. Assistant (.urator. Print Room, ["he Metropolitan Museum ol \rt. \\ ilhclm Kohler. Staatliche Museen. West iphique
I
IK4
Berlin; T. Koot, General Secretary. Miss B. Stokhuvzcn. Miss C Vicrvcvzer. Ri|ksmuseum. Amsterdam; Director Walter Koschatzky and Renate Antonio,
Graphische Sammlung Albertina. Vienna;
A
Lutsenburg Maas,
Municipal Archives, The Hague.
brary, Leiden,
Hans Heinrich
Richter,
Archives,
I niversity
Director.
Li-
Fodor, Amsterdam.
Deutsche Fotothek. Dresden. Rijksprentenkabinet,
sterdam. Haldor Soehner.
Munich. State
Museum
Am-
Staatsgemaeldesammlungen,
Bayerische
Haarlem. State Archives.
I
he Hague. Stichtmg Licht-
Amsterdam Th. H.J.D. Van Beerendonk, Curator, Museum "Het Rembrandt-Huis." Amsterdam; J. H Van Borssum Buisman. Curator. he laarlcm A. Van Der Yaart, Administrator. Mauritshuis. ev lei's Stichting, Hague. II Van Eeghen, Municipal Archives, Amsterdam; Jonkheer Six Van Hillegom, Amsterdam. Miss \ J \ isser, Miss B R.M De Necve. Museum Bo) beeldeninstituut,
;
I
I
1
,
1
mans van Beuningen. Rotterdam. D v ollcng.i. Frans Hals-Museum. Haarlem. he North II Wijnman, Amsterdam; Ben 1. Williams, General ("urator. (arolina Museum ot Art. Leon Wilson, VssociatC ditor in Charge. Publications I
1
1
Department.
I
he Metropolitan
Museum
ol
\rt
i
3
;
1
Index Numerals
in italics indicate a picture of the subject mentioned. Unless otherwise identified, all listed art works are by
Dimensions are given in
AcLcademie Rovale de Peinture
et
de
Sculpture. 166
Adam and Eve
brandt
(Durer). 10 x
en-
7'A.
etching. 43 traits.
6
\
4
-.
etching.
70. 7/
6
3
tion of landscape. 99. 101
Alvin-Beaumont. 181
89
America. Dutch trade in. 91 Amsterdam. 61-62; allegory auctions
107; commission for
in.
and rejection of Rembrandt's Conspiracy of Julius
126-129. 164-165;
hall.
engraving
Civilis for
62-6
of.
etchings
.
of countryside around.
1
14;
map. 20. old and new town hall. 164; Rembrandt's life and in.
25. 46-47. 61.62.
7.
1
89,93. 13 3-1 34; Rembrandt's
town house, now Rembrandt 1
art. 74.
..
Biblical
112.1 36-1 37; auctions
Tbe (Thomas de
Kevser). 51
74
Anatomy Lesson of Dr Tulp. Tbe. 66. x 85'/«, oil on canvas. 63-64. 75-77
brandt
Rembrandt's time. 23-24. 46. prints of Rembrandt's work at dif-
sentation of .40. 112-113, 161-
in
ferent stages sold
in.
42-43
brandt's etchings
in,
42, 45.
traits in
Amsterdam.
Group of Spectators. 6 \* Angel and
x 10.
tbe Prophet
Balaam. Tbe.
(I.astman).
3)4
1
x
1
Tbe on
Fish.
7"/i«, oil
29 57
56,
portrait of. 92
Anti-classicism.
Rembrandt's ten-
dency toward. 106-107
Contemplating the Bust of x 51
I,
Museum
brandt's time. 2
3
;
for.
tions. 112,
classical prints
Humber's
c
136-137. 138
Sleeping.
with sepia wash. 46. 55.
1
collection of
traits
Rem-
9. 38-'s>.
Oriental dress
142
light.
allot.
etchings.
44
70.
1
1
Roger de
in
illus-
40
;\
'
ers.
25. 26. 30.
3 3.
39.
anae. 6'1" x 6'6". oil
in
D. hi J and Uriah, JO
Martyrdom
oil
on
canvas,
Castiglione. Baldassare. Rembrandt's
\
45
"6
de Decker. Jercmias, 139 de Gelder,
1
/
De
Vert,
I
'9
Groate Scbouhurgb der Seder-
sketch from Raphael's portrait of.
lantscbe KunstsebUders,
Baldinucci. Filippo: commentaries on
/07
Houbraken.
I
65. 91. 136. 139
for. 39.
Art criticism: comparison between
Rembrandt
by. 19. 39, 65, 93.
1
36.
160
Catalogue of Rembrandt's paintings.
Baroque an: Bathsbeba. one
ot finest
1
in
etchings of 1640s. 114; Sight
new use
Cross. 67: difficulties in identifying
Watch
mastery
Rembrandt's drawings. 48; grading of best-known painters bv Roger
.V? -85,
Rem-
brandt
Piles.
166; high regard for
nudes
ot.
162;
in
Caravaggio's
art.
30; classical and Baroque elements
in
Rembrandt's
art.
1
20- 121;
in
a masterpiece
107. 109-111; in portrait
Oriental dress. 10. 65: a
master
of,
Rem-
105; in Self-
of, 25, SO;
1
I
74;
}
Huvgens
traits b\
23
,
6
Lesson The.
portrait by.
47
'
Rembrandt's
of, 25.41, 108. 111. Rembrandt's Sight Wattb,
Christ See Jesus Christ
Emmaus.
b\
4
rhomas Anatomy
de Kevser
Chiaroscuro: Caravaggio's powerful
Christ at
1
;
of Dr Seba-
the. 22 Chalk drawings, by Rembrandt.
in
book
y
de Kevser. Hendrik. statue b\
Catholic Church, art patronage b\
treatment of Descent from tbe
;
1
de Jonghe. Clement,
16
Diirer's and Rembrandt's Adam and Eve. 70-71 comparison between Rubens' and Rembrandt's
Rem-
brandt's representation oi
Baldassare Castiglione (Raphael). 107
passion
Sun-
on canvas.
David, Biblical character,
Rem-
inventory
;
sale of
in
and wash.
