Concept Development - Final Year by Katie Sadler

s i l e n c e

contents

Introduction Consumers Competitors

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Stella McCartney Alexander Wang Burberry Alexander McQueen Nicholas Kirkwood Hermes Chanel Lanvin Vivienne Westwood Christian Louboutin

22-25 27-30 31-34 35-38 39-42 43-46 47-50 51-54 55-58 61-64

Economy & the Business Competitor and Market Marketing Mix Retail Envronments PESTEL SWOT Range Materials

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Cotton Cotton Alternatives Leather Wool Wood Iron Glass Semi-precious stones Footwear Component

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Supply Chain Conclusion Appendix

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concept & values At the core of the company is a belief of creating high quality products with the best quality materials, which are not only beautiful but are sustainable and environmentally friendly. The luxury sector often disregards the impact of using non-ethical raw materials, paying insufficient wages and facilitating poor working conditions. This combined with a growing urgency within the fashion industry to make our trade more sustainable, identifies with an emerging luxury market and consumer, aswell as attracting the existing luxury customer and the niche and premium consumers. Technology will be utilised in the extensive use of laser cutting, beautifully incorporated with the traditional skills involved with producing wrought iron, carved wood, glass and handmade footwear. Silence will be a unique, high end and an exclusive boutique, delivering exceptional service and a truly individual product. Silence will hold a strong online presence selling the ready to wear collections and also offering a semi bespoke service, where the customer can select the style, material, colour and a selection of atelier details. The boutique will offer a fully bespoke service showcasing the unique capabilities available in the various sustainable materials. The name SILENCE was chosen because it sounds beautiful, in a number of languages, but also because it refelects the quietly ethical and green credentias of the company. No greenwashing here!

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c o n s u 6

Independent, opinionated, successful and driven are just a few ways to describe the SILENCE Customer. She is stylish, appreciates quality, value and choice. The average SILENCE consumer is far from average, she is between 25-45, takes an effortlessly chic approach to dressing, she is ambitious professionally but appreciates taking time out to nurture her personal relationships too. The products she buys are the best. They must suit her demanding lifestyle, be made of the highest quality materials, The current economic climate has had an effect on how people buy, but with SILENCE offering a quality product, in the least affected level of the fashion market, which has considered the social and environmental implications of production it offers a crucially important unique selling point in the midst of a difficult climate.

There are 4 main SILENCE consumers: -the existing luxury -the niche fashion individual -the emerging environmentally and ethically aware -the premium shopper looking for investment pieces

u m e r http://weheartit.com, 2011

EXISTING LUXURY CONSUMER

The existing luxury consumer expects value for money, quality construction, materials and especially sevice. They pay for the experience as much as they do for the products. Being busy, intelligent individuals means they appreciate flexible, thorough, professional and a tailored approach to their needs. Beautiful, comfortable and practical footwear is what they want and they currently buy this product from brands such as; Burberry, Nicholas Kirkwood, Bally and Christian Louboutin. SILENCE will not only match their level of craftsmanship but will pass it. Trends and must have pieces are a key for driving sales for this customer. Trends and well promoted items equal ease for this busy individual because it has already been credited as a valuable asset by industry professionals. The luxury consumer also needs products that can take them through the day and into the evening seamlessly, again making their life easy and their wardrobe functional.

www.thesartorialist.com, 2011

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www.burberry.co.uk, 2010

http://trendland.net, 2009

niche fashion

Niche fashion has an ever growing fanbase, with the rise of the more obscure style conscious musicians like Lady Gaga, and the fashion industry always looking for something different and edgy.

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These consumers buy the show stopping pieces, the items that will stand out and make a statement. They look for the experimental and the best from todays designers. Colour, material,construction and variety are the most important things for this consumer group, but this doesn’t mean they don’t expect the very best in terms of quality and service. Leading often very hectic lifestyles these women will be hopping in and out of cars from one meeting to the next, speaking, texting and emailing on the go on their iPhones and iPads. Flying internationally frequently each month is commonplace, but they won’t compromise on style. They enjoy pushing the boundaries and experimenting with new, interesting brands.

www.chictopia.com, 2010

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http://www.bellamumma.com, 2011

http://www.favim.com, 2009

the premium shopper

The premium market has been the hardest hit because their consumers fall into the â&#x20AC;&#x153;have notsâ&#x20AC;? category. The group that have steady jobs, have their first property, potentially have a young family, but donâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t quite have enough disposable income to shop in the luxury sector all of the time.

http://www.prettylittlewildfox.com, 2011

The premium consumer moving into the luxury market is looking for quality, quality and quality. They buy a few basics that they know will last, that will make up part of their core uniform and will take them through from a monday morning at work to picking the children up from school and cocktails in the evening. Functional and comfortable will be the core pieces bought by the premium consumer. They will buy from the lowest price bracket and infrequently, but potentially, may buy a show piece

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http://www.bellamumma.com, 2011

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environmentally & ethically aware

Environmentally and ethically aware consumers are a growing market group. They are currently not catered for in the luxury leather goods sector as the raw materials are simply not taken into consideration.

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This consumer demands a variety in high quality, environmentally friendly and ehtically produced products. Service and design should be modern, functional and constantly evolving with the seasons. Transparency within the companies the environmental consumer shops increases brand loyalty with this customer, because they want to know, and see, the credentials of the brand. What this woman wants is a stylish product, fantastic service, quality and for it to literally not cost the earth.

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the Silence consumer overview

All images are from www.net-a-porter.com, 2011, and www.pinterest.com, 2011

The SILENCE consumer: • Style • Quality • Design and materials • Functionality • Sophisticated grunge styling • Thoughtful • Buys luxury and premium products • Environmentally and ethically aware • Intelligent • Independent • Driven • Curious • Demanding, but only in the best way!

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SILENCE is a completely new type of footwear business, with a focus on ethical, sustainable, modern design, materials, craftsmanship and evolving with its clients, technology and the environment. This means that to isolate direct competitors is difficult, as there isnâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t anyone producing footwear using traditional materials, responsible manufacture throughout the entire supply chain and on the scale proposed, along with the future growth desired. A general overview of the luxury market has been detailed in this section by focusing on some of the most well known brands and those that share a common practise, e.g. Stella McCartney does not use any leather or fur products as there are ethical concerns in the animals treatment and welfare, just as SILENCE doesnâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t condone the use of non organic cottons and materials, because of the extensive evidence that shows the extreme hazards involved in production and the cost to the environment . The premium market is also a potential competitor, not in terms of quality but definitely in terms of design. Many brands at this level have a very strong following because of they truly understand their customer and offer them products that work and they evolve with them.

t i t o r s 19

g l o ba l The competitors mentioned are all very well known brands with cult statusâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;. Each of them have well established and loyal customer bases, are well respected by each other and the industry as a whole and are recognised by the media as todays leaders in fashion. Each brand has monopolised the market and

p r e s e n c e many have been acquired by umbrella companies such as LVMH and the Gucci Group. They are all global companies, offering a global service and a global product. This map highlights how saturated the market is with these â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;luxuryâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; goods and where there is an established luxury consumer base already.

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stella mccartney

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A lifelong vegetarian, Stella McCartney does not use any leather or fur in her designs. Her collections include women’s ready-towear, accessories, lingerie, eyewear, fragrance and organic skincare. Her first perfume, “Stella”, launched successfully in September 2003. Stella McCartney now operates 15 freestanding stores in locations including Manhattan’s Meatpacking District, London’s Mayfair, LA’s West Hollywood, Paris’ Palais Royal and Milan, and recently opened doors in Beirut, Las Vegas and Rome. Her collections are now distributed in over 50 countries through 600 wholesale accounts including specialty shops and department stores.

www.net-a-porter.com, 2011

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In addition to the main line collection, a long-term partnership with adidas was introduced in September 2004. In September 2010, Stella McCartney was appointed Team GB’s Creative Director for the 2012 Olympics by adidas – the first time in the history of the games that a leading fashion designer has designed the apparel for a country’s team across all competitions for both the Olympic and the Paralympic Games.

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http://www.stellamccartney.com/ default/stellas-world/about-stellamccartney.html Stella McCartney is a well respected designer and brand. She is also a key name in changing the way fashion is produced and perceived, having taken the stand to not use leather in her footwear at a luxury market level, is a testament that having firm values and being a trend leader will tap into ignored markets, such as the vegetarian and vegan 23 footwear sector.

www.net-a-porter.com, 2011

www.alannadavey.com, 2010 www.whitewallmag.com, 2010

The Stella McCartney consumer values and likes: • Quality • Style • Design and materials • Functionality • & a sense of sophisticated fun.

ALL IMAGES FROM www.net-a-porter.com, 2011 UNLESS OTHERWISE STATED

alexander wang

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New York’s go-to-guy for downtown cool, Alexander Wang, burst onto the scene in 2005 in a flurry of highoctane energy and clear creative vision. After dropping out of Parsons School of Design in his sophomore year, the Californian native launched his first full first women’s collection in 2007, epitomising the nonchalant, model offduty look now imitated around the world. He has built his brand on a slouchy, androgynous aesthetic spiked with early nineties grunge references and tough girl attitude that has won him numerous awards including the CFDA/Vogue Fashion Fund in 2008, Swarovski womenswear Designer of the Year, and most recently the GQ/CDFA menswear award. Already with a diffusion line, T by Alexander Wang, a cult-status

ALL IMAGES FROM www.net-a-porter.com, 2011

www.alexanderwang.com, 2010

accessories line, and a flagship Soho store under his skinny leather belt, the young designer truly is, as Style.com’s Meenal Mistry wrote, one of New York’s fashion stars. http://www.alexanderwang.com/ studio/biography/

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Alexander Wang captures the essence of the grunge scene and transforms it into a contemporary, fresh and inspired look that is extremely sought after. Everyone is searching for stunning easy to wear pieces and this is what Wang delivers.

www.lancome.co.uk, 2011 www.lancome.co.uk, 2011 www.cultbeauty.co.uk www.lancome.co.uk, 2011

http://www.art8amby.files.wordpress.com, 2010

ALL IMAGES FROM www.net-a-porter.com, 2011 UNLESS OTHERWISE STATED

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The Alexander Wang consumer is: • Edgy • Daring • Sexy • Wants wearable products that push boundaries • Likes colour splashes but wears black as the ultimate staple • LOVES leather

burberry

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Since its founding in 1856, Burberry has become defined by its outerwear heritage and its iconic trench coat. When Thomas Burberry invented gabardine, the Burberry brand became synonymous with the passionate adventurers, aviators, cartographers and mountain climbers who wore his coats while pushing the boundaries of human experience.” “The fact that they have been around for so long goes to show how central the label is to British culture, producing luxury goods such as fragrances, clothes and accessories. Creative director for the label, Christopher Bailey could be called nothing short of a genius for keeping the label in a modern context while still retaining its integrity.

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ALL IMAGES FROM www.burberry.com, 2011 UNLESS OTHERWISE STATED

http://uk.burberry.com/store/ foundation/the-foundation/ The Burberry woman is a strong willed,independent individual with a keen eye for the polished yet edgy side of luxury fashion. She falls into the existing luxury consumer bracket because she is increasingly influenced by trends, and feels the need to stay current. Workmanship is of the upmost importance to this consumer, aswell as varied and excellent design. She needs each product to work for her and she doesnâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t mind paying for the priviledge, or the service, that goes hand in hand with this mantra.

www.chictopia.com, 2011

www.lancome.co.uk, 2011

ALL IMAGES FROM www.net-a-porter.com, 2011 UNLESS OTHERWISE STATED

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Burberry consumer: • strong willed • confident in their own skin • confident in their style • fiercely independent • knows quality and expects the best • wants a taste of the exotic, and therefore buy crocodile and other controversial skins • very fashion conscious

Alexander Mcqueen

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Passionate, shocking and powerful, Lee Alexander McQueen was synonymic with the masterful collections that earned him an unforgettable career until his untimely death on 11 of February 2010, aged 40. After receiving his master’s degree at Central Saint Martins in 1992, the late fashion stylist, Isabella Blow, famously bought his entire graduate collection and later became his biggest supporter. Blow’s influence on McQueen, both personally and professionally, was clearly illustrated in his Spring 2008 collection, a tribute to Blow after her death in May 2007. Inciting intense emotional reactions from his audience, the “enfant terrible” of fashion never shied away from a potent theme. From blood splattered models at his infamous Highland Rape collection in 1995, to the other worldly reptilian Plato’s Atlantis in Spring 2010, McQueen’s work was intensely thought-provoking. Although behind the radical subtext and theatrics, the designer continually

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produced impeccable collections, earning him four British Designer of the Year awards and CFDAâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Designer of the Year in 2003. In 1996, Givenchy appointed McQueen as chief designer, though after a chaotic time in the position, he left in 2001. In the same year the Gucci Group bought a 51 per cent stake in of his own label, which helped the designer expand the brand into menswear, accessories, eyewear and fragrance. He also launched his secondary line, McQ in 1996. Since his death in 2010, Sarah Burton, who worked beside the designer for 15 years, has continued the Alexander McQueen legacy, channeling the emotive and romantic extremes that will forever be remembered. http://www.style.com/fashionshows/ designerdirectory/AMCQUEEN/seasons/

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ALL IMAGES FROM www.net-a-porter.com, 2011 UNLESS OTHERWISE STATED

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The Alexander McQueen brand delivers: • extraordinary design • a clear vision • the cutting edge technology and material developments • what the consumer demands • wearable fashion and some spectacular show pieces • confidence to the consumer through consistent design and marketing campaigns

nicholas kirkwood

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An alumnus of prestigious design schools Central Saint Martins and Cordwainers, Kirkwood’s eponymous collection launched in spring 2005. The collection was comprised of architecturally inspired pieces with a blend of genres subverting the relationship between femininity and modernity. This won Kirkwood the attention of Grace Jones and Cecilia Dean of celebrated art-house publication Visionaire as well as a design stint at Chloé. Craftsmanship plays an integral role in every collection. It is this perfection of craftsmanship itself that has a stylistic value highlighted by the use of geometric forms and strong clean lines, all inspired by structural shapes. The shoes are free of excessive decorative elements, the focus always being on innovation of form. Seasonal trends appear in Kirkwood’s work unintentionally and are always at the zeitgeist rather than following or emulating it. SS 08’s collection is full of signature vertiginous heels either in a stiletto pump with its cone heel slimmed down to give a fervent look, or for maximum impact, in extended cigarette heels with a backwards-slanted platform on the sole. Wedges are open-toed, covered with laser cut mirrored leather and uppers of crinkle patent or rubberized suede. Almond-toed lizard strappy sling-backs have large mirror-Perspex buckles giving them a fresh twist. The collection has already

ALL IMAGES FROM www.nicholaskirkwood.com, 2011 UNLESS OTHERWISE STATED

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won him the prestigious AltaRoma Vogue Italia award for accessories design in July and the commendation of American Vogue’s Editor at Large André Leon-Talley. Kirkwood has collaborated with Swarovski resulting in a subcollection of black evening shoes, all featuring a sliced into heel with a large black sphere-cut crystal suspended in it. A black fabric formed of 100s of mini Swarovski crystals contrasts with lizard and satin. An open-toed, cigaretteheeled sling back platform features a new technique of slicing into the leather at the vamp with a metallic insert, finished with intricate stitching, giving a fan-like effect which will be featured in an upcoming Swarovski exhibition in London. The collection can be found at leading retailers worldwide including: Dover Street Market, Browns, Harvey Nichols, On Pedder, Coccodrillo, Le Bon Marche, Via Bus Stop, Maxfield, Podium and select others.

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http://www.londonfashionweek. co.uk/nicholaskirkwood

http://www.i049.radikal.ru/744de005c55c

ALL IMAGES FROM www.net-a-porter.com, 2011 UNLESS OTHERWISE STATED

ALL MAKE UP FROM www.clinique.co.uk

The Nicholas Kirkwood consumer is: • savvy • bold • experimental • current • values quality • constantly changing her style • is loyal, because there aren’t many brands as risky and experimental as Nicholas Kirkwood

hermes

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The legendary French luxury goods house began as a harness workshop in Paris in 1837. By the twenties, Hermès had the patent for the zipper in France, and introduced the first ladies’ bags with zip closures, and in 1937, the first Hermès silk scarves were born (today, a scarf is allegedly sold every twenty seconds). The company expanded into riding gloves, belts, and men’s and women’s sportswear, and designed the now-famous travel trunks to meet the needs of the new automobile drivers. The Kelly bag debuted in 1956 after Grace Kelly used a large crocodile handbag to hide her pregnancy. In the seventies, the first women’s shoe collection and the first complete men’s ready-to-wear collection were introduced. Actress Jane Birkin replaced her old straw purse with a leather Hermès number in 1984, and started the rage that is the Birkin

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bag. Today the Birkin continues to have the longest waiting list of any luxury accessory—about six years. Hermès also has a complete home line, bed and bath linens, furniture, silverware, crystal and porcelain, office accessories, and baby gifts. In 2003, following Martin Margiela, Jean-Paul Gaultier joined the house as women’s ready-to-wear designer, putting a high-fashion spin on the label’s equestrian roots. After departing in May 2010, Christophe Lemaire, who is best known for reviving preppy label Lacoste, took the reigns. In June 2004, perfumer Jean-Claude Ellena took a post as the in-house perfumer and launched several scents that have amassed cultish popularity. There are over 240 Hermès boutiques internationally, including a Wall Street location, the North American flagship on Madison Avenue, and in the fall of 2009, the first menswear-only boutique right across the street.

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http://nymag.com/fashion/fashionshows/designers/bios/ hermes/

44 ALL IMAGES FROM www.net-a-porter.com, 2011 UNLESS OTHERWISE STATED

The Hermes consumer: • traditional • the most loyal of all • looks for classic, timeless design • believes quality is the most important factor • timeless yet modern style 45

chanel

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Chanel is one of today’s best known and most highly sought-after fashion brands, and has been one practically since it was founded by Coco (Gabrielle) Chanel in 1909. Her big break hit when she opened a small shop in Paris in 1910 where she sold her hats. And by 1913, after asserting disdain for resort wear, she launched sportswear: Her take was simpler—flannel blazers, jersey sweaters, and women in trousers, all of which were decidedly against twentieth-century culture memes. Chanel was trendsetting before there were trends. Her post–World War I look gained attention, as she brought on modernism in fashion through beaded dresses in the twenties, the infamous little black dress, as well as a two- or thee-piece suit, which is still a signature Chanel look. By 1921 she introduced Chanel No. 5, and was once quoted as saying “A woman who doesn’t wear perfume has no future.” No. 5 went on to become one of the bestselling fragrances of all time. Today, Chanel stands out in just about every category—couture, ready-to-

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wear, accessories, jewelry, shoes, and fragrances. What began as a no-nonsense approach to fashion, designed to let women be comfortable while looking dignified, has been translated into classic, tailored style, especially in ready-to-wear, where the traditional tweed Chanel suit with a nipped-at-the-waist cardigan jacket remains one of the most popular—and most copied—fashion staples.

Evening gowns tend to have an understated sex appeal and a bit of whimsy, and appear in luxurious fabrics with lots of embellishments. Yet, there is always an undeniable element of the house’s founder. “A girl should be two things: classy and fabulous,” Coco Chanel once said. Fitting, since that’s the absolute embodiment of the label even a century after it was founded.

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http://nymag.com/fashion/ fashionshows/designers/bios/chanel/

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ALL IMAGES FROM www.pinterest.com, 2011 UNLESS OTHERWISE STATED

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The Chanel consumer: • is strong • is confident • is classic, chic and sleek • has high expectations • is loyal • is an existing luxury consumer • values quality and simplicity, providing both are beautiful and elegant

lanvin

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Alber Elbaz insists that, by the time he’s subjected it to his design process, there is almost nothing recognizable left of the story with which he starts each new collection. Today’s effort was a good example. Before the show, he mentioned he had in mind an angel in hell, but as he drew and drew, the angel returned to earth. Still, if you let your mind go, you could imagine that the snakes coiled in appliqué across a dress or in a print down a pant leg were echoes of Down There. The shoulders that gave the collection its epic silhouette could be the vestiges of wings. And when Karlie Kloss froze at the end of the catwalk in a halo of orange light? Case rests.

ALL PRODUCT IMAGES FROM www.net-a-porter.com, 2010-11 UNLESS OTHERWISE STATED

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But all that aside, what Elbaz offered felt like his own pragmatic take on sportswear. Separates, for instance. Lanvin has always been about The Dress, but this time, Elbaz tackled tops and bottoms. One of the challenges he set himself was quite typical: How can a tracksuit work for evening? That’s why he mixed the show up, daywear and dressier stuff wantonly intermingled. It created an urgent, unfinished, spontaneous mood, which was amplified by dresses that had ribbons or pleats pinned to them. It

was like that with all the slits, too. They had a raw, sexy energy. In fact, this might have been the collection where Elbaz truly embraced sex. It was a major contributor to the strength of the show, along with those shoulders, which he was quick to point out had nothing to do with eighties padded power dressing. “Power you can buy in a bank,” he said. “I prefer strength.” Against which he paraded sheer tulle dresses that conveyed a nothing-to-hide vulnerability. Oppositions are fundamental to Elbaz, the most elementary being the reality of clothes versus the dream of fashion. He’s always managed to bridge the gap by making things that women desire. Here, the desire was more palpable than ever. And helping that happen was Elbaz’s conviction that “modernity is beauty.” Flip that formula, then think for a moment about how simple, timeless, and radical it is.

