Re humanizing the built environment schmachtenberger katharine by Katharine Schmachtenberger

History of Development Throughout the United States, personal motor vehicles are the predominate mode of transportation, especially in the western mountain states where the population has developed in a less dense pattern than any other region in the country.1 As many communities in this region expand quickly or increase in density, it is important to examine the needs and potential issues of larger urban centers. Streets play important roles in the urban environment. They are key organizing features, connecting people and locations while aiding in the development of community spaces. As roadways in the mountain west region have developed, equal attention has not been paid to transportation types beyond motor vehicles. As a result, an infrastructure that does not equally serve a cross section of transportation modes has been created. This system does not adequately facilitate the safety of pedestrians or bicyclists. Human-centric environments should supplant the motorized vehicular right of way designs that have become the norm in the United States, especially in the western mountain region. Designs, inclusive of all transportation methods, create a healthier and human scaled environment that offers economic benefits, and is to the benefit of all residents. Roads have always provided connectivity, supporting military expansion, providing for the efficient movement of commercial goods, and linking cultures; roads, over time, have adapted to serve these purposes and changing transportation vehicles from foot and horse, wheeled vehicles, and to the automobile. In the early history of American cities, automobile centric development models were not the norm. The introduction and popularity of the automobile has had an enormous impact on the development of cities and urban planning standards. Before the advent of the automobile and subsequent proliferation of personal vehicles in the United States, a higher percentage of the population relied on public transportation and walking to traverse across cities. In 1920’s America, the street car was the most common form of public transit in cities. These systems were supplemented by passenger trains for travel between cities and towns.2 This would all change in the short span of forty years. By the 1960’s the majority of people were traveling inter- and intra-city via personal automobile, city transit systems had shrunk, and train transit between cities was an unviable or nonexistent option. By this time, travel in rural America was done almost completely by automobile, the train systems that once served small towns had died out as a result of the Great Depression and the rising popularity of motor

“Population, Housing Units, Area, and Density: 2010 – United States; and Puerto Rico 2010 Census Summary File 1,” United States Census Bureau: American Fact Finder, 2010. See Also Appendix A 2 David J. St. Clair, The Motorization of American Cities (New York, NY: Praeger Publishers, 1986), 1. 1

vehicles.3 The transit systems of larger cities managed to survive but not without repercussions. Before the 1950’s most transit systems were privately owned operations with monopoly rights within individual cities,4 but with decreasing ridership the private systems were failing, services shrank, and only survived as a result of government subsidies.5 Regardless of the argument made for the increased popularity of automobiles, it is clear that the catalyst for transportation planning change was the combined result of the increased ownership of personal vehicles and the Great Depression. Early in the history of the American West, people traveled by train, wagon or carriage, and horse. The 19th century saw a boon in railroad construction in the United States along with small towns developing along the way where there were temporary halts in rail construction.6 The towns that developed along the railroad, often called cow towns, also attracted ranchers and farmers who would bring livestock and agricultural goods to be shipped to markets on the east and west coasts7 via the transcontinental railroad. Given greater populations, transportation needs, and pressure from multiple groups, by the 1930’s the U.S. Federal government was discussing the construction of a national highway system to link American cities.8 The popularity of the car played a significant role in the development of the American Highway system, which in turn was influential in the development of urban centers, especially in the mountain west. The first push for road improvement was not voiced by those promoting the automobile, but instead by The League of American Wheelmen with the founding of the Good Roads Movement in 1880.9 The introduction of the rearwheel-driven “safety” bike, a model much closer to what we see today, in 187710 shot the popularity of bicycles to new heights by offering inexpensive and safe convenience and mobility. At the time roads were deemed a local or state issue rather than a national issue; this was in part due to the federal support of the rail systems. Though privately owned, the

St. Clair, The Motorization of American Cities, 2. St. Clair, The Motorization of American Cities, 104. 5 St. Clair, The Motorization of American Cities, 2. 6 “Railroad Towns.” American History: From Revolution to Reconstruction and Beyond, accessed April 2, 2017, http://www.let.rug.nl/usa/essays/1801-1900/the-iron-horse/railroad-towns.php. 7 "Cow Towns," Gale Encyclopedia of U.S. Economic History. Encyclopedia.com, April 16, 2017, http://www.encyclopedia.com/history/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/cow-towns. 8 “On The Interstate,” America on the Move, accessed April 2, 2017, http://amhistory.si.edu/onthemove/exhibition/exhibition_16_2.html. 9 Carlton Reid, “The Petition that Paved Roads,” Roads Were Not Built For Cars, March 21, 2012. http://www.roadswerenotbuiltforcars.com/the-petition-that-paved-america, 2. 10 Michael Southworth, and Eran Ben-Joseph, Streets and the Shaping of Towns and Cities (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1997), 53. 3 4

construction of many railroads in the United States had been aided by federal and grants11, as they were considered an important means of long-distance communication, connectivity, and supported economic trade.12 In 1892 Albert Pope, a Civil War Veteran and manufacture of Columbia Bicycles paid for and organized a petition requesting a federal Government Roads Department.13 With lobbying by the League of American Wheelmen and 150,000 signatures, the petition resulted in the creation of the Office of Road Inquiry (later the Federal Highways Administration) and set a precedent, roads were now viewed as a national political issue.14 With road improvement now a part of the federal political agenda and the ever growing popularity of the automobile in the first decade of the 20th century, Congress was much quicker to respond to pressure for road improvement from automobile lobbyists, most notably the American Automobile Association founding in 1902.15 In 1904 a national road census reported 2,151,570 miles of roads, only 7 percent of which were surfaced with stone or gravel, the remaining 93 percent being classified as dirt roads. This information combined with the exponential growth in automobile ownership, the number of vehicles on the road increased from 8,000 in 1900 to 8 million vehicles by 1920, prompted Congress to pass the Federal Aid Road Act in 1916,16 the first government action to integrate the country’s roads and establish a nationwide state highway system. A second significant piece of roads legislation was the Federal Highway Act of 1921, the act made federal funds available to the states in order to improve their rural roads. The legislature explicitly excluded urban roads from the aid package but would match funds 50-50 with the states to improve roads choses by each state.17 By the end of the 1920’s the rural roads program was considered to have accomplished its goal of providing connectivity to the rural populations, especially farmers and ranchers.18 By this time there were more automobiles per capita in rural areas than elsewhere in the country and car manufacturers were targeting the rural populations with advertisements claiming that automobiles were “Built of Country Roads”

“Rise of Industrial America, 1876-1900: Railroads in the Late 19th Century” Library of Congress, accessed March 28, 2017, http://www.loc.gov/teachers/classroommaterials/presentationsandactivities/presentations/timeline/riseind/railroad. 12 Reid, “The Petition that Paved America,” 2. 13 Reid, “The Petition that Paved America,” 2. 14 Reid, “The Petition that Paved America,” 3. 15 Michael Southworth, Streets and the Shaping of Towns and Cities, 56. 16 Michael Southworth, Streets and the Shaping of Towns and Cities, 56. 17 St. Clair, The Motorization of American Cities, 21. 18 St. Clair, The Motorization of American Cities, 22. 11

and they would lead to “The Passing of the Horse”19. By 1930 there were 23 million vehicles on the roads in the United States, the automobile had effectively revolutionized transportation. The improvement and construction of roads continued throughout the early 1900’s and saw another significant piece of legislation following the World Wars. The passing of the Federal Aid Highway Act of 1956 was the effective start of construction on the largest

Figure 1

single construction project in history, the Interstate System.20 The Act first changed the name of the Interstate System to the National System of Interstate and Defense Highways, this was done to rationalize the increased federal participation and funding as a national defense strategy.21 The Act called for the construction of 41,000 miles of interstate highways and designated a federal to state funding ratio of 90-10 (95-5 in some western states).22 As the popularity of personal vehicles increased, and thus the number of automobiles on the streets increased, it was not long before motorists were demanding better roads; roads that were more cohesive, and connected, that allowed for easy movement between locations and reduced traffic congestion. As a result, a cyclical pattern arose from this. The demand for better roads was echoed by an increase of their use as automotive travel became more viable as a regular means of travel. This in turn fueled more demand for the improvement of roadways from new users. Here is where the shift in transportation policy occurred. Where there had been an emphasis on providing public transportation, there was now a focus on the construction of urban expressways and highways and the expansion of existing roadways to accommodate the increased number of vehicles. 23 These changes in social and physical infrastructure conditioned the preference for the use of automobiles in the United States. “The Automobile and the Environment in American History,” Automobile in American Life and Society, accessed March 20, 2017. http://www.autolife.umd.umich.edu/Environment/E_Overview/E_Overview6.htm 20 St. Clair, The Motorization of American Cities, 160 21 St. Clair, The Motorization of American Cities, 160. 22 St. Clair, The Motorization of American Cities, 160. 23 St. Clair, The Motorization of American Cities, 3. 19