L -n
a
54-35; influence on Dutch paint-
of St. Matthew, JO-
Le. treatise b\
166
Piles.
elements derived from,
brandt's Blinding of Samson.
1
Rembrandt's
tration of story of.
Balance des Pemtres.
Stormy Sky
,J
in
65
68-69. 118-119
Caravaggio, Michelangelo Mensi da
Dirck van. 39
his ass.
\
10.
97
Jacques: glass goblet en-
toward. 89. 159-160
Balaam and
'
of.
140; selt-portrait
Rembrandt's collec36-1 38; Rembrandt's 112.
brandt's plates. 45. 181
de
Corporation portraits See Group por-
Costumes Rembrandt's love
Calvinism, 22; Rembrandt's attitude
Amsterdam.
Rem
5.
on, 42.
plates extant. 45, /#/
138. 159. 165, 16"
on Rembrandt's
1
Ba >aburen.
and
1
work
artists
graved after print by, 92. influence
x 8, sepia
9'/t
Backer. Jacob. Rembrandt's pupil
sculpture collected bv Rembrandt.
\
6'4* \
Cornelia. Rembrandt's daughter 95,
64-65
of.
Civilis,
164-165
34
Burin, etching tool. 42; use bv
brandt
Three
in
on canvas. 40, 126-129.
Cottages before a
Rem-
rationalism
in.
frans Hals'
4^~
Copper plate Rembrandt
Church of Notre
vas (Hals). 78-79
18
life in
and. 166. 167. See also Dutch art
Art collecting:
of tbe Civic Guards of St Hadrian at Haarlem. 6'9" x 10'. oil on can-
on canvas, paid bv
on Dutch
influence
Wife
/.
Blinding of
I
lO'l", oil
Madonna
m
in
Conspiracy ofJulius
Buckingham Palace. London. Rembrandt's The Shipbuilder and His
140
(Phillips),
1
Watcb
78-79;
portrait.
Crosses.
Dame, 137 portrait of.
oil
125. 135-136; price
Metropolitan
66
Ashkenazic Jews. 93
Tbe
for
Banning
Anatomy
in
Tulp. 64. 75 i
group
7
Bruvningh. Nicolaes. Rembrandt .s
Rembrandt's time. 22
Ascension, in Passion series.
A Woman
25
Homer. 56H
society
Auction of Rembrandt's collec-
Architectural motifs. Rembrandt's studies of.
Bruges. Michelangelo's
Assembly of Officers and Subalterns
Rembrandt's
Anslo. Cornells Claesz
Dutch
Rem-
I
and Child
Artist, position of. in
Dr
Brouwcr. Adnaen. paintings by, in Rembrandt's art collection. 37
Rembrandt's later years. 140141 Ruffo and Rembrandt.
paintings
s
of Captain Frans
Samson. 14-35;
3
Rembrandt's
use ot 41-42: restora-
in
Ri/ytenburch Sec Sight
collection of 1
Lesson of Dr
on Rembrandt's
Rembrandt
tion of
34
1
Museum,
brandt's etchings.
163-164;
10.
trait of.
familv album. ///
in
critics
Composition
British
;
for.
of
in detail
Cocq and Lieutenant Willeni van
1
1
640.
and. 180
Homer. 124 1
1
S i«ht Watch
108. 166,
ot.
Company
Night Watch, commission
Assassin,
Animal drawings.
tion of. in
of
in Self-Portrait
:
Anatomy
in
changes
Blindness. Rembrandt's representa-
Bonus. Fphraim. Rembrandt's por-
1
use
1
collec-
on canvas, 34-35. 68
oil
16s":
1
Tulp. 64
of Jewish types for representation
Rembrandt. 47. 67-68; in Netherlands at Rembrandt's time. 22-23
in
tions.
64-
1
;
40
and
commis-
135-136. 163-164
Angel and Tobias and tbe
107;
hall,
2
1
Sight Watch Color:
tion of Rembrandt's etchings. 1 3 7 Blinding of Samson. The. 7'9" x 9'9".
34:
1
in
and. 109. 110: watercolor copy of
163. 168. 175; Rembrandt's use
Bibhotheque Nauonale. Pans,
elements
Sight Wattb, 73;
understanding and repre-
s
67
classu.il
Cocq. Frans Banning
Rem-
of Biblical characters. 93. 140, 16
1
105.
in
Bol. Ferdinand. 70.
in
Art
8
1
ings.
;
57
107
Rembrandt's etch115: Rembrandt's predilec-
Bibles. 161
110; Huvgens' relations with
toward patrons.
Aristotle
Rem-
62. 64.
sion for and reaction of.
Andrada. Diego. 94
oak.
;
Conspiracy of Julius Civilis for
An
black chalk. 56
Son theme. 66; Rembrandt
Prodigal
ers in. 23; prices paid for paintings
109; Rembrandt's attitude
Elephant, in tbe Background a
paintings illustrating. 112.
larity ot
1
Rembrandt's work 105-106. Rembrandt's attitude tow
popu-
in
tion for. in Leiden period. 40.
Frederick Henry' of Orange. 66-67.
on canvas.
x 73)4, oil
Si
in
themes 25; decline
etch4-
/ ;
5,
1
I
Rembrandt's understand-
ing of. 66.
Classicism
7
3
Amsterdam. 107; interest in genre scenes in Dutch market. 25; paintings sold at Dutch country fairs. 22; participation of Dutch burgh-
Amsterdam town
75 Lesson of Dr. Sebastiaen
Egbertsz
181; auction of Rembrandt's collections.
second state 45,
Christianity,
on canvas. 180
x 38)1. oil
Bernini. Gianlorenzo.
Art patronage: commissions for por-
Museum. 69. 69-70. 136. 38 Anatomv lessons, as theme in Dutch
50
Hundred
Guilder Print " 1034 x 15'!
on canvas.
ing,
brandt's etching plates bv
whb
tbe SiA- (Christ
Little Children), called
x 55/4. oil
161-162. 172-17}
Bellona.
115, 161
around Him. Receiving
tbe Sick
140
55%
Beggars. Rembrandt's etchings ot 44
RemHumber.
7 almg
1
trayal of.
1'
on canvas. I64X 104
Baroque quality of. 148-149 Barrios. Miguel de. 34 Bartholomew. St.. Rembrandt s porTrees.