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http://www.style.com/ fashionshows/review/S2012RTWLANVIN

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The house of Lanvin was founded in 1889 by Jeanne Lanvin; a creative visionary who was one of the most influential designers of the 20s and 30s. Today Alber Elbaz reigns supreme, giving the Lanvin house a luxe-edge that is the epitome of Parisian chic. Expect couture-like embellishment, intricate drapery and indescribable elegance, finished with a signature dash of grosgrain ribbon.

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ALL PRODUCT IMAGES FROM www.net-a-porter.com, 2011 AND ALL MAKE UP IMAGES FROM www.clinique.co.uk, 2011 UNLESS OTHERWISE STATED

The Lanvin consumer: • is traditional but edgy • values quality • looks for classic, timeless design • believes quality is the most important factor • is evolving and becoming younger and more modern

vivienne westwood

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Vivienne Westwood’s nearly fourdecade-long (and still going) design career is a testament to the power that shock, rebellion, sheer eccentricity—and a little thing called talent—can wield in the world of fashion. The flame-haired designer began her sartorial rabblerousing in 1970, joining forces with partner and Sex Pistols manager Malcolm McLaren to craft the seminal look of London’s burgeoning punk movement through various incarnations of their shop at 430 King’s Road. Pieces that sold in the most famed of these—Sex in 1974 and Seditionaries in 1975—are highly prized (and accordingly highly priced) items for vintage collectors to this day. Westwood carried on the subversive and satirical spirit of those early years—bondage trousers, massive platform shoes, slogan T-shirts—even as she hit the runways of Paris and eventually broke ranks personally and professionally with McLaren in 1983.

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Over the years she expanded her design vocabulary to weave that world of safety pins and Union Jacks with the historical romance of tartan kilts, pinstriped tailoring, corsets, and Watteau gowns. Her full contribution to fashion was commemorated in 2004 with a retrospective

at the Victoria and Albert Museum. But that look back in no way signaled an end. In spite of her penchant for scandal—this is a woman who famously wore a sheer outfit sans underwear to receive her OBE from the Queen in 1992—Westwood has shown herself to be a shrewd businesswoman. Her four lines (Gold Label, Red Label, Anglomania, and Man) and a full range of Westwood accessories and fragrances are sold at stores worldwide, with marked popularity in Japan, as well as at her own boutiques in Paris, Hong Kong, Moscow, Seoul, Liverpool, Manchester, Newcastle, and London. And she still sells out of the old King’s Road shop, now called World’s End.

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http://www.style.com/fashionshows/designerdirectory/VWESTWOOD/ seasons/

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56 ALL PRODUCT IMAGES FROM www.net-a-porter.com, 2011 AND ALL MAKE UP IMAGES FROM www.clinique.co.uk, 2011 UNLESS OTHERWISE STATED

The Vivienne Westwood customer: • is creative • rebellious • wants shape to be an important part of the design • is experimental in her style and appreciates the manipulation of material • values quality • is excited by print, colour and texture

christian louboutin

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Christian Louboutin’s trademark glossy red soles are an undisputed stamp of fashion excellence. Since the launch of his exquisite eponymous label in 1991, the French designer has stayed true to his goal - to ‘make shoes that are like jewels’. From razor-sharp stilettos to lace-up boots and studded sneakers, Christian Louboutin is every woman’s go-to for heavenly heels and covetable accessories.” http://www.net-a-porter.com/Shop/Designers/Christian_Louboutin “According to Christian Louboutin, “A shoe has so much more to offer than just to walk.” And, indeed, the gregarious rascal behind the world’s most fiercely desired, red-soled shoes of dreams illustrated the importance of footwear far beyond function in the Style Issue of The New Yorker. From his mischievous, overindulged childhood in Paris—Louboutin missed 64 days of school in one semester and moved out of the house at 12 years old—to club-kid days at the city’s infamous Le Palace nightclub and time spent at Charles Jourdan, Louboutin has paved the way for his very own brand of extreme luxury that forsakes the precious for the something a little more perverted.

”

Louboutin, in his own words, creates his masterpieces from a place of happiness—if not a comfortable one. http://www.nbcnewyork.com/blogs/threadny/THREAD-The-Top-10-Quotesfrom-Christian-Louboutins-Profile-in-The-New-Yorker--118388114.html

ALL PRODUCT IMAGES FROM www.net-a-porter.com, 2011

â&#x20AC;&#x153;The shiny red color of the soles has no function other than to identify to the public that they are mine. I selected the color because it is engaging, f l i r t a t i o u s , memorable and the color of passion.â&#x20AC;?

http://www.nbcnewyork.com/blogs/threadny/THREAD-The-Top-10-Quotes-from-Christian-Louboutins-Profile-in-The-NewYorker--118388114.html

www.lancome.co.uk,2011

ALL PRODUCT IMAGES FROM www.net-a-porter.com, 2011

www.clinique.co.uk, 2011

The Christian Louboutin woman: • sexy • strong willed • trend setting • ambitious • determined • isn’t a fool and demands quality • wants variety

E c o n

n o m y

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Competitor Overview

£££

PRICE

• Stella McCartney • Alexander Wang • Burberry • Alexander McQueen • Nicholas Kirkwood • Hermes • Chanel • Lanvin • Vivienne Westwood • Christian Louboutin

CHEAPEST

MOST EXPENSIVE

• £225 • £455 • £125 • £485 • £465 • £365 • £235 • £285 • £70 • £325

• £625 • £595 • £950 • £2,795 • £2,995 • £1,450 • £955 • £1,975 • £450 • £2,095 64

market overview

STYLE (HIGH) SILENCE

PRICE (LOW)

PRICE (HIGH)

STYLE (LOW)

t h e

ma r k e

Micro environment

“The internal marketing environment includes factors that the business can directly influence. This can include: • • • • • • • • •

The organisational structure The strengths and weaknesses of a department Financial stability and resources Staff morale Spare production capacity Client base Pricing structure Selling channels Staff skills”

Read more: http://www.marketing-made-simple.com/articles/ marketing-plan.htm#ixzz1fqFbM4O4

Macro environment “The major external and uncontrollable factors that influence an organization’s decision making, and affect its performance and strategies. These factors include the economic factors; demographics; legal, political, and social conditions; technological changes; and natural forces. 2. Specific examples of macro environment influences include competitors, changes in interest rates, changes in cultural tastes, disastrous weather, or government regulations.” http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/macroenvironment.html

t i n g MICRO ENVIRONMENT

MaCRO ENVIRONMENT

CONTROLLABLE / MEASURABLE

non-cONTROLLABLE / non-MEASURABLE

• COMPANY • CUSTOMERS • COMPETITORS • SUPPLIERS • MIDDLEMEN • SOCIETY

m i x

• • • • • • • •

DEMOGRAPHIC ECONOMIC NATURAL TECHNOLOGICAL POLITICAL CULTURAL INTERNATIONAL LEGAL

retail environments

www.stellamccartney.com

The founder of SILENCE has a strong background in a variety of different retail fashion outlets, including Donna Karen, and will apply this knowledge to how SILENCE will operate. A few examples of current retail and online retail spaces that share some aesthetics or design features admired by SILENCE are displayed here. clean, sharp, fresh, welcoming and identifyably luxurious.

68 ALL IMAGES TAKEN BY SILENCE FOUNDER, 2011, UNLESS OTHERWISE STATED

www.pinterest.com

SILENCE will continue their look with retail spaces that are: • clean • sharp • fresh • welcoming • identifiable

online retail environments The overall look and useability should be very easy, friendly and enticing. The site must be enjoyable to navigate through and an extension of the retail stores. The e-shopping site will be fundamental to growth overseas as initially the only retail branch will be located in London, England. Thus the site will be available in a selection of different languages, and will constantly be updated.

www.alexanderwang.com

www.net-a-porter.com

www.celine.com

Although Celine doesnâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t currently offer online shopping through their own site, they have a beautiful, clean and clear layout that showcases the products beautifully.

An exstensive list of some positive and negative factors that may impact the business

P e s t e l

OLITCAL • Legislation • Stability of the government • Economic policy of the government • Trade policy • Diplomatic events in surrounding countries CONOMICAL • Difficult econominc European climate could work positively, as consumer want more from their product, or it could be negative as it is tough to gain investment, trust and loyal consumers • Asian markets are growing extremely fast and offer opportunity for growth

OCIAL • The impact of having an ethical supply chain means better health, working conditions, environment, sustainable products and creates a number of jobs at every stage of the manufacturing process • Educating people about the extensive damage that the current production methods have on people and the environment ECHNOLOGICAL • Laser cutting techniques will be employed to produce intricate uppers and will be used in conjunction with traditional carving to decorate wood • Vigilence on upcoming technology, such as rapid prototyping, will be ongoing. NVIRONMENTAL • Organic materials and leather will be used extensively • SILENCE will only use sustainable FSC approved, reclaimed or wood sourced through The National Trust • SILENCE do not work with companies who disregard the environment or their employees by using harmful chemicals in the manufacturing process • Handmade shoes can be repaired and last decades {see materials breakdown and supply chain for more information) EGAL • Scrutiny when ensuring each certification is genuine • Export laws for selling abroad • Import laws for purchasing rubber

s w o t 73

TRENGHTS • Environmentally friendly • Ethical • Strong designs • Strong brand identity • New type of fashion business with a strong USP that is increasingly relevant • Quality • Choice • Materials

EAKNESSES • Entering into a very fickle and saturated market • The luxury consumer is hard to interest, keep and please • SILENCE is a start up company with no customer base at present • Financially less secure than other luxury brands, especially during the first trading year • Working with a variety of new suppliers so there is a lack of trust, potential for errors and delays • This is the founders first start up so lacks experience in certain areas of running a business

PPORTUNITIES • British Fashion Council grants and gaining investments from other outside sources, including the bank, friends and family • To grow faster than less ethical and environmentally aware brands • To embark on exciting collaborations to highten brand awareness • Expansion into menswear, childrenswear and accessories • Opening stores and workshops abroad

HREATS • The current economic climate doesn’t favour start ups as it is harder to convince individuals and business to invest and consumers to buy • The european economy could limit the market if it collapses • Competition is tough • The supply chain for SILENCE is reasonably complex and could easily cause huge errors • Exchange rates could create a loss when selling abroad

Ra n g e

L A S T S

wood

iron

glass

£365+

£445+

£695+

£475+

£565+

£895+

£585+

£695+

£1155+

The prices shown give an indication to how the different use of materials will have an adverse affect on the retail price. However at this stage this is only a guide as the end design will determine the complexity of the final piece aswell as any additional techniques that will be used, for instance etching. It is also impossible to quote a general cost for labour and materials as each of these would have to be discussed and negotiated with each skilled tradesman for each individual design. The prices that have been estimated are based on competitor prices, and with consideration given to the fact that SILENCE do not want to price themselves out of the market. The last shape will have an almond toe rather than the pointier version shown, however they do represent the variety in heel height. They range from 15mm and 50mm to 100mm. Further research will be conducted in this area during the design process and more variation will be bought into the range as the company becomes more established. 75

ALL IMAGES ARE PART OF THE FIRST HAND RESEARCH FOR THE INSPIRATION OF THE FIRST COLLECTION

“ 1 5

p e s t i c i

c o t t o n S t a t e s

i n a r e

c a r c i n

d e s

u s e d

t h e

U n i t e d

k n o w n

o n

h u ma n

o g e n s â&#x20AC;?

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cotton manufacture Cotton production is one of the most destructive processes for the environment, and for the health of those working in close proximity to the growing and harvesting of the crops.

“

Cotton represents nearly half the fibre used to make clothes and other textiles worldwide. In Latin America, Africa and Asia, cotton is one of the most important cash crops for small farmers. Although only 2.4% of the world’s cropland is planted with cotton, it accounts for 24% of the world’s insecticide market and 11% of sale of global pesticides. 73% of global cotton harvest comes from areas under irrigation. Diversion of water and its pollution by cotton growing has had severe impacts on major ecosystems such as the Aral Sea in Central Asia, the Indus Delta in Pakistan and the Murray Darling River in Australia.

”

http://wwf.panda.org/about_our_earth/about_ freshwater/freshwater_problems/thirsty_crops/ Cotton is naturally incredibly thirsty but it is also one of the main cash crops. Thus creating a huge environmental impact by increasing the amount of crops, pesticides and insecticides, health complications of the farmers and ultimately the destruction of many ecosystems and the natural balance of the land in these and surrounding areas. Poor regulation of the textile industry has contributed to the current environmental and social crisis faced today. However if organic materials are used then there is a lot that can be done to address these issues.

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cotton alternatives

Alternatives to non-organic cotton are, obviously, organic cotton but also bamboo and potentially hemp. Bamboo is becoming far more common in the market and is being promoted as the new eco wonder fabric, however the most common manufacturing process is still highly toxic and damaging to peoples health and the environment. There is continuous development needed in order to make this highly valuable green resource become the new cotton, and progress has already been made. Bamboo fibres have been treated in the same way as lyocell and the process has been found to be virtually benign. This is because it operates a closed loop circuit and uses very gentle alkalines, known as surfactants, which are then reused again and again. It is fair to say that in due time, there is evidence to suggest that this genuinely eco super fabric will become mainstream, rather than the greenwashed version consumers are currently being sold. It is unwise to think that the consumer will be mislead long-term on a topic so heatedly debated in the current media and in the current climate.

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Leather All of the leather used by SILENCE is organic and produced in Britain. 100% of the hides are traceable back to the exact farm, enabling transparency and a commitment to extremely high welfare standards. The animals are reared inline with strict organic grade soil association guidelines, on British farms, and then tanned using environmentally friendly, chrome free traditional techniques and recipes. However, there are debates that leather is anything but sustainable.

“

THE CASE FOR ALTERNATIVES: Synthetic materials account for far less pollution—and only a fraction of the energy used. Regardless, synthetic polymers are not the only alternatives. There are plenty of plantbased or sustainable and renewable fabrics available, including cork, wood, linen, hemp, cotton, bamboo, Ultra suede, and more. Plus, with so much development in terms of new organic, plant-based, and post-consumer recycled waste materials, comparing leather to these materials is like comparing a mountain to an anthill in terms of environmental impact.”

”

With this in mind SILENCE endeavours to continuosly look for the most sustainable luxury materials, aswell as continually developing more sustainable leather production, and working only with silver graded tanneries and better, when organic leather isn’t available. http://www.ecouterre.com/can-leather-be-ecofriendly-ever/2/

wool Wool has naturally hardwearing properties and has been popular with sailors, fishermen and explorers for generations, because “Hair or Wool is the only material in the world naturally grown by mammals to regulate their body temperature in all weathers and climates.” http://www.thewoolcompany. co.uk/benefits-of-wool.html Wool naturally wicks moisture away from the body and insulates, but at the same time is breathable and encourages air to flow to the body in warm conditions. This means that along with wool being hardwearing it, also keeps you warm when it’s cold and cool when it’s hot. Material considerations for all fashion pieces is one of the most important decisions but it is especially important in creating footwear. Using materials that naturally allow and encourage breathability and are functional and beautiful match the brands identity perfectly. Wool definitely fits this definition as its natural water resistant properties mean that it is impenetrable to mildew, rot and mould, it won’t hold body odours and is anti-allergenic.

“

Wool is hard to challenge for its sustainability (sheep are not intensively reared). It grows as hair on goats, sheep, llamas and rabbits, occurs naturally and is renewable i.e it quickly grows back. At the end of its life, wool is bio-degradable in soil, releasing important nutrients.

”

Ardalanish is a producer based in Scotland producing environmentally friendly, sustainable and a variety of different wool products. Their beliefs and company ethos is the same and during the design process the materials will be manipulated to create the best possible designs. Focusing on using the wool in a more contemporary way that it has been previously and combining it with different types of embellishments, materials and traditional leather craft.

ALL IMAGES FROM www.ardalanish.co.uk

ALL IMAGES ARE PART OF THE FIRST HAND RESEARCH FOR THE INSPIRATION OF THE FIRST COLLECTION

wood Sourcing wood that is inline with the companyâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s values means thinking logically and outside of the box. The most respected mark to authenticate its sustainable qualities is that of the FSC, or the Forest Stewardship Council., although no system is foolproof it is the most widely used and trusted. SILENCE will only use FSC certified wood in production, with a focus on using beech, as it is a hard wearing and durable wood suitable for block heels and sole units. The National Trust is a highly respected organisation that is dedicated to the protection of green spaces, the coastline and historical buildings. The trust was established in 1895 that recognised the potential damage that uncontrollable industrialisation and the work they started over 100 years ago continues today. In this era the National Trust is dedicated to not only the protection and preservation of national treasures, in England, Wales and Northern Ireland, but is also a key educator on topics as important as environmental respect and community. It is because of these actions and the fact that The National Trust owns a number of stately homes and the acreage they sit that SILENCE is able to source small quantities of wood directly from them, in the London and Hertfordshire areas. Reclaimed wood has an abundance of character and is another great example of using what is already available rather than unnecessarily using raw materials. Reclamation yards also offer the ability to create a network of potential suppliers that supports the smaller businesses. All of the wood used will be naturally found within Europe, such as Beech, to attempt to reduce the possibility of purchasing unethical wood, especially any that has been illegally harvested from the Amazon.

iron Cast iron is indefinitely recyclable without any deterioration to its properties, has a very positive effect on the environment due to its slow oxidisation and is extremely hard wearing. There is even evidence, from scientific trials, to strongly suggest that iron has such a positive impact on our environment and ecosystems, that it may be added to oceans to assist with combating global warming! The production of cast and wrought is potentially very positive, as it will be fairly simple to create a closed circuit production loop. By sourcing recyclable iron rather than mining raw materials we prevent noise and air pollution, health risks associated with the poor working conditions involved with extracting the iron and expelling the need to dispose of unwanted iron. This is all feasible as the scale of production is so small; it also produces the opportunity to develop relationships with small businesses and another industry in one of the most satisfying ways.

88 IMage taken by silence founder

90 IMage taken by silence founder

glass

The concept for SILENCE initiated with looking at the beauty and skill involved in creating blown glass and restoring traditional crafts and skills. Through intensive research it has become clear that it is possible to create aesthetically pleasing and most importantly safe and functional sole units using cast glass. However more research needs to be done into whether recycled glass can be used to make these pieces, as the environmental impact caused by manipulating the raw materials is quite significant. On the other hand the amount of glass used by the company will be extremely small as this material is only offered in the bespoke price bracket. In order to stay focused on our environmental responsibilities SILENCE will endeavour to run a carbon offset scheme, which will be automatically in place when a bespoke item is made.

92 http://depositphotos.com/1139750/stock-photo-Semi-precious-stones-isolated.html

Semi-precious stones

Inspired by glass and distortion came the idea to use semi-precious stones as a design feature. Traditionally mining has never been considered healthy or safe. Further research into the the working conditions, health and environmental risks, sustainability and durability on footwear needd to be conducted and on going. Semi-precious stones are beautiful and would allow SILENCE to creat a glass inspired product line at a much lower price. This would increase both the range and the opportunity to get consumers to buy. However with opportunity comes risk, therefore more products means more investment capital would be needed.

footwear components

All leather components used in traditional handmade footwear will be sourced from the organic leather supplier where possible. If this isnâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t initially possible then the necessary materials will be sourced from silver grade tanneries. The ironwork studio will produce all hardware, except for zips as these will be sourced from YKKs environmentally friendly range. Iron zip pulls will be incorporated into the range though. Leather and cotton laces will be made using the organic leather and cottons used in other areas of manufacturing.

Supply chain design All designs will be completed 18 months prior to retail launch including the last selection and ordering of any new last shapes Orders placed 12 months prior to arriving at the workshop

wood

leather

wool

iron

glass

sourced in sourced in sourced in all pieces all pieces the uk or the uk or scotland are made in are made in europe europe direct from london london the mill

misc thread , needles and other basic components

Work with each supplier to ensure colour and material is correct and suitable. the workshop is sent swatches at each stage

workshop all components are to arrive between 6 and 3 months before production must be completed, to allow time for delays, order updates and for producing prototypes Once all of the products are made they are packaged in house and shipped out, using eco friendly couriers approximately 2 weeks before they launch

Own online retail sent directly to consumer from workshop

the the

own retail sent to stores the week of each new season launch and when new / re orders have been placed

wholesale sent

to wholesale consumers

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conclusion

SILENCE VALUES • SILENCE is committed to producing ethical and environmentally friendly footwear. • Providing the clients with an exceptional bespoke service that builds strong and lasting relationships. • Practicing with complete transparency and honesty, with both our clients and manufacturers. • To inspire the footwear, accessories and fashion industries to work harder to produce more ethical and sustainable products. • To use the best quality materials combined with the best designs to constantly deliver the finest products. SILENCE believes that the development of beautiful luxury goods shouldn’t be an ugly path, meaning environmental, ethical and moral rights should be upheld as a priority. SILENCE aspires to become the luxury atelier that is synonymous with fair practice and an ethical vision that delivers better products than all of its competitors. However SILENCE aspires to inspire the rest of the ‘luxury’ goods market to follow. The short term aims for the brand are to become established, financially sound with a refined supply chain, that leads the market and supports a network of British and Irish manufacturers. On top of this, SILENCE looks to set up training schemes in producing handmade footwear, to encourage the resurgence of craft and trade in this country. Building strong links with environmental charities, and driving the demand for ethical materials is crucial. Long term, SILENCE want to redefine ethical, sustainable and beautiful as normal. Otherwise how will the consumerist lifestyle continue, when there are no more raw materials and pollution is irreversible globally? The competition have the current ‘IT’ bag, the current fashion consumer and the current stake in the market, but SILENCE is the future.

interviews 1. Sales Associate In Libertys contemporary designers floor: SILENCE: What age range do you get on this floor? Liberty: It’s mostly between mid 20’s to early 30’s. SILENCE: What lifestyle do you think they have? Are they students, do they work? Liberty: You do get students in, but you also get business women too. Then you do get other people who don’t necessarily have that much money, but are willing to go without other things in order to afford some of the stuff. So it does vary. SILENCE: Do you get loyal customers? Liberty: Yeah, we do tend to. Obviously we do get tourists and people who have been recommended here by friends. We have quite a good loyalty scheme aswell so people do come back.

