Type Zealot by Kaysie Meeker

TYPE ZEALOT A TYPOGRAPHIC RULE BOOK

Kaysie Meeker | University of Kansas | 2017

TABLE OF CONTENTS 06

Special Characters

Rules Checksheet

Typographic Rules

Hyphens and Dashes

Hyphenation Rules

Quotes and Apostrophes

Small Caps

Oldstyle/Lining Figures

Typographic Color

Paragraph Breaks

44 Numerals/Figures 46

Combining Typefaces

Widows, Orphans, Rivers

Captions and Notes

Headers, Subheads, Crossheads

76 Justification

Designed by Kaysie Meeker. Class project for Typographic Systems at the University of Kansas, Spring 2017. The text was compiled from the following sources: Elements of Typographic Style by Robert Bringhurst, Getting it Right with Type: the Doâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s and Donâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;ts of Typography by Victoria Square, Mac is Not A Typewriter by Robin Williams. This book is not to be sold to the public and to only be used by the designer for their reference and student design portfolio.

Anatomy of Type

Font Classifications

100

Font Specs

SPECIAL CHARACTERS USE ©, ®, AND ™ MARKS PROPERLY The copyright, register, and trademark characters need to be reduced to work with body text. At times, depending on the typeface, you may need to reduce the mark between 50% and 70%. The goal is to match the x-height. The copyright mark should be approximately 70% of the surrounding text. Unlike the ™ symbol, the © should NOT be superscripted and should remain on the baseline. ™ is usually superscripted for the chosen font. ™ and ® are normally set higher then other marks. If you choose to superscript ®, reduce it to about 60% of the size. ACCENT MARKS Remember, to set an accent mark over a letter, press the Option key and the letter, then press the letter you want under it. Or you can go up to Type Glyphs to find the correct accent.

Opening double quote Option + [

Latin script Option + Shift + c

Closing double quote Option + Shift + [

Latin script Option + c

Opening single quote Option + Shift + ]

Cent symbol Option + $

Closing single quote Option + ]

Euro symbol Option + Shift + 2

En dash Option + -

Pound symbol Option + 3

Em dash Option + Shift + -

Inverted question mark Option + Shift + ?

Ligature (f/i) Option + Shift + 5

Inverted exclamation point Option + 1

Ligature (f/l) Option + Shift + 6

Fraction bar Option + Shift + 1

Degree symbol Option + Shift + 8

Registered Option + r

Résumé Option + e

Trademark Option + 2

Papà Option + `

Ellipsis Option + ;

Über Option + u

Bullet Option + 8

Niño Option + n

RULES CHECKSHEET PUNCTUATION Use real quotation marks. Use real apostrophes. Make sure apostrophes are correctly placed. Hang the punctuation off the aligned edge. Use en or em dashes, use consistently.

SPACING Use only one space between sentences. Kern all headlines where necessary. Never use the spacebar to align text, always set tabs and use the tab key. Leave no widows or orphans. Avoid more than 3 hyphenations in a row, or too many hyphenations in any paragraph. Never hyphenate names or proper nouns. Leave a least 2 characters on the line and 3 following. Avoid beginning or ending consecutive lines with the same word.

TYPOGRAPHY Never combine two serifs on a page. Avoid combining two sans serif fonts. Rarely combine more than three typefaces. Use the special characters whenever necessary, including super- and subscript. Spend the time to create nice fraction or choose a font that has fractions. If a correctly spelled word needs an accent mark, use it.

• • • •

PARAGRAPH Avoid ending lines with the, of, at, a, by... Never hyphenate a word in a headline and avoid hyphenation in a callout. Never justify the text on a short line. Keep the word spacing consistent. Tighten up the leading in lines with all caps or with few ascenders and descenders. Use a one-em first-line indent on any and all indented paragraphs. Adjust the spacing between paragraphs. Either indent the first line of paragraphs or add extra space between them – not both. Use a decimal or right-aligned tab for the numbers in numbered paragraphs. Never have one line in a paragraph in the column or following.

“The empty spaces are the most important aspect of a typeface.” Adrian Frutiger

TYPOGRAPHIC RULES

SPECIAL CHARACTERS

SPACING

PROPER DASHES/HYPHENS An em dash is a unit of measure equal to the point size that you are using. An em dash is a type of punctuation used to offset clauses in a sentence or to indicate an abrupt change in thought. An en dash is equal to half the length of an em dash. En dashes are used to denote time.

ELLIPSIS CHARACTER Use the ellipsis character and NOT three periods. You can access the ellipsis by typing Option + : (colon). Allow a small amount of space before and after. However if it is not crowding the text, leave no space at all. 10. Avoid underlined text This was useful back in the days of the typewriter to draw attention to the text. With digital type and their families, you should not need to use underlined text.

PROPER QUOTES/APOSTROPHES Use true quotation marks and apostrophes instead of using inch marks and feet marks. Place all punctuations inside the quotation marks.

RULES OF HYPHENATION Don’t rely on the software to judge where hyphens should be placed. At the end of lines, leave at least two characters behind and take at least three forward. For example, “ele-gantly” is acceptable, but “elegant-ly” is not because it takes too little of the word to the next line. Avoid leaving the stub end of a hyphenated word or any word shorter then four letters as the last line of a paragraph. Avoid more then 3 consecutive hyphenated lines. Avoid hyphenating or breaking proper names and titles. Creating a non-breaking space before and after the name will ensure that the name will not break.

©, ™, AND ® MARK The copyright, register, and trademark characters need to be reduced to work with body text. At times, depending on the typeface, you may need to reduce the mark between 50% and 70%. The goal is to match the x-height. The copyright mark should be approximately 70% of the surrounding text. Unlike the ™ symbol, the © should NOT be superscripted and should remain on the baseline. ™ is usually superscripted for the chosen font. ™ and ® are normally set higher then other marks. If you choose to superscript ®, reduce it to about 60% of the size.

INSERT ONLY A SINGLE SPACE Inserting two spaces after a period was common when using a typewriter. Monospace typefaces were designed to occupy the same amount of space no matter the width of the character. Therefore, two spaces were needed to identify the end of a sentence and the beginning of another sentence. With the introduction of the Mac and digital type, characters are designed proportionately, which allows for the correct practice of using one space after all punctuation.

ADD LETTER SPACING TO CAPITALS/SMALL CAPS Letterspacing is the amount of space between characters in a word. Some software programs caller letterspacing tracking. Use positive number values (to about 2 or 3) to open up letterspacing to capitalized text and small caps, except when periods are used between characters. INCREASE LINE SPACING Line spacing (aka leading) refers to the space between lines of text. It is important for readability and appearance. Leading is measured from baseline to baseline. As a rule of thumb, allow leading that is 120% of the point size. For sans serif, you may need 130% or more. When setting headlines, solid leading (leading = point size, 12/12) or negative leading (leading =< point size, 12/10) may be appropriate. DECREASE LINE LENGTH AND INCREASE MARGINS Line length is a measure of text on one line. Any measure between 45 and 75 characters is comfortable for single column widths. The ideal measure for body text length is 66 characters (counting both letters, punctuation, and spaces.) For multiple columns, a measure between 40 and 50 characters is ideal.

KEEP WORD SPACING CLOSE For text meant for extended reading, the amount of space between words in a paragraph should be fairly close–about the width of a lowercase “i.” If the word spacing is too close, it appears as one giant word and legibility is decreased. Keep the spaces between words fairly thin, consistent and even! IDEAL COLUMN WIDTH For single-column pages, 4.25 inches is ideal. For two-column width, columns can be as narrow as 2 inches. Turning on the hyphenation feature can improve word spacing. JUSTIFICATION OF TEXT Justification can be appropriate in certain places. However, it can create certain problems such as rivers and word spacing. Adjusting size of margins, decreasing body copy size, turning on auto hyphenation and manually hyphenating the text are all examples of possible solutions. CHOOSE A FITTING ALIGNMENT Make sure the alignment chosen for all areas of text are legible and consistent with the design and guidelines. Left-aligned text is easier to read and set. Justified text is harder to set w/o inevitable word spacing problems. Rightaligned and centered are generally not used for body copy. KERNING IN HEADLINES Adjust the space between two particular letters to allow for more consistent negative space.

AVOID LETTERSPACING LOWERCASE BODY COPY Don’t letterspace body copy as it really hampers legibility. Use letterspacing when working with caps. small caps, numbers and display text where looser type spacing may increase legibility.