Batbsheba.
Rembrandt's drawing.
Art market: acquisition of
90;
of.
of burghers. 23
artistic interests
Anatomy
Rem-
;
brandt's technique and. 108-109: satire of. in
success
Rembrandt's earlv por-
Rembrandt's representa-
;
Alexander tbe Great. 163
town
;
in
L.mmauv 26
C.hrnt at
Portrail with Saskia. 66. Three
half-centurv after his
in
death, 166-167; Rembrandt's art
graving. 70. 71
Adam and Eve,
Rembrandt.
inches; height precedes width.
1629. 39
1
I
35;
10
de
Piles.
Roger, grad:
by, 166.
IS
on Rembrandt's
45 Descartes, Rs
dl
:;
8
.
1
;
Index (continued)
Descent from the Cross, of 163
G
Genre
and Rembrandt's treatment of sub-
Dou.
Drapers' Guild. Rembrandt's group portrait of Syndics of. 86-87. 141
Edme
1
.
Rem-
of drawings by
Francois.
I
14
1
Rem-
by pupil. 68.
1| River,
Good Samaritan. The. etching,
x
Six's
Rembrandt.
book by Houbraken. Group portraiture: in Dutch
of.
Rembrandt's Anatomy Lesson of Dr. Tulp. 63-64. 75-77-
25. 26, 30, 33. 39. changes in tastes in.
1
1
1
hobby
"lass engraving, a
;
form
as art
popu-
scapes, popularity of, 96;
of
tiles tor
productivity of
group
of. in
trons of
brandt's relations with. 159, 160
Guild of
Dutch Republic See Netherlands
86-87
the Drapers' Guild.
painters. 23
portraits. 72
St.
first state.
Company,
Neth-
role in
I
Laarlem. Frans Hals' group por-
-has. Nicolaes, portraits by,
63
Adam
on
FIshcimer.
influence
Last-
St.
See Christ at
115; use by printmakers
technique
Entombme n t
of, ,
1
Danae
66. 67
ir/vr\ least.
ence on Rembrandt
40
Rem-
Etching, 42. copper plate for
brandt's Giving of Alms, 181 ferent "states" in
.
1
dif-
Rembrandt's
I
point needle and burin used by
1
J
1
.
s
work
in,
42-45,
1
1
ii
I
leopatra),
ielding
Flight I
1
I
.
red chalk
quoted Egypt, i 16?;
I
8
;
.
W
Homer, 42
66 67,
1
10
186
de. See
de kc\
ser,
Klovcniersdoclcn. headquarters ol
lor
\
321
i,
oil
on canvas.
Party, 12
prints ol
I
Don Antonio
L
jady Governors of the Old Men's
Home
13
Lairesse, I
decoration ol
lundred II,
aJmg
<
luygens, Constantin, 46 47
biograph)
of, 19;
I
in hierarchical
artists.
96, 112.
lands' prosperity
.
quoted. 9|
6
in,
Rembrandt's an
order ol
an adaptation
Siv's play
Rembrandt's etching
8
Cosimo
/
for
14
de'. visit to
Rem-
Medusa, by Rubens. 68 Menasseh ben Israel. Rembrandt's Rembrandt's illustrations book by, / / S Mennonitcv Rembrandt'- affiliation for
S,
Metropolitan
Museum
New York
Aristotle
I
8
restoration
.
Michelangelo,
at the.
Rem-
nous. 17-38,
map. 21
.
;
ol \rt.
The.
Contemplat-
work on
Bellona.
7
2
\.\r\.
Militia companies, in
3
group por-
tr.utv "2. Frans Hals' painting,
69
Rembrandt's Night H
82 85, 107, 109, Milton, John 167 Money Changer. The. 12 .\ 16 73,
collection.
1
'7
24
I
on canvas,
Monogram
1
I
i,
oil
38-39,41 Rembrandt. 21. 24
12,
ol
Morgan ihr.irv New x <.rk collet Hon ol Rembrandt's etchingI
I
social Condi
''2. historj of,
19.
Rembrandt's apprentice
~ ;
Peter on Dutch an market.
Mund)
1
I
'
I
Miereveld, Michiel
School. Leiden. Rembrandt's
Laughton, Charles, eiden appearance and
de Keyset's
Rembrandt III. on Nether
.ltin
education
auto
portrait of, 4~. loss ol rapport ith
;
1
180
brandt's apprenticeship with, 2?. in
Ihristian,
166
de, 16?
and the I ah. The, 29; influence on Rembrandt. 26. JO, 38; Rem
'brist
46
1
(
canvas. 30-31
Medea. Jan
of,
Lastman, Pietet Angel and Tobias
ol
tht Siek
lu) gens,
with a Turban. A, 65 Marten Soolmans and his wife, 64 Martyrdom of St. Matthew (Caravaggio). 10'9'4"x II '9", oil on
"' 103, 99, 101. 114
owned
iuildet Print " Set
(
I
M
andscapes
Dutch
I
plates
58
ink.
34
ing the Bust of Hornet, acquisition
\
S'6"
paintings, 25; popularity with
4?. 181
In I
Gerard
brandt's interest I
Rembrandt's original pupil,
Haarlem (I lals), on canvas. 80. 81
at
8'2',oil
Rembrandt's etchings,
homas, 8 lumber. Robert Lee. collection ln\ ing
I
with, 160-161
42 4! I
pen and
'.
friend, 93;
Amsterdam's d\ ic guards. Night Watch in the. 10
3
1
Hoogh, Pieterde. 91 Houbraken, Arnold biograph) ol Rembrandt by, 19; on Rembrandt. quoted. 43, 92. 108: on sale of
\
Amsterdam t<>w n hall, 164 rt d( rn k lenn ol ( )range engraving ol 66, Huygensas ecretan to, 47 paintings owned !x patronage ol Rembrandt, In I
Thomas Thomas
Rutin, 163-164
engra\ ing, 28
i<>r
I
124. acquisition bv
1
I
Govaen Rembrandt's
70; selection ol
I
J
lent)
I
mm
linck,
9Kx
of.