100

2. Sales Associate In Libertys luxury shoe lounge: SILENCE: What age range do you get on this floor? Liberty: 25+, but on average I would say between 25 to 35 SILENCE: What lifestyle do you think they have? Are they students, do they work? Liberty: They are predominantly wealthy SILENCE: Do you get loyal customers? Liberty: We do get regular clients but theyâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;re not as wealthy SILENCE: Have you noticed a change in peoples spending since the economic situation arose? Liberty: No, you would think that since the economic crisis sales would have gone down, but the wealthy customers are still spending regardless. SILENCE: Do you think people consider their purchases more? Liberty: Not really, people are still buying a thousand pounds worth of boots, so no. SILENCE: What do you think makes people buy these products? Liberty:When itâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s a must have this season everyone wants it.

101

observations of the current luxury consumer

By observing the customers who shop on Bond St, Mayfair, in Selfridges and from first hand experience as a sales associate, in the luxury sector, Silence was able to form a well rounded overview of who the luxury consumer is. The Bond St Consumer: • Extremely wealthy • Very Successful • Outspoken • Vibrant • High Expectations • Often Foreign • Demanding • Impatient • Busy • Quite Trend Driven • Families • Don’t often shop alone unless by appointment • Stylish • Wearing over-the-knee boots a lot at present

102

By observing the customers who shop in Donna Karen, where SILENCE founder has worked as a sales associate, the following standards for retail became apparent. Luxury Retail: • Welcoming • Knowledgeable • Fast Paced • Accommodating • Honest • Build Relationships on Trust • Patient • Offer a large variety of styles for many different occasions • High Standards • Confident • Immaculately presented • Hands on • All About Service

103

KATIE S

.L. D

SADLER 1

BA (HONS) PRODUCT DESIGN AND DEVELOPMENT: CORDWAINERS FOOTWEAR

s i l e n c e W o r d

c o u n t :

B i b l i o g r a p h i e s , p p d a r e a l l c o n t a i n e d

4 2 6 6

a n d e x t r a r e s e a r c h i n t h i s d o c u m e n t

ppd At the beginning of the term I was very clear about what I wanted to focus on and ultimately achieve, however as time went on I realised how complex my concept was and gradually felt increasingly stressed. I think the main thing that went wrong is that I totally underestimated how long things like layout and research would actually take.

I think that the brief could be a lot clearer, because it is very vague as to how much development is expected of you. I spent the majority of my time researching materials and ethical and environmentally friendly practises, because it was essential for my plan but when it came to the ‘sketchbook’ I felt totally unprepared to hand this in. I didn’t feel enough emphasis was put on the designing process at this stage as the report part was the most important and I didn’t realise how important design development was at this stage. The most helpful part of this term was definitely having so many tutorials. They helped keep me focused and also reinforce what I was doing right and point out what I was yet to do. It might be quite helpful to mix the tutorial groups up so that we get as much feedback as possible and to integrate 3rd years with 4th years. I am looking forward to being able to redo my sketchbook and focus on design development from now on, as I would like the layout and design to much more fluid, like my report. The class reps for this year ( Pauline Courtois and Catherine Mc Aleer) have been great at organising meet ups, the final year show and keeping everyone updated. I have found this a great help as sometimes when you work alone for so long you feel like you are losing touch with reality, and panic because you don’t know what other people are doing and at what stage they are at. I still need to work on my organisational skills and timekeeping but I am quite happy with my performance, especially because I have been managing with working and have found a balance between work, uni and a social life. This is extremely important to me because I do tend to work a lot and this can be very tiring. For the next part of the project I am going to set myself a very detailed critical path and then stick to it religiously. I intend on completing everything at least 2 weeks prior to hand in but hopefully 3 so I have ample time to tweak things, print and bind appropriately, focus on making and just really pulling everything together seamlessly.

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/ Basingstoke : Palgrave Macmillan, 2003. • Ethical consumer / [edited by] Rob Harrison, Terry Newholm, Deirdre Shaw. / / London : SAGE, 2005. • Climb the green ladder : make your company and career more sustainable / Amy V. Fetzer and Shari Aaron. / Fetzer, Amy V. / Chichester : John Wiley, 2010. • Grammar of ornament : illustrated by examples from various styles of ornament / Owen Jones. / Jones, Owen, 1809-1874. / London : Dorling Kindersley, 2001. • Pattern cutting : step by step patterns for footwear : a handbook on producing patterns for making boots or shoes / edited by Frank G. Jones. / Jones, Frank G. / Rawtenstall : Noble Footwear, 2008. Websites • http://www.treehugger.com/sustainable-fashion/01m-onemoment-new-biodegradable-shoeconcept.html (accessed 25th September 2011) • http://www.treehugger.com/sustainable-product-design/reclaimed-wood-furniture-bycarlos-motta.html (accessed 25th September 2011) • http://www.treehugger.com/sustainable-product-design/sustainable-timber-chandeliersloz-abberton.html (accessed 25th September 2011) • http://www.tedprize.org/jr-2011-ted-prize-winner/ (accessed 25th September 2011) • http://www.treehugger.com/energy/ (accessed 25th September 2011) • http://raneytown.com/page/2/ (accessed 25th September 2011) • http://lindsaytingstrom.com/ (accessed 1st October 2011) • http://shuttersalt.com/ideas/100-steps-your-door (accessed 1st October 2011) • http://www.independent.co.uk/life-style/fashion/features (accessed 1st October 2011) • http://ilovetypography.com/page/3/ (accessed 5th October 2011) • http://www.vogue.com/vogue-daily/article/five-days-five-looks-one-girl-kathrynneale/# (accessed 5th October 2011) • http://www.circuit-collective.com/ (accessed 5th October 2011) • http://handmadeshoes.wordpress.com/ (accessed 5th October 2011)

• http://uk.specials.lifestyle.yahoo.com/style-it-light/ (accessed 5th October 2011) • http://packofwolv.es/?portfolio=design-your-future (accessed 5th October 2011) • http://www.iainclaridge.co.uk/blog/?paged=8 (accessed 5th October 2011) • http://fluxproductions.net/archive (accessed 5th October 2011) • http://creative-capital.org/ (accessed 12th October 2011) • http://www.kickstarter.com/ (accessed 12th October 2011) • http://www.mademeclothing.com/blog/ (accessed 13th October 2011) • http://www.wearpact.com/ (accessed 13th October 2011) • http://www.etsy.com/shop/fluxproductions (accessed 13th October 2011) • http://tokyo-bleep.tumblr.com/archive (accessed 15th October 2011) • http://thefinesthings.tumblr.com/ (accessed 16th October 2011) • http://levatio.tumblr.com/ (accessed 18th October 2011) • http://mademeclothing.com/ (accessed 18th October 2011) • http://www.madewell.com/madewell_category/SHOESBOOTS.jsp?iNextCategory=-1

(accessed

20th October 2011) • http://workandinspiration.blogspot.com/ (accessed 22nd October 2011) • http://www.johnvarvatos.com/store/productslist (accessed 22nd October 2011) • http://littlebrownpen.blogspot.com/2011/06/ (accessed 23rd October 2011) • http://www.tttrunks.com/3en.aspx (accessed 24th October 2011) • http://t-r-e-a-s-u-r-e-d.tumblr.com/ (accessed 24th October 2011) • http://plentyofcolour.com/page/2/ (accessed 24th October 2011) • http://fadingout-.tumblr.com/ (accessed 24th October 2011) • http://velvetfangs.tumblr.com/ (accessed 24th October 2011) • http://y0uarethebestthingineverhad.tumblr.com/ (accessed 26th October 2011) • http://blog.themaxdavis.com/ (accessed 26th October 2011) • http://myfrenchlife.org/2011/10/21/lauberge-espagnole/ (accessed 26th October 2011) • http://philippayoung.com/pages/wtysl (accessed 26th October 2011) • http://www.treehugger.com/sustainable-fashion/01m-onemoment-new-biodegradable-shoe-

concept.html (accessed 26th October 2011) • http://www.whatoliviadid.com/ (accessed 30th October 2011) • http://scrapbook.citizen-citizen.com/philipwood/projects.html (accessed 30th October 2011) • http://theimagist.com/ (accessed 1st November 2011) • http://insertartypicturehere.blogspot.com/ (accessed 1st November 2011) • http://insertartypicturehere.blogspot.com/ (accessed 1st November 2011) • http://bestdesignoptions.com/?p=4076 (accessed 1st November 2011) • http://www.behance.net/Gallery/Modern-Design-Magazine-13/110328

(accessed

1st

November 2011) • http://bestdesignoptions.com/?p=4076 (accessed 1st November 2011) • http://www.artflakes.com/en (accessed 1st November 2011) • http://www.nr2154.com/2432/index.html (accessed 5th November 2011) • http://www.kellyblair.com/illustration/241/294/1 (accessed 5th November 2011) • http://www.daviddrummond.blogspot.com/ (accessed 5th November 2011) • http://works-on-paper.blogspot.com/ (accessed 5th November 2011) • http://www.dhaggar.com/ (accessed 9th November 2011) • http://devicq.com/illustration.html (accessed 9th November 2011) • http://facehunter.blogspot.com/ (accessed 9th November 2011) • http://stylesalvage.blogspot.com/2011/10/sixbusixbloggers-my-dream-shoe.html (accessed 12th November 2011) • http://www.thecherryblossomgirl.com/page/2/ (accessed 12th November 2011) • http://carolinesmode.com/stockholmstreetstyle/ (accessed 12th November 2011) • http://stylesalvage.blogspot.com/2011/07/style-stalking-street-peeper.html (accessed 15th November 2011) • http://ninistyle.net/category/what-i-wore/page/2/ (accessed 15th November 2011) • http://thebhj.com/ (accessed 15th November 2011) • http://downwithclutter.blogspot.com/2009/03/make-your-own-boo-boo-buddy.html

(accessed 19th November 2011) • http://visual.ly/#gc_filter (accessed 19th November 2011) • http://www.element23.co.uk/element23_links.html (accessed 19th November 2011) • http://www.goodentrepreneur.com/The-Competition/Entries-Pool/Organic-Leather (accessed 23rd November 2011) • http://muddlingthruthegrays.tumblr.com/ (accessed 23rd November 2011) • http://suzieb1971.tumblr.com/ (accessed 23rd November 2011) • http://handsomeboyclothing.blogspot.com/2010/11/blog-post_7137.html

(accessed

23rd

November 2011) • http://www.luxuryinstitute.com/products.html (accessed 23rd November 2011) • http://favim.com/image/218437/ (accessed 23rd November 2011) • http://designspiration.net/ (accessed 27th November 2011) • http://creativeroots.org/ (accessed 27th November 2011) • http://i-am-not-a-celebrity.com/ (accessed 27th November 2011) • http://models.com/feed/?p=27731 (accessed 1st December 2011) • http://instagrid.me/thisisglamorous/ (accessed 1st December 2011) • http://niftylyss.com/ (accessed 1st December 2011) • http://www.intothefashion.com/ (accessed 1st December 2011) • http://www.styleheroine.com/2011/08/20/pigalle-spikes/ (accessed 1st December 2011) • http://sunony.com/press (accessed 1st December 2011) • http://trendland.net/laetitia-casta-for-vogue-espana (accessed 1st December 2011) • http://www.chictopia.com/photo/show/230677-McQueen+Fantasy-purple-alexander-mcqueenshoes (accessed 1st December 2011) • http://www.bellamumma.com/2011/09/street-style.html (accessed 1st December 2011) • http://sdgeastlondon.blogspot.com/2011/01/freja-beha-erichsen.html December 2011) IMAGES • http://www.net-a-porter.com

(accessed

1st

• http://www.pinterest.com • http://www.style.com • http://www.vogue.com INTERVIEWS • Sadler, K. (2011). Interview with Liberty Sales Assistant, Clothing Depertment. 8th November (Approx. 5 minutes) • Sadler, K. (2011). Interview with Liberty Sales Assistant, Footwear Department. 8th November (Approx. 5 minutes)

T r e n d s

a n d

e t h i c a l

t r a d i n g

r e s e a r c h

A/W 12/13: MACRO TRENDS By WGSN Creative team, 14 January 2011

Welcome to our autumn/winter 2012/13 macro trends. As with every season, we will take you step by step through the three trends, introducing our new concepts and explaining their importance.

WGSN DESIGN ETHOS 1. Fuse multiple cultures 2. Blend styles and icons 3. Revolutionise the ethnic 4. Draft without gender 5. Design into a haute-generic 6. Diversify uniformity

One world, infinite perspectives

7. Brutalise the eco

Autumn/winter 2012/13 is about clashing cultures, aesthetics and lifestyles that fuse at the point of impact. Opposites really do attract. This helps us redefine luxury, gender, traditional cultures, our ideas about what is normal, even globalisation, which morphs from an often negative movement into a more positive and liberating one. How do we make sense of this new world? New links are forged in Hyperculture leading to cultural collaboration rather than cultural colonisation. Radical Neutrality hears the quiet messages, addressing our craving for balance and allowing the plain, the oh-so-simple to stand out. Eco Hedonism offers a new view of luxury - one that both challenges and inspires,while giving us a more sustainable future.

ÂŠWGSN 2011

8. Craft a post-natural luxury 9. Engineer the mystical 10. Embrace opposites

BACKGROUND PAPER

THE IMPACT OF COTTON ON FRESH WATER RESOURCES AND ECOSYSTEMS A PRELIMINARY SYNTHESIS

May 1999

This report was prepared for WWF by Jens Soth, Environmental Protection Encouragement Agency, Hamburg (Germany), and Christian Grasser and Romina Salerno, Kiefer & Partners AG, Management Consultants for Energy and Environment, Zurich (Switzerland). Toxicity data on cotton pesticides (Appendix 4) were compiled by Philipp Thalmann, Kueng-Biotech and Environment, Bern, Switzerland, and added to the report in April 2000.

Any opinions or facts cited in this report remain the responsibility of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the opinion of WWF.

FOR MORE INFORMATION: Christine B채rlocher Project Manager, Fresh Water and Cotton WWF-Switzerland, Postfach, 8010 Zurich, Switzerland Tel: +41 1 297 2256

Fax: +41 1 297 2100

E-mail: christine.baerlocher@wwf.ch

Richard Holland WWF Living Waters Campaign P.O. Box 7, 3700 AA Zeist, The Netherlands Tel: +31 30 693 7803

Fax: +31 30 691 2064

E-mail: TDAwaters@wwfnet.org

Biksham Gujja WWF Freshwater Programme WWF International, avenue du Mont Blanc, 1186 Gland, Switzerland Tel: +41 22 364 9031

Fax: +41 22 364 0526

E-mail: bgujja@wwfnet.org

CONTENTS FOREWORD AND SCOPE OF THE REPORT

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

III

BASIC INFORMATION ON COTTON

COTTON AND GLOBAL FRESHWATER RESOURCES

1.1

Global freshwater resources

1.2

Global freshwater withdrawal

THE CONSUMPTION OF FRESHWATER FOR IRRIGATION PURPOSES

2.1

Irrigated agriculture

2.2

Comparison between different irrigated crops

2.3

The impact of cotton irrigation on freshwater withdrawal

2.4

The influence of irrigation methods on freshwater consumption

2.5

Trends in irrigation

COTTON AND FRESHWATER ECOSYSTEMS

3.1

Relevance of cotton for freshwater pollution

3.2

Major impacts of cotton production on freshwater ecosystems and biodiversity

APPENDICES

16 21

Glossary

Further reading and Web Sites

Cotton producing countries

Pesticides used in cotton

REFERENCES

ÂŠ WWF International

T h e i m p a c t o f c o t t o n o n f r e s h w a t e r r e s o u r c e s a n d e c o s ys t e m s

FOREWORD AND SCOPE OF THE REPORT Current situation freshwater â&#x20AC;&#x201C; a future challenge

Many people are aware, that global freshwater withdrawals increase rapidly and that there might be a freshwater crisis awaiting future generations if not action is taken. But there are also qualitative aspects in the freshwater discussion: water is more and more polluted. Access and availability of safe and clean water to meet basic needs for a growing population is one of the big challenges on the global political agenda.

ecological freshwater crisis

Another important factor in the freshwater discussion is less known: the ecological freshwater crisis. 25% of the freshwater ecosystems have been degraded or lost in the 25 years from 1970 to 1995. This alarming rate in the decline of freshwater biodiversity and habitats is a clear and direct challenge to conservation. Existing international efforts to conserve freshwater ecosystems need to be further increased.

new and integrated strategies

But new strategies are required as well. Approaches which integrate ecological requirements and essential human needs must be strengthen. Opportunities for coordinated management of the conservation community with the water resources development community, policy makers, partners in the relevant sectors from farmers to business and industry should be identified. Effective cooperate actions for freshwater conservation need to be developed.

cotton and freshwater

The WWF international is currently assessing the potential of cotton and freshwater as a possible starting point for new opportunities for the freshwater programme and the Living Waters Campaign. Agriculture is the sector which presents the single greatest threat to the conservation of freshwater habitats and biodiversity. Cotton is a crop of global importance and is a strong symbol to demonstrate the human pressure on freshwater resources and ecosystems. Cotton addresses to people in cotton consuming countries as well as to cotton producing countries. In Latin America, Africa and Asia, cotton is one of the most important cash crops for smallholders in many countries. Cotton links freshwater issues with a tangible product of daily use and offers good and attractive communication tools. It has the potential to reach new target audiences outside the conservation scene with an effective message on global freshwater issues. These are some reasons, why Cotton could be a good model crop to promote a change towards a more sustainable water management and new partnerships. Aim and scope of this draft report

basic facts and figures

This draft report provides basic facts and figures on cotton and freshwater. However, the report can only be seen as a first sketch of the size and nature of the issue. It is a preliminary synthesis of existing scientific data. No recommendations or strategies are proposed in this paper.

limitations

Due to a lack of data for several issues, the fact report has itâ&#x20AC;&#x2DC;s clear limitations. For example, a detailed analysis of impacts on specific catchments in cotton growing areas was

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not possible at this point of the study due to the lack of available data on a regional scale. Crop specific agricultural data are hardly accessible. Only little data of ground water pollution by pesticides (witch are not crop specific) do exist. Although it can be assumed that cotton pesticides have severe effects on wildlife, little information could be accessed where investigations proofed clear links of documented fish or bird kills due to pesticides to a specific crop. cotton and the destruction of freshwater ecosystems

However, the fact findings show clearly, that cotton is a relevant factor for the destruction of freshwater ecosystems on a regional as well as on a global scale. We hope that the draft report forms a good starting point for the discussion on the issue of Cotton and Freshwater in the WWF network.

call for comments and additional information

Readers are invited to comment the report critically. Any inputs and additional information, especially good sources of regional cases of impacts of cotton on freshwater ecosystems and biodiversity are most welcome. They can be integrated into following publications and feed into the ongoing process for the project development for Fresh Water and Cotton.

Christine BĂ¤rlocher Project manager Fresh Water and Cotton WWF Switzerland

on behalf of Richard Holland, WWF Int. Director Living Waters Campaign and Biksham Gujia, WWF Int. Head of Freshwater Programme

II 14th May 1999

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III 14th May 1999

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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY Cotton and global freshwater resources Only a tiny fraction of the total amount of global freshwater is available as a yearly renewable resource. Moreover this resource is very unequally distributed between different countries and different continents. Regarding national water data it can be concluded that some cotton producing countries can provide their total freshwater withdrawal with internal, i.e. national, renewable freshwater but others, for example Egypt or Uzbekistan, depend highly on renewable freshwater from other countries. Considering that the renewable water resources differ regionally and that irrigated cotton is grown mainly in dry climates than the sufficient availability of renewable freshwater on a local or regional level must be questioned. With 69%, the agricultural sector has by far the largest share of global freshwater withdrawal compared with industrial and municipal use. Depending on the climatic situation, this share can increase in some countries to up to 98%. Among the major cotton producing countries1, in Pakistan or Uzbekistan the freshwater withdrawal figures for agriculture are well above the world average and account for 84% and 98% respectively, whereas those for Turkey and the USA for example, are below. In dry climates, freshwater withdrawal can challenge annual renewable freshwater resources, which in turn can lead to a long-term depletion of freshwater resources. The consumption of freshwater for irrigation purposes Irrigated cotton is mainly grown in regions with Mediterranean , desert or near-desert climates where freshwater is in short supply (e.g. Pakistan, Uzbekistan or Australia). The extensive irrigation of cotton has therefore a severe impact on the regional freshwater resources. This leads to a depletion of surface or ground water which can affect the river catchments and the wetlands laying downstream. Considering that agriculture takes up about 69% of global freshwater withdrawal and that rice, wheat and cotton hold together 58% of the world-wide irrigated area, it is obvious that these three crops are the major consumers of freshwater. Of these three crops, rice is the most important, on a global scale, followed by wheat and cotton. About 53% of the global cotton area is irrigated and mainly located in dry regions: Egypt, Uzbekistan and the province Xinjiang of China are entirely irrigated whereas in Pakistan and the North of India irrigation supplies most of crop water. As a result, in Pakistan already 31% of all irrigation water is drawn from ground water and in China the extensive freshwater use has caused falling water tables. 1

The six major cotton producing countries are China, the USA, India, Pakistan, Uzbekistan and Turkey. Throughout the text these six countries will be referred to as "the top six". IV 14th May 1999

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Global cotton harvest from unirrigated area 27%

Unirrigated cotton area 47%

Irrigated cotton area 53%

Global cotton harvest from irrigated area 73%

Figure I World-wide irrigated cotton area and its harvest.