INDENTS In continuous text, mark all paragraphs after the first with an indent of at least one “em” (3 spaces). Do NOT use three spaces but rather use the tabs or indents option in your software.

“Helvetica is the sweatpants of typefaces” John Boardley

TYPOGRAPHY AND WORDING BODY COPY SIZE Body text is set anywhere from 9-12 points. When you print text, it is usually larger than what it looked like on the screen. So, print out your text before finalizing your layout.Type studies will help you determine the proper size before you proceed with your layout.

USE OLD STYLE FIGURES Old style figures, also known as non-lining figures do not line up on the baseline as regular or lining numerals do.They can be found in various fonts. If the body text has a significant amount of numbers, research a font family where they are included. If non-lining numerals are not available, use a slightly smaller point size for the lining numbers.Think of lining numbers as upper case numbers and non-lining numbers as lower case numbers.

USE TRUE SMALL CAPS When setting text that contains acronyms, select a typeface with small caps as a family. Selecting small caps from the style menus is a poor choice because the compute reduces the overall size of the type by 80%.This changes the stroke weight and the feel of the font. Expert sets in the Adobe Type Library have small caps options. ALTERING FONTS Don’t alter the original typeface by stretching or condensing the letters improperly. Certain type families provide you with a lot of flexibility, so you should not need to destroy/alter text.

USE CAPS PROPERLY With options given to you by almost any type family (bold, point size, etc) you will seldom need to use all caps to draw attention to your text. Not all typefaces are legible when set in all caps; esp. true for script and decorative typefaces. Short headlines may be the one exception to this rule.

LEGIBILITY OF FONTS Sans serif typefaces work well for headlines and to set text that is aligned to vertical/horizontal lines. Certain sans serif typefaces which are not very geometrical work well for body copy (i.e. Frutiger, Meta, Scala Sans, etc.) AVOID BEGINNING CONSECUTIVE LINES THE SAME Since software programs deal with line breaks automatically based upon a number of variables, it is possible to have paragraphs with consecutive lines beginning with the same word.When this happens simply adjust the text to avoid/fix the problem. ITEMS IN A SERIES Items in a series do not use a comma before the word “and.”

ALWAYS SPELL CHECK! Once you are finished with your design, spell check the text using both of the following: a. Use spell=check option that comes with the software you are using for the project. b. Print the document and read it.The monitor and design of the document will make text look perfect when it may not be. Even if text is given to you by a client, check it. Never ever assume that it is correct. Keep a dictionary close as well. AVOID WIDOWS AND ORPHANS Widows are either single words alone on a line or single sentences alone on a new page. Orphans are single lines of copy alone at the end of a page.

HYPHENS AND DASHES The em dash is twice as long as the en dash-it’s about the size of a capital letter M in whatever size and typeface you’re using at the moment.This dash is often used in place of a colon or parentheses, or it might indicate an abrupt change in thought, or it’s used in a spot where a period is too strong and a comma is too weak. It is also used for attribution of text. Our equivalent on the typewriter was the double hyphen, but now we have a real em dash. Using two hyphens (or worse, one) where there should be an em dash makes your work appear to be very unprofessional. When using an—no space is used on either side. DASHES Use proper ‘em’ dashes, ‘en’ dashes, and hyphens. Never use two hyphens instead of a dash. Everyone knows what a hyphens is - that tiny little dash that belongs in some words, like mother-in-law, or in phone numbers. It’s also used to break a word at the end of a line. You might have been taught to use or given text that uses a double hyphen + to indicate a dash.This is a typewriter convention because typewriters didn’t have the real dash used in professional typesetting. On a Mac, no one needs to use the double hyphen + we have a professional em dash, the long one, such as you see in this sentence.We also have an en dash, which is a little shorter than the em dash.

An en dash is half of the em rule (the width of a capital N) and is used between words that indicate a duration, such as time or months or years. Use it where you might otherwise use the word “to.” In a page layout application, the en dash can be used with a thin space on either side of it. If you want you can kern it so it is not a full space. HYPHEN A hyphen is one third of the em rule and is used to link words. It serves as a compound modifier where two words become one, such as x-height. A hyphen is also used to break works at syllables in text blocks.

An em is a unit of measure equal to the point size that you are using. An em dash is a type of punctuation used to offset clauses in a sentence or to indicate an abrupt change in thought. An en dash is equal to half the length of an em dash. En dashes are used to denote time.

En dash Option + Em dash Option + Shift + -

October – December 6:30 – 8:45 A.M. 4 – 6 years of age

HYPHENATION RULES Don’t rely on the software to judge where hyphens should be placed. At the end of lines, leave at least two characters behind and take at least three forward. For example, “ele-gantly” is acceptable, but “elegant-ly” is not because it takes too little of the word to the next line. Avoid leaving the stub end of a hyphenated word or any word shorter then four letters as the last line of a paragraph. Avoid more then 3 consecutive hyphenated lines. Avoid hyphenating or breaking proper names and titles. Creating a non-breaking space before and after the name will ensure that the name will not break. Avoid beginning three consecutive lines with the same word Since software programs deal with line breaks automatically based upon a number of variables, it is possible to have paragraphs with consecutive lines beginning with the same word.When this happens simply adjust the text to avoid/fix the problem. Pay attention to how the text is read. Watch out for widows. Avoid hyphenating or line brakes of names and proper nouns. Leave a least 2 characters on the line and 3 following. Don’t begin two consecutive lines with the same word. Never end consecutive lines with the same word. Avoid ending lines with the words: the, of, at, a, by… Never hyphenate words in a headline and avoid hyphenation in a callout.

QUOTES AND APOSTROPHES Use true quotation marks and apostrophes instead of using inch marks and feet marks. Place all punctuations inside the quotation marks.

It is necessary to know how to set smart quotes/real quotes yourself because sometimes the software doesn’t do it or does it wrong. Smart quotes are the quotation marks used in good typography. There are four smart quote characters: the opening single quote (‘), the closing single quote (’), the opening double quote (“), and the closing double quote (”).

Use real quotation marks – never those grotesque generic marks ( “ ) that actually symbolize ditto/inch “ or foot marks ‘. Most software applications will convert the typewriter quotes to the real quotes for you automatically as you type. Check the preferences– you’ll find a check box to tell your application to automatically set something like “typographer’s quotes,” “smart quotes,” or “curly quotes.”

“ ”

Opening double quote Option + [ Closing double quote Option + Shift + [

Straight quotes are the two generic vertical quotation marks located near the return key: the straight single quote (‘) and the straight double quote (“). Straight quotes come to us from the typewriter.

‘ ’

Opening single quote Option + ] Closing single quote Option + Shift + ]

SMALLCAPS Small caps are uppercase letters that are about the size of normal lowercase letters in any given typeface. Small caps are less intrusive when all uppercase appears within normal text or can be used for special emphasis. Computer programs can generate small caps for a any typeface, but those are not the same as true small caps.True small caps have line weights that are proportionally correct for the typeface, which me and that they can be used within a body of copy without looking noticeably wrong. USE TRUE SMALL CAPS FONTS. Avoid simply resizing capital letters or using the small caps feature in some programs. Instead use typefaces that have been specifically created as small caps.

USE SMALL CAPS FOR ACRONYMS. When setting text that contains acronyms, select a typeface with small caps as a family. Selecting small caps from the style menus is a poor choice because the compute reduces the overall size of the type by 80%.This changes the stroke weight and the feel of the font. Expert sets in the Adobe Type Library have small caps options. Set acronyms such as nasa or nasdaq in small caps when they appear in body text or headlines. Use small caps for common abbreviations. Set common abbreviations such as am or pm in small caps so they donâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t overpower the accompanying text. Use small caps for a.m. and p.m.; space once after the number, and use periods. (if the font does not have small caps reduce the font size slightly)

Harriet, an fbi agent, turned on cnn to get the dirt on the cia before going to bed at 9:30 pm Harriet, an fbi agent, turned on cnn to get the dirt on the cia before going to bed at 9:30 pm Harriet, an fbi agent, turned on cnn to get the dirt on the cia before going to bed at 9:30 pm Harriet, an fbi agent, turned on going to bed at 9:30 pm

cnn

to get the dirt on the

before

SERIF: Belizio, ITC Clearface, Centaur MT, Bembo SANS SERIF: Bau, Din, Gotham, Frutiger

cia

OLDSTYLE/LINING FIGURES Unlike lining figures, oldstyle figures are designed to look more like lowercase letters. The ones in Equity are typical—some are short, some descend below the baseline, and some ascend.You won’t be surprised to hear that oldstyle figures work best in lowercase body text. Oldstyle figures have more of a traditional, classic look and are very useful and quite beautiful when set within text.They are only available for certain typefaces, sometimes as the regular numerals in a font, but more often within a supplementary or expert font. OLDSTYLE FIGURES “Oldstyle” is a cur ious term for these, because the oldest figures—the original Hindu-Arabic numerals of the first century—look more like lining figures.