\ 5
brandt's studio. 165
Cornells. 23
Keyser,
bv
37
1
with a Gilt Helmet.
of,
""
Female Slide with j Snake (probably <
..etel.
10
1
Seated at a Table Covered with
Books. A. 7
Medici.
Ke
25. 38
Rembrandt's love
.
representation
Netherlands' trade 90 "I
.ist
I
Famil)
lol)
I,
Ruffo's acquisition ol
Rembrandt's etchings, 164
I
in.
4
Child, sculpture
frontispiece of,
Honthorst, Gerrit van. $9; Supper
Rembrandt's landscapes, 96, 14-
14'
Chilis
lobbema, (Meindert, 24
Rembrandt. II?. 142. number of etchings l>\ Rembrandt, 20. 4?.
1
etch-
Julius Chilis See Conspiracy of Julius
Holland. 22
etchings. 42-43, 142. 144-145, 161;
Rembrandt
2'i x 5K«,
Man Man Man
Historical themes. Lastman's influ-
23
\ %, etching.
!
copy of Rem-
oil
Vadonna and
Danae. 68-69
in
Lundens. Gerrit.
Michelangelo.
Judas Returning the Thirty Pieces of Silver. Huygens' admiration for. 47
112
Polander. The. 2
M-
on
Rembrandt's rep-
Jews in a Synagogue.
Blinding of
style: in
Samson, 68.
Rotter-
in.
oil
Jewish types. 93. 140, 161
at
group
68-69; Rembrandt's
High Baroque
I
dr\
in.
:
ing, first state,
Descent from the Cross
in
Home
a master of
65
*
resentation of Biblical figures as
72
portraits
<>t
rasmus. Desiderius, statue of,
.-
pen and
5'h x 8, bistre
Three
145
with. 115. 141
Lady Gov-
10.
1
brush. 57
brandt's Night Watch.
Jews. 92-93; Rembrandt's relations
Hermitage. Leningrad: Rembrandt's
14
42
I
dam
Haarlem. 80. 81 of,
43; Rembrandt's technique,
18;
life of.
Night Watch,
of. in
Rembrandt's Slaughtered Ox. 1 59 Countries. See Netherlands
canvas. 130. 131, 141. 165
in-
39;
Low
54-1 57; Descent
Jewish Bride. 47
Haarlem. 78-79;
Old Aden's
ernors of the
Emmaus
Engraving: process lor printing
at
problems. 24; lack of
formation on
;
I
Hadrian
financial
.
1
the Cross, 67;
Crosses.
and
Subalterns of the Civic Guards of
man. 25 influence on Rembrandt. 26 Tobias and the Angel. 28 -.Num. John. 108-109
Emmaus.
from
78-79
of.
Money Changer.
Louvre Museum. Pans, acquisition of
648. 104. 115.161: Christ Heal-
ing the Sick.
company
.
Lopez. Alphonso. 40
Emmaus. Emmaus.
1629. 39; Christ at
trait of militia
1
44,45
Luke. 138
Hals. Frans: Assembly of Officers
I
use
;
Little
tion and representation of. 113.
H,
economy, 90-91
erlands'
Elevation of the Cross. 66
114, 150
Jesus Christ. Rembrandt's concep-
officers
as pa-
1
IL.isi India
Study of a Youth Pulling at a pen and brown 'At x 7 15
Rope.
Lion Resting.
Jeremiah, 42
115. 161; Christ at
I
Life
33
x 7%. etching,
9°/i»
41
art.
The,
See also Chiaroscuro
Jacobszoon. Lambert. 62
mem-
;
;
and Art of Albrecht Direr. book by Panofskv. 7
Life
treatment bv Caravaggisti painters.
169. 170-171
bers of. in Rembrandt's Syndics of
Dutch Reformed Church. Rem-
acob Blessing the Sons of Joseph, 5'9" x 6'9", oil on canvas. 163.
fan Six, Reading,
Guilds: group portraiture of
decoration. 91
Dutch
;
109-111
112; land-
at
Hermitage Museum. 68, 12 Liebermann. Max. 69 Lievens. Jan: Huvgens' relations
lighting in I
in
Night Watch, 73, 82-8). 107.
72; lack of interest
of.
in religious paintings.
larity
unconventional treatment
brandt's short stay at the. 24
Leningrad. Rembrandt's works
wash. 50
,-
Rembrandt's Syndics. 86-8'. 141
17th Century. 92; group portrait
in
of.
Rem-
37:
of.
Light: in Danae. 118-119. hidden
Frans Hals' interpretation
81
Rem-
78-
Dutch
79. 80.
;
brandt and. 47
72;
art.
Diirer. Albrecht. 70. 71
Caravaggio's influence on.
140
Italian art: chiaroscuro in. 41
9
1
Leiden. University
brandt's art collection. 137
Medea. 114
Indian miniature. Rembrandt's copy
ists,
15
1
Is-
Piedra Gloriosa. 115; for
rael's
the
Great Theater of Netherlandish Art-
by
as used
Dry -point needle,
37-46
as artist in.
the work of. 40; Rembrandt's work with. 38; works bv. in Rem-
books: David and
Goliath for Menasseh ben
28
Rem-
;
with. 46. 47; Esther's Feast possibly
Illustrations of
I S3
66. 113.
first state.
Rembrandt's landscape.
in
98-99
8'/ie.
Goudt. Hendnck. Tobias and Angel.
113-114
10'/s
work
24-25;
in.
birth. 21
1
Goldsmith. Oliver. 93
brandt's techniques in 1640s.
art:
Rembrandt's Blinding of Samson for. 68; Rembrandt's letters to. 67-68
12
Rembrandt's brandt's
Goethe. Johann Wolfgang von, 66
brandt. 20: Rembrandt's drawing class in sketch
25.
art.
Gonzaga. Gian Francesco, in commemorative lead medal. 161
Drawing: difficulties in identifying Rembrandt's drawings. 2 48
number
Dutch
of. in
Giving of Alms. 6~/u x 5M«, etching. first state. 147; copper plate for. 181
46
Gerrit.
Henry
of Orange obtained through. 66
scenes: etchings. 146-147;
popularity
ship and education
for
Passion series for Frederick
Gersaint.
67
Dircx. Geertghe. 95
Rembrandt's assignment
the Eagle.