The standard of urban planning in U.S. cities has shifted to focus, if not solely, most heavily, on support and movement of vehicular traffic as described by John Rae: â&#x20AC;&#x153;The motor vehicle in a surprisingly short time became the dominant element in urban transportation and therefore in urban development. Its first conspicuous effect was on existing transit systems. Two forces were at work here. First, as automobile ownership increased, people used their own cars for trips that they would formerly have made on public transportation. Second, railborne transit, especially streetcar and interurban lines, found itself in a losing contest with the motor bus, which was cheaper to operate and also enjoyed a flexibility that no railborne system could have.â&#x20AC;?24 The consequences of the influx of automobiles are broad, the changing transportation patterns impacting the American lifestyle, the environment, and social culture. The shift to automobile centric planning has resulted in public spaces that are scaled and paced for vehicles rather than people. In many locations walking and biking as a primary method of transportation is inefficient, unsafe, or even impossible. As transportation methods have evolved, streets have adapted to fit, the most significant changes seen in response to the automobile.

Figure 2 24

John Rae, The Road and Car in American Life (Cambridge, MA: M.I.T. Press, 1971). 208-9.

Contemporary Issues It is improbable that there is a future without automobiles, but that does not mean design and planning should neglect other modes of transportation and allow the movement of the automobile to dictate and disrupt peoples’ lives. The prevailing approach to urban planning around automobiles has had detrimental consequences for the environment and individual health. It has also affected the creation and use of public space and impacted personal and government finances. Automobile focused planning ignores the collective responsibilities to the environment and public health. Environment Automobiles are having an enormous impact on the environment, contributing to global warming, the depletion of the ozone layer, and contamination of water, soil, and air. In December 1970, the U.S. Department of Transportation reported an annual 89.9 billion vehicle miles traveled (VTM), by December of 2015 the VTM was reported at 262.3 billion.25 With vehicles emitting on average 24 pounds of carbon dioxide and other GHGs per gallon of gasoline26, this ever growing volume of traffic is having an astounding effect on Global Warming. With data from 2014, the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) reported that transportation is responsible for 26% for the global greenhouse gases (GHGs)27. Besides GHGs, automobiles produce numerous other harmful pollutants including: hydrocarbons, nitrogen oxides, carbon monoxide, and sulfur dioxide. Two of which are main contributors to

Figure 3

“Travel Monitoring,” Federal Highway Administration, accessed March 15, 2017, https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/policyinformation/travel_monitoring/historicvmt.cfm. 26 “Car Emissions & Global Warming,” Union of Concerned Scientists, accessed March 20, 2017, http://www.ucsusa.org/clean-vehicles/car-emissions-and-global-warming#.WOVXR_krJPY. About five pounds comes from the extraction, production, and delivery of the fuel, while the great bulk of heat-trapping emissions—more than 19 pounds per gallon—comes right out of a car’s tailpipe. 27 “Sources of Greenhouse Gas Emissions,” United States Environmental Protection Agency, accessed March 20, 2017, https://www.epa.gov/ghgemissions/sources-greenhouse-gas-emissions. 25

ground level ozone (a primary component in smog) hydrocarbon and nitrogen oxides.28 With a reduction in day-to-day car use; the pollution levels would start to decline most noticeably on the regional levels, resulting in cleaner air in populated areas. During the 1996 Summer Olympics in Atlanta, Georgia, the positive results of reduced automobile use were evident. Given the two million visitors to the city during that time, many residents who would normally drive, instead took to public transit and walking to avoid the increased traffic downtown.29 The most compelling piece of evidence of the significant reduction in air pollution is the 30 percent reduction in asthma hospitalizations during that time.30 A similar example of this was seen in Beijing during September 2016 as the city prepared for the annual China’s Victory Day Parade. Starting August 20th 2.5 million automobiles were banned from driving within the main urban core of the city and were instead restricted to alternative routes away from the heart of the city. On an average day in Beijing, the Air Pollution Index in approximately 150 (out of 500), however by September 3, the API had dropped to 17. Unfortunately, these results were short lived, the day following the parade the automobile were allowed back into the city center and the API returned to 160 within a day.31 Most American cities, including those in the mountain west region, sit at an API of 125, putting citizens as risk for a variety of health risks. Health Along with harmful effects to the environment, the modern environment and reliance on cars, has contributed to negative trends in average health in the United States. The rate of chronic diseases, especially those linked to air pollution and obesity, have been steadily on the rise in the United States; statistics show that in 1960 the United States spent five percent of the GDP on health care, in 2007 the percentage of the GDP dedicated to health care had jumped to 16 percent.32 Despite this the rate of chronic diseases, especially those linked to air pollution and obesity have been steadily rising.

“Cars, Truck, and Air Pollution,” Union of Concerned Scientists, accessed March 20, 2017, http://www.ucsusa.org/cleanvehicles/vehicles-air-pollution-and-human-health/cars-trucks-air-pollution#.WOWjp_krJPa. 29 Jeff Speck, Walkable City: How Downtown Can Save America, One Step at a Time (New York, NY: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2012) pp. 43. 30 Richard Jackson, “We Are No Longer Creating Wellbeing,” dirt.asla.org, September 12, 2010. 31 “Beijing Banned Cars for 2 Weeks and the Sky Turned Perfectly Blue,” Upworthy, September 14, 2015, http://www.upworthy.com/beijing-banned-cars-for-2-weeks-and-the-sky-turned-perfectly-blue-guess-what-happenedthe-next-day. 32 Andrew L. Dannenberg, Howard Frumkin, and Richard Jackson, eds. Making Healthy Places: Designing and Building for Health, Well-Being, and Sustainability (Washington, D.C: Island, 2011) 43. 28

In recent decades, the air quality in cities of wealthy nations has improved. This is a result of the regulation and removal or manufacturing and smoke stacks, but current levels of pollution in many cities are still not considered safe.33 There is substantial evidence that emissions from automobiles are harmful to human health34 linked to increased mortality rates due to respiratory and cardiovascular issues.35 Lead Sulfur Dioxide

Carbon Monoxide Nitrogen Oxides

Tropospheric Ozone Toxic Pollutants (asbestos, mercury, dioxin, and VOCs) Particulate Matter

Volatile Organic Compounds (benzene, terpenes, toluene) Biological Pollutants (pollen, mold, mildew)

Source Type and Major Sources

Health Effects

Primary Anthropogenic: leaded fuel, lead batteries, metal processing. Primary Anthropogenic: fossil fuel combustion (power plants), industrial boilers, household coal use, oil refineries. Primary and secondary Anthropogenic: fossil fuel combustion (motor vehicles, boilers, furnaces). Primary and Secondary Anthropogenic: fossil fuel combustion (vehicles, electric utilities, industry), kerosene heaters Secondary Formed through chemical reactions of both anthropogenic and biological precursors (VOCs and NOx) in the presence of sunlight. Primary and secondary Anthropogenic: industrial processed, solvents, paint thinners, fuel.

Accumulates in organs and tissues; associated with learning disabilities, cancer, and damage to the nervous system. Associated with lung impairment and respiratory symptoms; is a precursor to PM; contributes to acid precipitation.

Primary and secondary Anthropogenic; fossil fuel combustion, wood burning, conversion of precursors (NOx SOx, VOCs).

Sources and effects can differ by particulate size; associates with respiratory symptoms, decline in lung function, and exacerbation of respiratory and cardiovascular disease (such as asthma); can increase mortality rates. Associates with a range of effects such as irritation of respiratory tract, nausea, and cancer; are precursors to ozone; contribute to PM.

Primary and secondary Anthropogenic: solvents, glues, smoking, fuel combustion. Primary Anthropogenic: when mechanical systems, such as central air conditioning, create conditions that encourage production of biological pollutants.