LINING FIGURES Lining figures are usually the same height as caps, but not always. Some fonts have lining figures that fall between lowercase and cap height (for instance, Equity).

RIGHT-ALIGNED 12 134 17 27 67 221 12 589 56

1023 730 8431

LEFT-ALIGNED 12 134 17 22 667 21 12 589 56

1023 9730 8431

323 56 409

323 356 409

ALIGN ON DECIMAL 12.5 34 .4 17.8 1023.4 73.05 86.5 22.11 923.55 595.0 10.25 76.10 36.70 1023.4 323.0

TYPOGRAPHIC COLOR When typographers mention to color, they are typically not referring to a rainbow. They are speaking, instead, of black and white and the wide range of gray textures which are called forth when white and black interact. “Legibility refers to whether a short burst of text… is instantly Every typeface has its own apparent lightness recognizable.” or darkness, or optical weight. A typeface’s color is determined by stroke width, x-height, character width and serif styles. As the great Swiss typographer Emil Ruder put it in 1960, “The business of typography is a continual weighing up of white and black, which requires a thorough knowledge of the laws governing optical values. Readability and legibility are two key elements of printed text that typographer strive to maximize. Readability refers to whether an extended amount of text (such as an article, book, or annual report) is easy to read. Legibility refers to whether a short burst of text (such as a headline catalog listing, or stop sign) is instantly recognizable.

AS A DESIGNER, IF YOU ARE ONLY ASKED TO MAKE THE TEXT READABLE ON THE PAGE THE FOLLOWING QUESTIONS SHOULD BE ASKED… Who is to read it? Someone that has to read it? Someone that wants to read it?

How will it be read? Quickly? In passing? Focused? Near? Far?

X xhg Futurism was first announced on February 20, 1909, when the Paris newspaper Le Figaro published a manifesto by the Italian poet and editor Filippo Tommaso Marinetti. The name Futurism, coined by Marinetti, reflected his emphasis on discarding what he conceived to be the static and irrelevant art of the past and celebrating change, originality, and innovation in culture and society. Futurism rejected traditions and glorified contemporary life, mainly by emphasizing two dominant themes, the machine and motion. The works were characterized by the depiction of several successive actions of a subject at the same time. Marinetti’s manifesto glorified the new technology of the automobile and the beauty of its speed, power, and movement.

Eurostile (Condensed) Aldo Novarese

8.5/12 X-Height: Large Width: Average Color: Average

Interstate (Regular) Tobias Frere-Jones

8.5/12 X-Height: Large Width: Average Color: Dark

X xhg

Xx hg Futurism was first announced on February 20, 1909, when the Paris newspaper Le Figaro published a manifesto by the Italian poet and editor Filippo Tommaso Marinetti. The name Futurism, coined by Marinetti, reflected his emphasis on discarding what he conceived to be the static and irrelevant art of the past and celebrating change, originality, and innovation in culture and society. Futurism rejected traditions and glorified contemporary life, mainly by emphasizing two dominant themes, the machine and motion. The works were characterized by the depiction of several successive actions of a subject at the same time. Marinetti’s manifesto glorified the new technology of the automobile and the beauty of its speed, power, and movement.

Xx hg

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PrioriSan (Regular) Jonathan Barnbrook

8.5/12 X-Height: Small Width: Narrow Color: Light

Xxhg Neutra Text (Book) Richard Neutra and Christian Schwartz

8.5/12 X-Height: Average Width: Average Color: Dark

Xx h g

Bau (Regular) Christian Schwartz

8.5/12 X-Height: Average Width: Average Color: Dark

Bell Gothic (Light) Chauncey H. Griffith

8.5/12 X-Height: Average Width: Average Color: Average

Xxh g Futurism was first announced on February 20, 1909, when the Paris newspaper Le Figaro published a manifesto by the Italian poet and editor Filippo Tommaso Marinetti. The name Futurism, coined by Marinetti, reflected his emphasis on discarding what he conceived to be the static and irrelevant art of the past and celebrating change, originality, and innovation in culture and society. Futurism rejected traditions and glorified contemporary life, mainly by emphasizing two dominant themes, the machine and motion. The works were characterized by the depiction of several successive actions of a subject at the same time. Marinetti’s manifesto glorified the new technology of the automobile and the beauty of its speed, power, and movement.

MillerBanner Matthew Carter

8.5/12 X-Height: Average Width: Average Color: Dark

Frutiger Adrian Frutiger

8.5/12 X-Height: Large Width: Narrow Color: Average

Xxhg

Futurism was first announced on Belizio (Regular) February 20, 1909, when the Paris Aldo Novarese newspaper Le Figaro published a manifesto by the Italian poet and editor Filippo Tommaso Marinetti. The name Futurism, coined by Marinetti, reflected his emphasis on discard- 8.5/12 ing what he conceived to be the X-Height: Small static and irrelevant art of the past Width: Wide and celebrating change, originality, Color: Dark and innovation in culture and society. Futurism rejected traditions and glorified contemporary life, mainly by emphasizing two dominant themes, the machine and motion. The works were characterized by the depiction of several successive actions of a subject at the same time. Marinetti’s manifesto glorified the new technology…

ITC Cheltenham Bertram Goodhue and Ingalls Kimball

8.5/12 X-Height: Average Width: Narrow Color: Average

Xxhg

Xx hg

Melior (Medium) Hermann Zapf

8.5/12 X-Height: Average Width: Average Color: Average

Didot (Regular) Firmin Didot

8.5/12 X-Height: Small Width: Average Color: Light

X xhg Xx hg Futurism was first announced on February 20, 1909, when the Paris newspaper Le Figaro published a manifesto by the Italian poet and editor Filippo Tommaso Marinetti. The name Futurism, coined by Marinetti, reflected his emphasis on discarding what he conceived to be the static and irrelevant art of the past and celebrating change, originality, and innovation in culture and society. Futurism rejected traditions and glorified contemporary life, mainly by emphasizing two dominant themes, the machine and motion. The works were characterized by the depiction of several successive actions of a subject at the same time. Marinetti’s manifesto glorified the new technology of the automobile and the beauty of its speed, power…

Lexicon No 1 Bram de Does

8.5/12 X-Height: Large Width: Average Color: Dark

Din (Regular) Albert-Jan Pool

8.5/12 X-Height: Average Width: Wide Color: Average

8.5/12 X-Height: Average Width: Narrow Color: Average

8.5/12 X-Height: Average Width: Average Color: Light

Xxhg

Serifa (45 Light) Adrian Frutiger

8.5/12 X-Height: Average Width: Wide Color: Light

Museo Slab (100) Jos Buivenga

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X x hg Futurism was first announced on February 20, 1909, when the Paris newspaper Le Figaro published a manifesto by the Italian poet and editor Filippo Tommaso Marinetti. The name Futurism, coined by Marinetti, reflected his emphasis on discarding what he conceived to be the static and irrelevant art of the past and celebrating change, originality, and innovation in culture and society. Futurism rejected traditions and glorified contemporary life, mainly by emphasizing two dominant themes, the machine and motion. The works were characterized by the depiction of several successive actions of a subject at the same time. Marinetti’s manifesto glorified the new technology of the automobile and the beauty of its speed, power, and movement.

Rotis Serif (55) Otl Aicher

X x hg X x h g Bodoni (Book) Giambattista Bodoni

8.5/12 X-Height: Small Width: Narrow Color: Light

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Futura (T1-Book) Paul Renner

8.5/12 X-Height: Average Width: Wide Color: Average

Helvetica Neue Max Miedinger

8.5/12 X-Height: Large Width: Average Color: Dark

PARAGRAPH BREAKS 1. First line at the beginning of an article should be flush left (do not indent first paragraph). 2. Block paragraphs are flush left and are separated by extra leading, not a full return. 3. The amount indent is = leading. 4. Never hit two returns between one paragraph and the next. Paragraph breaks set a rhythm for the reader.The breaks have a relationship with the column of text as well as the page margins. A break may be introduced as an indentation, as a space or both.The over all page feel will be influenced by your choice.