Most irrigation systems in cotton production rely on the traditional technique of flood irrigation â&#x20AC;&#x201C; freshwater is taken out of a river, lake or reservoir and transported through an open canal system to the place of its consumption. Losses of freshwater occur through evaporation, seepage and inefficient water management. World-wide, irrigation efficiency is lower than 40%. In some developing cotton producing countries, a shift in national agricultural policies towards local food production in support of food security (mostly determined by global and regional politics) may constrain cotton production. In others, new water management's policies (reduced water allocation to agriculture for economic and environmental conservation reasons) may reduce irrigated cotton production. Therefore, there might be a high interest of the cotton sector to promote improved water management for cotton (improved irrigation practices resp. improved soil moisture conservation in rain-fed cotton). Technical innovations like drip irrigation or an improved water management (demand driven water supply) can reduce the extensive water demand for cotton production. Until today however, only 0.7% of the world-wide irrigated area (all crops) are supplied with drip irrigation. Cotton and freshwater ecosystems Cotton production uses agricultural chemicals heavily and therefore offers a significant risk of pollution of freshwater ecosystems with nutrients, salts and pesticides. The share of cotton on global pesticide sales has averaged 11% and on the global insecticides market even 24%. At the same time, cotton acreage amounts to only 2.4% of the world's arable land. Therefore it is obvious that the pesticide use for cotton in relation to the area is disproportional. V 14th May 1999

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Most pesticides used in cotton production are hazardous. From 46 insecticides and acaricides (90% of market share in cotton) five are extremely hazardous, eight are highly hazardous and twenty are moderately hazardous.

Cotton pesticides apply for 25% of the global insecticide market...

...but the cotton acreage is just 2.4% of the world's arable land

Figure II The share of cotton on the global pesticide and insecticide market and on the world's arable land. It is obvious that the pesticide use for cotton in relation to the area of arable land that cotton takes up is disproportional.

The impact of cotton production on freshwater ecosystems and wetland follows different ways and mechanism. A view of the main mechanism is given in table I. Run-off from fields and drainage water contaminates rivers, lakes and wetlands with pesticides and fertilisers and salts respectively. This pollutants can directly affect the biodiversity of freshwater ecosystems due to its toxicity or indirectly by accumulating. The improper handling of pesticides (e.g. washing of equipment in rivers or leakage) has the same impact on surface waters and leads to a direct contamination of ground water systems. The water withdrawal for an extensive irrigation can lead to falling water tables and to a depletion of freshwater resources in the end. On the other hand, extensive irrigation in dry climates results in a direct salinisation of soil. At the same time the water tables along the irrigation canals can increase leading to water-logging of soils and destruction of ecosystems. Water logging and raising water tables occur as damaging side effects of badly managed irrigation schedule and due to missing drainage systems. Both can result in a secondary salinisation of soils. The dam construction for irrigation and the land reclamation for cotton fields destroy

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the original vegetation and the freshwater habitats. Besides, damming up rivers and streams does affect the flow regime of surface waters and can destroy freshwater ecosystems laying downstream. Table I Major impacts of cotton on freshwater ecosystems and freshwater biodiversity.

Mechanism

Pollutant/Change

Impact

Run off from fields

Fertiliser

Eutrophication and pollution

Pesticides

Wildlife contamination

Cases

Sediments Drainage

Saline drainage water

Salinisation of freshwater

Pesticide or fertiliser

Pollution of freshwater

China, Egypt, Uzbekistan

contaminated drainage water Application of pesticides

Insecticides, fungicides,

Wildlife contamination

herbicides and defoliants

Contamination of adjacent

Spray drift (e.g. aerial

wetlands, surface and

application)

ground water

Leakage of equipment

Contamination of surface and ground water

Water withdrawal for

Use of ground water

irrigation

Change of water table or

New South Wales, Australia

depletion of ground water Use of surface water

Extensive irrigation

Dam construction for

Water logging

Regulated water flow

irrigation

Degradation of wetlands and

Aral Sea, Yellow River

lakes

Valley

Raising water tables and

Australia, Indus River Valley,

salinisation of soil surface

Uzbekistan, Pakistan

Habitat destruction, change of water table and change of water flow

Land reclamation

Change of vegetation

Habitat destruction

VII 14th May 1999

T h e i m p a c t o f c o t t o n o n f r e s h w a t e r r e s o u r c e s a n d e c o s ys t e m s

BASIC INFORMATION ON COTTON role as textile fibre

Together with flax and wool, cotton is one of the three natural fibres that have been in use by humankind for 5,000 years. Up until the 18th century, the share of these fibres used in textiles was 78% wool, 18% flax and only 4% cotton. Due to technical innovations however this has now changed and today cotton takes up 48% of textile production, while 45% is taken up by synthetics and the rest accounted for by other fibres.

cotton growing area

Cotton production occurs between 36° South latitude and 46° North latitude and is located in tropical and subtropical regions (Reller, 1997). The broad belt of irrigated cotton lays in Mediterranean and desert climate. It stretches from Spain to central Asia and contains those regions with similar climates in the west of North and South America and Australia (Gillham, 1995).

river catchment

Many cotton regions are located in important river catchments. The Indus River valley in Pakistan for example incorporates one of the greatest irrigation systems in the world. In table I the major river catchments are listed which can be affected by cotton production. Table 1 River catchments in cotton producing areas

Country

River catchment

Brazil

e.g. Parana

China

Yellow River Valley (30.6%) Yangtse River (61.3%)

Egypt

Nile Valley

India

e.g. Narmada

Mali

Niger

Pakistan

Indus Valley (largest irrigation system worldwide; continues to India)

Turkey

Menderez, Gediz GAP Scheme A (Euphrat and Tigris)

Uzbekistan

irrigated cotton and rain-fed cotton

Amu-Dar, Syr-Dar

About 73% of cotton is produced in irrigated fields and only 27% under rain-fed conditions (freshwater is provided mainly by rain). The average yield of cotton is 854 kg per hectare for irrigated cotton and 391 kg per hectare for rain-fed cotton.

world production of cotton

In 1998 the world production of cotton amounted to 18.3 Mio tonnes of cotton lint and today, 33 Mio hectares of land are given over to cotton plantations. Whereas the area of cotton plantation's have remained more or less constant since 1930, cotton production has tripled in the last 70 years.

1 14th May 1999

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major cotton producing countries

The cotton production is unequally distributed over the world. Over 71% of the total cotton harvest occurs north of latitude 30Â° N where the major cotton producing countries are located (Gillham, 1995). Over 70 countries are involved in cotton production but the six major ones (China, USA, India, Pakistan, Uzbekistan and Turkey) account for over 75% of total world production (ICAC, 1995, Figures on cotton production by country are listed in appendix A3)

economy

Cotton plays a major role in the economy of many cotton producing countries. Cotton production however, is only one element in the multisectoral processing of cotton which has a high economical relevance. The cotton sub-sector in Mali for example represents 50% of the exports. In Pakistan over two thirds of the export earnings are derived by cotton and textiles and in Uzbekistan the sale of cotton lint accounts for even 75% of the export earnings. Besides, in many developing countries in Asia, Africa and Latin America cotton is the cash crop of smallholders.

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1 COTTON AND GLOBAL FRESHWATER RESOURCES Summary Only a tiny fraction of the total amount of global freshwater is available as a yearly renewable resource. Moreover this resource is very unequally distributed between different countries and different continents. Regarding national water data it can be concluded that some cotton producing countries can provide their total freshwater withdrawal with internal, i.e. national, renewable freshwater but others, for example Egypt or Uzbekistan, depend highly on renewable freshwater from other countries. Considering that the renewable water resources differ regionally and that irrigated cotton is grown mainly in dry climates than the sufficient availability of renewable freshwater on a local or regional level must be questioned. With 69%, the agricultural sector has by far the largest share of global freshwater withdrawal. Depending on the climatic situation, this share can increase in some countries to up to 98%. Among the major cotton producing countries1, in Pakistan or Uzbekistan the freshwater withdrawal figures for agriculture are well above the world average and account for 84% and 98% respectively, whereas those for Turkey and the USA for example, are below. In dry climates, freshwater withdrawal can challenge annual renewable freshwater resources, which in turn can lead to a long-term depletion of freshwater resources.

1.1 global distribution of freshwater

GLOBAL FRESHWATER RESOURCES Global freshwater resources consisting of hydrological water bodies (e.g. atmosphere, lakes or glaciers) are unequally distributed among different freshwater systems. The most visible form of freshwater, in lakes and river systems, holds only 0.26% of global freshwater resources. Another 0.9% is stored in soil moisture, swamp water and permafrost. About 30% is held in ground water systems, while ice and permanent snow contain another 68.9% (Shiklomanov, 1998).

sustainable freshwater withdrawal

These freshwater resources are only sustainable if the withdrawal of water is locally or regionally adapted to the temporal characteristics of the respective freshwater bodies. A ground water system, for example, can take hundreds or even several thousands of years to be refilled, whereas lakes need a few decades and river systems only several weeks (Baumgartner, 1990). In order to ensure the sustainability of freshwater resources, these time scales should be born in mind when freshwater resources are used extensively for agriculture or cotton production.

renewable freshwater resources

By considering the temporal characteristics of freshwater bodies the yearly renewable freshwater amount on a national or global level can be calculated. According to

The six major cotton producing countries are China, the USA, India, Pakistan, Uzbekistan and Turkey. Throughout the text these six countries will be referred to as "the top six". 3 14th May 1999

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Shiklomanov (1998), the mean value for the total amount of global renewable freshwater is 40,673 km3 per year or 7,420 m3 per capita and year (data for 1992). Compared to the annual withdrawal of freshwater of 644 m3 per capita the renewable freshwater amount seems to be sufficient. This data, however, does not illustrate the distribution of renewable freshwater on a local or regional level where freshwater is scarce in some places. Of the top six1 cotton countries, China, USA, India Turkey, and Pakistan could provide

renewable freshwater in cotton producing countries

their annual freshwater withdrawal with their internal renewable freshwater resources (see table 1.1), only Uzbekistan depends highly on an annual freshwater flow from other countries to meet its demands. This fact, along with that of the high freshwater flow from Pakistan to India and the freshwater flow from Turkey to its neighbours, are indicators of possible future water crises or conflicts if the "exporting" countries start using their renewable freshwater for themselves. Table 1.1 Key data on freshwater resources for the top six cotton producing countries. Annual renewable freshwater according to internal sources of country and river flows to and from other countries for 1992 (WRI, 1994, n.a.: not available).

Annual internal renewable

Annual freshwater

freshwater

withdrawal

Total 3

(km /yr)

Per capita 3

(m /person/yr)

Per capita 3

(m /person/yr)

Annual river flows

Year of

From other

To other

data

countries

(km /yr)

(km3/yr)

China

2800

2360

462

1980

n.a.

USA

2478

9710

1868

1990

n.a.

India

1850

2100

612

1975

235

n.a.

Pakistan

298

2390

2053

1975

170

n.a.

Uzbekistan

9.5

440

4007

1989

98.1

n.a.

Turkey

186.1

3190

433

1989

World

40'673

7420

644

1987

Critical remarks hydrological data and freshwater ecosystems

Hydrological data on a global or national scale is only appropriate for discussion and estimation of the problem of water crises and freshwater availability on a national level. This data is not sufficient to estimate the availability of freshwater on a local or regional level or the impact of freshwater consumption on freshwater ecosystems. Furthermore, the amount of freshwater is only one quantitative aspect. For freshwater ecosystems, the temporal distribution of the available amount of freshwater during the year, or the quality

top six refers to the six major cotton producing countries. 4 14th May 1999

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T h e i m p a c t o f c o t t o n o n f r e s h w a t e r r e s o u r c e s a n d e c o s ys t e m s

of freshwater, are also extremely important. data

The detailed data per country should be viewed with a healthy scepticism because many countries do not measure or report detailed freshwater resource data. Even though there is a global network to measure hydrological data, there still exist a lot of blind spots for which data is indirectly estimated.

1.2 freshwater withdrawal in different sectors

GLOBAL FRESHWATER WITHDRAWAL An analysis of the freshwater withdrawal by sector shows that agriculture has the greatest freshwater withdrawal both world-wide and in most individual countries (see figure 1.1 and table 1.2). Globally, agriculture has a share of 69% on total freshwater withdrawal, followed by industry and municipal with 23% and 8% respectively (see figure 1.1). In some countries or continents the impact of agriculture is even higher. In Asia the mean share of agriculture is 86% and in Africa 88%. In some cotton growing countries like India, Pakistan or Egypt it amounts to over 90% (see table 1.2).

5000 Agriculture 4000

Industry

km3 per year

Domestic/Municipal 3000

2000

1000

0 1900 1940 1950 1960 1970 1975 1980 1990 2000

Figure 1.1 Global freshwater withdrawal by sector, 1900 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; 2000 (in the three sectors agriculture, industry and municipal, data from Shiklomanov, 1993).

global freshwater withdrawal

Due to the growing world population, the increase in irrigation and socio-economic changes, global freshwater withdrawal has increased more than six times in this century (from 579 km3 per year to 3,750 km3 per year) and will further increase to 5,100 km3 per year for 2025 (Shiklomanov, 1993; Shiklomanov, 1998).

freshwater withdrawal in the major cotton producing countries

The annual freshwater withdrawal per capita and the impact of agriculture on this withdrawal vary among the top six cotton producing countries. The freshwater withdrawal of these countries amounts to between 433 m3 per person and year (Turkey) and over 4,000 m3 per person and year (Uzbekistan). This amounts to between 8% (Turkey) and

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76% (Uzbekistan) of total annual renewable freshwater. In very dry countries like Egypt or Mali the percentage can be as high as 97% (WRI, 1994). In the top six cotton producing countries Except for the USA and in Turkey, the significance of the agricultural sector on freshwater withdrawal is higher than the global average. Between 84% (Uzbekistan) and 93% (India) is used for agriculture, compared to the global average of 69%. Table 1.2 Freshwater withdrawal in the top six cotton producing countries (data from Gleick, 1993)

Country (year of

Freshwater withdrawal

Per capita

Domestic

Industrial

data)

Agricultura l

km3/yr

% of renewable

m3/person/yr

freshwater China (1980)

460

462

USA (1990)

467

1868

India (1975)

380

612

153.4

2053

Uzbekistan (1989)

82.2

4007

Turkey (1985)

15.6

433

World (1987)

3240

644

Pakistan (1975)

Critical remarks accepted data base

Even though different definitions of freshwater 'withdrawal' or 'consumption' exist, the data cited above seems to be widely accepted and is used in publications of FAO, OECD or World Bank. Nevertheless it should still be used with care.

validity of data

The survey of consumption data does not cover all countries. Therefore freshwater withdrawal must be estimated and calculated indirectly by using other regional, national or continental data (e.g. hydrological data).

definition of withdrawal and consumption

There exist different ways of defining freshwater use by human activities. Freshwater withdrawal refers to all freshwater transferred from its source to its place of use, but does not mean that it is necessarily used for an activity (e.g. losses are included). On the other hand, the term consumption often indicates the direct consumption of freshwater by an activity (i.e. without losses). In some studies, however, the term 'consumption' is also used to refer to the total freshwater needed to provide a product or a service, including all losses and indirect freshwater uses. Furthermore, in many cases the system boundaries of the investigation are not properly defined. For the estimation of the amount of freshwater used by agriculture and other sectors, statistical data on freshwater withdrawal is used because the database for withdrawal seems to be the most comprehensive.

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2 THE CONSUMPTION OF FRESHWATER FOR IRRIGATION PURPOSES Summary Irrigated cotton is mainly grown in regions with Mediterranean or desert or near-desert climates where freshwater is in short supply (e.g. Pakistan, Uzbekistan, Australia or the South of the USA). The extensive irrigation of cotton has therefore a severe impact on the regional freshwater resources. This leads to a depletion of surface or ground water which can affect the river catchments and the wetlands laying downstream. Considering that agriculture takes up about 69% of global freshwater withdrawal and that rice, wheat and cotton hold together 58% of the world-wide irrigated area, it is obvious that these three crops are the major consumers of freshwater. Of these three crops, rice is the most important, on a global scale, followed by wheat and cotton. About 53% of the global cotton area is irrigated and mainly located in dry regions: Egypt, Uzbekistan and the province Xinjiang of China are entirely irrigated whereas in Pakistan and the North of India irrigation supplies most of crop water. As a result, in Pakistan already 31% of all irrigation water is drawn from ground water and in China the extensive freshwater use has caused falling water tables. Most irrigation systems in cotton production rely on the traditional technique of flood irrigation â&#x20AC;&#x201C; freshwater is taken out of a river, lake or reservoir and transported through an open canal system to the place of its consumption. Losses of freshwater occur through evaporation, seepage and inefficient water management. World-wide, irrigation efficiency is lower than 40% (Gleick, 1993). Technical innovations like drip irrigation or an improved water management (demand driven water supply) can reduce the extensive water demand for cotton production. Until today however, only 0.7% of the world-wide irrigated area (all crops) are supplied with drip irrigation.

2.1 higher yield in irrigated cotton

IRRIGATED AGRICULTURE Irrigation together with the use of high-yielding cotton crops, pesticides and fertilisers leads to an increased cotton yield. For irrigated fields the average yield is 854 kg per ha in contrast to 391 kg per ha for rain-fed cotton. Therefore, irrigated fields (53% of the global cotton area) provide 73% of the global cotton harvest (see figure 2.1, Hearn, 1995).

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Global cotton harvest from unirrigated area 27%

Unirrigated cotton area 47%

Global cotton harvest from irrigated area 73%

Irrigated cotton area 53%

Figure 2.1 World-wide irrigated cotton area and its harvest (Hearn, 1995, cited in Gillham, 1995).

Critical remarks freshwater withdrawal for irrigation

Although detailed data on other uses is unavailable, not all freshwater withdrawn for agricultural purposes is used for irrigation. Data on livestock farming, for example, suggests that it is something that should also be taken into account (WRI, 1994; Klohn, 1998).

national data for irrigated cotton

For a discussion of the significance of irrigation in cotton producing countries, national data on irrigated cotton area and its harvest would be needed. Unfortunately, the available data is not crop-specific.

2.2 irrigated crops

COMPARISON BETWEEN DIFFERENT IRRIGATED CROPS Rice holds the biggest share on the world-wide irrigation acreage with 34%, followed by wheat with 17% and cotton with 7%. Irrigation is also used to produce other types of crop, vegetables, sugar cane and fruits (see figure 2.2; Wolff, 1995).

Others 9% Several vegetables and fruits 8% Rice 34%

Several fodder crops 10% Maize 4% Barley and Millet 5% Sugar Cane 6%

Wheat 17% Cotton 7%

Figure 2.2 Share of different crops and plants on the global irrigated acreage (Data from Wolff, 8 14th May 1999

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1995).

Among the top six cotton countries, the percentage of irrigated acreage for cotton in irrigated agriculture in cotton producing countries

relation to the total irrigated acreage is higher than the global average. In Egypt, for example, the cotton acreage takes up 15% of the national irrigation area and in Pakistan about 16% (calculated from Postel, 1992 and ICAC, 1993, see also table 2.1 and 2.3). The projected share of cotton on the total irrigated area in the new South-east Anatolia program in Turkey is between 14% and 43% (Mart, 1997). Table 2.1 Cropland, irrigated land, cotton acreage and cotton yield in the top 6 cotton producing countries (1: WRI, 1994; 2: ICAC May 1995).