Interferes with delivery of oxygen; can cause fatigue, headaches, neurological damage, and dizziness. Associated with decreased lung function and increased respiratory infection; is a precursor to ozone; contributes to PM and acid precipitation. Associated with decreased lung function, increased respiratory symptoms, eye irritation, and bronchoconstriction. Associated with cancer, reproductive effects, neurological damage, and respiratory effects.

Associated with allergic reactions, respiratory symptoms, fatigue, and asthma.

Figure 4

Andrew L. Dannenberg, Making Healthy Places, 70-71. Andrew L. Dannenberg, Making Healthy Places, 64. 35 Howard Frumkin, Lawrence Frank and Richard Jackson, Urban Sprawl and Public Health: Designing, Planning, and Building Healthy Communities (Washington DC: Island Press, 2004). 33 34

In the 1960’s the percentage of the population that was overweight or obese was around 45.8, by 2000 that had risen to 71.1 percent.36 The risk for obesity is linked to an individual’s level of physical activity diet.37 Physical activity is divided into two types: utilitarian, such as performing a job that requires physical excursion or getting to school or work by walking or biking (active transport), and recreational, activities for entertainment such as playing a sport. It is recommended that young children and adolescents participate in 60 minutes of physical activity daily while 150 minutes per week is recommended for adults.38 Most Americans are not meeting these recommended levels of physical activity. Many people live busy lives and find it difficult to dedicate time solely to physical activity; an effective and efficient way of staying active is through incidental exercise or active transport, walking or biking to school, work, or to run errands. Unfortunately, over the last five or six decades “we have effectively engineered physical activity out of our daily lives,”39 as so well put by Richard Jackson. The loss of the daily useful walk has created a severely less active American populace. Levels of physical activity, and risk of obesity, have significant links to the built environments that people inhabit. Studies in 2003 found that adults living in sprawling counties tend to have a higher BMI and are more likely to be obese than adults living in more dense neighborhoods.40 Multiple cities in the United States can attest to the health benefits that come along with a greater number of people choosing transportation methods other than personal vehicles. A study in Atlanta showed that residents who switched from driving to public transit lost on average five pounds.41 Another study completed in San Diego, reported that 60 percent of those living in low-walkability neighborhoods were overweight compared to only 35 percent of those living in high-walkability neighborhoods.42 The lowest BMI averages in Massachusetts were found in Boston and its inner-ring suburbs while the highest BMIs were found in the car-dependent outer rings.43 Better design, walkable neighborhoods, connectivity, and the promotion of active transportation methods can help

“U.S. Adult Obesity Rates Since 1960,” Infogram, accessed April 2, 2017, https://infogr.am/US-Adult-Obesity-Rates-Since-1960. 37 Jeff Speck, Walkable City, 115. An article, “gluttony of sloth,” published in the British Medical Journal featured studies that compared obesity rates with data on diet and inactivity and found a much stronger correlation with inactivity. 38 Andrew L. Dannenberg, Making Healthy Places, 35. 39 Andrew L. Dannenberg, Making Healthy Places,xvii. 40 Andrew L. Dannenberg, Making Healthy Places,156. 41 Catherine Lutz and Anne Lutz Fernandez, Carjacked: The Culture of the Automobile and Its Effect on Our Lives (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2010). 165. 42 Frumkin, Urban Sprawl and Public Health, 100. 43 Jeff Speck, Walkable City, 42. 36

Americans reach recommended levels of physical activity, thus reducing the risk of obesity and other chronic diseases that are linked to physical inactivity.44 The matter of pollution could be greatly improved with the adoption of Zero Emission Vehicles (ZEV), a movement that is gaining speed across the United States. A ZEV is a vehicle that emits no pollutants, including GHGs as well as hydrocarbons, and carbon monoxide. ZEVs include electric cars, liquid nitrogen vehicles, compressed air vehicles, and those with hydrogen fuel cells. California’s ZEV program, developed in the 1990’s, has since been adopted by ten other states, making it now the largest policy driver for the production of electric-drive vehicles, including pure battery electrics (including fuel cell vehicles, and plugin hybrid electric vehicles).45 Additionally, there is work being done to strengthen the program by focusing on electric-drive vehicles and the reduction of GHG emissions. The goals of the program includes insuring the transformations needed for ZEVs or Low Emission Vehicles (LEV) so as to reach an 80 percent reduction in GHG emissions by 2050.46 The adoption of the ZEV program by multiple states, as well as reward incentives for companies that produce ZEVs and LEVs, is creating a strong market for ZEVs in the country.47 By eliminating, or significantly reducing the GHGs and other pollutants released by vehicles the environmental issues discussed above would be greatly reduced as well as a reduction in health issues related to polluted air. Unfortunately, regardless of the reduction of pollution the consequences of inactivity will persist if individuals continue to utilize personal vehicles as they currently do. Additionally, the economic impacts of personal vehicles and the flawed ways in which people use space would persist. As non-fossil fuel options become more popular the environmental and health issues may not be an issue but that does not negate the social and fiscal issues. Community and Social Aspects Whether a city has a high volume of personal vehicle traffic or promotes and supports active transportation impacts the community and social environment. The popularity and use of vehicles in the United States effects community use of, and interaction with space, safety, and social capital. In many American cities, it seems that instead of vehicles, and thus parking, serving the people and the city, the city and people are serving the parking and making way for the use of cars. Parking covers vast acres in America, Andrew L. Dannenberg, Making Healthy Places, 67. “built environments that encourage physical activity should reduce risks for obesity and the chronic disease that are linked to physical inactivity.” 45 Simon Mui and Alan Baum, The Zero Emission Vehicle Program: An Analysis of Industry’s Ability to Meet Standards (Natural Resources Defense Council, 2010) pp. 3. 46 Simon Mui, The Zero Emission Vehicle Program, 3. 47 Simon Mui, The Zero Emission Vehicle Program, 16. 44

more than any other one thing.48 This creates huge spaces in the environment that are uninhabitable by people and limited to one use. A familiar site is parking lots covering a full half or full block, fronting a WalMart or filling an empty lot in a downtown urban core. These empty spaces are less than pleasant to pass by and decrease pedestrian activity on the streets. This ample amount of parking also invites and incentivizes the use of personal vehicles even where public transit options exist.49 By incentivizing driving and the use of personal vehicles, there are fewer individuals utilizing pedestrian ways and therefore less interaction between locals. In her book Death and Life of Great American Cities, Jane Jacobs discusses â&#x20AC;&#x153;third places.â&#x20AC;? These are places outside an individualâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s home or place of employment where they are familiar with the other people who frequent that location. Fewer interactions between neighborhood residents means a decreased likelihood of a viable third place in the way Jacobs discusses them. Third places are valuable to a community as they give residents a sense of place and lessens personal connections to their community. Connections to community increases social capital and collective efficacy, or the capability and willingness of a group to intervene on behalf of the common good.50 The safety of pedestrians and bicyclists can also suffer or be benefitted by the built environment and treatment of roadways. Prudent planning of the built environment can be effective in preventing injuries to pedestrians and bicyclists from automobiles; strategies such as separating pedestrians and bicyclists from motor traffic, installation of in-pavement flashing lights, pedestrian overpasses, sidewalks, and traffic calming51 are a few common practices. In the United States, the pedestrian deaths per distance traveled is three times higher than those in Germany and five times higher than those in the Netherlands, both countries use planning methods that separate bike and pedestrian paths, and reduce traffic speeds.52 Street design effects traffic volume and speed which in turn effect crash rates and fatalities. Street designs that have fewer and narrower lanes, trees near the curb, speed humps, traffic circles, and a constant flow to pedestrians and or bicyclists are shown have a greater level of safety.53 These environments heighten the awareness of drivers and slow traffic.