But is is the movements which survive, oddly, here where we live and work as poets and artists: or, if not the movements, then their sense of art as an life itself. All of which, as futurism, had come sharply into focus by the start of the world war: a first radical mix of art and life, the epitome in the poplar mind of an avant-garde. It was, on both its Russian & Italian sides, the first great “art” movement led by poets; and if its means now sometimes seem exaggerated or unripe in retrospect, they carry within them the seed of all that we were later to become. While Marinetti’s opening manifesto for Italian Futurism bristled with a polemical stance in favor of the transformed present (1909), the later manifestos of Futurist poets and artists offered formal, “technical” approaches to the works then getting under way. The key term--still resonant today--was parole in libertà, by which poetry was to become “an uninterrupted sequence of new images… (a) strict bet of images or analogies, to be cast into the mysterious sea of phenomena.” This freedom-of-the-world, while it resembled other forms of collage and of image juxtaposition, more fully explored the use of innovative and expressive typography in the visual presentation of language, as set in motion by forerunners like Mallarmé. Outrageous and aggressive, the Futurists’ performances mixed declamation and gesture, events and surroundings, indifference and engagement, to break the barriers between themselves and those who came to jeer or cheer them. Wrote Marinetti selbst (circa 1915),“Everything of any value is theatrical.”

Futurism was first announced on February 20, 1909, when the Paris newspaper Le Figaro published a manifesto by the Italian poet and editor Filippo Tommaso Marinetti. The name Futurism, coined by Marinetti, reflected his emphasis on discarding what he conceived to be the static and irrelevant art of the past and celebrating change, originality, and innovation in culture and society.Futurism rejected traditions and glorified contemporary life, mainly by emphasizing two dominant themes, the machine and motion. The manifesto’s rhetoric was passionately bombastic; its tone was aggressive and inflammatory and was purposely intended to inspire public anger and amazement, to arouse controversy, and to attract widespread attention. But is is the movements which survive, oddly, here where we live and work as poets and artists: or, if not the movements, then their sense of art as an life itself. All of which, as futurism, had come sharply into focus by the start of the world war: a first radical mix of art and life, the epitome in the poplar mind of an avant-garde. It was, on both its Russian & Italian sides, the first great “art” movement led by poets; and if its means now sometimes seem exaggerated or unripe in retrospect, they carry within them the seed of all that we were later to become. While Marinetti’s opening manifesto for Italian Futurism bristled with a polemical stance in favor of the transformed present (1909), the later manifestos of Futurist poets and artists offered formal, “technical” approaches to the works then getting under way. The key term--still resonant today--was parole in libertà, by which poetry was to become “an uninterrupted sequence of new images… (a) strict bet of images or analogies, to be cast into the mysterious sea of phenomena.” This freedomof-the-world, while it resembled other forms of collage and of image juxtaposition, more fully explored the use of innovative and expressive typography in the visual presentation of language, as set in motion by forerunners like Mallarmé. Outrageous and aggressive, the Futurists’ performances mixed declamation and gesture, events and surroundings, indifference and engagement, to break the barriers between themselves and those who came to jeer or cheer them.Wrote Marinetti selbst (circa 1915), “Everything of any value is theatrical.”

Futurism was first announced

on February 20, 1909, when the Paris newspaper Le Figaro published a manifesto by the Italian poet and editor Filippo Tommaso Marinetti. The name Futurism, coined by Marinetti, reflected his emphasis on discarding what he conceived to be the static and irrelevant art of the past and celebrating change, originality, and innovation in culture and society. Futurism rejected traditions and glorified contemporary life, mainly by emphasizing two dominant themes, the machine and motion. The manifesto’s rhetoric was passionately bombastic; its tone was aggressive and inflammatory and was purposely intended to inspire public anger and amazement, to arouse controversy, and to attract widespread attention.

But it is the

movements which survive, oddly, here where we live and work as poets and artists: or, if not the movements, then their sense of art as an life itself. All of which, as futurism, had come sharply into focus by the start of the world war: a first radical mix of art and life, the epitome in the poplar mind of an avant-garde. It was, on both its Russian & Italian sides, the first great “art” movement led by poets; and if its means now sometimes seem exaggerated or unripe in retrospect, they carry within them the seed of all that we were later to become.

While Marinetti’s opening manifesto for

Italian Futurism bristled with a polemical stance in favor of the transformed present (1909), the later manifestos of Futurist poets and artists offered formal, “technical” approaches to the works then getting under way. The key term--still resonant today--was parole in libertà, by which poetry was to become “an uninterrupted sequence of new images… (a) strict bet of images or analogies, to be cast into the mysterious sea of phenomena.”This freedom-of-the-world, while it resembled other forms of collage and of image juxtaposition, more fully explored the use of innovative and expressive typography in the visual presentation of language, as set in motion by forerunners like Mallarmé. Outrageous and aggressive, the Futurists’ performances mixed declamation and gesture, events and surroundings, indifference and engagement, to break the barriers between themselves and those who came to jeer or cheer them. Wrote Marinetti selbst (circa 1915), “Everything of any value is theatrical.”

Futurism

was first announced on February 20, 1909, when the Paris newspaper Le Figaro published a manifesto by the Italian poet and editor Filippo Tommaso Marinetti.The name Futurism, coined by Marinetti, reflected his emphasis on discarding what he conceived to be the static and irrelevant art of the past and celebrating change, originality, and innovation in culture and society. Futurism rejected traditions and glorified contemporary life, mainly by emphasizing two dominant themes, the machine and motion. The manifesto’s rhetoric was passionately bombastic; its tone was aggressive and inflammatory and was purposely intended to inspire public anger and amazement, to arouse controversy, and to attract widespread attention.

But

is is the movements which survive, oddly, here where we live and work as poets and artists: or, if not the movements, then their sense of art as an life itself. All of which, as futurism, had come sharply into focus by the start of the world war: a first radical mix of art and life, the epitome in the poplar mind of an avant-garde. It was, on both its Russian & Italian sides, the first great “art” movement led by poets; and if its means now sometimes seem exaggerated or unripe in retrospect, they carry within them the seed of all that we were later to become.

While

Marinetti’s opening manifesto for Italian Futurism bristled with a polemical stance in favor of the transformed present (1909), the later manifestos of Futurist poets and artists offered formal, “technical” approaches to the works then getting under way. The key term--still resonant today--was parole in libertà, by which poetry was to become “an uninterrupted sequence of new images… (a) strict bet of images or analogies, to be cast into the mysterious sea of phenomena.”This freedom-of-the-world, while it resembled other forms of collage and of image juxtaposition, more fully explored the use of innovative and expressive typography in the visual presentation of language, as set in motion by forerunners like Mallarmé. Outrageous and aggressive, the Futurists’ performances mixed declamation and gesture, events and surroundings, indifference and engagement, to break the barriers between themselves and those who came to jeer or cheer them. Wrote Marinetti selbst (circa 1915), “Everything of any value is theatrical.”

“You have to be a critical, savage editor of your own work.” Kris Sowersby

While Marinetti’s opening manifesto for Italian Futurism bristled with a polemical stance in favor of the transformed present (1909), the later manifestos of Futurist poets and artists offered formal, “technical” approaches to the works then getting under way. The key term--still resonant today--was parole in libertà, by which poetry was to become “an uninterrupted sequence of new images… (a) strict bet of images or analogies, to be cast into the mysterious sea of phenomena.” This freedomof-the-world, while it resembled other forms of collage and of image juxtaposition, more fully explored the use of innovative and expressive typography in the visual presentation of language, as set in motion by forerunners like Mallarmé. Outrageous and aggressive, the Futurists’ performances mixed declamation and gesture, events and surroundings, indifference and engagement, to break the barriers between themselves and those who came to jeer or cheer them.Wrote Marinetti selbst (circa 1915), “Everything of any value is theatrical.”

uturism was first announced on February 20, 1909, when the Paris newspaper Le Figaro published a manifesto by the Italian poet and editor Filippo Tommaso Marinetti. The name Futurism, coined by Marinetti, reflected his emphasis on discarding what he conceived to be the static and irrelevant art of the past and celebrating change, originality, and innovation in culture and society.Futurism rejected traditions and glorified contemporary life, mainly by emphasizing two dominant themes, the machine and motion. The manifesto’s rhetoric was passionately bombastic; its tone was aggressive and inflammatory and was purposely intended to inspire public anger and amazement, to arouse controversy, and to attract widespread attention. ut is is the movements which survive, oddly, here where we live and work as poets and artists: or, if not the movements, then their sense of art as an life itself. All of which, as futurism, had come sharply into focus by the start of the world war: a first radical mix of art and life, the epitome in the poplar mind of an avant-garde. It was, on both its Russian & Italian sides, the first great “art” movement led by poets; and if its means now sometimes seem exaggerated or unripe in retrospect, they carry within them the seed of all that we were later to become. hile Marinetti’s opening manifesto for Italian Futurism bristled with a polemical stance in favor of the transformed present (1909), the later manifestos of Futurist poets and artists offered formal, “technical” approaches to the works then getting under way. The key term--still resonant today--was parole in libertà, by which poetry was to become “an uninterrupted sequence of new images… (a) strict bet of images or analogies, to be cast into the mysterious sea of phenomena.” This freedom-of-the-world, while it resembled other forms of collage and of image juxtaposition, more fully explored the use of innovative and expressive typography in the visual presentation of language, as set in motion by forerunners like Mallarmé. Outrageous and aggressive, the Futurists’ performances mixed declamation and gesture, events and surroundings, indifference and engagement, to break the barriers between themselves and those who came to jeer or cheer them. Wrote Marinetti selbst (circa 1915), “Everything of any value is theatrical.”