Total cropland

Irrigated land

Cotton acreage

Cotton yield

19911

1989-19911

1993/942

Mio ha

t per yr

China

96554

34081

4985

3738750

USA

187776

18777

5173

3512467

India

169700

45819

7315

2092090

Pakistan

21140

16912

2804

1312272

Uzbekistan

26100

10701

1676

1300576

Turkey

27689

17998

559

580801

1441573

245067

30527

16667742

World

2.3 freshwater consumption for irrigation

THE IMPACT OF COTTON IRRIGATION ON FRESHWATER WITHDRAWAL The amount of freshwater used to irrigate a field depends on the crops or vegetables planted, on climatic factors and on soil characteristics, but also on the irrigation systems used and on water management. According to estimated water requirements based on evapotranspiration figures (see table 2.2), the water intensity of cotton per area is similar to rice. Wheat, as well as beans and different vegetables, needs less freshwater per area. Sugar cane however has a higher water requirement per area.

freshwater withdrawal for irrigated crops

By considering the global irrigated acreage and water requirements per area of the different crops, it can be estimated that rice is the crop with the greatest impact on global freshwater withdrawal, followed by wheat an then by cotton and sugar cane.

qualitative aspects of cotton irrigation

Irrigated cotton is not uniformly distributed around the globe but is located in a belt containing among others the top six cotton producing countries. Furthermore, the irrigated cotton belt lays in Mediterranean or desert or near-desert climates where cotton must be fully irrigated without significant rainfall during the growing season (see table 2.3). To meet the water demand for cotton production, surface and ground water must be extensively used. In Pakistan for example already 31% of all irrigation water is drawn

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from ground water resources. In China's Yellow River Valley the extensive water withdrawal has caused falling ground water tables and therefore there is a shortage of water for irrigation (Gillham, 1995). Table 2.2 Freshwater requirements for different agricultural products. ”Water requirement per area” is based on evapotranspiration figures (FAO, 1977 and Kammerer, 1982) and ”Water requirement per kilogram product” is based on selected data from Klohn (1998), Vaidya (1993) and Rehm (1996).

Crop

Water requirement per area

Water requirement per kg product

(litres per m2)

(litres per kg)

Potatoes

350-625

500

Wheat

450-650

900

Rice

500-950

1'900

Soya

450-825

2'000

Sugar

1,000-1,500

1,500-3,000

550-950

7,000-29,000

Cotton lint

Table 2.3 Extent of irrigation for cotton in selected countries (Gillham, 1995).

freshwater withdrawal for cotton irrigation

Extent of irrigation

Country (Region)

Entirely irrigated

e.g. China (Xinjiang), Egypt, India (North), Pakistan, Uzbekistan

Partially irrigated

e.g. China, India

Entirely rain-fed:

e.g. Brasil, Mali, Tanzania

Calculated per kilogram of product (e.g. grain or cotton lint), cotton is the most freshwater-intensive crop. It uses between 7,000 and 29',000 litres of freshwater per kilogram of cotton lint, the lower value standing for highly efficient drip irrigation in Israel. When calculating the global freshwater consumption of cotton irrigation, two assumptions must be taken into consideration: Firstly, it is assumed that the freshwater use stated above comprises the total freshwater demand for cotton production. Secondly, according to Klohn (1998) generally only 40% of the freshwater demand in irrigated arises actually provided by irrigation, the remaining 60% by rain. Taking these two assumptions into consideration, the global freshwater withdrawal for cotton production would equal between 50 km3 and 210 km3 per year. This is between 1% and 6% of total global

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freshwater withdrawal. Critical remarks global data

The figures concerning the freshwater demand of different crops and plants are only mean values and the variation is very high depending on climate, soil characteristics and irrigation systems. For this reason, the data cited above can give an indication of the global share of cotton on freshwater consumption but can not be applied on a local or regional level.

comparison is difficult

When comparing the freshwater demand of different crops or products, it should be taken into account that different products serve different needs. A kilogram of wheat, for example, can not be directly compared to a kilogram of cotton because the former can not shelter you from the elements while the latter can not fill your stomach.

economical perspective

A similar consideration also applies to the question, of whether a high freshwater demand is better or worse than a low freshwater demand. When considering scarce resources, economists tend to stress the allocation efficiency – freshwater should be used for those crops where it produces the most value. For this reason, the allocation of freshwater to different uses (e.g. wheat, maize or cotton) should rely on the analysis of marginal cost and benefits rather than on mean freshwater consumption data (Kirda, 1999).

2.4

THE INFLUENCE OF IRRIGATION METHODS ON FRESHWATER CONSUMPTION

flow irrigation with high losses

Agriculture is not only the world largest water user in terms of volume, it is also a relatively low-value, low-efficiency and highly subsidised water user (Kandiah, 1998). Most irrigation systems in cotton production rely on the traditional technique of flood irrigation – freshwater is taken out of a river, lake or reservoir and transported through an open canal system to the place of its consumption. Losses of freshwater occur through evaporation, seepage and inefficient water management. World-wide, irrigation efficiency is lower than 40% (Gleick, 1993).

cotton yield

An example in Pakistan shows that the yield of farmers with inefficient water management was between 60% and 70% below the upper range of yields that some other farmers in the same region achieved (Postel, 1992). With better practice of conveyance and application, water losses should be not higher than 15% of the freshwater diverted by the reservoir (Ait Kadi, 1993, cited from Kirda 1999).

supply driven irrigation

There are several reasons for low water efficiency. The water schedule often does not match the actual freshwater demand of plants but relies on the characteristics of the water supply system. This supply-driven water distribution exists, for example, in Pakistan, India, Uzbekistan and Egypt (Gleick, 1993), and results in a loss of between 50% and 80% of the freshwater used (Shiklomanov, 1996). Furthermore, large cotton production areas rely on canals developed 50 or sometimes 100 years ago, which are in disrepair and cause major freshwater losses (Gillham, 1995; Reller, 1997). Other reasons are run off, tail

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waters, deep percolation and lack of training and experience (Kirda, 1999). improved irrigation techniques

The impact of water management and irrigation techniques can be illustrated through the example of Israel. With sophisticated drip irrigation the freshwater demand of cotton could be cut down to 7,000 litres per kilogram of lint cotton (Reller, 1997). At the same time, the yield of cotton in Israel is the highest in the world with 1,833 kg per hectare of cotton fibres (ICAC, 1998, cited from Meyers, 1999). However, the world-wide share of drip irrigation or sprinkler irrigation is still very low. It is used on only 0.7% of world-wide irrigated area (Postel, 1992). Furthermore, according to recent scientific studies, cotton can also be grown under a controlled water stress (deficit irrigation) without severe negative impact on its yield and sometimes with an improvement of quality (Kirda, 1999b). Critical remarks

obstacles for new irrigation techniques

From a technical perspective, new irrigation methods like drip irrigation or deficit irrigation promise a simple solution to increase water efficiency. However, the implementation of such technology runs into several obstacles. Firstly, drip or sprinkler irrigation systems need investment, energy and technical know-how in order to maintain and run, whereas flood irrigation needs only manual labour. Secondly, in countries with a long history of irrigation, traditional flood or furrow irrigation systems are an integral part of their cultural system of values, habits and traditions.

irrigation in general

Inefficient freshwater use in irrigation is a problem concerning not only cotton, but all crops and plants cultivated under irrigation.

2.5 historical development

TRENDS IN IRRIGATION Along with a growing world population, the global irrigated area has steadily increased during the last 60 years. Between 1930 and 1995 agricultural area under irrigation increased from 47.3 Mio hectares to 254 Mio hectares (Kirda, 1999; Shiklomanov, 1998).

decreasing growing rate

Although, on a world-wide scale, area under irrigation is still increasing, its growth, decreasing from 2.3% to 1% at the end of the 1970's, does not match the rate of world population growth any more. Between 1978 and 1989 area under irrigation decreased from 48 to 45 hectares per capita.

restrictions for cotton production

In some developing cotton producing countries, a shift in national agricultural policies towards local food production in support of food security (mostly determined by global and regional politics) may constrain cotton production. In others, new water management's policies (reduced water allocation to agriculture for economic and environmental conservation reasons) may reduce irrigated cotton production (Kandiah, 1998). Therefore, there might be a high interest of the cotton sector to promote improved water management for cotton.

rising costs for new irrigation systems

Low commodity prices, high energy costs and economic conditions that discourage investments in agriculture are the reasons for the decreased rate of growth. If these

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conditions change, then the rate of growth will increase again (Gleick, 1993). Another reason is the increasing demand to build new irrigation systems. In India and Indonesia, for example, the real costs of new irrigation projects have doubled in the last 25 years. On a global average the real costs have risen by between 70% and 116% during the 1980s (Serageldin, 1996, cited from Dinar, 1998). economical efficiency

The world as a whole, and countries with limited water supplies in particular, will be obliged to give up water for higher value uses in the near future. It is predicted, that agriculture's share will drop (Kandiah, 1998). This will put an enormous pressure on agricultural development in general and might specifically affect irrigated cotton production, where water use efficiency should be improved.

technical view

Further considerations, such as a critical perspective of the actual freshwater demand of cotton, or measures for soil moisture conservation should also be taken into account.

400

Mha

300

200

100

0 1930 1940 1950 1960

1970 1980 1990 2000 expected

Figure 2.3 The growth in world-wide irrigated area (Data from Shiklomanov, 1991, cited from Kirda, 1999).

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3 COTTON AND FRESHWATER ECOSYSTEMS Summary Cotton production uses agricultural chemicals heavily and therefore offers a significant risk of pollution of freshwater ecosystems with nutrients, salts and pesticides. The application of pesticides in cotton production is disproportional compared to the area under cotton cultivation. Besides, most insecticides used for cotton production are hazardous. The cotton production impacts rivers, lakes and wetlands by different mechanism. Run-off from fields and drainage water contaminate rivers, lakes and wetlands with pesticides and fertilisers and salts respectively. This pollutants can directly affect the biodiversity of freshwater ecosystems due to its toxicity or indirectly by accumulating. The improper handling of pesticides (e.g. washing of equipment in rivers or leakage) has the same impact on surface waters and leads also to a direct contamination of ground water systems. The water withdrawal for an extensive irrigation can lead to falling water tables and to a depletion of freshwater resources in the end. On the other hand, extensive irrigation in dry climates results in a direct salinisation of soil. At the same time the water tables along the irrigation channels can increase leading to water-logging of soils and destruction of ecosystems. The dam construction for irrigation and the land reclamation for cotton fields destroy the original vegetation and the freshwater habitats. Besides, damming up rivers and streams does affect the flow regime of surface waters and can destroy freshwater ecosystems laying downstream.

3.1 major impacts on lakes, rivers and ground water

RELEVANCE OF COTTON FOR FRESHWATER POLLUTION Agriculture, industry and municipal are all sources of impact on rivers, lakes or wetlands. The major impacts, especially for irrigated agriculture, are salinity, raising water tables, contamination of ground waters and degradation of wetlands and lakes (Gillham, 1995).

agriculture as the main source

Studies of freshwater ecosystems support the claim that, today, agriculture is the main source of impact. A study for the USA shows that about 72% of assessed rivers and 56% of assessed lakes are impacted mainly by agriculture. Furthermore, agriculture is also cited as a primary cause of ground water pollution with nitrate as the principal contaminant, followed by pesticides (US-EPA, 1994). A recent study in Europe compares industrial, agricultural and domestic sources of pollution from the coastal zone of Mediterranean countries and concludes that agriculture is the major source of phosphorus compounds (Ongley, 1996).

significance of non-point sources

In contrast with the improved environmental policy regulating the emissions of industrial and urban waste water little has been done to prevent water pollution from agriculture. Emissions from agriculture are defined as 'non-point' sources â&#x20AC;&#x201C; a lot of small sources with small emissions contribute to a large impact. In contrast with well identifiable 'point'

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sources like factories or sewage systems, agricultural impact on freshwater ecosystems can not be solved by 'end-of-pipe' technologies such as sewage treatment plants. Extensive use of pesticides high pesticide use

Cotton production uses agricultural chemicals heavily and therefore offers a significant risk of pollution of freshwater ecosystems with nutrients, salts and pesticides. One reason for the extensive use of pesticides is that the species of cotton planted today are not well adapted to appropriate site-conditions where they are used (Meyers, 1999). The one-sided selection in breeding for high fibre quality and high yield led to less pest resistant cotton plants.

over proportional use

The use of pesticide on cotton plantations in relation to the amount of arable land taken up by cotton plantations is disproportional. Between 1984 and 1994, the share of cotton on global pesticide sales has averaged 11% and on the global insecticides market even 24% (Meyers, 1999). At the same time, cotton acreage amounts to only 2.4% of the world's arable land (see figure 3.1).

Cotton pesticides apply for 25% of the global insecticide market...

...but the cotton acreage is just 2.4% of the world's arable land

Figure 3.1 The share of cotton on the global pesticide and insecticide market and on the world's arable land. It is obvious that the pesticide use for cotton in relation to the area of arable land that cotton takes up is disproportional.

relevance of insecticides

The relevance of pesticide use in cotton production for Wildlife is governed from insecticides which are the predominant class of pesticides used, as shown in table 3.1 (see also appendix A4 for more information on pesticides). The reason is not only that they are the major class involved. It is also due the acute toxicological properties of major subclasses of insecticides (Organophosphate and Carbamates).

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highly dangerous pesticides

The high share of pesticide use is only a quantitative aspect. According to the recommendation of WHO, most pesticides used for cotton are hazardous. From the 46 insecticides and acaricides, which together account for over 90% of the market share in the cotton sector, five are extremely hazardous, eight are highly hazardous and twenty are moderately hazardous. The use of these pesticides is not only a risk for workers but for all animals and ecosystems that are linked to the cotton fields either directly, (e.g. birds or beneficial insects), or indirectly (e.g. freshwater ecosystems). A severe problem in many cotton growing regions is the resistance of pests, which severely threatens production. Table 3.1 Percentage of different pesticide groups in all the pesticides used in cotton cultivation in 1994 (data Woodburn, 1995).

Pesticide

3.2

Share (%)

Insecticides

67 %

Herbicides

22 %

Others

Fungicide

MAJOR IMPACTS OF COTTON PRODUCTION ON FRESHWATER ECOSYSTEMS AND BIODIVERSITY The major impacts of cotton production on freshwater ecosystems and wetlands are listed in table 3.2. Run off from fields

wildlife contamination

Due to inappropriate water management and irrigation technology, water run-off from fields to adjacent rivers, wetlands and lakes is common. This run-off, however, does not only contain soil sediments but also pesticide residues, salts and fertilisers. The pesticides have a direct toxic effect upon wildlife and, by accumulating in the biosphere, also an indirect effect. Evidence shows that this indirect effect, leading to a decrease in animal fertility, affects long-term freshwater biodiversity (Woodward, 1993).

fish kill due to run-off in the USA

Investigations into a case of fish-death in the USA showed that, even when pesticides are properly applied according to the technical instructions, impacts on freshwater ecosystems are still possible. In this case Endosulfan was sprayed on cotton fields. In August 1995 contaminated run-off from these fields resulted in the death of more than 240,000 fish along a 25 km stretch of a river in the State of Alabama (PANUPS 1996).

eutrophication

So, run-off can also lead to contamination by fertiliser of rivers, lakes and wetlands. In contrast with pesticides, fertilisers are not directly toxic but instead alter the nutrient system and in consequence the species composition of a specific freshwater ecosystem.

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Their most dramatic effect is eutrophication of a freshwater body â&#x20AC;&#x201C; an explosive growth of algae which causes disruption to the biological equilibrium, including killing fish. Table 3.2 Major impacts of cotton on freshwater ecosystems and freshwater biodiversity.

Mechanism

Pollutant/Change

Impact

Run off from fields

Fertiliser

Eutrophication and pollution

Pesticides

Wildlife contamination

Cases

Sediments Drainage

Saline drainage water

Salinisation of freshwater

Pesticide or fertiliser

Pollution of freshwater

China, Egypt, Uzbekistan

contaminated drainage water Application of pesticides

Insecticides, fungicides,

Wildlife contamination

herbicides and defoliants

Contamination of adjacent

Spray drift (e.g. aerial

wetlands, surface and

application)

ground water

Leakage of equipment

Contamination of surface and ground water

Water withdrawal for

Use of ground water

irrigation

Change of water table or

New South Wales, Australia

depletion of ground water Use of surface water

Extensive irrigation

Dam construction for

Water logging

Regulated water flow

irrigation

Degradation of wetlands and

Aral Sea, Yellow River

lakes

Valley

Raising water tables and

Australia, Indus River Valley,

salinisation of soil surface

Uzbekistan, Pakistan

Habitat destruction, change of water table and change of water flow

Land reclamation

Change of vegetation

Habitat destruction

Drainage and leaching salt contamination

To avoid water logging and salinity of soils (see below), drainage systems are used. In some countries, in addition to the water used in irrigation for cotton production, the fields are irrigated with extra freshwater to establish a downward water flow, which removes the salt from the soil. China, Egypt and Uzbekistan specifically mention extra water requirements for leaching, the last two quantitatively (Gillham, 1995). However, by

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returning to the rivers, the salt-contaminated drainage water has a severe impact on rivers and wetlands (Gillham, 1995). It can be assumed that drainage water contains not only salt but also pesticide residues and fertiliser, which enter rivers and lakes directly. Application of pesticides non-target organism

Even when pesticides are applied properly, affecting non-target organism can not be prevented. Beneficial insects in and around the cotton fields can be killed and other animals eating these insects can be injured or even poisoned.

case laughing gulls

In one case, although 20 years ago, a breeding colony of laughing gulls near Corpus Christi, Texas, was poisoned by a parathion application designed to kill bollworms on a cotton field about three miles away. The gulls were killed by ingesting poisoned insects from the cotton field (White, 1979; White, 1983).

contamination of surface and ground water

In addition to run-off contaminated with pesticide, by certain application methods, surface water and even ground water can be directly polluted with pesticides and fertilisers. Pesticide application by aeroplane, for example, can lead to spray drift, i.e. pesticides do not hit the targeted field but adjacent fields, rivers or wetlands instead, this leads to direct poisoning of freshwater species. Ground water, on the other hand, is impacted by deep percolation, which can also be contaminated by pesticides and fertilisers, by faulty equipment (e.g. leakage) or improper handling of equipment (e.g. cleaning of equipment in surface water). Freshwater withdrawal

Aral Sea

The depletion of the Aral Sea is the most drastic consequence of extensive freshwater withdrawal for irrigation purposes (Gillham, 1995). The two rivers Amu-Darja and SyrDarja were over-used for producing cotton and other corps and vegetables. The surface level of the Aral Sea decreased, leading to the extinction of a range of fish species, i.e. 20 of 24 native fish species disappeared (Krever et al., 1998 (?)). Furthermore, wide areas of acreage and former lake area suffer from surface salination.

falling water tables

In China's Yellow River Valley, where cotton is grown under irrigated and rain-fed conditions, a shortage of irrigation water due to falling water tables was also reported (Gillham, 1995). Extensive irrigation

water logging

Investigations conducted in Australia concluded that irrigated cotton cropping can lead to increased run-off into ground water (deep percolation). The consequence of this are rising ground water tables and eventually the establishment of shallow water tables (Willis, 1996). This does not only decrease agricultural productivity but also leads, in dry climates, to the salination of soils (Zilberman, 1998).

Salinisation

In regions where evapotranspiration exceeds, both rain-fall and the amount of freshwater used for irrigation, a salinisation of soil is inevitable. This is especially true of all countries

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in the broad belt of irrigated cotton, which have desert and Mediterranean climates. In Uzbekistan, for example, 50% of the irrigated area is affected by salinity and in Pakistan 15% is affected. Brazil, with its small area of irrigated crop, also reports problems with salinity (Gillham, 1995). Dam construction for irrigation impacts of dams

In addition to habitats and ecosystems which are directly destroyed by dammed water, the reduced and regulated water flow also affects freshwater ecosystems which lay downstream of the dam. Freshwater ecosystems are adapted to a certain water flow and any alteration in water amount or its temporal distribution can affect either single species or whole freshwater ecosystems.

increasing number of dams

In only 30 years, from the 1950s to the late 1980s more than 35,000 large dams were built world-wide (WWF, 1999). Whereas the bigger dams are used mainly for hydropower, the smaller dams were primarily built for irrigation purposes. Most dams however can be used for irrigation, hydropower, flood control and other purposes (ICOLD, 1998). Because of the lack of appropriate data, the significance of cotton production on dam building can not be estimated at this point of the study. Land reclamation The increase in arable land leads directly to a change from natural landscape to agricultural area. In particular, flood plains and wetlands with their flat shape and usually fertile soil are preferable areas for agriculture and irrigation schemes. However, due to drainage of the soil and to the monocultural cultivation of cotton, the farmland no longer provides a habitat for its original plants and animals. Besides, the remaining natural habitats are fragmented into isolated pieces which are too small to secure the continued existence of the natural ecosystem. Even though this initially concerns terrestrial ecosystems and wetlands, freshwater ecosystems in rivers or lakes are affected by the interrupted links between ecosystems.

amount of affected area

Even though the area of cotton cultivation has remained constant since 1930, there has been a need for land reclamation due to a gradual change from over-used farmland to newly cultivated areas. One reason for this change is the salinisation of soil taking place through inappropriate irrigation and water logging. Because of this change, the area affected by cotton planting over the last 50 years is much larger than the recently cultivated area. In the top 6 cotton producing countries, between 12% and 36% of the irrigated area is damaged through salinisation (Dinar, 1998). Critical remarks

rain-fed cotton

Consequences of the use of pesticides and fertilisers can affect irrigated cotton as well as rain-fed cotton. There are indications however, that less pesticides and fertilisers are used on rain-fed cotton. On the other hand, irrigated cotton has a higher yield than rain-fed

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cotton. A concluding comparison between irrigated and rain-fed cotton is not yet possible because more data is necessary. sources of pollution

In areas like river deltas where agricultural, industrial and urban areas are often mixed, the impact on freshwater ecosystems can not be allocated to any one of the three sectors in particular.

indirect impact on freshwater ecosystems

Impacts on freshwater ecosystems can also be caused indirectly by human use of other resources than freshwater, such as land, vegetation and air. For example, reduction of vegetation cover, increased soil compaction and surface sealing reduce infiltration and increase run-off and soil erosion, thus altering the water balance of a catchment.

links between land and freshwater ecosystems

Freshwater ecosystems are linked to land ecosystems. Therefore, a severe impact on one can influence the other. The poisoning of birds and insects in a land ecosystem through pesticides for example can alter the food chain and thus impact the neighbouring freshwater system.

indirect effects

Loss and fragmentation of habitats is caused not only by the agricultural area itself but also the surrounding infrastructures. This also applies to roads, buildings and a population migration into newly developed areas as well as dams and their effects. Besides the resultant direct loss of land, further impacts like nutrient turn-over and siltation will be accentuated.