Jeff Speck, Walkable City, 115. Jeff Speck, Walkable City, 122. 50 Andrew L. Dannenberg, Making Healthy Places, 119. 51 Andrew L. Dannenberg, Making Healthy Places, 81. 52 Andrew L. Dannenberg, Making Healthy Places, 80. 53 Andrew L. Dannenberg, Making Healthy Places, 158. 48 49

Economics The car centric design models impact both personal finances as well as government economics (I don’t like how that is put [local economics]). Those who own and regularly drive personal vehicles have higher transportation expenditures overall given the cost of ownership which include: fuel, vehicle maintenance, and parking costs. Cities also see increase costs with more vehicles on the road given the costs of road maintenance and exorbitant cost of infrastructure expansion. The U.S. Department of Labor reported data from 2015 outlining the average expenditures of consumer units54 in the United States. The average annual expenditures of consumer units in 2015 totaled $55,978 with transportation costs, including vehicle purchases and fuel costs, totaling $9,503, transportation accounted for 17 percent of total annual expenditures.55 Data reported in 2010 by the American Public Transportation Association shows annual savings of $8,000 to $13,00056 for those who utilized public transit over driving, the data takes into account the cost of vehicle maintenance, fuel, and parking, these savings would be higher for those using active transit. Local and industrial economics are also effected by the number of residents in a given location using cars compared as opposed to other transportation modes. When individuals save money, and spend it in their community, it helps to support the local economy. Among Portlanders, who drive 20 percent less (4 miles less per citizen per day) than those in other metropolitan areas, significant savings were found in two areas: the reduction in driving, 4 miles less per citizen per day, adds up to $1.1 billion dollars in saving annually57 and a reduction in drive times during peak hours dropped from 54 minutes to 43 minutes resulting in $1.5 billion dollars in savings.58 These savings are more likely to be spent locally,59 thus supporting the economy. Conversely, almost 85 percent of money spent on vehicle purchases and gas leaves the local economy for foreign companies.60 Overall, the Environmental Protection Agency found that, state by state, the more miles

Consumer Unites include families, single persons living alone or sharing a household with others but who are financially independent, or two of more persons living together who share expenses. 55 “Economic News Release: Consumer Expenditures (Annual) News Release,” Bureau of Labor Statistics, accessed March 25, 2017, https://www.bls.gov/news.release/cesan.htm. 56 “Riding Public Transit Saves Individuals $9,242 Annually,” American Public Transportation Association, accessed March 22, 2017, http://www.apta.com/mediacenter/pressreleases/2010/Pages/100112_Transit_Savings.aspx. 57 Jackson, “We Are No Longer Creating Wellbeing.” 58 Kevin Sack, “Governor Proposes Remedy for Atlanta,” The New York Times, January 26, 1999, A14. 59 Jeff Speck, Walkable City, 29. 60 Jeff Speck, Walkable City, 29. 54

driven the weaker the economy.61 But, looking again at Portland, it has over twelve hundred technology buildings and is attracting young people in droves.

Jeff Speck, Walkable City, 34.

Conclusion of Support The information and analysis of different systems paints a regrettable image, that modern planning methods are failing to serve people and communities, diverse in location and situation (need diff word), equally and adequately. It is apathetic to ignore the fiscal constraints of vehicle centric design; when planning favors the automobile, transportation via alternate modes becomes difficult and best, thus demanding that any resident utilize a vehicle on a daily basis. Vehicle ownership is a financial commitment, one that many people or families cannot comfortably afford; unfortunately, when it is a necessity those individuals must sacrifice other needs. Without infrastructure and policy to support alternate modes of transportation, the lowincome population is served an injustice. If not adequately and equally providing for those using non-motor transportation modes, the current programs for spending on transportation serve only to disenfranchise a portion of the population, those too young, too old, or financially unable to drive. There is irrefutable evidence indicating that more and more people are choosing alternate modes of transportation; young Americans are driving less and more are opting out of earning a driverâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s license, instead choosing to walk, bike, or utilize public transit.62 Just as planning and development adapted to accommodate motor vehicles, why should there not be a re-adaptation to support a changing in preference by shifting investment away from road expansion towards transit biking and walking. Just as planning and development change to adapt to and accommodate more cars, we should adapt to accommodate other modes again. Humans are unique in the ability to change the environment to suit their needs. Why then are the built environments made so inhospitable, they have been designed to serve a machine. Instead planning and development should serve to truly promote health, community, and inclusiveness. In Plato's Republic, the philosopher argues that justice - using the Greek word dikaiosyne, which translates closely to "morality" and "righteousness" - is concerned with the common good of the whole community. Justice constitutes a set of actions that are in the interest of everyone rather than exclusively to the advantage of any one faction within the community.63 By planning to be inclusive of additional transportation modes, the community as a whole can be served more equally, and the benefits of these alternative transportation modes are in the interest of the community where implemented.

Jeff Speck, Walkable City, 19. â&#x20AC;&#x153;Plato: Political Philosophy,â&#x20AC;? Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy, accessed April 12, 2017, http://webcache.googleusercontent.com/search?q=cache:http://www.iep.utm.edu/platopol/&num=1&strip=1&vwsrc=0. 62 63

Methods for Redesign Multiple methods have been developed to address the issues associated with automobile-centric design, for altering of existing, or construction of new, infrastructure to support non-motor vehicle transportation methods. The implementation of these methods has shown them to be effective in slowing traffic, increasing pedestrian and bicyclist safety, and encouraging use by pedestrians and bicyclists. Some of these methods summarized below: Road Diet A Road Diet is most often the conversion of a four-lane undivided roadway to a three-lane roadway; the result is one lane for each direction of travel and a center left-turn lane. The remaining excess space is reallocated to other uses such as bike lanes, transit stops, or parking64 Road Diet can also be applied to other road configurations, such as where it may be necessary to maintain four lanes of traffic. Road Diet offers many benefits, including increased safety, operational benefits, and dedicated space for bicyclists and pedestrians.65 Implementation can improve vehicular safety by reducing crashes and simplifying the road environment. Studies indicate that Road Diet conversion can result in an overall reduction of crashes by 19 to 47 percent, including vehicle to vehicle crashes, such as rear end crashes of left turning vehicles in travel lanes and side angle crashes of left turning vehicles feeling pressure to leave travel lane and making poor gap judgement

Figure 5

of oncoming traffic. The slowing of traffic,

Keith Knapp, Brian Chandler, Jennifer Atkinson, et al, “Road Diet: Informational Guide,” FHWA Safety Program, November, 2014, https://safety.fhwa.dot.gov/road_diets/info_guide/rdig.pdf. https://safety.fhwa.dot.gov/road_diets/info_guide/rdig.pdf, 1. 65 Keith Knapp, “Road Diet: Informational Guide,” FHWA Safety Program, 2. https://safety.fhwa.dot.gov/road_diets/info_guide/rdig.pdf. 64

Figure 6

another result of Road Diets, can also help reduce the severity of vehicle-to-vehicle crashes when they to occur.66 The addition of a dedicated left-turn lane and slower traffic speed have been shown to produce more Keith Knapp, â&#x20AC;&#x153;Road Diet: Informational Guide,â&#x20AC;? FHWA Safety Program, 7. https://safety.fhwa.dot.gov/road_diets/info_guide/rdig.pdf. 66

efficient traffic flow. The separation of the left-turning traffic reduces delays, while the slower speed results in a more consistent traffic flow. This also helps reduce side street traffic delay, allowing the side street traffic can enter the traffic flow at a faster rate and with better judgement.67 Road Diet can benefit pedestrians by creating dedicated space for them and improving their safety. Reallocating space to bike lanes gives bicyclists their own traffic space, reducing vehicle to bicycle crashes and creating a more comfortable space for them to ride, this incentivizing bike use. The narrowing of traffic flow width is safer for pedestrians as they do not have to traverse as many lanes of traffic and they have a better view of oncoming traffic.68. (See Road Diet case studies that document the intended goals in each location and how well the infrastructure change is preforming, Appendix B)69

Complete

Streets Figure 7

Keith Knapp, “Road Diet: Informational Guide,” FHWA Safety Program, 9. https://safety.fhwa.dot.gov/road_diets/info_guide/rdig.pdf. 68 Keith Knapp, “Road Diet: Informational Guide,” FHWA Safety Program, 10. https://safety.fhwa.dot.gov/road_diets/info_guide/rdig.pdf. 69 “Road Diet: Case Studies,” Federal Highway Administration, accessed April 9, 2017, https://safety.fhwa.dot.gov/road_diets/case_studies/roaddiet_cs.pdf. 67