NUMERALS/FIGURES Our uppercase alphabet came from the inscrip tional capitals of the Romans. Our lowercase alphabet came from the European uncial al phabets of the Middle Ages, which themselves evolved from scribal approximations of the up percase alphabet. But our figures were invented in India. They spread westward through the influence of Per sian and Arab mathematicians. Traditionally they were known as Arabic numerals, but lat terly as Hindu-Arabic numerals. Arabic and Indic languages, of course, look very different from European languages. Thus figures have al ways presented a challenge for type designers, as they rely on shapes that are found nowhere in the uppercase and lowercase alphabets.

COMBINING TYPEFACES

36 PT: HEADER | HELVETICA NEUE 18 PT: SUBHEAD | BASILIA T 18/18 PT: PULL QUOTES: HELVETICA NEUE 9/12 PT: BODY TEXT | BASILIA T

FONT COMBINATION RATIONAL These two fonts work together because Basilia T is a serif with heavier strokes, which provides a nice contrast with Helvetica Neue’s light sans serif lettering.

Collage Aes t hetics of M ea n in g Like the Futurists before them, the ‘typographical revolution’ of Dada was founded on typography itself... The dadaists further developed the collage technique recently discovered by Pablo Picasso and Georges Braques in Paris. Like the cubists, the dadaists pasted papers, fabric and other two-dimensional materials to their works, breaking down the barrier between art and everyday life. But the dadaists abandoned the pretense of still life or other identifiable subject matter in favor of abstract collages, and they cast their net far wider for their source material: the collages of Hannover dadaist Kurt Schwitters, for example, included such items as transportation tickets, calendars, candy wrappers, lace, printed pamphlets, maps, and other disposable ephemera collected in the course of the artist’s daily outings. Collaged together, they formed a chaotic visual diary of modern life.

36 PT: HEADER | FRUTIGER 18 PT: SUBHEAD | ITC NEW BASKERVILLE 18/18 PT: PULL QUOTES | FRUTIGER 9/12 PT: BODY TEXT | ITC NEW BASKERVILLE

FONT COMBINATION RATIONAL These two fonts do not necessarily work together well. This is likely due to the similarity in visual weight between the two fonts. They lack the necessary contrast.

Some Assembly Required THE PRACTICE O F ASSE MB L AGE Futurism rejected traditions and glorified contemporary life, mainly by emphasizing two dominant themes, the machine and motion. Assemblage refers to a three-dimensional work of art comprising found elements. These works can be sculptural objects that are seen in the round, as well as pictures that are hung on walls. As dadaist collages were constructed from papers collected from daily life and pasted together, assemblages were built from everyday objects that were nailed, screwed, or otherwise fastened together. The range of objects was virtually endless; sometimes evocative of war (military medals, revolvers), the assembled objects often were mundane bits of trash trash (flotsam and jetsam, porcelain shards, furniture knobs, wire mesh).

36 PT: HEADER | DIN 18 PT: SUBHEAD | ITC NEW BASKERVILLE 18/18 PT: PULL QUOTES | ITC NEW BASKERVILLE 9/12 PT: BODY TEXT | DIN

FONT COMBINATION RATIONAL These two fonts work together because there is a moderate amount of contrast between them as well as a difference in weight between the Pull quotes and the body text.

Sound Poems A P rol ogu e to Futuri sm Futurism rejected traditions and glorified contemporary life, mainly by emphasizing two dominant themes… The German artist and poet Hugo Ball’s final performance at the Cabaret Voltaire in Zurich marked the beginning of a new genre variously known as sound poems, poems without words, or abstract poems. To construct them language is broken down into its abstract parts (syllables and individual letters) and then reconfigured as meaningless sounds. Simultaneous poems—poems in which multiple languages are read at once rendering each unintelligible—offered an alternative approach to abstract poetry. By destroying everyday language, sound poems offered both a metaphor for the destruction caused by war and a commentary on the deceitfulness of language. Wariness of the competing nationalisms that fueled the war also led dadaists to resist any particular language, a primary indicator of national identity.

36 PT: HEADER | DIN 18 PT: SUBHEAD | GOUDY 18/18 PT: PULL QUOTES | DIN 9/12 PT: BODY TEXT | GOUDY

FONT COMBINATION RATIONAL These two fonts could probably survive paired together, however they’re not the best choice visually. Though the combination of serifs with sans serifs is a good beginning in finding an effective font pairing, these two fonts in particular are too similiar in weight to provide the necessary contrast to be visually appealing.

Duchamp’s Readymades WHAT IS T O BE C ONSID ER ED ART? Futurism rejected traditions and glorified contemporary life, mainly by emphasizing two dominant themes… Readymades are everyday manufactured goods that are deemed to be art merely by virtue of the artist’s selection of them as such. They were invented by Marcel Duchamp who wanted to test the limits of what qualifies as a work of art. Although he had collected manufactured objects in his studio in Paris, it was not until he came to New York in 1915 that he identified these objects as a category of art, giving the English name “readymade” to any object purchased “as a sculpture already made.” To common household goods, he added signatures and titles, converting them into works of art. When he modified these objects, for example by penning mustache and goatee on the color reproduction of the Mona Lisa, he called them “assisted” or “rectified readymades.” Duchamp’s most scandalous readymade was the porcelain urinal that he turned on its back, titled Fountain, signed R. Mutt (a pun on the German word Armut, or poverty), and submitted to the supposedly jury-free exhibition at the Society of Independent Artists. When it was rejected, the dadaists launched a publicity campaign and defense of the work.

36 PT: HEADER | METASERIFLF-BOLD 18 PT: SUBHEAD | SCALASANS 18/18 PT: PULL QUOTES | METASERIFLF-BOLD 9/12 PT: BODY TEXT | SCALASANS

FONT COMBINATION RATIONAL These two fonts work together because there is a fair amount of contrast between the body text, pull quotes, and header. Though I’m not convinced ScalaSans works well in the context of the subhead.

Typography Unleashed A Prolog ue to Fu turism Futurism rejected traditions and glorified contemporary life, mainly by emphasizing two dominant themes, the machine and motion. Dadaists delighted in uncoventional typographic design, frequently mixing fonts employing unorthodox punctuation, printing both horizontally and vetically on a single sheet, and sprinkling texts with randomly chosen printers’ symbols. This experimentation reflects their fascination with the newly ubiquitous print culture. Tristan Tzara, describing the Dada revolution with graphic describing, noting: “Each page must explode, either by deep and weight seriousness—the whirlwind, the vertigo, the new, the eternal—by the crushing jokes, by the enthusiasm for the principles, or by the manner of being printed.”

36 PT: HEADER | SWIFT 18 PT: SUBHEAD | GOTHAM-LIGHT 18/18 PT: PULL QUOTES | SWIFT 9/12 PT: BODY TEXT | GOTHAM-LIGHT

FONT COMBINATION RATIONAL These two fonts work together because there is a very obvious contrast between Gotham-Light and Swift Bold. It provides interest and variation within the page.