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APPENDICES A1 Glossary A2 Further reading A3 Cotton producing countries A4 Pesticides used in cotton

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A1 GLOSSARY Acaricide Synthetic chemical which kill spiders and mites. Biodiversity Refers to species diversity, genetic diversity and ecological diversity, i.e. the diversity of functional groups and the linkages within and between biological communities. Boll The seed-vessel of the cotton plant. Bollworm Several species of Lepidoptera that feed on cotton bolls. Cash crop Production of income-earning crops for export or local consumption. Catchment Land from which a river or reservoir draws its rainfall. Cotton bale A package of compressed cotton lint after ginning, tied with wire or metal bands and wrapped in cotton, jute or polypropylene. Cotton fibre / Cotton lint Fibre that develops as an extension of cells in the walls of developing cotton seed; product that results from the separation of cotton fibre from the cotton seed in the ginning process. Cotton seed The seed of the cotton plant. Deep percolation Increased run-off into ground water. Degradation Degradation of ecosystems involves changes that lead to the loss or impairment of ecosystem functions. Ecosystem System of interactions between plants, animals, etc. and their inanimate surroundings, e.g. a river or a lake. Endosulfan Insecticide which is applicated on cotton cultivation. Eutrophication Eutrophication is the process of nutrient enrichment leading to enhanced primary production, resulting in modification to natural processes and colonisation structures and to increased biological decomposition. Evaporation Evaporation is the release of water vapour from waterbody surfaces and soils. Evapotranspiration Refers to the sum total of evaporation resulting from the release of vapour from surface waterbodies and soils (evaporation) and from plants (transpiration). Extensive agriculture Forms of agriculture characterised by larger land surfaces per farmer who are then not pressed to intensify production, e.g. through the use of external inputs, to make a living.

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Fertilisers Synthetic or organic nutrient for plants, e.g. nitrates and phosphates. Freshwater ecosystem According to the WWF Freshwater Advisory Group Freshwater ecosystems are considered to be those in which the "fundamental physical, chemical and biological processes are driven by presence of freshwater, and in which the dominant life forms are adapted to at least periodic saturation or inundation by freshwater, beyond the tolerance levels of terrestrial animals. This includes wetlands, lakes, freshwater lagoon and river systems including their flood plains and estuaries, where natural, permanent or temporary, with water that is surface or underground, static or flowing". Fungicide Pesticide which kills fungi. Ground water Water beneath the ground that fills interconnected pores in the upper part of the Earth's crust. The ground water's movement is determined by gravitational and frictional forces. Ground water table Level below which the ground is saturated with water. Habitat Usual natural place and conditions of growth for animals and plants, e.g. aquatic habitat. Herbicide Synthetic chemical which kills plants. Hydrological water body The Earth's reservoirs of water resources, e.g. atmosphere, lakes, glaciers, etc. Insecticide Synthetic chemical which kills insects. Irrigation efficiency The amount of water which is used by the plant versus the irrigated water. Monoculture Growing one crop continuously without using rotation. Non-point and point source pollution Non-point source pollution arises from human activities for which the pollutants have no obvious point of entry into receiving watercourses. On point-source pollution the pollutants, e.g. waste water, is routed directly into receiving water bodies. Pesticides Synthetic chemical which kills pests. Pesticide resistance Resistance developed by some pests and diseases species to specific pesticides, rendering them worthless or less effective. Rain-fed irrigation Refers to irrigation on which freshwater is provided mainly by rain. Run-off Water flow on the surface to rivers, lakes, the sea or into the ground water. Salinisation Refers to the accumulation of soluble salts in or on soils or waters.

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Siltation Transport of sand, mud, etc. by moving water, left e.g. at the mouth of a river. Waterbody pollution Refers to pollutant, pathogen and thermal loads, causing impairment of ecosystems and of the potential utilisation of freshwater resources. Water logging Soil is saturated or nearly saturated with water, a state in which water and dissolved substances move freely but gases move so slowly that oxygen normally becomes deficient. Impermeable horizons, or bedrock near the soil surface, are often responsible for saturated soils. Water supply The net total of water resulting from precipitation, water inflows from upstream and water losses in a given area. Water withdrawal and consumption Freshwater withdrawal refers to all freshwater transferred from its source to its place of use, but does not mean that it is necessarily used for an activity (e.g. losses are included). On the other hand, the term consumption often indicates the direct consumption of freshwater by an activity (i.e. without losses). Wetland Shallow water bodies (such as lakes, ponds, rivers and coastal zones) and land that is inundated or saturated with water at least periodically, such as marshes, moor land, swamps and flood plains.

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A2 FURTHER READING

Organic cotton: From filed to final product. Meyers, D.; Stolton, S. (Eds.), 1999: Organic cotton: From field to final product. London, (Intermediate Technology Publications). An excellent compilation of the current discussion on organic cotton. This book gives a broad view on different topics concerning organic cotton. Cotton Production Prospects for the next decade Gillham, F. et al., 1995: Cotton Production Prospects for the next decade, World Bank Technical Paper Number 287, the World Bank, Washington DC. Extensive information about cotton production in Brazil, China, Egypt, India, Mali, Mexico, Pakistan, Tanzania and Uzbekistan. Covers technical, economical and environmental data on cotton production.

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A3 COTTON PRODUCING COUNTRIES Table A3.1 (to be continued on next page) Cotton producing countries. Data on cotton production and cotton acreage.

Country

Cotton

Share on world-

production

wide cotton

on national

production

acreage

ICAC, 1998 thousand tons

Total acreage

Cotton acreage

Gleick, 1993

FAOSTAT, 1998

thousand ha

Share of cotton

China

4'000

20.41%

96'115

4'750

United States

3'970

20.26%

189'915

4'199

India

2'711

13.83%

168'990

9'070

Pakistan

1'859

9.49%

20'730

2'930

14%

Uzbekistan

1'200

6.12%

Turkey

799

4.08%

27'885

700

Australia

577

2.94%

48'934

440

Brazil

425

2.17%

78'650

847

Argentina

419

2.14%

35'750

764

Greece

415

2.12%

3'924

412

10%

Egypt

338

1.72%

2'585

300

12%

Turkmenistan

237

1.21%

Mali

229

1.17%

2'093

464

22%

Syria

227

1.16%

5'503

251

Mexico

179

0.91%

24'710

200

Benin

171

0.87%

1'860

375

20%

Iran

151

0.77%

14'830

265

Tajikistan

118

0.60%

Sudan

111

0.57%

12'510

260

Paraguay

110

0.56%

2'216

210

Zimbabwe

108

0.55%

2'810

270

10%

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580

245

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Table A3.1 (to be continued on next page) Cotton producing countries. Data on cotton production and cotton acreage.

Country

Cotton

Share on world-

production

wide cotton

on national

production

acreage

ICAC, 1998 thousand tons

Total acreage

Cotton acreage

Gleick, 1993

FAOSTAT, 1998

thousand ha

thousand ha 172

Cameroon

0.49%

Azerbaijan

0.47%

Spain

0.45%

20'345

Nigeria

0.41%

31'335

240

Burkina Faso

0.40%

3'564

277

Chad

0.37%

3'205

336

10%

Tanzania

0.34%

5'250

350

Sou.th Africa

0.32%

13'174

Togo

0.32%

1'444

145

10%

Kazakhstan

0.31%

Columbia

0.26%

5'380

Peru

0.26%

3'730

Uganda

0.24%

6'705

130

Israel

0.24%

433

Bolivia

0.21%

3'460

Senegal

0.12%

5'226

Zambia

0.12%

5'268

Afghanistan

0.11%

8'054

Bangladesh

0.11%

9'292

Venezuela

0.10%

3'895

Kyrghyzstan

0.10%

Myanmar

0.09%

10'034

298

C.A.R.

0.09%

2'006

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7'008

Share of cotton

217

114

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Table A3.1 (end) Cotton producing countries. Data on cotton production and cotton acreage.

Country

Cotton

Share on world-

production

wide cotton

on national

production

acreage

ICAC, 1998 thousand tons

Total acreage

Cotton acreage

Gleick, 1993

FAOSTAT, 1998

thousand ha

Share of cotton

Ethiopia

0.08%

13'930

Ghana

0.07%

2'720

Mozambique

0.07%

3'100

198

Madagascar

0.06%

3'092

Thailand

0.05%

22'126

Kenya

0.03%

2'428

Nicaragua

0.02%

1'273

Ecuador

0.01%

2'653

Phillipines

0.01%

7'970

0.00%

1'875

Guatemala

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A4 PESTICIDES USED IN COTTON Figure A4.1 Insecticide impact on wildlife population.

How insecticides currently used in cotton cultivation disturb wildlife population Direct mortality due to: - High acute toxicity of organophosphates and carbamates - Unspecific mode of action: Target AchE is commom in nervours system of all animals Indirect effects - Mortality via secundary poisoning of predatory animals - Starvation via depression of food - Starvation via anorexia - Predation - Sublethal effects Hazards due to application form of insecticides A case example of combined effects: Laughing gulls killed by Parathion application in cotton production in Texas 1993

Figure A4.2 Insecticide impact on freshwater ecosystems.

Pesticide application

Soil contamination

Drift

Runoff and drainage water

Soil erosion

Surface water contamination

Production and formulation of pesticides

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Handling of pesticides (Washing oftanks, leakage of equipment, accidents)

Groundwater contamination

Misuse of pesticides: Wrong application use as fishing agent

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Table A4.1 The most important insecticides used in cotton cultivation in 1994. These 8 insecticides made up to 63% of the global cotton insecticide market, 1994 (data Allan Woodburn Associates Ltd., 1995)

Designation of the substance

Chemical group

Toxicity Class

Share (%) in the global

(trade name)

of the substance

( WHO )

cotton insecticide market

Deltamethrine

Pyrethroid

12 %

Pyrethroid

III

Organophosphorus

Pyrethroid

Organophosphorus

Pyrethroid

Organophosphorus

(Decis) Lamda-Cyalothrine (Karate) Monoctrotophos (Azodrin) Alpha-Cypermethrine (Fastac) Chlorpyriphos (Dursban,Lorsban) Esfenvalerate (Sumi-alpha) Methamidophos (Tamaronb) Dimethoate (Rogor,Perfekthion)

Pesticides

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CASRN1

Insecticides

Brand name (Example)

I m p a c t o f c o t t o n o n f r e s h w a t e r r e s o u r c e s a n d e c o s ys t e m s

Chemical group of pesticide

Water Breakdow solubility n in soil at 20-25°C

Acute hazard rating for

[ppm or mg/l]

[days]

Birds a)

Mammals a)

Fish b)

Comments

Highly

no evidence so far

very toxic to predatory mites

Bee c)

DELTAMETHRIN

52918-63-5

Decis®, Butoflin®

Synthetic pyrethroid

< 0.1

7 to 14 days

Low

CYHALOTHRIN

91465-08-6

Karate®

Synthetic pyrethroid

0.005

30 to 100 days

Low

Extremely toxic

Highly

no evidence so far

MONOCROTOPHOS

2157-98-4

Azodrin®

Organophosphat e

1000000

1 to 7 days

Highly

Moderately

Highly

possible mutagenic

causes reproductive damage in crustaceans

CYPERMETHRIN

52315-07-8

Ammo®

Synthetic pyrethroid

0.009

6 to 63 days

Low

Moderately Extremely toxic

Highly

possible carcinogenic, suspected endocrine disruptor

CHLORPYRIFOS

2921-88-2

Lorsban®

Organophosphat e

1.18

12 to 102 days

Highly

Low to Extremely Moderately toxic

Highly

accumulates in the tissues of aquatic organisms, suspected endocrine disruptor

ESFENVALERATE

66230-04-4

Asana XL®

Synthetic pyrethroid

< 0.02

15 to 90 days

Low

Extremely toxic

Highly

suspected endocrine disruptor

METHAMIDOPHOS

10265-92-6

Tamaromb®, Organophosphat Monitor® e

1 to 12 days

no data

Highly

no evidence so far

possible teratogenic, mutagenic, carcinogenic

DIMETHOATE

Moderately Moderately

Chronic effects

60-51-5

Cygon®, Dimate®

Organophosphat e

2 to 122 days

Highly

Extremely

Highly

TRIFLURALIN

1582-09-8

Treflan®

Dinitroanilin

0.7

116 to 189 days

Low

Moderately

Low

toxic to Daphnia, possible toxic to earthworm carcinogenic, suspected endocrine at high application rates disruptor

PENDIMETHALIN

40487-42-1

Prowl®

Dinitroanilin

0.3

40 to 90 days

Low

Highly

Low

possible carcinogenic

DIURON

330-54-1

Di-on®, Diater®

Substituted urea

30 days to 365 days

Low

Moderately

Low

no evidence so far

moderately toxic to fish but highly toxic to aquatic invertebrates

FLUOMETURON

2164-17-2

Cotoran®

Substituted urea

11 to 365 days

Low

Moderately

Low

no evidence so far

FLUAZIFOP-PBUTYL

69806-50-4

Fusilade 2000®

Phenoxy, pyridine

1 to 21 days

Low

Highly

Low

no evidence so far

MSMA

2163-80-6

Arsonate®, Bueno®

Organoarsenic

1400000

100 days

no data

Low

no data

no evidence so far

PROMETRYN

7287-19-6

Caparol®

Substituted triazine

30 to 365 days

Low

Moderately

Low

no evidence so far

CYANAZINE

21725-46-2

Bladex®

Substituted triazine

171

2 to 63 days

Low

possible teratogenic

Herbicides

CAS (Chemical Abstract Service) Numbers serve to identify chemicals properly.

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GLYPHOSATE

1071-83-6

Roundup速

Phospanoglycin e

900000

1 to 174 days

Low

no evidence so far

Glyphosate is highly adsorbed on most soils

BROMOXYNIL

1689-84-5

Brominal速, Buctril速

Nitrile

130

10 to 14 days

Moderat ely

Low

Highly

Low

inhibits nitrification processes in soil by microorganisms, possible teratogenic

a) Wildlife hazard rating based on the following toxicities

Highly toxic Moderately toxic Low toxicity

LD50

LC50

[mg/kg] less than 30 30-100 greater than 100

[ppm] less than 500 500-1000 greater than 1000

b) Fish hazard based on the following 96-hour LC50 toxicities LC50 [ppm] Extremely toxic Highly toxic Moderately toxic Low toxicity

less than 500 500-1000 greater than 10

c) Bee hazard based on LD50. Ratings rely on EXTOXNET Database

DATA REFERENCES: Kegley, S.; Neumeister, L., Martin, T. 1999: Disrupting the balance, Ecological Impacts of Pesticides in California, edited by Pesticide Action Network (PAN) Web site: www.igc.org/cpr U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Eco-Tox Database system Web site: http://www.epa.gov/ecotox (not accessible at the moment) Extension Toxicology Network (ExToxNet) Web-site: http://ace.orst.edu/info/extoxnet Fuchs, T; Rollins, D. 1999: Reducing Pesticide Risks to Wildlife in Cotton, edited by Texas Agricultural Extension Service, Publication B-5094

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Table A4.2 The most important herbicides in cotton cultivation in 1994. In 1994, these 8 herbicides made up to 70% of the global cotton herbicide market (data Allan Woodburn Associates Ltd., 1995* MSMA: Mononatriummethylarsonate)

Designation of the substance (trade

Chemical group

Toxicity Class

Share (%) in the lobal

name)

of the substance

( WHO )

cotton herbicide market

Trifluraline

Dinittroaniline

III+

19 %

(Treflan)

herbicide

Pendimethaline

Aniline herbicide

III

12%

Urea herbicide

III+

Urea herbicide

III+

Fluazifob-P-butyl

Alcanoic acid

III+

(Fusilade)

herbicide

MSMA*

Organoarsenic

III

(Ansar,Bueno)

herbicide

Prometryne

Triazine herbicide

III+

Triazine herbicide

(Prowl) Diuron (Karmex) Fluometuron (Cotoran)

(Gesagard) Cyanazine (Bladex)

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Table A4.3 Percentage of different pesticide groups in all the pesticides used in cotton cultivation in 1994 Among the cotton pesticides, insecticides range highest with a share of 67% (Allan Woodburn Associates Ltd., 1995)

Pesticide

Share (%)

Insecticides

67 %

Herbicides

22 %

Others

Fungicide

Table A4.4 Recommended restrictions on availability of insecticides (Plestina, 1984).

WHO Class

Available to:

Extremely hazardous

•

Only individually licensed operators

Highly hazardous

•

Well trained, educated, strictly supervised operators

Moderately hazardous

•

Trained and supervised operators who are known to observe strict precautionary measures

III

Slightly hazardous

•

Trained operators who observe routine precautionary measures

III+ Unlikely to present hazard

•

No restrictions

in normal use

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REFERENCES Ait Kadi, M., 1993: The application of optimization techniques to water resources. In: Water resources: Development and management in Mediterranean countries. Chaiers options Mediteranien 1(1) pp.1-15. Baumgartner, A.; Liebscher, H.J., 1990: Lehrbuch der Hydrologie. Allgemeine Hydrologie. Berlin, Stuttgart: Bornträger. Dinar, A., 1998: Irrigated agriculture and the environment – Problems and issues in water policy. In: OECD: Sustainable management of water in agriculture: issues and policies. Paris, p.41-56: OECD. Extension Toxicology Network (ExToxNet) Web-site: http://ace.orst.edu/info/extoxnet FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization), 1977: Guidelines for Predicting Crop Water Requirements, Irrigation and Drainage Paper no. 24 (revised), Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome.

FAOSTAT, 1998: Statistical Database 1998. CD-ROM.

Fuchs, T; Rollins, D. 1999: Reducing Pesticide Risks to Wildlife in Cotton, edited by Texas Agricultural Extension Service, Publication B-5094 Gillham, F. et al., 1995: Cotton Production Prospects for the next decade, World Bank Technical Paper Number 287, the World Bank, Washington DC. Gleick, P.H. (eds), 1993: Water in Crisis: A Guide to the World‘s Freshwater Resources, Oxford University Press. Hearn, A.B., 1995: The Principles of Cotton Water Relations and their Application to Management. In: Constable, G.A.; Forrrester, N. W.: Proceedings of World Cotton Research Conference - 1: Challenging the Future. Brisbane, Australia, 14-17 Feb. 1994. ICAC, 1993: World statistics bulletin of the International Cotton Advisory Commitee (ICAC). ICAC, 1995: Comparison of yields and area under cotton in selected countries 1993/94. In: Pesticides News 28, June 1995. ICAC, 1998: quoted in Cotton International 1998, Cordova, TN, USA. ICOLD, 1998: Dams and Environment. Case Histories. ICOLD Bulletin 65. ICOLD. Paris. Kammerer, J.C., 1982: Estimated demand of water for different purposes, in Water for Human Consumption, International Water Resources Association, Tycooly International, Dublin. Kandiah, A., 1998: Water shortages threaten cotton production. In: Cotton international 1998, Cordova, TN, USA. Kegley, S.; Neumeister, L., Martin, T. 1999: Disrupting the balance, Ecological Impacts of Pesticides in California, edited by Pesticide Action Network (PAN) Web site: www.igc.org/cpr Krever, V., Pereladova, O., Williams, M. and Jungius, H. (eds.), (1998): Biodiversity Conservation in Central Asia. Text Publishers, Moscow, Russia. Kirda, C.; Moutonnet, P.; Nielsen, D.R. (eds.), 1999: Crop yield response to deficit irrigation. Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers. Kirda, C.; Kanber, R.; Tülücü, K.; Güngör, H., 1999b: Yield respons of cotton, maize, soybean, sugar beet, 35 14th May 1999

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sunflower and wheat to deficit irrigation. In: Kirda, C.; Moutonnet, P.; Nielsen, D.R., 1999: Crop yield response to deficit irrigation. Dordrecht, p.21-38: Kluwer Academic Publishers. Klohn, W.E.; Appelgren, B.G. (1998): Challenges in the field of water resource management in agriculture. In: OECD: Sustainable management of water in agriculture: issues and policies. Paris, p.31-39 (OECD). Mart, C.; Karaat, S.; Tezcam, F.; Sagir, A.; Ali Goven, M.; Atac, A.; Kadoglu, I.; Cetin, V.; Kismir, A., 1997: Turkey. In: FAO: Cotton pests and their control in the Near East. Report of an FAO Expert Consultation. Rome, Italy,. Meyers, D.; Stolton, S. (Eds.), 1999: Organic cotton: From field to final product. London, (Intermediate Technology Publications). Ongley, E. D., 1996: Control of water pollution from agriculture, a FAO Irrigation and Drainage Paper, Rome, Italy. PANUPS, 1996: Endosulfan responsible for Alabama fish kill. Pesticide Action Network North Americas Update Service. Plestina, R., 1984: Prevention, diagnosis and treatment of insecticide poisoning. WHO/VBC/84.889, pp.23 (WHO). Postel, S., 1992: Last oasis: Facing water scarcity. New York (W.W. Norton & Company). Rehm, S. and Espig, G., 1996: Die Kulturpflanzen der Tropen und Subtropen. Ulmer, Stuttgart. Reller, A.; Gerstenberg, J., 1997: Weisses Gold, wohin? Stand und Aussichten der Baumwollnutzung. Serageldin, I. (1996): Irrigation and sustainable development for the 21st century. Address given at the 16th Congress of the International Commission on Irrigation and Drainage, Cairo, September 15, 1996. Shiklomanov,I.A., 1991: The World's water resources. In: International Symposium to Commemorate the 25th Years of IHD/IHP UNESCO, Paris. Shiklomanov I., 1993: World fresh water resources. Shiklomanov, I.A., 1996: Assessment of Water Resources and Water Availability in the World. Statehydrological Institute, St. Petersburg, Russia. Shiklomanov, I.A., 1998: World water resources: A new appraisal and assessment for the 21st century. Paris (Unesco). U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Eco-Tox Database system Web site: http://www.epa.gov/ecotox (not accessible at the moment)

US-EPA, 1994: National Water Quality Inventory. 1992 Report to Congress. EPA-841-R94-001. Office of Water, Washington, DC.