Complete Streets are transportation facilities which are designed and operated to provide safe mobility for all uses, including: bicyclists, pedestrians, transit vehicles, truckers, and motorists, to create livable, attractive communities. Complete Street design considers context, location, and transportation needs to design convenient and safe access to community destinations and public places for everyone regardless of age, ability, income, race, or ethnicity.70 Complete Streets design is less programmatic than Road Diet design but cities that have embraced the movement have developed their own standards and design features to aid in successful implementation. The City of San Francisco for example has developed design guidelines for Complete Streets.71 The guidelines include street types based on context, details such as location, pedestrian and vehicle traffic volumes, and intersection need to be taken into consideration. The benefits of Complete Streets are similar to those of the Road Diet system such as increased safety for pedestrians and bicyclists and creation of healthier environments. Additionally; proponents of Complete Street development have also conducted studies that prove economic benefits to businesses along those altered streets. In San Francisco after implementation of Complete Streets, businesses saw sales increase by 60 percent, attributing that to the increase pedestrian and bicycle traffic. The program can also increase property values as seen in a survey of 15 real estate markets across the country; neighborhoods with Complete Streets had better walkability (as measured by WalkScore.com).72 Residents of Atlanta, Georgia, have commented on the success of Complete Street implementation in the city, saying that it has looked at the environments potential users, asking “what are their potential needs?” By creating an environment that serves all types of transportation and promotes a healthier lifestyle, as Tim Keans, the Atlanta Planning and Community Development Commissioner, says “it’s really just what streets are supposed to be, which the public realm that citizens share is.”73

Separated Bikeways “National Complete Streets Coalition,” Smart Growth, accessed April 9, 2017, https://smartgrowthamerica.org/program/national-complete-streets-coalition. 71 “Designing Complete Streets,” SF Better Streets, accessed April 8, 2017, http://www.sfbetterstreets.org/why-betterstreets/designing-complete-streets. 72 “Benefits of Complete Streets: Complete Streets Stimulate the Local Economy,” Smart Growth America, accessed April 15, 2017, https://smartgrowthamerica.org/app/uploads/2016/08/cs-economic.pdf, 2. 73 Heather Zaccaro, “Complete Streets Case Studies,” Smart Growth, January 17, 2017, https://smartgrowthamerica.org/tag/complete-streets-case-studies. 70

Separated bikeways are one- or two-way bikeways, not shared use paths, running parallel to the roadways but separated physically from moving traffic by a variety of vertical buffers. They are also not bicycle lanes, which, though they are also on-street facilities, are separated from automobile traffic via pavement signs and pavement markings, not vertical barriers.74 Installation of separated bikeways require adequate space and special consideration at road intersections (there are set methods for integrating the bicycle traffic at intersections to provide a safe environment for automobiles, bicyclists, and pedestrians)75, but the benefits are considerable. Separated Bikeways are safer than standard bike lanes, after implementation vehicle-to-bicycle crash rates fell by 34 percent. These designs also showed increased bicycle use, with 10 percent of the cyclists having switched from other transportation modes after construction. Those bicyclists also

Figure 8

showed improved traffic behavior, stoplight compliance among bicyclists rose from 31 percent to 81 percent. Combined with these benefits, Separated Bikeways having little to no effect on automobile traffic.76

“Separated Bikeways,” The National Academies of Sciences Engineering Medicine, accessed April 15, 2017, https://trid.trb.org/view.aspx?id=1246285. 75 Les Sinclair, “The Brilliant Traffic Design of the Netherlands,” February 16, 2017, Z95.1.com, 5:07, http://z951.com/lessinclair/the-brilliant-traffic-design-of-the-netherlands. 76 “Fresno/Clovis: Separated Bikeways,” accessed April 17, 2017, http://www.fresnoclovisseparatedbikeways.com. 74

Case Studies The United States does have cities that demonstrate – through infrastructure, policy, and outreach – a desire to support a human centric built environment. The Cities of Fort Collins, Davis, and Portland were all awarded a Platinum rating by the League of American Bicyclists and have all been cited as some of the most bike-able cities in America. These three cities are unique in location, population, geographic size, and density, despite these differences each has been successful in supporting non-motor vehicle transportation, especially through bicycling. Fort Collins, Colorado Population: 143,986 (2010) Density: 2,652.8 per square mile Geographic Size: 55.83 square miles City Bicycling Statistics: • 200 + miles of biking trails. o Almost 40 of which are separated, paved, multi-use biking trails.77 • 7.9% commute by bike.78 • Over 75% of arterial roads have bike lanes.79 • Fort Collins, CO, Bicycle Route Map80 KEY FEATURES The City of Fort Collins is home to more than 10 bicycling organizations, fostering a diverse bicycling community and providing education about safe biking practices. The Bike Fort Collins’ mission statement is “to foster a bicycle-friendly culture and transportation system in Fort Collins through education and encouragement.” Bike Fort Collins promotes and organizes the FC Bike Library, a bike share program, to provide bicycle transportation for those who do not own bicycles, visitors, and those who wish to utilize them in the core of downtown. Another organization in Fort Collins is Bicycle and Pedestrian Education Coalition (BPEC), a group working to increase the knowledge and awareness about safely sharing the roads. The BPEC also promotes bicycle and pedestrian facilities so as to nurture health and wellness in the community.81

“Biking,” Visit Fort Collins Colorado, accessed April 16, 2017, http://www.visitftcollins.com/things-to-do/outdooradventures/biking. 78 “Cities with the Most Bicyclists in 2012,” Where We Ride: Analysis of Bicycling in American Cities, accessed April 16, http://bikeleague.org/sites/default/files/ACS_report_final_forweb_2.pdf. 3. 79 Appendix C: The League of American Bicyclists, Bike Friendly Community, Fort Collins, CO. 80 Appendix D: http://www.fcgov.com/bicycling/pdf/bike-map-front.pdf 81 “See Fort Collins by Bicycle,” City of Fort Collins, accessed April 16, 2017, http://www.fcgov.com/bicycling/linksresources.php. 77

The city boasts six paved, mixed-use paths; these include the Poudre Trail, Spring Creek Trail, Mason Trail Foothills Trail, Fossil Creek Trail, and the Power Trail. Covering almost 40 miles, these trails not only act as scenic recreational trails, but also as effective transportation corridors. The multi-use paths create East-West and North-South routes that generally follow the main vehicular corridors and run to the edges of city limits. The paths run through the downtown core, connect to multiple city civic areas, link with the city public transportation system, and safely integrate vehicular and non-vehicular interactions with pedestrian underpasses where applicable and light signals for at-grade crossings. Fort Collins is also one of 24 American cities listed on Ride the City, an online mapping service that provides safe bike routes through the city of choice. The program uses data on the individual city’s separated trails and roads with dedicated bicycle facilities to provide routes safest for the bicyclist.82 While no single feature is remarkable or unique on its own, the City of Fort Collins has created an effective non-vehicular transportation network. Though the city has a high percentage of roads with bicycle and pedestrian facilities, the most efficient way to traverse the city by bicycle is the multi-use trails. The City of Fort Collins laid the recreational paths to link with on-street bike facilities so as to link commercial, civic, and residential centers.83 The city accomplished two goals with the implantation one set of infrastructure, creating recreational facilities that double as transportation corridors. The transportation network has proven to be well used and supported by the many advocacy groups formed as a result of the bicycle culture of the city.