Picture Perfect PH OTO G RAPH Y AND DADAISM DADAISTS EMBRACED PHOTOGRAPHY, RELISHING ITS MODERN METHODS. Since its inception, photography’s validity as an art form has been questioned. As a form of mechanical reproduction, photography was maligned as being more technological than creative. Dadaists, in contrast, embraced photography, relishing its modern means of creation. Their experiments with the medium include use of double exposures, radical perspective, and unconventional subjects. Dadaists also experimented with photograms—camera-less photographic prints that record the placement of objects on photosensitive paper that has been exposed to light; these are among some of the earliest abstract photographs. Man Ray, the dadaist most committed to photography, abandoned painting altogether, largely dedicating his artmaking after 1918 to film and photography.

36 PT: HEADER | SWIFT 18 PT: SUBHEAD | HELVETICA NEUE 18/18 PT: INTRO TEXT, PULL QUOTES: HELVETICA NEUE 9/12 PT: BODY TEXT | SWIFT

FONT COMBINATION RATIONAL These two fonts do not work well together, partially due to the fact that they are far too similar in weight and size. Though the pairing of serif with sans serif should add some interest to the page, the monotony of text weight in this pairing renders that useless.

Abstraction A P rol ogue t o Fut uri sm Futurism rejected traditions and glorified contemporary life, mainly by emphasizing two dominant themes… Abstraction played an important role in the Dada movement from its beginnings at the Cabaret Voltaire in Zurich. Influenced by Vasily Kandinsky, Zurich dadaists understood abstraction as a way of gaining access to a more instinctive inner consciousness. This turn inward was a politically motivated turn against contemporary society, a movement toward pure instinct in the face of failed rationality. The dadaists’ embrace of abstraction reached across any specific artistic category, and became a primary force for creative expression in the visual arts, poetry, dance, and other performances. As Richard Huelsenbeck described: “In that period, as we danced, sang and recited night after night, abstract art was tantamount to absolute honor. “

36PT: HEADER | PALATINO 18 PT: SUBHEAD | TRADE GOTHIC 18/18 PT: INTRO TEXT, PULL QUOTES | PALATINO 9 /12 PT: BODY TEXT | TRADE GOTHIC

Leave it to Chance A Prologue to Futuris m Futurism rejected traditions and glorified contemporary life, mainly by emphasizing two dominant themes, the machine and motion. Skeptical of reason in the wake of the war, dadaists turned to chance as an antidote. The random and the accidental offered a way of letting go of conscious control. “The ‘law of chance,’” Hans Arp wrote, “can be experienced only in a total surrender to the unconscious.” Using chance as a technique for making works of art also presented a critique of the traditional notion of artistic mastery and technical excellence. Artistic creation was no longer firmly in the control of the artist, but instead was instead given over to arbitrary decisionmaking.

36 PT: HEADER | METAPLUSMEDIUM 18 PT: SUBHEAD | BEMBO 18/18 PT: PULL QUOTES | METAPLUSMEDIUM 9/12 PT: BODY TEXT | BEMBO

FONT COMBINATION RATIONAL These two fonts work together because there is a sufficient amount of contrast between the body text/subhead and the pull quotes/header. The difference in weight and letter styles adds the necessary diversity needed for a dynamic page.

Ernst’s Overpainting Ever yt hi ng’s a C anvas [Ernst] overpainted or embellished wallpapers, knitting and crocheting instruction sheets, pages from booklets... The Cologne dadaist Max Ernst created a series of works in which he painted or drew over pages of found print materials. He overpainted or embellished wallpapers, knitting and crocheting instruction sheets, pages from handicraft booklets, and a printer’s vignette catalogue. His favorite source was an 1873 teaching aids supply catalogue advertising models, equipment, and diagrams, mostly for scientific demonstrations. Adding lines and areas of color, he obscured the original function of the sheet, disorienting his viewers with the very sources designed to instruct and educate.

36 PT: HEADER | DIN 18 PT: SUBHEAD | ITC CENTURY-LIGHT 18/18 PT: PULL QUOTES | DIN 9/12 PT: BODY TEXT | ITC CENTURY-LIGHT

FONT COMBINATION RATIONAL These two fonts work together because there is a sufficient amount of contrast between them visually. The difference in weight provides an obvious distinction between the different types and functions of the text.

Photomontage A Pr o lo gue to Futur ism Futurism rejected traditions and glorified contemporary life, mainly by emphasizing two dominant themesâ&#x20AC;Ś Collectively developed by the Berlin Dada group, photomontage is a variation of collage in which pasted items are actual photographs or photographic reproductions culled from the press. The appropriation of the mass media provided endless fodder for the dadaists scathing critiques, and the disjunctive cuts of photomontage effectively captured the fissures and shocks of modernity. Substituting scissors and glue for brushes and paint, and calling themselves monteurs (mechanics) rather than artists, the Berlin dadaists employed photomontage in their radical assault on traditional art. Artists outside of Berlin also experimented with the new technique. In Cologne, Max Ernst frequently used military photographs as source material for photomontages. Pasting together images of planes or bombs with humans, he created haunting machine figures that reflect the destructive capacity of the new technologies used in World War I.

COLUMN WIDTH

WIDOW Having the right amount of characters on each When a paragraph ends and leaves fewer than line is key to the readability of your text. It seven characters (not words, characters) on the shouldn’t merely be your design that dictates last line, that line is called a widow. Worse than the width of your text, it should also be a mat- leaving one word at the end of a line is leavter of legibility. ing part of a word, the other part being paraphrased on the line above. The optimal line length for your body text is considered to be 50-60 characters per line, in- ORPHAN cluding spaces. Reading takes place in small When the last line of a paragraph, be it ever so leaps of 5–10 characters at a time. 55–60 char- long, won’t fit at the bottom of a column and acters per line could be considered an appro- must end itself at the top of the next column, priate line length, allowing the eye 6–12 quick that is an orphan. ALWAYS correct this. stops on each line. Narrower lines would cause the reader to have to switch from line to line RIVERS unnecessarily often, and they also cause prob- In typography, rivers, or rivers of white, are vilems with the way justified columns appear. sually unattractive gaps appearing to run down a paragraph of text. They can occur with any If a line of text is too long the visitor’s eye will spacing, though they are most noticeable with have a hard time focusing on the text. This is wide word spaces caused by either full text jusbecause the length makes it difficult to get an tification or monospaced fonts. idea of where the line starts and ends. Furthermore it can be difficult to continue from the correct line in large blocks of text. If a line is too short the eye will have to travel back too often, breaking the reader’s rhythm. Too short lines also tend to stress people, making them begin on the next line before finishing the current one (hence skipping potentially important words). Never leave widows and orphans bereft on the page. Avoid both of these situations. If you have editing privileges, rewrite the copy, or at least add or delete a word or two. Sometimes you can remove spacing from the letters, words, or lines, depending on which program you’re working in. Sometimes widening a margin just a hair will do it. But it must be done. Widows and orphans on a page are wrong.

CAPTIONS AND NOTES Footnotes and endnotes Footnotes and endnotes are necessary components of scholarly and technical writing. Theyâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;re also frequently used by writers of fiction, from Herman Melville (Moby-Dick) to contemporary novelists.Whether their intent is academic or artistic, footnotes present special typographic challenges. Specifically, a footnote is a text element at the bottom of a page of a book or manuscript that provides additional information about a point made in the main text.The footnote might provide deeper background, offer an alternate interpretation or provide a citation for the source of a quote, idea or statistic. Endnotes serve the same purpose but are grouped together at the end of a chapter, article or book, rather than at the bottom of each page. These general guidelines will help you design footnotes and endnotes that are readable, legible and economical in space. (Note that academic presses and journals can be sticklers for format: before proceeding, check with your client or publisher to see if they have a specific stylesheet that must be followed.) NUMBERS OR SYMBOLS Footnotes are most often indicated by placing a superscript numeral immediately after the text to be referenced. The same superscript numeral then precedes the footnoted text at the bottom of the page. Numbering footnotes is essential when there are many of them, but if footnotes are few they can be marked with a dagger, asterisk, or other symbol instead. Endnotes should always use numerals to facilitate easy referencing.

SIZE Footnotes and endnotes are set smaller than body text. The difference in size is usually about two points, but this can vary depending on the size, style and legibility of the main text. Even though theyâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;re smaller, footnotes and endnotes should still remain at a readable size.