Vaidya, V.G. et al., 1993: Crop production and field experimentation, Continental Prakashan, Poona. White, D.H., et al., 1979: Parathion Causes secondary poisoning in a laughing gull breeding colony. Bull. Environ. Contam.Toxicol 23:281-284. White, D.H., C.H. Mitchell, and EF. Hill., 1983: Parathion alters Incubation behaviour of laughing gulls. Bull Environ Contam. Toxicol 31:93-97. Willis.T.M. and Black, A.S.,1996: Irrigation increases groundwater recharge in the Macquairie Valley. In: Australian Journal of soil research. Vol. 34. Iss. 6. Page: 837-847. Wolff, P., 1995: Bewässerungsprobleme am Indus – Eindrücke und Erkenntnisse eines Besuches in Pakistan. Arbeiten und Berichte Nr. 41m GhK Kassel, Fachbereich 11. 36 14th May 1999

ÂŠ WWF International

I m p a c t o f c o t t o n o n f r e s h w a t e r r e s o u r c e s a n d e c o s ys t e m s

Woodburn Associates, 1995: The cotton crop and its agrochemical market. Edinburgh, UK. Woodward, A. et al., 1993: Low clutch viability of American Alligators on Lake Apopka, In: Florida Science Vol. 56, P. 52-63. WRI (World Resources Institute), 1994: The World Resources 1994-95. The. Oxford University Press, Oxford. WWF, 1999: A place for dams in the 21St century? A WWF International Discussion Paper. Zilberman, D., 1998: The impact of agriculture on water quality. In: OECD: Sustainable management of water in agriculture: issues and policies. Paris, p.133-149 (OECD).

37 14th May 1999

» The Affluent Consumer Purchase Path: What Search Behavior Indicates for Luxury Success in 2011–2012

Published by: iProspect Luxe Group June, 2010

» EXECUTIVE SUMMARY The Affluent Consumer’s Search Behavior In this 18-month study, ranging from November 2008 to April 2010, iProspect Luxe Group, a specialty group of online marketers and online luxury retailing experts, analyzed more than 400 individual luxury and prestige brands. Throughout the economic downturn and initial recovery, search marketing and online channels remained a key factor in allowing affluent consumers to connect with their preferred luxury brands. Yet, the study showed changes in searching and purchase paths that luxury retailers must be aware of in order to reach new customers, maintain customer loyalty and compete in the new marketplace.

This study will provide key findings to luxury retailers by comparing consumer trends in the months before and during the height of the economic downturn to the months of initial recovery. Additionally, the study includes specific trends for the luxury fashion, multi-category and beauty segments, and actionable strategies to be successful in the 2011 and 2012 fiscal years.

KEY OVERARCHING FINDINGS 1. Affluent shoppers continued searching online for luxury products throughout the economic downturn, yet are displaying significantly increased interest in luxury brands versus a year ago. Customers sought luxury products more fervently, with an increase of 20 million search impressions for the brands studied. (Nov. 2009-April 2010 versus Nov. 2008-April 2009). Additionally, the post-holiday season is showing a significant increase in luxury search impressions, with an average 17 percent increase year-over-year. (Q1 2010 versus Q1 2009). Post-Holiday Impressions Increased 17% YOY] 25,000,000

20,000,000

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Febuary Impresions 2009

March Impresions 2010

Figure 1: Luxury retail post-holiday increase in impressions YoY for Q1

In addition, the Luxe Groupe study indicated a 27 percent increase in luxury orders from November 2009-April 2010 versus November 2008-April 2009. These two measurements of luxury growth indicate that not only does luxury appear to be rebounding, but it may be rebounding faster than retail as a whole.

2. The affluent purchase path is showing definitive signs of shortening, with 88 percent of total purchases occurring within three clicks in 2010. This reflects a 17 percent increase in “shortterm” conversions versus 2009. During the height of the economic downturn (fall 2008 through early 2009), even affluent consumers appeared to be “bargain hunting” online. They searched more frequently, clicked more often (in many cases clicking on the same search result five or more times before purchasing), and purchased less often. This implies customers were comparison shopping more often and were considering purchases for a longer period of time before purchasing. As the economy has begun to rebound, consumers now appear to be comparison shopping less and buying more.

Mastercard Advisors’ SpendingPulse, a monthly report that tracks consumer spending, reinforces these findings of gradual but persistent growth in the luxury market. They have indicated that the luxury category saw an eight percent increase on luxury spending January 2010 over January 2009. They indicated a 15 percent increase in sales in February 2010 over the same period in 2009. Customers are spending more per transaction on luxury goods than a year ago. The most recent 4. holiday season gave the strongest indication of this new transactional landscape, where average order values grew about $20 per order, or six percent. (Nov.-Dec. 2008 over Nov.-Dec. 2009). More interestingly, the total number of orders for the 2009 holiday season increased almost 25 percent, with revenue for the luxury retailer’s sites increasing 32 percent during this same time frame.

Figure 2: 88% of total purchases are occurring within three clicks in 2010, a 17% increase versus 2009.

What is remaining constant for affluent consumers is their attachment to their favorite brands. Although the purchase path was typically longer a year ago, the most common path in both 2009 and 2010 began and ended with a trademarked retailer term (e.g. Neiman Marcus, Bergdorf Goodman, etc.). Beyond their overarching brand loyalty in 2010, affluent consumers are also purchasing more based upon specific designers (e.g. Herve Leger, Diane von Furstenberg, etc.). This study witnessed a 33 percent increase in purchases based on designer-focused searches (Jan.-April 2010 versus Jan.-April 2009).

3. Affluent consumers have shown an upward trend in the amount of money they are spending on luxury goods online as the economy has rebounded – resulting in an 8.1 percent increase in revenue for luxury brands in April 2009 versus April 2010. In comparison, this increase in revenue is almost double the Luxury Vertical Revenue YOY Comparison National Retail Federation’s overall retail category +36% numbers, reporting just 4.6 percent YOY growth. This quicker return of consumer spending for luxury brands over general +25% retail is a positive sign for +48% +31% +33% +8% luxury recovery, as luxury brands dropped farther and faster than the overall retail market during the initial economic downturn. Nov

Dec

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Revenue 2008 - 2009 (During Downturn)

Feb

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Apr

This trend appears to be continuing into the first quarter of 2010. As an example, Bluefly,* a leading online retailer of designer brands and fashion trends, reported in their first quarter 2010 financial results that their average order size increased to $279.94 in the first quarter of 2010 compared with $249.99 in the first quarter of 2009. “We are seeing a real rebound in the luxury market, particularly with the launch of the spring season in March,” said Melissa Payner, Bluefly’s CEO. “As the quarter progressed, we saw an increase in customer activity as well as an increase in average order size, related to the revival of the luxury market.”

This is in sharp contrast to many “industry experts,” who, during the height of the economic downturn, predicted that customers would never again be willing to buy full priced luxury goods. While the economic recovery is not even near complete, this research signals that affluent consumers are already shifting their behavior to purchase at a higher price point.

» VERTICAL FINDINGS This study also took a microscopic look at some of the key luxury retail verticals, including fashion, multicategory and beauty, as each of these niches showed some specific trends that marketers should notice and heed:

FASHION – “Luxury fashion is…back.” Category Definition: For the purposes of this study, the fashion category consisted of designer contemporary and fine luxury apparel brands. Examples of luxury fashion brands like those studied are Roberto Cavalli, Burberry or Proenza Schouler.

Revenue 2009 - 2010 (After Downturn)

Figure 3: Luxury retail revenue comparison during downturn and post-downturn

BEAUTY – “Consistency is key.”

In many ways, the fashion category leads the way for luxury overall. Therefore, it is a positive sign for all luxury retailers that the fashion brands studied showed a significant increase in conversion rates of 16 percent (first quarter 2010 versus first quarter 2009). Furthermore, to see the larger gains in performance post-holiday than are seasonally typical may indicate that affluent consumers are ready to shift their willingness to spend more on themselves, and not just on gifts for others.

Category Definition: Luxury retailers of women’s cosmetics, skincare and fragrances were studied within the beauty vertical. Examples of luxury beauty brands like those studied are La Mer, Trish McEvoy or Lancome. Differing from other categories, beauty has been the most consistent throughout the economic downturn and recovery. From holiday 2008 through early 2010, the beauty category displayed search impression levels that were flat to slightly decreased. In addition, the number of orders in the luxury beauty category increased only slightly at nine percent and conversion rates increased at a rate of 17 percent (Nov. 2009- April 2010 versus Nov. 2008-April 2009). This consistency in the luxury beauty category throughout the recession and upswing perhaps indicates support for the widely known “lipstick effect,” the theory that consumers are more willing to purchase lower cost luxury goods even when their funds are more limited.

MULTI–CATEGORY – “Wall Street controls the luxury marketplace.” Category Definition: Many of the luxury brands studied offer customers multiple areas of product offerings, ranging from fashion and shoes to handbags. These include some of the most well-known luxury brands in the world and were defined as “multi-category” brands within the study. Examples of luxury multi-category brands like those studies are Gucci, Marc Jacobs or Prada.

» TAKEAWAYS

The multi-category brands more closely followed drops and gains in the stock market than any other category studied. Through October 2009, the impression volume for these brands matched very closely to peaks and valleys of the Dow Jones Industrial Average. As a positive sign, in fall 2009, the search volume for these brands began rising faster than the Dow Jones Industrial Average to the tune of an increase of more than 5.3 million impressions for these brands. (Nov. 2009-April 2010 over Nov. 2008-April 2009).

The New Rules for Online Luxury Retailers: As consumer confidence is tentatively returning and affluent consumers are showing a renewed interest in investment pieces and trends alike, luxury retail marketers must find new ways to engage and create loyalty. Though the future economic situation is always uncertain, there are a few things that luxury marketers can do to ensure they are in the best position possible, regardless the state of the economy. Throughout 2011 and into 2012, some key strategies will be as follows:

In fact, during Saks Fifth Avenue’s* most recent financial earnings report in late May 2010, the company reported to analysts that its shoppers are purchasing fewer items but at higher prices, a sign that high-end consumers are willing to spend more now for the items they desire.

Multi Vertical 18 Month Impression Trend

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OVERARCHING First and foremost, intensely analyze your own customers and brand – Take the time to undergo the same type of analysis this study looked at for your own brand, with all of the analytics and insights you have at hand. Take a look at your search campaigns, conversion data and industry trends to learn more about your individual business and how it compares to your category overall.

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This will help you to determine key assumptions for moving ahead, like: Is discounting or offering promotions a viable option for your business, or has that tended to erode your customers’ lifetime value? Do you see conversion rates dipping, and is it time to invest more in your site or tighten up your landing pages? There is no one-size-fits-all strategy for luxury retail marketers. Determine your unique needs, your customers’ particular behavior patterns and then methodically work through improving the channels that make the most impact to your business.

Impression Trend

Figure 4: Luxury retail search impressions in the multi-category vertical, in comparison to Dow Jones Industrials Average.

CUSTOMER–FOCUSED MARKETING Invest in online – While luxury and online have not always embraced one another, the luxury customer has fully embraced online, even when other they were abandoning other channels (e.g. online search volume increased throughout the economic downturn, while in-store purchases dropped). Now is the perfect time for luxury brands to begin investing in online in a way that not only services the customer, but also reinforces everything the brand represents. Customer segmentation will be paramount – In 2011 and 2012, it will be key to have two specific and wellplanned strategies specifically focused on loyal customers versus new and aspirational customers. A few key points to keep in mind when segmenting and customizing your messaging to your key consumer groups: • Align your efforts with your unique customers’ needs - Each month, there are changes, opportunities and new ways to reach consumers within the online marketplace. Whether it’s a new display capability, a new form of attribution or a new channel (mobile search, iPad advertising, etc.), many marketers are on the forefront, constantly innovating and testing. Luxury retail marketers have not had a reputation of being “early adopters” in terms of new technology and ways to reach customers, as the need to protect such high profile brands often outweighs the need to innovate. It is truly possible to do both.

• Aspirational Customers are the “New Black” - During the economic downswing, aspirational customers, those who purchase less often and have lower average order value, were often the incremental boost marketers needed. Luxury marketers who not only survived, but also thrived during the economic downturn, focused on attracting new and sometimes aspirational customers. For luxury brands, now is the time to invest in finding new customer groups. If you invest in them, they will invest in you for the long haul.

Graphic 1 – In the hands of early adopters – Gilt Groupe on iPad Graphic 4 – Luxury retailers embracing Facebook audiences

Graphic 3 – Burberry creates a social media channel for passionate fans

• Aspirational customers are often a marketing arm in themselves. Aspirational customers often participate heavily in wordof-mouth and viral marketing. After saving for a ‘dream handbag,” an aspirational customer may tell all of her friends on Facebook/Twitter/etc. Smart marketers must make it simple for customers to share their luxury excitement: offer onsite reviews, have a thorough social media strategy, implement the universal Facebook “like” button, etc.

• Find new ways to engage. Creating gifting silos onsite that offer gift buying assistance and “gifts under” a certain price point often prove effective in assisting loyalists purchasing gifts and aspirational customers shopping for themselves alike. Also, establish specific keywords and creative for this audience that speaks to an investment and to the value of the purchase, rather than just an impulse buy or promotion.

Graphic 5 – Gift finders offer aspirational and loyal customers alike a new way to engage and shop on your site

Graphic 2 – Some luxury brands who are engaging creatively with mobile

• Invest in loyalty – Beyond the aspirational and new customer, luxury marketers must constantly have a plan in place to avoid loyal customer attrition, such as: • Focus on the advantages luxury has over commodity goods. The quality, craftsmanship, emotional connection and history are the golden ticket for luxury retailers. Speak to these attributes in your website copy, as well as your search and display creative. These messages are especially strong when speaking to a customer who considers Graphic 6 – Luxury retailers focus on emotional connection, craftsmanship your product an investment.

» About iPROSPECT iProspect is a leading global digital performance marketing agency. The company helps many of the world’s most successful brands maximize their online marketing ROI through research, pay-per-click management, search engine optimization, performance display, comparison shopping management, local search, mobile, social media management, and other related services. The agency, which is part of Aegis Media, is proud to work with many of the world’s most notable brands and represents more retail clients on the Internet Retailer Top 500 List than any other agency (3 consecutive years – 2009, 2010, 2011). iProspect has received numerous industry awards including: The 2010 ClickZ Connected Marketing Award for Best Use of Search Engine Marketing; The 2009 Search Engine Strategies Award for Best Social Media Marketing Campaign; The 2009 Search Engine Strategies Award for Best Use of Local Search.

CUSTOMER EXPERIENCE

With offices in Boston, New York, Chicago, San Francisco, Dallas-Fort Worth, and around the globe, iProspect can be contacted at 1-800-522-1152, or by visiting www.iprospect.com.

Luxury is continuing to become more customer-centric. Ensure you are delivering an excellent customer experience, worthy of your brand. It may sound simplistic, but you must make it as simple as possible for new and loyal customers alike to browse and purchase from you. Specifically:

CONTACT

• You never get a second chance to make a first impression –As the purchase path is shortening (with three clicks or less before purchase becoming more prevalent), it is vital for luxury retailers to capture customers’ intent and provide them, without fail, a website experience with relevancy and appropriate depth. Beyond ensuring accuracy and relevancy, luxury retailers should also consider more in-depth website experience testing. One top name multi-category luxury retailer, in the height of the recession, found out that their landing page experience was severely limiting their customer set. After undergoing landing page optimization testing, the retailer worked to ensure a customer in the mindset to purchase a $1,000 item didn’t land on a page with $47,000 jewelry displayed, and as a result, they saw new customer purchases skyrocket. • Reassure your customer that your brand is truly special –Whether you send customers a thank you email after a purchase or a hand-written note in their shipped package, find ways to increase your customer’s connection with your specific brand Graphic 7 – MyShape offers an online personal shopping experience to customers when they first have your luxurious product in their hands. If you already have live customer service or live chat capabilities on your site, why not take it one step farther and offer a personal shopper via your online chat experience?

Please feel free to reach out with any questions about this report or your luxury retail needs to: Vic Drabicky, VP, Strategic Accounts, at vic.drabicky@iprospect.com, or Andrea Wilson, Client Services Director, Luxury, at andrea.wilson@iprospect.com

STUDY METHODOLOGY In this study, the iProspect Luxe Group analyzed data from 424 luxury retail brands marketed within the company’s client base. Included in the analysis were the metrics of impressions, clicks, click through rate, CPC, cost, revenue, orders, conversion rates and average order value for November 2008 through April 2010. The Luxe Groupe also examined key economic indicators, such as the Dow Jones average, in conjunction with this luxury client data.

BRAND NOTICE The client names and data specific to individual brands are not released due to proprietary and contractual limitations. Any luxury brand names mentioned and graphics displayed may or may not have been specifically studied, and are used for the purposes of illustration. *Bluefly and Saks Fifth Avenue were not among the brands studied in this research. The examples used are for the purpose of illustration, and the quotes and statistics mentioned from these organizations were relayed in public earnings statements.

ADDITIONAL VERTICAL CATEGORIES: Other specific verticals studied included shoes, handbags, luxury travel, gourmet foods, accessories and jewelry. Please contact iProspect if you would like to discuss the findings in relation to these specific categories.