Ride the City, Fort Collins, accessed April 2, 2017, http://www.ridethecity.com/fortcollins#. City of Fort Collins, “Bicycle Friendly Fort Collins,” February 26, 2013, You Tube video, 5:30, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oNFMOpKRS4M. 82 83

Davis, California Population: 65,622 (2010) Density: 6,600 per square mile Geographic Size: 9.919 square miles City Bicycling Statistics: • 50 miles on-street bicycle lanes. • 52 miles of off-street bicycle paths. • Over 90% of arterial and collector streets have bike lanes.84 • 19% bike commute bike (most cities consider 2-3% significant)(source same as FOCO • Davis, CA, Bicycle Route Map85 KEY FEATURE Davis, California has been a leader in bicycle infrastructure and support for more than 50 years. In 1967 Davis was the first city in the United States to install a painted bike lane, an adaptation of the protected bike lanes of Northern Europe.86 Soon after, the California Department of Transportation developed its own bicycling guideline, using Davis as a model.87 The city has also built bike-only roundabouts, bike signals to help traffic flow, and bike detection technology to increase efficiency and safety.88 Instead of overhauling city infrastructure all at once (impossible with nearly any budget), Davis has pursued smaller, singular installations that work together to continually improve the support of bicyclists in the community. A recent infrastructure addition in the city is a protected intersection for bicyclists, the first in the United States. The intersection opened in the summer of 2015 on a major east-west street. Covell Street already offered a multi-use path on its south side and on-street bike lanes. The altered intersection now offer bicyclist the option of completing turns outside of the motor vehicle lanes. Modeled after protected intersections in the Netherlands, this new infrastructure offers two major advantages: (1) bicyclist and pedestrians now have a shorted distance to cross the street and can be easily seen by vehicles making right-hand turns, and (2) the

Appendix C: The League of American Bicyclists, Bicycle Friendly Communities, Davis, CA. Appendix D http://cityofdavis.org/home/showdocument?id=5842 86 “Infographic: History of the Bike Lane,” People for Bikes, November 5, 2014, http://www.peopleforbikes.org/blog/entry/infographic-history-of-the-bike-lane. 87 Dave Demerjain, “What Makes a City Bike Friendly? Ask Davis, California,” Wired, May 15, 2009, https://www.wired.com/2009/05/what-makes-a-city-bike-friendly-ask-davis-california/. 88 Dave Demerjain, “What Makes a City Bike Friendly? Ask Davis, California,” Wired, May 15, 2009, https://www.wired.com/2009/05/what-makes-a-city-bike-friendly-ask-davis-california/. 84 85

intersection corners are also long enough for a right turning car to pull out enough so that through traffic behind them can continue on so as not to impede traffic flow.89 The strategy employed by the city of Davis demonstrates that improved infrastructure can be accomplished in smaller moves when critically planned. Effective biking and pedestrian transportation does not require enormous systems to be transformative, strategically placed nodes can result in an efficient and safe system.

Figure 9

Michael Andersen, “America’s First Protected Intersection is Open in Davis – And Working Like a Charm,” People for Bikes, August 11, 2015, http://www.peopleforbikes.org/blog/entry/americas-first-protected-intersection-is-open-in-davisand-working-like-a-c. 89

Portland, Oregon Population: 583,776 (2010) Density: 4,375.1 per square mile Geographic Size: 145 square miles • 6.1% bike commuter90 • 350 miles of bikeways91 o 188 miles of bike lands o 85 miles of paths • 19 intersections have bike specific traffic signals to improve safety • Portland, OR, Bicycle Route Map92 KEY FEATURE In the 1920s when automobile ownership was expanding exponentially and many cities were reshaping themselves in service of motor vehicles, Portland refused. The city council refused to follow the expensive recommendation from the Planning Commission to widen streets in the city’s downtown core.93 Though this was a move in favor of the city budget rather than support of bicyclists, it proved to be significant in the advancement of equality between automobiles and bicycles on the streets of Portland. Bicycling was embraced early in the city as an inexpensive and fast mode of transportation. Besides the considerable difference in maintenance costs between automobiles and bicycles, bicycles also save their riders in parking costs. Data from the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials shows that the median commute time for bicyclist is shorter than for automobiles in the city.94 The early decisions made in the planning and development of Portland streets that helped give bicyclists a more equal footing on the roads may not have been made with these outcomes in mind, but this is certainly a strategy being pursued by the city today. A new policy, enacted in October of 2015, requires that bike lanes proposed by Portland road designers must be protected bike lanes. Transportation Director, Leah

“Cities with the Most Bicyclists in 2012,” Where We Ride: Analysis of Bicycling in American Cities, accessed April 16, http://bikeleague.org/sites/default/files/ACS_report_final_forweb_2.pdf. 3. 91 “Bicycles in Portland Fact Sheet,” Portland Bureau of Transportation, accessed March 20, 2017, (https://www.portlandoregon.gov/transportation/article/407660). 92 Appendix D: https://www.portlandoregon.gov/transportation/article/322407 93 “City Planning and Civic Engagement,” The Oregon History Project, accessed April 1, 2017, https://oregonhistoryproject.org/narratives/commerce-climate-and-community-a-history-of-portland-and-itspeople/the-mature-distribution-center/city-planning-and-civic-engagement/#.WPl8UdLytPY. 94 Michael Andersen, “Surprise! Typical Portland Bike Commute is Shorter than Driving,” Bike Portland.org, January 24, 2014, https://bikeportland.org/2014/01/24/surprise-typical-portland-bike-commute-is-shorter-than-driving-100350. 90

Treat, stated in a memo that “encouraging more bicycling transportation is key to Portland’s efforts to address population growth, safety on our streets, health, climate change, and prosperity.”95 By requiring protected bike lanes with new development, this policy recognizes bicycling as equal to motor vehicles as a mode of transportation. This encourages biking, makes a safer environment for bicyclists, and demonstrates that the city values all its residents and supports their method of transportation.

Michael Andersen, “Portland is First U.S. City to Make Protection the Default for all New Bike Lanes,” People for Bikes, January 28, 2016, http://www.peopleforbikes.org/blog/entry/portland-is-first-u.s.-city-to-make-protection-the-defaultfor-all-new-bike. 95

Project Brief Much of the built environment in the Mountain West region of the United States continues to cater primarily to motor vehicles. This places pedestrians and bicyclists at a disadvantage when using transportation infrastructure. Non-motor vehicle transportation options result in extensive benefits for individuals and communities by promoting healthier lifestyles and environments, supporting safer transporting infrastructure, and by providing favorable financial alternatives. The cities of Bozeman, Billings and Livingston, Montana, are characteristic of Mountain West cities in the United States. These cities lack high levels of population density, and have created a built environment that caters directly to motor vehicles; this has created a population dependent on automobiles. These three cities offer diverse settings in which to explore different strategies to create a more human-centric transportation environment. These three cities, though similar in climate and culture, were chosen because each possess unique qualities that demonstrate the potential for flexibility in design. Bozeman, with a population of 41,660 and an annual growth rate of 2.82 percent, is one of the fastest growing cities in the state of Montana. The city is also home to Montana State University, generating a large, seasonal, and young population. With students, young families, retirees, and tourists, Bozeman hosts a diverse group of residents that may have different priorities for non-motor vehicle transportation. The city also boasts a growing network of recreational, multi-use paths that offer potential as an element main transportation corridors for bicyclists and pedestrians. Billings, the second largest city in the state, has a population of 108,869 and is growing at an annual rate of 1.11 percent. Since its inception as a railroad town in the 19th century, Billings has continuously been the home of economic booms; originally an industrial city, Billings is now drawing in large Tech companies. The size and density of the downtown core is unique in Montana and non-motor vehicle transportation networks will need to account for the transition between spaces of high density and those that are much lower. The City of Livingston was chosen to offer a difference in scale, noting that cities of all sizes can benefit from changes in non-motor vehicle infrastructure enhancements. With a population of only 7245 and an annual growth rate of 0.71 percent, Livingston is fifteen times smaller than Billings. Similar to Billings, however, this city also got its start as a railroad town, yet the economy did not grow in the same fashion, in part due to its proximity to Bozeman (52 miles). This, in addition to the size of the population sets forth a challenge in creating transportation networks that go beyond offering an alternative mode of transportation, to incentivizing its use.

In each city, the existing transportation infrastructure, practices, and future plans will be analyzed; this data will then be compared with various transportation planning scenarios utilizing different strategies such as Complete Streets, Road Diets, and separated bikeways. Following this analysis, a set of scenarios will be created for each city, to propose methods for adapting the current infrastructure to better and more equally serve all types of transportation within each city. With critical analysis and the use of the transportation design strategies discussed above, a methodology for city planning will be created. This methodology can then be applied to any community (in the Mountain West) to create an infrastructure design that better serves bicyclists and pedestrians.

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Case Studies

Los Angeles, California – Seventh Street ROAD DIET: KEY INGREDIENT IN LOS ANGELES’ BICYCLE MASTER PLAN

OBJECTIVE

FEATURES

 Install bicycle lanes  Improve pedestrian safety  Increased bicycle usage

   

RESULTS

Urban environment High density pedestrians Several schools nearby Bus routes

 Community leader support  Bicycle activists support  Increased bicycle ridership

Los Angeles has 463 miles of on-street bicycle lanes

SCHOOL

SPEED LIMIT

S Catalina St

17 Traffic Signals

7th

Blv d

SOURCE: Alliance of Biking and Walking PHOTO: Jabin Botsford / Los Angeles Times

SPEED LIMIT

l St

ire

ixe

2m iles

Wi lsh

16,000 vehicles per day

BEFORE

AFTER

AFTER Photo: Eric Widstrand

BACKGROUND In 2011, the Los Angeles Department of Transportation (LADOT) completed a Road Diet on Seventh Street in order to install bicycle lanes along this east-west arterial just west of downtown Los Angeles from Bixel Street to Catalina Street. With traffic volumes of approximately 16,000 vehicles per day and a high number of pedestrians and bicyclists, this corridor is busy with several transportation modes.