WORDS IN LIBERTY

RADICAL MIX OF ART AND LIFE While Marinetti’s opening manifesto for Italian Futurism bristled with a polemical stance in favor of the transformed present (1909), the later manifestos of Futurist poets and artists offered formal, “technical” approaches to the works then getting under way. The key term--still resonant today--was parole in libertà, by which poetry was to become “an uninterrupted sequence of new images… (a) strict bet of images or analogies, to be cast into the mysterious sea of phenomena.” This freedom-ofthe-world, while it resembled other forms of collage and of image juxtaposition, more fully explored the use of innovative and expressive typography in the visual presentation of language, as set in motion by forerunners like Mallarmé. Outrageous and aggressive, the Futurists’ performances mixed declamation and gesture, events and surroundings, indifference and engagement, to break the barriers between themselves and those who came to jeer or cheer them. Wrote Marinetti selbst (circa 1915), “Everything of any value is theatrical.”

1. Philip Meggs, History of Graphic Design,Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1988 2. parole in liberta = words set free (liberty) 3. selbst = himself

Futurism was first announced on February 20, 1909, when the Paris newspaper Le Figaro published a manifesto by the Italian poet and editor Filippo Tommaso Marinetti. The name Futurism, coined by Marinetti, reflected his emphasis on discarding what he conceived to be the static and irrelevant art of the past and celebrating change, originality, and innovation in culture and society.Futurism rejected traditions and glorified contemporary life, mainly by emphasizing two dominant themes, the machine and motion. The manifesto’s rhetoric was passionately bombastic; its tone was aggressive and inflammatory and was purposely intended to inspire public anger and amazement, to arouse controversy, and to attract widespread attention. A PROLOGUE TO FUTURISM But is is the movements which survive, oddly, here where we live and work as poets and artists: or, if not the movements, then their sense of art as an life itself. All of which, as futurism, had come sharply into focus by the start of the world war: a first radical mix of art and life, the epitome in the poplar mind of an avant-garde. It was, on both its Russian & Italian sides, the first great “art” movement led by poets; and if its means now sometimes seem exaggerated or unripe in retrospect, they carry within them the seed of all that we were later to become. RADICAL MIX OF ART AND LIFE While Marinetti’s opening manifesto for Italian Futurism bristled with a polemical stance in favor of the transformed present (1909), the later manifestos of Futurist poets and artists offered formal, “technical” approaches to the works then getting under way. The key term--still resonant today--was parole in libertà, by which poetry was to become “an uninterrupted sequence of new images… (a) strict bet of images or analogies, to be cast into the mysterious sea of phenomena.” This freedomof-the-world, while it resembled other forms of collage and of image juxtaposition, more fully explored the use of innovative and expressive typography in the visual presentation of language, as set in motion by forerunners like Mallarmé. Outrageous and aggressive, the Futurists’ performances mixed declamation and gesture, events and surroundings, indifference and engagement, to break the barriers between themselves and those who came to jeer or cheer them.Wrote Marinetti selbst (circa 1915), “Everything of any value is theatrical.” 1. Philip Meggs, History of Graphic Design,Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1988 2. parole in liberta = words set free (liberty) 3. selbst = himself

WORDS IN LIBERTY Futurism was first announced on February 20, 1909, when the Paris newspaper Le Figaro published a manifesto by the Italian poet and editor Filippo Tommaso Marinetti. The name Futurism, coined by Marinetti, reflected his emphasis on discarding what he conceived to be the static and irrelevant art of the past and celebrating change, originality, and innovation in culture and society.Futurism rejected traditions and glorified contemporary life, mainly by emphasizing two dominant themes, the machine and motion. The manifesto’s rhetoric was passionately bombastic; its tone was aggressive and inflammatory and was purposely intended to inspire public anger and amazement, to arouse controversy, and to attract widespread attention.

Words in Liberty Futurism was first announced on February 20, 1909, when the Paris newspaper Le Figaro published a manifesto by the Italian poet and editor Filippo Tommaso Marinetti. The name Futurism, coined by Marinetti, reflected his emphasis on discarding what he conceived to be the static and irrelevant art of the past and celebrating change, originality, and innovation in culture and society.Futurism rejected traditions and glorified contemporary life, mainly by emphasizing two dominant themes, the machine and motion.The manifesto’s rhetoric was passionately bombastic; its tone was aggressive and inflammatory and was purposely intended to inspire public anger and amazement, to arouse controversy, and to attract widespread attention.

A Prologue to Futurism But is is the movements which survive, here where we live and work as poets and artists: or, if not the movements, then their sense of art as an life itself. All of which had come sharply into focus by the start of the world war: a first radical mix of art and life, the epitome in the poplar mind of an avant-garde. It was, on both its Russian & Italian sides, the first great “art” movement led by poets; and if its means now sometimes seem exaggerated or unripe in retrospect, they carry within them the seed of all that we were later to become.

Radical mix of art and life While Marinetti’s opening manifesto for Italian Futurism bristled with a polemical stance in favor of the transformed present (1909), the later manifestos of Futurist poets and artists offered formal, “technical” approaches to the works then getting under way. The key term--still resonant today--was parole in libertà, by which poetry was to become “an uninterrupted sequence of new images… (a) strict bet of images or analogies, to be cast into the mysterious sea of phenomena.”This freedom-of-the-world, while it resembled other forms of collage and of image juxtaposition, more fully explored the use of innovative and expressive typography in the visual presentation of language, as set in motion by fore- 1. Philip Meggs, History of Graphic runners like Mallarmé. Outrageous and aggressive, Design, Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1988 the Futurists’ performances mixed declamation 2. parole in liberta = words set free and gesture, events and surroundings, indifference 3. selbst = himself and engagement, to break the barriers between themselves and those who came to jeer or cheer them. Wrote Marinetti selbst (circa 1915), “Everything of any value is theatrical.”

A PROLOGUE TO FUTURISM

RADICAL MIX OF ART AND LIFE 1. Philip Meggs, History of Graphic Design, Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1988 2. parole in liberta = words set free (liberty) 3. selbst = himself

WORDS IN LIBERTY

Futurism was first announced on February 20, 1909, when the Paris newspaper Le Figaro published a manifesto by the Italian poet and editor Filippo Tommaso Marinetti. The name Futurism, coined by Marinetti, reflected his emphasis on discarding what he conceived to be the static and irrelevant art of the past and celebrating change, originality, and innovation in culture and society.Futurism rejected traditions and glorified contemporary life, mainly by emphasizing two dominant themes, the machine and motion. The manifesto’s rhetoric was passionately bombastic; its tone was aggressive and inflammatory and was purposely intended to inspire public anger and amazement, to arouse controversy, and to attract widespread attention. A PROLOGUE TO FUTURISM But is is the movements which survive, oddly, here where we live and work as poets and artists: or, if not the movements, then their sense of art as an life itself. All of which, as futurism, had come sharply into focus by the start of the world war: a first radical mix of art and life, the epitome in the poplar mind of an avant-garde. It was, on both its Russian & Italian sides, the first great “art” movement led by poets; and if its means now sometimes seem exaggerated or unripe in retrospect, they carry within them the seed of all that we were later to become. RADICAL MIX OF ART AND LIFE While Marinetti’s opening manifesto for Italian Futurism bristled with a polemical stance in favor of the transformed present (1909), the later manifestos of Futurist poets and artists offered formal, “technical” approaches to the works then getting under way. The key term--still resonant today--was parole in libertà, by which poetry was to become “an uninterrupted sequence of new images… (a) strict bet of images or analogies, to be cast into the mysterious sea of phenomena.” This freedom-of-the-world, while it resembled other forms of collage and of image juxtaposition, more fully explored the use of innovative and expressive typography in the visual presentation of language, as set in motion by forerunners like Mallarmé. Outrageous and aggressive, the Futurists’ performances mixed declamation and gesture, events and surroundings, indifference and engagement, to break the barriers between themselves and those who came to jeer or cheer them. Wrote Marinetti selbst (circa 1915), “Everything of any value is theatrical.”