106"
x 26X». oil
ject.
Up by
lanymede Caught
3.
on wood. 16. 66; comparison between Rubens' 36%
23
Mythological themes Danaf, I
is
I
\9,
Mora two
versions
of,
;
120. 121
V
6
of,
,
Rembrandt's treatment
.
68-69. 106
Panofsky,
rem. quoted.
I
71
13. 141. 142. 168. apprentice
1
Pascal. Blaise. 167
m
ship
Passion series. 66-67.
Rembrandt
s
39
passion lor
in
an
eiden, 24-25;
I
Boy. The. 106
I""
65, 91
NaJaturahsm: 2
5
in
Caravaggio's
Dutch burgher
25; love of
with. 67-68
art.
of
Phocmx.
nature. 96
Negroes, Rembrandt's drawings and paintings of. 92. 154. 140
8x6. pen and brown wash with
red
Netherlands:
Rem-
position in
artist's
brandt's time. 22-2!
conspiracy of
;
lubus Gvilis. 164. craze for tulips 93
in,
economic and
.
social condi-
tions in 17th Centurv. 89-92; maps.
20;
Polish Rider. The. 39
Rem-
political situation in
Portrait of a Boy. 24
1
7th Centurv painters.
Portrait of. Iriosto
Carl.
/ / /
1
1
.
copv
for
Rembrandt's fortunes, price paid tor. 23
North Carolina leigh, display
figure:
double
of,
I
7
of Rembrandt's origi45.
in.
8
I
162. 172-173;
art.
Danac. 118-119.
Nude Seated
in
etching,
a
Mound.
6'
106. 152
first state.
ath ol the Batavians See Con-
Orange. House
7'..
of.
of,
Rembrandt's commissions Amsterdam. 62. 63. 64. 133, 9-140 See also Group por-
141
I
3
:
traiture-
Printing: etchings and engravings,
from different "states" of
91
59-160;
rise of, in the
Nether-
Q
uacksalver. The.
3
x
3
'».
etching,
Dutch
Dutch bur-
in acquisition of. 22, 2?
in
the
Rubens'. 67.
etching,
first
10. 111. 13 >: color.
I
brandt's treatment
of,
Rembrandt's personal 108-109. 130 Pancake
25. 41,
Woman. 4H
second
state.
146
\
Rem-
41-42. 108: style
314,
and
tion ol earliest painting. 21
Mound.
146. Phoenix.
06.
1
163:
1 he.
Prodigal Son. 66. Quacksalver. Tbe, 146; Ratkillcr. The. 146.
The, 44: of Saskia 94: sell-
;
136-138. Lastman's
influence on. 25,
work
5
spiritual affinit)
I
w
60- 161. misfortunes
gram
of.
145; Three Trees.
in life of,
monoWatcb
ing technique and personal
in self-portraits. 8. 21. 9
Rembrandt
and
Critics,
book
bv
Sine. 110
Rosenberg. 159
I
at a
Window,
etching, second state.
\ 514, 1
f
61. 62. 89. 9
3,
.1
13 3-1 34, analysis
63. 105-106, 108. 112-
the
Bust of Homer, 125, 135-1 ; (> Batbsbeba, 16 1-162. 172-173; Bcllona. 1X0. Blinding oj
Emmaus.
maus. 1648. 104. 115, l6l spiracy
Man
Civilis,
1
18
1
19;
.
Seat-
Con-
\
1633
the Cross, of
139. Denial
of.
62; Descent from
Esther's Feast. 40;
16. 66,
67
Ganymede
Caught Up by the I agie, 106 Homer. 124. 163-164; Jacob Blessing the Sons ofJoseph, 163,
S6;
sketch
169. 170-171; leremiah. 42. Bride, 130, 131, 141, 165;
Judas Returning the Tbirt\
4"
of Silver,
91. 140. copv of Raphael's
1652, 13,
Batdassare Castiglione, 107;
Helmet.
(
;
David and Uriah, 176
of St Peter.
C
I2X. copv of Indian miniature
Stormy Sky
at
Julius Civitis, 40. 126-
o,f
de Decker, portrait
;
21
7,
1629. 39; Christ
129. 1(,4 165; Danac, 68-69.
Sleeping. 46. 55, 115;
Conspiracy of Julius
Sam-
14-35, 68. Christ at
son. The.
3v
Elephant, in the Back-
ot-
1
i
-rait.
35
I
34.
Man
witb a Gib
Marten Soolmans
Sunlight. 97; father's portrait. 40.
and Oopien Coppit, 64. Monet Char,
Female Nude witb a Snake
laes Ruts. f
in
-"
(probably Cleopatra), S9; Life
Study of a Youth Pulling Rope. 50;
Rembrandt van Rqn. Amsterdam, life and work in. 7. 25, 46-47, of his art
An
tages before a
and Work, book bv
Rembrandt Drawing i,
drawings
of
ofDl
Lesson
40. Aristotle Contemplating the
19,23-24 45,
number
Anatomy
63-64 75-77; \ngcl Prophet Balaam. The.
in
|
ground a Group of Spectators,
tor,
Religious themes. See Biblical themes
42. 95,
-
A Woman
ward. 24. 66. 89. 159-161
Life
of.
.
Tulp. The.
111-112; prices
of,
148-149;
Woman by
paintings: Alexander tbe
-
Great. 163
stv le,
180. Rubens' influence on. 54. 6
58;
Religion. Rembrandt's attitude to-
6
3.
14.
I
Windmill. The. 100; the Stoic. 4 3
ith sect.
21, 24, Nigbt
114.
151; Three Crosses. \42. 143-
life
Mennon-
with Saskia. 65, 94-95;
a Window, 1648. 95
Thomas Jacobsz Haaring,
Leiden, earlv
8
37-46; marriage and
in,
at
115; Six's Bridge. 98. 114.
ed at a Tahle Covered witb Books.
1
etching,
Woman.
a
Rest on the Plight into Egypt,
relations with. 46. 47. identifica-
Rembrandt
Rembrandt's land-
in
Rembrandt
Painting techniques: chiaroscuro.
114;
for,
mother's portraits. 40. 44.