Digital Performance on a Global Scale. 1.800.522.1152 » interest@iprospect.com » www.iprospect.com AUSTRALIA • AUSTRIA • BELGIUM • BRAZIL • CANADA • CHINA • DENMARK • FINLAND • FRANCE • GERMANY • HONG KONG • HUNGARY • INDIA • ITALY • JAPAN • MALAYSIA • NETHERLANDS NEW ZEALAND • NORWAY • PORTUGAL • SINGAPORE • SOUTH AFRICA • SOUTH KOREA • SPAIN • SWEDEN • TAIWAN • THAILAND • TURKEY • UNITED KINGDOM • UNITED STATES

TREND ANALYSIS HARDWARE: PART 1 By Ima Campbell & Jacqui Ma, WGSN, 25 October 2011

WGSN KEY TRENDS 70s: inspired by disco and retro brown and orange colours Natures processes: cracked and split surfaces combined with feathers Artisan: a crafted aesthetic which focuses on rope and natural materials Geometric deco: clean, graphic Art Deco influences in plastic fabrications Botanical: focuses on nature with leaves and flora motifs Horn: raw and rustic for a strong look RI-ME at Lineapelle autumn/winter 2012/13

Engineered science: strong, mathematical-inspired shapes Caged and wrapped: woven aesthetic with a rustic and crafted feel Medieval: focuses on masculine and dark metalwork

70s

Galeottipiume at Lineapelle autumn/winter 2012/13

GI MA Lineapelle autumn/winter 2012/13

ÂŠWGSN 2011

Raccagni Group S.R.L at Lineapelle autumn/winter 2012/13

Ramponi S.R.L at Lineapelle autumn/winter 2012/13

Galeottipiume at Lineapelle autumn/winter 2012/13

Lartigianabottoni at Lineapelle autumn/winter 2012/13

Beauty Brass at Lineapelle autumn/winter 2012/13

Creaciones Anysa SL at Lineapelle autumn/winter 2012/13

Ramponi S.R.L at Lineapelle autumn/winter 2012/13

Lartigianabottoni at Lineapelle autumn/winter 2012/13

Creaciones Anysa SL at Lineapelle autumn/winter 2012/13

ÂŠWGSN 2011

Grossi at Lineapelle autumn/winter 2012/13

Brown and orange tones are key with accents of snakeskin and visible stitch details Laid-back geometric forms and patterns such as diamonds and zigzag Buckles are rounded and curved in shape with smooth surfaces

Natureâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s processes

Astarte at Lineapelle autumn/winter 2012/13

Galeottipiume at Lineapelle autumn/winter 2012/13

Astarte at Lineapelle autumn/winter 2012/13

Galeottipiume at Lineapelle autumn/winter 2012/13

Magic SFEA at Lineapelle autumn/winter 2012/13

Galeottipiume at Lineapelle autumn/winter 2012/13

ÂŠWGSN 2011

Pianeta Gemme S.R.L at Lineapelle autumn/winter 2012/13

Astarte at Lineapelle autumn/winter 2012/13

Labam at Lineapelle autumn/winter 2012/13

Beauty Brass at Lineapelle autumn/winter 2012/13

Magic SFEA at Lineapelle autumn/winter 2012/13

Cracked surfaces and aged finishes add an element of nature Naturally decorative materials, such as feathers, become the new ornamentation Primitive materials are contrasted with hints of the modern through techniques such as faceted cuts and clean casings

Artisan

Beauty Brass at Lineapelle autumn/winter 2012/13

ÂŠWGSN 2011

Beauty Brass at Lineapelle autumn/winter 2012/13

Grossi at Lineapelle autumn/winter 2012/13

Beauty Brass at Lineapelle autumn/winter 2012/13

Magic SFEA at Lineapelle autumn/winter 2012/13

Grossi at Lineapelle autumn/winter 2012/13

In line with the primitive trend, hardware takes on a rustic, artisan approach Techniques such as woven and leather coverings are mixed with traditional metal fittings Rope, raw leather and a natural palette dominate the pieces in this group

Geometric deco

Astarte at Lineapelle autumn/winter 2012/13

ÂŠWGSN 2011

Pianeta Gemme S.R.L at Lineapelle autumn/winter 2012/13

Ramponi S.R.L at Lineapelle autumn/winter 2012/13

Lartigianabottoni at Lineapelle autumn/winter 2012/13

Labam at Lineapelle autumn/winter 2012/13

Lartigianabottoni at Lineapelle autumn/winter 2012/13

Labam at Lineapelle autumn/winter 2012/13

Geometric lines and shapes create a modernist feel to hardware Materials and colour are creatively combined through colour-blocking techniques This group of hardware is clean, elegant and prim with a vintage feel

Botanical

ÂŠWGSN 2011

Creaciones Anysa SL at Lineapelle autumn/winter 2012/13

Swarovski Elements at Lineapelle autumn/winter 2012/13

GI MA at Lineapelle autumn/winter 2012/13

Labam at Lineapelle autumn/winter 2012/13

Pianeta Gemme S.R.L at Lineapelle autumn/winter 2012/13

Lartigianabottoni at Lineapelle autumn/winter 2012/13

ÂŠWGSN 2011

Pianeta Gemme S.R.L at Lineapelle autumn/winter 2012/13

Lartigianabottoni at Lineapelle autumn/winter 2012/13

Creaciones Anysa SL at Lineapelle autumn/winter 2012/13

Natural beauty is on show hereas one of the key motif directions of the season. It is all about traditional depictions of femininity combined with natural science Flowers, leaves and plants are depicted in a range of different styles from kitsch and romantic to stylised illustrations Techniques vary greatly from embossed and enamelled to moulded and mesh covered

Horn

Magic SFEA at Lineapelle autumn/winter 2012/13

Grossi at Lineapelle autumn/winter 2012/13

Creaciones Anysa SL at Lineapelle autumn/winter 2012/13

RI-ME at Lineapelle autumn/winter 2012/13

Horn remains a strong material used in hardware from buckles to turn locks The natural textures and colours of this material ensure the uniqueness of each and every piece ÂŠWGSN 2011

Finishes range from raw and rustic to highly polished

Engineered science

GI MA at Lineapelle autumn/winter 2012/13

Magic SFEA at Lineapelle autumn/winter 2012/13

GI MA at Lineapelle autumn/winter 2012/13

Magic SFEA at Lineapelle autumn/winter 2012/13

GI MA at Lineapelle autumn/winter 2012/13

RI-ME at Lineapelle autumn/winter 2012/13

Beauty Brass at Lineapelle autumn/winter 2012/13

Magic SFEA at Lineapelle autumn/winter 2012/13

Rounded forms with intricate detail are key in this trend towards engineered perfection Mathematical and repeated forms have a scientific feel Despite the intricate detail, the balanced geometry gives these pieces a minimal feel

Caged & wrapped ÂŠWGSN 2011

GI MA at Lineapelle autumn/winter 2012/13

RI-ME at Lineapelle autumn/winter 2012/13

GI MA at Lineapelle autumn/winter 2012/13

Pianeta Gemme S.R.L at Lineapelle autumn/winter 2012/13

Grossi at Lineapelle autumn/winter 2012/13

Magic at Lineapelle autumn/winter 2012/13

Hardware has a handmade feel using rustic wrapping techniques as decoration Caged motifs as well as graphic patterns give the pieces a crafted feel The wrapping of fine wire gives a light, open feel to decorative embellishments

Medieval

ÂŠWGSN 2011

Beauty Brass at Lineapelle autumn/winter 2012/13

Magic SFEA at Lineapelle autumn/winter 2012/13

Ramponi S.R.L at Lineapelle autumn/winter 2012/13

Pianeta Gemme S.R.L at Lineapelle autumn/winter 2012/13

RI-ME at Lineapelle autumn/winter 2012/13

ÂŠWGSN 2011

RI-ME at Lineapelle autumn/winter 2012/13

Lartigianabottoni at Lineapelle autumn/winter 2012/13

Beauty Brass at Lineapelle autumn/winter 2012/13

Hammered and destroyed, this trend has a masculine feel Tightly linked chains and metal elements are integrated with leather taking inspiration from ancient crafts Focus on metalwork with finishes ranging from highly polished to matt, scratched and stained

ÂŠWGSN 2011

TREND ANALYSIS HARDWARE: PART 2 By Ima Campbell & Jacqui Ma, WGSN, 25 October 2011

WGSN KEY TRENDS

Pianeta Gemme S.R.L at Lineapelle autumn/winter 2012/13

Marbled: sees the use of composite colours and textures Wood: revisits the favoured material in polished, carved and aged finishes Reptilian: features scales-like, shimmery surfaces Insect-like: draws inspiration from creatures, such as butterflies to bees Iridescent: holographic, chameleon-like surfaces that alter in different lighting Glitter: shiny, textured hardware with a fun edge Pearlescent: a sophisticated move on from metallics Plain & simple: focuses on less is more for a paredback aesthetic Pop: features brights hues and applys them in a naĂŻve, child-like manner

Marbled

GI MA at Lineapelle autumn/winter 2012/13

Pianeta Gemme S.R.L at Lineapelle autumn/winter 2012/13

Labam at Lineapelle autumn/winter 2012/13

Pianeta Gemme S.R.L at Lineapelle autumn/winter 2012/13

ÂŠWGSN 2011

Pianeta Gemme S.R.L at Lineapelle autumn/winter 2012/13

Lartigianabottoni at Lineapelle autumn/winter 2012/13

Marbling is a key embellishment trend this season. From naturally occurring to obviously man-made, this technique is an excellent way of adding sophisticated elements of colour and pattern Faux granite and unnatural brights are key New developments in marbling include integrating pearlescent finishes and super-matt finishes

Wood

Beauty Brass at Lineapelle autumn/winter 2012/13

Magic SFEA at Lineapelle autumn/winter 2012/13

Grossi at Lineapelle autumn/winter 2012/13

Magic SFEA at Lineapelle autumn/winter 2012/13

ÂŠWGSN 2011

GI MA at Lineapelle autumn/winter 2012/13

RI-ME at Lineapelle autumn/winter 2012/13

Astarte at Lineapelle autumn/winter 2012/13

The rise of wood in hardware has been bubblng away and has found its place in many of the current tribal and artisan trends Traditionally a staple material in handles, wood is now being used in a playful way, imitating studs, stones and metal components A huge variety of finishes are possible, from polished and carved through to natural and aged

Reptilian

Magic SFEA at Lineapelle autumn/winter 2012/13

Beauty Brass at Lineapelle autumn/winter 2012/13

Pianeta Gemme S.R.L at Lineapelle autumn/winter 2012/13

Creaciones Anysa SL at Lineapelle autumn/winter 2012/13

Pianeta Gemme S.R.L at Lineapelle autumn/winter 2012/13

ÂŠWGSN 2011

Beauty Brass at Lineapelle autumn/winter 2012/13

Astarte at Lineapelle autumn/winter 2012/13

Creaciones Anysa SL at Lineapelle autumn/winter 2012/13

Hardware takes on a surreal feel with this organic motif trend Plastic elements are embossed with reptile-inspired patterns This trend takes hardware design from the functional to the fantastical

Insect-like

Beauty Brass at Lineapelle autumn/winter 2012/13

Lartigianabottoni at Lineapelle autumn/winter 2012/13

RI-ME at Lineapelle autumn/winter 2012/13

Beauty Brass at Lineapelle autumn/winter 2012/13

Pianeta Gemme S.R.L at Lineapelle autumn/winter 2012/13

Labam at Lineapelle autumn/winter 2012/13

Insect motifs link to fantasy finishes of glitter and gold trends for this feminine hardware trend Butterflies, dragonflies and other insects become key motifs in this illustrative and botanical styles Cut-outs, wire frame and printing are key techniques

Iridescent

ÂŠWGSN 2011

Creaciones Anysa SL at Lineapelle autumn/winter 2012/13

Galeottipiume at Lineapelle autumn/winter 2012/13

Pianeta Gemme S.R.L at Lineapelle autumn/winter 2012/13

Ramponi S.R.L at Lineapelle autumn/winter 2012/13

Magic SFEA at Lineapelle autumn/winter 2012/13

Ramponi S.R.L at Lineapelle autumn/winter 2012/13

Astarte at Lineapelle autumn/winter 2012/13

This trend in materials has been emerging over the past few season's and now we see it tapping in to the hardware and embellishments market Chameleon-like surfaces adapt to movement and light Rainbow hues give an ultra-futuristic, holographic feel while natural pearlescent finishes offer a subtle alternative

All that glitters is not gold ÂŠWGSN 2011

Beauty Brass at Lineapelle autumn/winter 2012/13

Magic SFEA at Lineapelle autumn/winter 2012/13

Swarovski Elements at Lineapelle autumn/winter 2012/13

Lartigianabottoni at Lineapelle autumn/winter 2012/13

Beauty Brass at Lineapelle autumn/winter 2012/13

Pianeta Gemme S.R.L at Lineapelle autumn/winter 2012/13t

Ramponi S.R.L at Lineapelle autumn/winter 2012/13

RI-ME at Lineapelle autumn/winter 2012/13

Shimmering and glittery surfaces are a strong trend across both leather and hardware at this seasonâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s show Metallic colours represent the full palette in this circus and fantasy-inspired style From fine-cut to chunky, glittery surfaces are achieved through the sandblasting and polishing of metallic surfaces

Pearlescent ÂŠWGSN 2011

Astarte at Lineapelle autumn/winter 2012/13

Beauty Brass at Lineapelle autumn/winter 2012/13

Pianeta Gemme S.R.L at Lineapelle autumn/winter 2012/13

Astarte at Lineapelle autumn/winter 2012/13

Pianeta Gemme S.R.L at Lineapelle autumn/winter 2012/13

Lartigianabottoni at Lineapelle autumn/winter 2012/13

Pianeta Gemme S.R.L at Lineapelle autumn/winter 2012/13

Swarovski Elements at Lineapelle autumn/winter 2012/13

Pearlescent finishes range from the use of natural shells to manmade milky stones with a modern futuristic finish Mother of pearl elements are cut and assembled into a range of shapes and forms Combined with techniques such as printing and layering, pearlescent finishes are beautiful, natural and versatile

Plain & simple

ÂŠWGSN 2011

Magic SFEA at Lineapelle autumn/winter 2012/13

Labam at Lineapelle autumn/winter 2012/13

Magic SFEA at Lineapelle autumn/winter 2012/13

RI-ME at Lineapelle autumn/winter 2012/13

Lartigianabottoni at Lineapelle autumn/winter 2012/13

Labam at Lineapelle autumn/winter 2012/13

Raccagni Group S.R.L at Lineapelle autumn/winter 2012/13

Simplicity in form and finish are key in this pared-back trend Finishes include super matt, shiny plastic, and leather-touch rubber finishes This trend is all about simplicity in everything from colour to excess texture

Pop

ÂŠWGSN 2011

Galeottipiume at Lineapelle autumn/winter 2012/13

Grossi at Lineapelle autumn/winter 2012/13

Swarovski Elements at Lineapelle autumn/winter 2012/13

Raccagni Group S.R.L at Lineapelle autumn/winter 2012/13

Ramponi S.R.L at Lineapelle autumn/winter 2012/13

RI-ME at Lineapelle autumn/winter 2012/13

Labam at Lineapelle autumn/winter 2012/13

Beauty Brass at Lineapelle autumn/winter 2012/13

Grossi at Lineapelle autumn/winter 2012/13

ÂŠWGSN 2011

Raccagni Group S.R.L at Lineapelle autumn/winter 2012/13

GI MA at Lineapelle autumn/winter 2012/13

Playfulness is key to this trend Colours and materials contrast and clash. Use oversized proportions for a play on scale Child-like illustrations, patterns and colour combinations are an expressive element to this hardware trend

ÂŠWGSN 2011

TREND ANALYSIS MATERIAL: PART 1 By Ima Campbell & Jacqui Ma, WGSN, 25 October 2011

Nostalgic exhibitors provide retro colourways and disco-inspired leathers and hardware that give a nod to 1970s aesthetics at Lineapelle autumn/winter 2012/13.

WGSN KEY TRENDS

Schmid Italy at Lineapelle autumn/winter 2012/13

70s: retro, geometric patterns and patch-work leathers are crucial to the trend Classic skins: traditional animal skins, such as snake and alligator Faux skins: exotic animal skins with a digital/ iridescent twist Glitterbug: ideal for party season Gold: the favoured metallic has an ultra-lux appeal Iridescent: moving surfaces with a holographic/sci-fi feel Lace: leather combinations add a soft feminine appeal Paisley: this trend is a by-product of the highlyfavoured 70s nostalgia Perfect plaid: ideal for a classic look and complements the paisley print

70s

Abip at Lineapelle autumn/winter 2012/13

Antiba at Lineapelle autumn/winter 2012/13

Bizzarro Leather at Lineapelle autumn/winter 2012/13

Bordifico at Lineapelle autumn/winter 2012/13

Ponte Vecchio at Lineapelle autumn/winter 2012/13

Sicerp SPA at Lineapelle autumn/winter 2012/13

ÂŠWGSN 2011

The 70â&#x20AC;&#x2122;s continues as key a inspiration for autumn/winter 12/13 featuring patch-work leather and graphic pony skin Graphic prints and rich colours add a touch of opulence to winter fabrics Tonal harlequin and patchwork detailing add an artisanal finish

Classic skins

Antiba at Lineapelle autumn/winter 2012/13

Conceria Carbi Pel at Lineapelle autumn/winter 2012/13

Conceria F.M Calvin at Lineapelle autumn/winter 2012/13

Antiba at Lineapelle autumn/winter 2012/13

The trend for traditional reptile-like skins continues into autumn/winter 2012-13 Suppliers play with scale for a new-take on this timeless material The introduction of metallic-effects provide this seasons opulent twist

Faux Skins

ÂŠWGSN 2011

Abip at Lineapelle autumn/winter 2012/13

American Supply at Lineapelle autumn/winter 2012/13

Sicerp SPA at Lineapelle autumn/winter 2012/13

Conceria Thalita at Lineapelle autumn/winter 2012/13

Abip at Lineapelle autumn/winter 2012/13

Conceria Thalita at Lineapelle autumn/winter 2012/13

Exotic skins are sees a graphic twist for autumn/winter 2012/13 Digitised and iridescent prints appeal to the youth market

Glitterbug

Conceria F.M Calvin at Lineapelle autumn/winter 2012/13

Schmid Italy at Lineapelle autumn/winter 2012/13

ÂŠWGSN 2011

American Supply at Lineapelle autumn/winter 2012/13

Giovanni Crespi at Lineapelle autumn/winter 2012/13

Schmid Italy at Lineapelle autumn/winter 2012/13

This season lavish sparkle and shine are offered in the form of glitter sprayed leathers and glossy fabrics Iridescent micro-sequins are applied to create a prismatic effect These glittery leathers will add a touch drama, updating structured basic items

Gold

Antiba at Lineapelle autumn/winter 2012/13

Giovanni Crespi at Lineapelle autumn/winter 2012/13

Conceria Samur at Lineapelle autumn/winter 2012/13

Conceria Carbi Pel at Lineapelle autumn/winter 2012/13

Schmid Italy at Lineapelle autumn/winter 2012/13

Giovanni Crespi at Lineapelle autumn/winter 2012/13

This season metallics focus on high-shine, burnished golds The use of texture adds dimension to and increases impact for a statement look Brash, graphic detailing updates appeals to the youth market

ÂŠWGSN 2011

Iridescent

American Supply at Lineapelle autumn/winter 2012/13

Conceria F.M Calvin at Lineapelle autumn/winter 2012/13

Giovanni Crespi at Lineapelle autumn/winter 2012/13

Sicerp SPA at Lineapelle autumn/winter 2012/13

This trend sees a cornucopia of colours, it is a refined nod to tie-dye Linear detailing adds depth and creates a retro visual

Lace

Conceria F.M Calvin at Lineapelle autumn/winter 2012/13

Sicerp SPA at Lineapelle autumn/winter 2012/13

ÂŠWGSN 2011

Schmid Italy at Lineapelle autumn/winter 2012/13

Sicerp SPA at Lineapelle autumn/winter 2012/13

Ponte Vecchio at Lineapelle autumn/winter 2012/13

The combination of vintage lace overlaid onto leather updates the trend Printed-lace motifs on leather and suede add a coquettish elegance and feminine charm Intricate lace prints are achieved with the use of digital technologies

Paisley

American Supply at Lineapelle autumn/winter 2012/13

Bizzarro Leather at Lineapelle autumn/winter 2012/13

Schmid Italy at Lineapelle autumn/winter 2012/13

This season the 70â&#x20AC;&#x2122;s trend takes a psychedelic twist and sees suppliers raiding archives for vintage-inspired prints A monochromatic palette adds a clean finish to this retro aesthetic Overlaid printing techniques create a textural finish

Perfect plaid

Ponte Vecchio at Lineapelle autumn/winter 2012/13

ÂŠWGSN 2011

American Supply at Lineapelle autumn/winter 2012/13

Conceria F.M Calvin at Lineapelle autumn/winter 2012/13

Bordifico R 79 at Lineapelle autumn/winter 2012/13

Conceria F.M Calvin at Lineapelle autumn/winter 2012/13

The humble plaid is revived this season, displaying punchy-coloured checks Printed detailing and metallic threads add a modern twist to this traditional fabric Clear prints and glitter finishes adds glamour edge to the usually demure plaid print

ÂŠWGSN 2011

TREND ANALYSIS MATERIAL: PART 2 By Ima Campbell & Jacqui Ma, WGSN, 25 October 2011

WGSN KEY TRENDS Pollock: abstract and expressionist inspired prints Pop: a brightly coloured, mixed-media aesthetic with Post-Modern charm Woven: this trend has a rustic, craft-like appeal Zebra: the key animal print this season Conceria Carbi Pel at Lineapelle autumn/winter 2012/13

Pollock

Abip at Lineapelle autumn/winter 2012/13

Bizzarro Leather at Lineapelle autumn/winter 2012/13

Conceria Carbi Pel at Lineapelle autumn/winter 2012/13

Abip at Lineapelle autumn/winter 2012/13

Conceria Carbi Pel at Lineapelle autumn/winter 2012/13

Ponte Vecchio at Lineapelle autumn/winter 2012/13

Jackson Pollock inspired prints adds painterly dimension to leather and suede Plastic-coating adds a child-like charm Rich, high-contrast palettes is favoured for the trend

Pop ÂŠWGSN 2011

American Supply at Lineapelle autumn/winter 2012/13

Giovanni Crespi at Lineapelle autumn/winter 2012/13

Conceria F.M Calvin at Lineapelle autumn/winter 2012/13

Graphic prints add a playful touch to leather and textile surfaces The application of bright primary colours creates an energetic, Post-Modernist feel

Woven

Bordifico R 79 at Lineapelle autumn/winter 2012/13

Bizzarro Leather at Lineapelle autumn/winter 2012/13

Bordifico R 79 at Lineapelle autumn/winter 2012/13

The woven fabrics trend draws from the heritage influences Contrasts materials creates a new winter look with a craft feel

Zebra

Abip at Lineapelle autumn/winter 2012/13

Conceria Carbi Pel at Lineapelle autumn/winter 2012/13

ÂŠWGSN 2011

Bizzarro Leather at Lineapelle autumn/winter 2012/13

Conceria Thalita at Lineapelle autumn/winter 2012/13

The zebra print emerges as the key animal print of choice this season Printed pony skins and subtly embossed leathers create an opulent finish Iridescent finishes update the trend for the youth market

ÂŠWGSN 2011

Bizzarro Leather at Lineapelle autumn/winter 2012/13

S/S 13: TREND CAST By WGSN Creative team, 11 August 2011

Back to the Index Page

Here in new video format, we guide you step by step through the three trends for spring/summer 2013, introducing our new concepts and explaining their importance. INTRODUCTION

WONDERLAB

A brief 4 minute introduction to S/S 13 Macro trends highlighting the evolution from previous seasons.

A guided 6 minute tour through the concepts and research of S/S13 Macro Trend ‘WonderLab’

THE STORY OF NOW

IDIOMATIC

A guided 7 minute tour through the concepts and research of S/S13 Macro Trend ‘The Story of Now’

A guided 8 minute tour through the concepts and research of S/S 13 Macro Trend ‘Idiomatic’.