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Los Angeles, California – Seventh Street ROAD DIET: KEY INGREDIENT IN LOS ANGELES’ BICYCLE MASTER PLAN

Photo: Eric Widstrand

7th Street looking west at Bixel Avenue

Photo: Eric Widstrand

7th Street looking west at Bixel Avenue

Photo: Eric Widstrand

7th Street looking west at Coronado

This 2-mile stretch of Seventh Street contains 17 traffic signals and serves numerous metro bus routes. The land use is mainly multi-family residential and commercial, with several large parks along the corridor. A high school is located on the west end, and there are two middle schools nearby. The speed limit for the roadway is 30 mph except in areas where there are 25 mph school speed zones.

BICYCLE USE IN THE CORRIDOR

TRIPLED ONCE THE ROAD DIET AND NEW BICYCLE LANES WERE COMPLETED

The City of Los Angeles developed a Bicycle Master Plan that provides direction for improving bicycle mobility and encouraging more bicycle ridership by expanding the existing bikeway network and improving connectivity. As a result of this Bicycle Master Plan, the installation of bicycle lanes is a major driving force for Road Diets in Los Angeles, but the overarching goal for the conversions is safety.

OUTREACH Prior to the implementation of the Road Diet, LADOT prepared a presentation that discussed expected benefits to safety, traffic calming, non-motorized accessibility, business access, and community health. LADOT discovered that emphasizing the safety benefits of Road Diets is important in gaining public acceptance. Each corridor is unique, and LADOT found that working with their city council was essential to beginning a successful outreach process. The Los Angeles County Bicycle Coalition and other bicycle activists and community leaders strongly supported the project and assisted in the community outreach.1

RESULTS After the completion of the Seventh Street Road Diet, LADOT received positive feedback from users, and a before-and-after bicycle count conducted by the Los Angeles County Bicycle Coalition showed that bicycle use in the corridor tripled once the Road Diet and new bicycle lanes were completed. LADOT also conducted some traffic analyses at several key intersections along the corridor and found that the results were satisfactory.

Joe Linton, “Seventh Street Bike Lanes Installed,” CICLAVIA, August 15, 2011. Accessed March 17, 2015. Available at: https://ciclavia.wordpress.com/2011/08/15/seventh-street-bike-lanes-installed/

http://safety.fhwa.dot.gov/road_diets

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Case Studies

Reston, Virginia – Soapstone Drive THERE’S MORE THAN ONE WAY TO COMPLETE A ROAD DIET

OBJECTIVE

FEATURES

 Improve safety/mobility for pedestrians/bicyclists  Reduce crashes  Address issues with street parking

 Three different reconfigurations  Nature center, parks, recreational trails  Rural/suburban

ak es

South Lakes High School

sto

ap Dr

Walker Nature Center

Glad Dr

2,000-7,000 vehicles per day

SPEED LIMIT

 70% crash reduction  Improved access to transit station for bicyclists

BACKGROUND The success of the Road Diet on Lawyers Road convinced the Virginia Department of Transportation (VDOT) to try their second conversion on nearby Soapstone Drive. VDOT once again took advantage of a regularly-scheduled repaving project to implement the Road Diet which stretched from Sunrise Valley Drive to Lawyers Road. Carrying 2,000 to 7,000 vehicles per day, the cross section, land use, and speed limit vary on this nearly 2-mile segment of Soapstone Road, requiring a number of different reconfigurations along the corridor.

2 miles

RESULTS

The most typical Road Diet conversion transforms a roadway with two lanes in each direction to a road with a single lane in each direction and a center turn lane, with the extra space often being used for bicycle lanes or parking. VDOT’s Road Diet on Soapstone Road highlights a variety of ways a Road Diet can be implemented.

SUNRISE VALLEY DRIVE TO SOUTH LAKES DRIVE This 35 mph section of Soapstone Drive is more urban than the following segments, with sidewalks, multi-family housing, and light retail. A golf course and an elementary school are located nearby.

BEFORE

AFTER

AFTER Photo: Richard Retting

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Reston, Virginia – Soapstone Drive THERE’S MORE THAN ONE WAY TO COMPLETE A ROAD DIET

SOUTH LAKES DRIVE TO GLADE DRIVE South Lakes Drive to Glade Drive has a wider cross-section and is located adjacent to the Walker Nature Center. With a mix of multifamily housing and commercial activity on one end and woodland areas and single family homes on the other, this middle section is transitioning from urban to a slightly rural feel.

BEFORE

AFTER

AFTER Photo: Richard Retting

GLADE DRIVE TO LAWYERS ROAD While not a traditional Road Diet, VDOT restriped 18-ft lanes down to 12-ft and carried the bicycle lanes throughout. With a speed limit of 25 mph, this section of Soapstone Road includes low-density residential neighborhoods with single family homes. The surrounding land contains woodland areas and parks with recreational trails that attract pedestrian and bicycle traffic.

BEFORE

AFTER

AFTER Photo: Richard Retting

RESULTS  Much like the success on Lawyers Road, the Road Diet on Soapstone Road achieved great results, improving safety with a crash reduction of 70 percent.

 The resulting linked network of bicycle lanes on Soapstone Road and Lawyers Road provides an excellent travel option for access to the nearby transit station.

“A big thank you to VDOT for having the vision to modify Soapstone and Lawyers, making both roads safer for everyone and creating dedicated bike facilities for cyclists.”1 FABB Blog: Fairfax Advocates for Better Bicycling

 The success of the Reston projects is leading VDOT to greatly expand its use of Road Diets regionwide. 1

Bruce Wright, “Soapstone Bike Lane Project Starts Monday,” FABB Blog - Fairfax Advocates for Better Bicycling. October 14, 2011. Accessed March 23, 2015. Available at: http://fabb-bikes.blogspot.com/2011_10_01_archive.html http://safety.fhwa.dot.gov/road_diets

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Case Studies

Reno, Nevada – Wells Avenue ROAD DIET IMPROVES SAFETY FOR MOTORIZED AND NON-MOTORIZED USERS

OBJECTIVE

FEATURES

 Reduce crashes along the corridor  Improve pedestrian and bicyclist safety

    

Bicycle lanes Curb extensions Medians Crosswalks Pedestrian refuge areas

RESULTS  More than 30% decrease in overall crashes  Reduced pedestrian crashes by 54%  Reduced speeds 5-9 mph

t St

erty

E Lib

Stewart St

Wells Ave

St Lawrence Ave

1 mile a St

i rgin

S Vi W Plumb Ln

E Plumb Ln Photo: Washoe County RTC

Wells Avenue after the completion of the Road Diet.

BEFORE

AFTER

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In 2003, the Regional Transportation Commission (RTC) of Washoe County installed a Road Diet on Wells Avenue between Stewart Street and South Virginia Street in Reno, Nevada. This section of Wells Avenue spans mostly commercial property. The original 4-lane cross section of Wells Avenue was converted to one vehicle lane in each direction, a center turn lane, a dedicated bicycle lane on each side, and wider sidewalks. The modification maintained the existing on-street parking on the corridor.

Reno, Nevada - Wells Avenue ROAD DIET IMPROVES SAFETY FOR MOTORIZED AND NON-MOTORIZED USERS

IMPLEMENTATION PLAN The Road Diet on Wells Avenue was completed as a part of the RTC’s Complete Streets initiative. The reconfiguration allowed for the addition of bicycle lanes and designated parking lanes, and the design integrated safety features such as curb extensions, frequent crossing opportunities, medians, pedestrian refuge islands, and lighting. To improve the aesthetics and livability of the corridor, the RTC also incorporated landscaping, benches, and public art into the project.