Huygens'
136, 138.
of, 69, 70.
tude toward. 24. 66. 89. 159-161
Rembrandt's Descent Crosi compared with
on wooden panels or small copper plates 40 ;
108.
.
self-portraits,
productivity of Dutch painters.
of.
Houbraken's description house acquisition and sale
restoration of works of, 108. 109.
\ 454,
5
Rembrandt and His
Rembrandt's mastery
1
89. 110. 112. 159; religion, atti-
scapes. 69. 96. 101
ghers
23
106
painting by, 10'
from
72. interest of
66- 67
paid for works
Realism:
art
1
of. 19;
possible reasons lor decline
Reading. The. drawing, 46
108
44 45
he
152; Omval, The, 100, Pancake
113. physical appearance as show n
state. 14(>
42.
I
Nude Seated on
critics for
108-109; personality and character traits. 19. 89. 92. 93-94. 12-
Ratkillcr. The.
Ovens. Junaen. 165
Polander.
165. high regard of
.
Rembrandt and.
R,iMpe of Proserpine,
's
Rembrandt's collection
in
Hen
14,
I
Synagogue 14'
Medea, frontispiece
39.
1
SO; lews in a
Little
insolvency,
most revolutionary painting produced bv 109-1 |0; number of works bv. 20-21, 48. 112: paint-
Rembrandt's etchings, 42-43, 144-145
Raphael. Rembrandt's sketch of
group portraits
/
drickje, relationship with, 95, 160,
popularity
Orlers.Jan. 19
Painting
.
financial
.
14 157; Flight into Egypt
/
115. 153; Jan Six. Reading,
17-18, 69. 94. 112-113.
22. Huygens'
of,
8
I
final
22. 65, 90. 111. 135-1 37.
ites,
146
£aint. Rembrandt's handling
3-
1
court. 66 art.
I
14-115, 142. 143-
life of,
5,
1653,2* Giving oj \hm 147 1X1 Good Samaritan, The. 66,
Drawing
services tor. 46. 47. popular dis-
Oriental
44. film on
1
c
inventory and sale ol possessions
1
etching, sec-
approval of Frederick Henr\
I
I
48 draw ing
14. education. 24. etching tech1
-
Sick ("1 bind red Guilder Print"),
of,
I
etchings Adam and 70-7'I; Christ Heating the
I
identifying
techniques used by, 45-46,
Woman at
Young
of. 18, 112,
3-135.
art in, 7, 13
lands. 2 2
red and black chalk. 51
Omval. The. 8\ \ ond state. 100
.
idower, The.
productivity of Dutch painters, 23;
Seated in an Armchair.
\ 6.
m
W
Carrying a Child
Rembrandt's
Prints:
x
,,.
spiracy ofJulius Gvilis
Man
64-65; number
costumes.
Walk.
S4
Toilet,
Rembrandt
34: Classicism .
%">'.
to
tt
portraits. 16 50. 6. X. Sell-Portrait.
Protestantism:
8
sub|ects. 95, 134;
techniques, 42. 43
a Old
1
portraits.
Ho
Studies
influences on, 26, 30, 34, 44. 107.
in
1
Batbsbeba one of finest
Nude Scared on
\
produced bv Rembrandt. 112.
of Art. Ra-
1
conditions and
Rembrandt's
on a Mound. 106. 152
'
on canvas.
oil
..
5<s
Portrait painting: characterization ol
10;
1
reception
;
nudes of Baroque
6'/u,
\
i,
in
20.
Museum
nal etching plates
in
oil
Cocq album.
downturn
painting marked
Nude
.
of, 2
nique, 42-45,
Stoffels as
3954, oil
notion that completion of
.
Hendrickie
ol
Portrait of the Painter in
canvas. 73,82-85, 107-108.
109-1
on canvas. 132,
oil
i».
drawings
on canvas, 120 Old Age, 3334 x 27 oil on cam as. 669. 14-15
34
1
Nigbt Watch. ll'954"x 14'4'". 'on
Portrait
I
Woman
94. 95.
Downstairs,
58-39. 140; death
Of, 9.
167, difficulties
Portrait of Saskia as Flora, 49
Nieolaes Ruts. 6!
in art of, 34, 95.
love
3
121
art
Neumann.
mani 107
1
(
,,l
catalogue of paint-
30. 34,
I
Flora, 39
8; slavery and. 92. See also
Dutch
on
oil
.
Portrait of Burgomaster fan Six.
court. 66: scarcity of information
Diemerdijk, 98 99,
birth
3;
Caravaggio's influence on,
and 47. 105-106, 121
Portrait of a Scholar. 6
154
of
20
\
View ovei
cerning. 18-20. 13 .
possible
Teaching a Child
S2, 113.
ings of. 116. characterization
7
3
1
Women
bio
.
woman
of
Geertghe Dircv 95; I \~o of a Baby witb a Bout, -V
2(i
.
Bible, illustration of. 161
21
XX
canvas,
44'. \ 40'
life
oil
drawings
62 63
of,
3
graphical data, difficulties con-
Rem-
in
brandt's art collection.
brandt's lifetime. 20. 22. popular
1
i.,
on canvas, 122. 12!. 163
disapproval of Frederick Henry's
on
59
\
,
question
.
rean
S.
portrait in
It
attire, 9 Studies of Heads and Figures 49, rowerofWesterkerk Amsterdam, 167; two
\m
39. art school held in
1
best-know n paintings In
115
Porcelhs. Jan. works by,
140
chalk.
The. etching, 163
Israel.
36.
ings bv
Picdra Gloriosa, book In iMenasseh
ben
Nesxro kettle-drummers on horseback.
140
Phillips. Charles
1
sterdam and pupils, 68, 70. III. 135, 139 authenticity ol paint
Andries, 106
Pels
tor,
Rembrandt's interpretation
;
connection
in
s<
studio
;
Huvgcns
letters to
89
of art criticism.
i
I
a
at
1
.
bair, SI;
Reading.
Saskia. silverpoint. 60.
66 6". Polish Rider. 122-
12C 165
urn Resting
Negro kettle-drummers on 40 Old Man Seated
back.
111; Passion series.
Portrait of a Scholar. 6
m an
of Burgomaster fan Six.