PEDESTRIAN CRASHES HAVE BEEN REDUCED BY 54%

RESULTS Two years after the completion of the Road Diet along Wells Avenue, the RTC reported the reductions in crashes were most evident in rear-end, angle, and overtaking sideswipe crashes, which were the most common crash types prior to the modifications. The Road Diet is also credited with reducing the number of pedestrian crashes by 54 percent. Before

After

Angle

Crash Type

Pedestrian

Rear End

Sideswipe, Overtaking

Head On

Sideswipe, Meeting

Rear-to-rear

Backing

Unknown

TOTAL

123

After the Road Diet, average traffic speeds had decreased between 5 and 9 miles per hour (14-24 percent reduction). The roadway segment also experienced an approximate 10 percent drop in traffic volume (from 15,854 to 14,244 vehicles/day). Although RTC has not confirmed that the traffic has shifted to parallel streets, this sometimes occurs when a road undergoes a Road Diet. The RTC reported no change to the road’s level of service after the Road Diet implementation. The RTC speculates that this is likely due to the existence of exclusive left-turn lanes at signalized intersections. At unsignalized intersections, the exclusive two-lane left-turn lane provides improved service to main street left-turn and side street left-turn traffic.

Source: The Regional Transportation Commission of Washoe County,“ Wells Avenue Traffic Study, Four-to-Three Lane Conversion, Final Report,” June 1, 2008. Accessed March 23, 2015. Available at: http://www.westofwells.com/PDImages/docs2/WellsStudy%20Final.pdf

http://safety.fhwa.dot.gov/road_diets

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FORT COLLINS, COLORADO Spring 2013

TOTAL POPULATION

POPULATION DENSITY (people per sq. mile)

143,986

3,130

TOTAL AREA (sq. miles)

COMMUNITY SETTING

Urban

BICYCLE FRIENDLY COMMUNITY BUILDING BLOCKS Percentage of Arterial Streets with Dedicated Bicycle Facilities

76-99%

Updated Bicycle Plan Adopted and Being Implemented

YES LOCAL COMPLETE STREETS POLICY LOCAL BICYCLE ACCOMMODATION POLICY

Bicycle-Oriented Engineering Policies Promotion of Bike Month and Bike to Work Events

YES YES, MEETS MONTHLY OR MORE FREQUENTLY

Active Bicycle Advisory Committee

YES

Active Bicycle Advocacy Group Bicycle Program Staff to Population

1 PER 11851 PEOPLE

(expressed in full-time equivalents)

MODAL SPLIT OF COMMUTERS

SCHOOLS OFFERING BICYCLING EDUCATION

BICYCLING

WALKING

PUBLIC TRANSIT

6.64%

3.30%

1.37%

ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS

MIDDLE SCHOOLS

HIGH SCHOOLS

75-90%

51-75%

COMMUNITY HIGHLIGHTS »

The most significant achievement in Fort Collins in the past year is the enhancement of our safe cycling culture. In April 2012 we launched the Bicycle Ambassador Program. This program was co- developed and is co-managed by the City of Fort Collins FC Bikes program and the Bicycle and Pedestrian Education Coalition (BPEC). A cadre of

» ABOVE DATA FROM SPRING 2013 BFC APPLICATION

Bicycle Ambassadors are trained and equipped to share rules of the road, trail etiquette, route finding and basic bike maintenance with others who are interested in riding more. The Bicycle Ambassador Program works to get more people riding, and fewer people experiencing related injuries.

LEARN MORE » WWW.BIKELEAGUE.ORG/COMMUNITIES

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DAVIS, CA Spring 2016

TOTAL POPULATION

POPULATION DENSITY

66,742

6,356

TOTAL AREA (sq. miles)

10.5

10 BUILDING BLOCKS OF A BICYCLE FRIENDLY COMMUNITY

Average Diamond

Davis

Arterial and Major Collector Streets with Bike Lanes

90%

100%

Total Bicycle Network Mileage to Total Road Network Mileage

70%

76%

Public Education Outreach Share of Transportation Budget Spent on Bicycling

EXCELLENT INSUFFICIENT DATA

# OF LOCAL BICYCLE FRIENDLY BUSINESSES

# OF LOCAL BICYCLE FRIENDLY UNIVERSITIES

CATEGORY SCORES ENGINEERING

5 /10

EDUCATION

4 /10

ENCOURAGEMENT

5 /10

ENFORCEMENT

5 /10

EVALUATION & PLANNING

4 /10

Bicycle network and connectivity

Motorist awareness and bicycling skills

Mainstreaming bicycling culture

VERY GOOD

Promoting safety and protecting bicyclists' rights

20%

Setting targets and having a plan

Bike Month and Bike to Work Events

EXCELLENT

Active Bicycle Advocacy Group

YES

Active Bicycle Advisory Committee

YES

MONTHLY

Bicycle–Friendly Laws & Ordinances

EXCELLENT

GOOD

Bike Plan is Current and is Being Implemented

YES

SOMEWHAT

Bike Program Staff to Population

PER 10K

PER 14,832

KEY OUTCOMES RIDERSHIP

Percentage of Commuters who bike

Av. Diamond

Davis

20%

21.8%

0.2

SAFETY MEASURES

CRASHES

Crashes per 10k bicycle commuters SAFETY MEASURES

FATALITIES

Fatalities per 10k bicycle commuters

KEY STEPS TO DIAMOND »

Ensure that there is sufficient bike parking to support the high level of bicycling in Davis. Increasing and improving bicycle parking should also include increasing the diversity of bicycle parking types, particularly to accommodate cargo bicycles, e-bikes, and long-term and short-term parking at transit and commercial districts.

Continue efforts to implement your "Beyond Platinum" Bicycle Action Plan adopted in 2014. Davis is a leader for the bicycling community in the United States and we hope to continue to see that leadership.

Continue to work collaboratively with UC Davis, Davis Bicycles! and non-profit Cool Davis to establish a City and UC Davis joint trip reduction program. Consider whether this collaboration can

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be used as a model for other bicycle-related programs.

Continue efforts to create a ticket diversion program for bicyclists. This would allow bicyclists who may not have previously received safety training to learn about proper riding techniques and correct poor behavior.

Continue efforts to create a pump track and consider what other mountain bike-oriented facilities might be helpful to provide safe and accessible off-road recreation.

Celebrate and promote the leadership position of Davis as the pre-eminent bicycling community in the United States through a signature community bicycling event.

SUPPORTED BY

PORTLAND, OREGON Fall 2013

TOTAL POPULATION

POPULATION DENSITY (people per sq. mile)

593,820

4464

TOTAL AREA (sq. miles)

COMMUNITY SETTING

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Urban

BICYCLE FRIENDLY COMMUNITY BUILDING BLOCKS Percentage of Arterial Streets with Dedicated Bicycle Facilities

NOT REPORTED

Updated Bicycle Plan Adopted and Being Implemented

YES LOCAL COMPLETE STREETS POLICY LOCAL BICYCLE ACCOMMODATION POLICY

Bicycle-Oriented Engineering Policies Promotion of Bike Month and Bike to Work Events

YES YES, MEETS MONTHLY OR MORE FREQUENTLY

Active Bicycle Advisory Committee

YES

Active Bicycle Advocacy Group Bicycle Program Staff to Population

1 PER 37114 PEOPLE

(expressed in full-time equivalents)

MODAL SPLIT OF COMMUTERS

SCHOOLS OFFERING BICYCLING EDUCATION

BICYCLING

WALKING

PUBLIC TRANSIT

ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS

MIDDLE SCHOOLS

HIGH SCHOOLS

6.30%

4.90%

13%

26-50%

1-25%

None

COMMUNITY HIGHLIGHTS »

Our latest parking- and barrier-protected cycle track is perhaps our most significant achievement in part for its location, in part for its design and in part for the process that produced it. The NE Multnomah cycle track is an attractive barrier- and parking protected cycle track running through the heart of the city's Lloyd District, which is a key district in Portland's Central City. Development in

» ABOVE DATA FROM FALL 2013 BFC APPLICATION

the Lloyd District is slated to change rapidly with a 700-900 unit mixed-use residential building in design on NE Multnomah Street. It was the property owners and developers in the district who advanced the development of this bikeway. To achieve the protected facility the city replaced existing 4.5'-5' bicycle lanes with a protected facility by doing a 5-lane to 3-lane road-diet on the street.

LEARN MORE » WWW.BIKELEAGUE.ORG/COMMUNITIES

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