Th
6C
Portrait
horse-
satire
tit
ofHendrick)
121
;
Portrait
3
-
Portrait
.
/
12.
I
;
4.
2
3
X
1
.
Index (continued)
Flora, 120-. Portrait of the Painter
m
Saul and David, 5 %
of Proserpine,
canvas. 9
162.
3.
Sculpture, 22; Rembrandt's collec-
humous
tion of,
in
Saskia. post-
Saul and
portrait of. 94;
Hendrickje. Rembrandt's
Stoffels.
Rembrandt. 102; Tobias and the works b\\ in Rem-
and death
mistress: illness
of, 17,
Batbsbeba. 161-162,
34
1
van Rijn. Cornelia, Rembrandt's
72-
mother.
2
1
death
;
Rem-
94; as
of,
brandt's model, 24, 40, 46; por-
etching of 1628 and 1631,
trait of,
39, 165;
father.
of, 40 Harmen, Rembrandt's 21 possible model for The
quired bv
summoning bv Church Council
Money
Changer. 38; Rembrandt's
Portrait, 1658. 12. 135; Self-
in
of Dutch Reformed Church. 160;
Portrait. c.1660, IS: Self- Portrait
Elevation of the Cross. 67; draw-
David, 93. 162, in
74- 1 7 5
1
Scholar
;
Angel. 28;
His Study. 25; Self-Portrait.
brandt's art collection,
Young Man. 1629.9.40,42.
as a
1
number
46;
of, 7, 2
1
Costume with a Dog. 1631,
mouthed,
c.1660. 13; Self-Portrait with
Rembrandt bareheaded
c. 6 3 5, / /, 66 Shipbuilder and His Wife, The, 64-65; Simeon
shoulder
1
from
light
;
Rembrandt
in the Temple, 167; Slaughtered
second
Ox, The, 118, 159; Small
cap. laughing. 2 x
Self-
1656-1658, 12; Stoning
Portrait.
state. 8;
second
in a
etching
54,
1
Rembrandt
state. 8.
of St. Stephen. 21. 2f, 26-27. 38;
cap.
Stormy Landscape, The,
bust in outline, 2 x
69, 102,
over his
etching
x 3,
>
open-mouthed and
Rembrandt's 1
Bathing. 117
on wood,
21, 25.26-27.
3
van
Ri|n.
;
drawing
/i«,
death
meeting with Rembrandt and mar-
model model
Portrait with Saskia,
Bathing. 117
Renaissance
chiaroscuro
brandt's collection
6354 x 51
95,
62
1
Rembrandt's land
Polish Rider. 122.
I
death
of. 17,
7%
32V
oil
on canvas.
16,
\
Tobias
13,
on canvas.
Rembrandt's
and Rubens' treatment
oi Descent
/torn tbe Cross, 67; influence
Rembrandt
Portrait,
on
canvas,
'4. 6<\ represen-
of,
tation nl apostles by, 140
Vntonio commission to
Rembrandt
x 9Vn, oil
for
Content
Iristotlc
/!//>/ »/
Homer,
I
136; and Rembrandt. 161
i
5
164
Ruskin, John quoted, 108
ill
on canvas. c.1660, 4^
Tobit
.
on
Six Jan
I
Wanoab,
oj
Bartholomew
St Paul in
(
.
u
1
1
by, 114.
iiiiuinpLition. 4
brandt, I". 20, H, 105 ,
\
t
,
.
white parchmi
Six's
Rem
Sandrart, [oat him von on
Saskia, 7
I
106
first state.
60
60
6
1
I
S
',,.
98,
\ 8 I
',.
on
S« mour
1
14
with a Bottle.
on
52,
Rembrandt
\nthoin
1
to
Ws
I
J
7
in,
3
3.
portrait by, \
.in (
leldei
be typeface employed in this book
Winter Scene. 6
165
9
Widower. The. drawing, 94, 95
1
5'V>, \ 854,
\ 9Vi«, oil
\,.
100
etching.
!
on can-
101 Bathing 24
\ 1854, oil
on
canvas, 117
Woman Woman
39
rise in
popu-
M
66 u
I
lenry ol Orange's
•
by tbe Stove, etching. 4!
Curving !
a Child Downstairs,
pen and bistre
.
I)
IN
I
.
s
\
Y, Loung, C.
F
Man
I
Young
Candle oil
754,
(
\\
ash.
J
.
1
6
1
s
ighting a Pipe
from a
rerbrugghen), 23 1x21
on cam
Young ine goblet en
i> called /anum. altei Anion fmson. the Dutch who popularized it in Leifaig in tbe late 17 tb Century The fact was first however, by Nicholas Kis, a Hungarian working in Amsterdam m the 1680s
I
Company,
rest India
VVcsterkerk. Amsterdam, 167
Windmill. The.
III. engraving copied
from Frederick
10
I
Vinck, Abraham.
on
gallery, Florence, self-
larity of,
l*KI\
the Diemerdijk.
from
Ij
pen and bistre ink with wash. 98-99
Vinckboons, David, 22
red chalk
\ 5Vtt,
,,.
Var an Dyck,
59 I
the
Uytenbogaert, Jan. 92
etching.
\ 26)4, oil
Rembrandt's
x 954,
bistre
1' Yu, oil
44
gio's influence on, 26.
xxxxxx
88
1
Utrecht, school ot painting. Caravag
typefounder cut,
5'At x
s8
canvas, 158, Slive
1
Teaching a Child
1
portrait by
Slaughtered Ox, Tbe, >7
silverpoim on nl
I
Budge.
Titia.
94
Vermeer, Jan. 24, 91
Woman
'ffi/i
Burgomaster fin Six. 132, (4; Rembrandt's illustration lor Medea
Ho
Rembrandt's wife
van Uvlenburgh.
vas,
I
Sacrifice
van Uvlenburgh, Saskia. Sec van
3
(
rough grayish paper.
150. Portrait of
14,
with. 62; Rembrandt's meeting
View over
Angel Seghers).
the
x 454, pen and bistre. 52
Walk. 4
fan Six, Reading, etched
portrait,
and
Rem-
Rembrandt's mother 7 'Ax
Angel (Goudt),
the
Two Women
Temple, 167 1
and
and Anna.
3"/i6
Silverpoim technique, 60, 65
Simons. Menno,
Rem-
brandt's apprenticeship with, 25
dochter. See van Ri]n. Cornelia.
on copper. 28
I
Sephardk Jews. 92 93 Shipbuilder and 1 lis Wife, Tbe, 64-65
m the
39
1
van Zuvtbrouck, Cornelia Willems-
Two h\groes. 34 Two Studies of a Baby
Old Age. 1669. 14-15
Simeon
creditors.
van Swanenburgh, Jacob.
Tromp. Maartcn. 90
Portrait oj the Painter
>'
/
oil
I0'/s, oil
panel. 36, 40,
\t
arrange-
circumvent Rembrandt's
to
sister-in-law,
etching.
7",«x 10",.. etching, 28 12.
13; Se!/ 3 7,
8'» x 10"'i„.
!
12. 135; Self-
x
143-145
10 /i6, engraving. 28 Tobias
13.
on panel.
oil
.
x
67; painting by,
1
in financial
Rijn, Saskia,
and fourth
148-149
14,
94;
with niece Saskia. 65
Tobias and the Angel (F.lsheimer).
Portrait, study, c.1660, 12V.
Rubens. Peter Paul
plating tbe
Three Trees,
14,
135;
on canvas,
5'A.
etching.
state (pp. 143,145). 142,
s5. Large Self- Portrait. 1652.
x 39%. oil
23
Don
1
\i5; Self-Portrait of 1658. 50
59
Rotterdam. Desiderius Erasmus'
Rutin
3
x
7'A*
17"/i«.
third state (p. 144)
5, / /
of,
brandt's business arrangement
Haaring,
Jacobsz.
Three Crosses, 5 'At, x
//. 66;
3
van Uvlenburgh. Hendrick: 34
1
etching, second state, 114, 151
5,
3
12. 89. 107.
27"At, oil
s
1658, 1954 I
Thomas
135, Small Self-Portrait. 1656-
121
Rosenberg. Jakob, quoted,
6
32
dle.
15; Self- Portrait. 1650,
44'/u x
Rembrandt's
scapes, 69, 96, 102. in
statue.
I
34 u 1
1
Lighting a Pipe from a Can-
Tholinx. Arnout,
1648, etching. 42.
Self- Portrait.
79
m
c.
on canvas.
oil
I-.
on canvas.
oil
on canvas. 167. /77,
Romanticism
Man
on canvas,
Self-Portrait. 1640. 40'/» x
Resurrection in Passion series. 66 Return of the Prodigal Son. 8'6" x
Kevins, jacobus,
oil
Portrait with Saskia.
I
1
,
90
Sir William, quoted.
Terbrugghen. Hendrick. 39; Youmr
10.65. Vl.Self-Portraitasa
Rembrandt's color and. 80; varnish applied on. 108-109
78-
Te, .emple.
Self-
Window.
Young Man. 1629. 7% x 5'A„. oil on canvas. 9, 40, 42, 44; Self-
Restoration of Rembrandt's paintings:
/
\ 22'/ u
1631. 24'/u
44
6'7", oil
at a
an Oriental Costume with a Dog,
;
Rem-
7-138
13
of,
41
in.
and. 105, 107.
Rest on tbe Flight into Egypt, The.
etching,
Drawing
etching, 95. 115; Self-Portrait in
art:
Rembrandt
drawing, 93;
attire,
Portrait.
6
1
van Rijn. Titus. Rembrandt's son:
ments
studio
in
94-95
will of.
8; self-portrait in
Woman
c.
66; posthumous portrait
Stephen,
Negroes. 134;
Danae, 68-69;
for
Saskia, etching. 60, 94; in Self-
The, 86-76, 141. Tobh and Anna.
Two
and
etchings, 65, 69; in Flora, 120; as
137; role
Winter Scene. 101;
as
for paintings, drawings,
8: in Stoning of St.
3 6. 40, 44;
69;
of.
180;
riage. 65; in Bellona,
first state, 3
94; illness
of. 17,
103 Syndics of the Drapers' Guild, ;
46
of, 40,
8
Syndics of the Drapers' Guild. The, 6'3" x 9'2", oil on canvas. 86-87. 141
staring,
44; Rembrandt's etching
van Ri|n. Saskia. Rembrandt's wife: 7
Sylvius. Jan Cornells. 92
in a
etching
1 'A.
.
Stormy Landscape. The. 20'/; x 29'/;, oil on panel, 69, 102. 103 Studies of Heads and Figures. SV> x 9, pen and bistre with wash and red chalk. 49 Supper Party (Honthorst), 54'/l« x 80'/i6, oil on canvas. 32-33
in sharp
right, looking
bust. 2
Woman
oil
as if shouting, bust.
27» x 2'A,
121
in Flora,
/
Stoning of St. Stephen. 15'A t x 48
etching second state. 8.
65. 93; Self-Portrait, Study.
Saskia,
in
Rem-
;
brandt bareheaded and open-
in
relationship with. 95,
ac-
Cosimo de'Medici. 165; Descent from the Cross and in
ings.
65;
173;
44; Self-Portrait in an Oriental 10,
\
37
Rembrandt:
Self-Portraits bv
1640. 12. 89, 107, \15, SelfPortrait, 1650, 13. \15. Self-
St
brother.
Rem-
brandt's interpretation of, 158. 159
7
3
1
order of
genres of paintings. 25;
Seghers, Hercules, 24; influence on
graved bv. 92
van Petersom, Jan, 139 van Ri|n. Adnaen. Rembrandt's
Still lifes: in hierarchical
Manoah. 112; St. Bartholomew, 140: St Paul ;
Rembrandt's land-
Steen, Jan, 18
themes
Scriptures. See Biblical
Sacrifice of
in
scape painting. 98-99
ProdigalSon. 167, 177, 178-179;
contemplation, 41
Spaarndam,
on
74-1 75
/
Screaming Boy, The, drawing, 106
06; Return of the
I
x 64°/i«, oil
1
Old Age, 1669, 14-15: Rape
'
as
Woman
I
at llei
pen and «
Toilet, 954
ash. 54
•
3 4
1
J .«
:
BOSTON PUBLIC LIBRARY
3 9999 00667 098 6
i