WORDS IN LIBERTY 1. Philip Meggs, History of Graphic Design, Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1988 2. parole in liberta = words set free (liberty) 3. selbst = himself

Futurism was first announced on February 20, 1909, when the Paris newspaper Le Figaro published a manifesto by the Italian poet and editor Filippo Tommaso Marinetti. The name Futurism, coined by Marinetti, reflected his emphasis on discarding what he conceived to be the static and irrelevant art of the past and celebrating change, originality, and innovation in culture and society.Futurism rejected traditions and glorified contemporary life, mainly by emphasizing the machine and motion. The manifesto’s rhetoric was passionately bombastic; its tone was aggressive and inflammatory and was purposely intended to inspire public anger and amazement, to arouse controversy, and to attract widespread attention. A PROLOGUE TO FUTURISM But is is the movements which survive, oddly, here where we live and work as poets and artists: or, if not the movements, then their sense of art as an life itself. All of which, as futurism, had come sharply into focus by the start of the world war: a first radical mix of art and life, the epitome in the poplar mind of an avant-garde. It was, on both its Russian & Italian sides, the first great “art” movement led by poets; and if its means now sometimes seem exaggerated or unripe in retrospect, they carry within them the seed of all that we were later to become. RADICAL MIX OF ART AND LIFE While Marinetti’s opening manifesto for Italian Futurism bristled with a polemical stance in favor of the transformed present (1909), the later manifestos of Futurist poets and artists offered formal, “technical” approaches to the works then getting under way. The key term--still resonant today--was parole in libertà, by which poetry was to become “an uninterrupted sequence of new images… (a) strict bet of images or analogies, to be cast into the mysterious sea of phenomena.” This freedomof-the-world, while it resembled other forms of collage and of image juxtaposition, more fully explored the use of innovative and expressive typography in the visual presentation of language, as set in motion by forerunners like Mallarmé. Outrageous and aggressive, the Futurists’ 1. Philip Meggs, History of Graphic Design, performances mixed declamation and gesture, events and surroundings, Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1988 indifference and engagement, to break the barriers between themselves 2. parole in liberta = words set free (liberty) and those who came to jeer or cheer them.Wrote Marinetti selbst (circa 3. selbst = himself 1915), “Everything of any value is theatrical.”

JUSTIFICATION Justify text only if the line is long enough to prevent awkward and inconsistent word spacing.The only time you can safely justify text is if your type is small enough and your line is long enough, as in books where the text goes all the way across the page. If your line is shorter, as in newsletter, or if you don’t have many words on the line, then as the type aligns to the margins the words space themselves to accommodate it. It usually looks awkward.You’ve seen newspaper columns where all text is justified, often with a word stretching all the way across the column, or a little word on either side of the column with a big gap in the middle. Gross. But that’s what can happen with justified type.When you do it, the effect might not be as radical as the newspaper column, but if your lines are relatively short, you will inevitably end up with uncomfortable gaps in some lines, while other lines will be all squished together. When your work comes out of the printer, turn it upside down and squint at it.The rivers will be very easy to spot. Get rid of them.

“When your work comes out of the printer, turn it upside down and squint at it. The rivers will be very easy to spot.”

A general guideline for determining if your line length is long enough to satisfactorily justify the text: the line length in picas should be about twice the point size of the type; that is, if the type you are using is 12 point, the line length should be at least 24 picas (24 picas is 4 inches-simply divide the number of picas by 6, as there are 6 picas per inch). Thus 9-point type should be on an 18pica line (3 inches) before you try to justify it, and 18-point type should be on a 36-pica line (6 inches). The rulers in most programs can be changed to picas, if you like.

WORD SPACING: 60% | 65% | 70% Dada was an artistic and literary movement that began in Zürich, Switzerland. It Dada was an artistic and literary movement that began in Zürich, Switarose as a reaction to World War I and the nationalism that many thought had zerland. It arose as a reaction to World War I and the nationalism that led to the war. Influenced by other avant-garde movements - Cubism, Futurism, many thought had led to the war. Influenced by other avant-garde Constructivism, and Expressionism - its output was wildly diverse, ranging from movements - Cubism, Futurism, Constructivism, and Expressionism performance art to poetry, photography, sculpture, painting, and collage. Da- its output was wildly diverse, ranging from performance art to poetry, da’s aesthetic, marked by its mockery of materialistic and nationalistic attitudes, photography, sculpture, painting, and collage. Dada’s aesthetic, marked proved a powerful influence on artists in many cities, including Berlin, Hanover, by its mockery of materialistic and nationalistic attitudes, proved a Paris, New York, and Cologne, all of which generated their own groups. The powerful influence on artists in many cities, including Berlin, Hanover, movement dissipated with the establishment of Surrealism, but the ideas it gave Paris, New York, and Cologne, all of which generated their own groups. rise to have become the cornerstones of various catogeries of modern and con- The movement dissipated with the establishment of Surrealism, but the temporary art. ideas it gave rise to have become the cornerstones of various catogeries of modern and contemporary art.

WORD SPACING: 100% | 105% | 120% Dada was an artistic and literary movement that began in Zürich, Switzerland. It arose as a reaction to World War I and the nationalism that many thought had led to the war. Influenced by other avant-garde movements - Cubism, Futurism, Constructivism, and Expressionism - its output was wildly diverse, ranging from performance art to poetry, photography, sculpture, painting, and collage. Dada’s aesthetic, marked by its mockery of materialistic and nationalistic attitudes, proved a powerful influence on artists in many cities, including Berlin, Hanover, Paris, New York, and Cologne, all of which generated their own groups. The movement dissipated with the establishment of Surrealism, but the ideas it gave rise to have become the cornerstones of various catogeries of modern and contemporary art.

WORD SPACING: 70% | 75% | 80% Dada was an artistic and literary movement that began in Zürich, Switzerland. It arose as a reaction to World War I and the nationalism that many thought had led to the war. Influenced by other avant-garde movements - Cubism, Futurism, Constructivism, and Expressionism - its output was wildly diverse, ranging from performance art to poetry, photography, sculpture, painting, and collage. Dada’s aesthetic, marked by its mockery of materialistic and nationalistic attitudes, proved a powerful influence on artists in many cities, including Berlin, Hanover, Paris, New York, and Cologne, all of which generated their own groups. The movement dissipated with the establishment of Surrealism, but the ideas it gave rise to have become the cornerstones of various catogeries of modern and contemporary art.

WORD SPACING: 110% | 115% | 130% Dada was an artistic and literary movement that began in Zürich, Switzerland. It arose as a reaction to World War I and the nationalism that many thought had led to the war. Influenced by other avant-garde movements Cubism, Futurism, Constructivism, and Expressionism - its output was wildly diverse, ranging from performance art to poetry, photography, sculpture, painting, and collage. Dada’s aesthetic, marked by its mockery of materialistic and nationalistic attitudes, proved a powerful influence on artists in many cities, including Berlin, Hanover, Paris, New York, and Cologne, all of which generated their own groups. The movement dissipated with the establishment of Surrealism, but the ideas it gave rise to have become the cornerstones of various catogeries of modern and contemporary art.

WORD SPACING: 90% | 95% | 110% Dada was an artistic and literary movement that began in Zürich, Switzerland. It arose as a reaction to World War I and the nationalism that many thought had led to the war. Influenced by other avant-garde movements - Cubism, Futurism, Constructivism, and Expressionism - its output was wildly diverse, ranging from performance art to poetry, photography, sculpture, painting, and collage. Dada’s aesthetic, marked by its mockery of materialistic and nationalistic attitudes, proved a powerful influence on artists in many cities, including Berlin, Hanover, Paris, New York, and Cologne, all of which generated their own groups. The movement dissipated with the establishment of Surrealism, but the ideas it gave rise to have become the cornerstones of various catogeries of modern and contemporary art.

Dada was an artistic and literary movement that began in Zürich, Switzerland. It arose as a reaction to World War I and the nationalism that many thought had led to the war. Influenced by other avant-garde movements - Cubism, Futurism, Constructivism, and Expressionism - its output was wildly diverse, ranging from performance art to poetry, photography, sculpture, painting, and collage. Dada’s aesthetic, marked by its mockery of materialistic and nationalistic attitudes, proved a powerful influence on artists in many cities, including Berlin, Hanover, Paris, New York, and Cologne, all of which generated their own groups. The movement dissipated with the establishment of Surrealism, but the ideas it gave rise to have become the cornerstones of various catogeries of modern and contemporary art.

EXERCISE OVERVIEW:

The most effective justification settings for the fonts/text size shown are a minimum word spacing of 60%, desired 65%, and a maximum of 75%. These settings, featured in the first example, are the most effective because they result in the least amount of rivers/inconsistencies in the text. The worst spacing settings for the text shown are 110%, 115%, 130%. These settings result in obvious rivers and gaps in the text, making it hard to read.

A N AT O M Y O F T Y P O G R A P H Y

APERTURE The aperture is the partially enclosed, somewhat rounded negative space in some characters such as n, C, S, the lower part of e, or the upper part of a double-storey a. Also Known As: counter In typography, a counter or aperture is an area entirely or partially...

ASCENDER LINE The invisible line marking the height of ascenders in a font.

APEX A point at the top of a character where two strokes meet. Definition:The point at the top of a character such as the uppercase A where the left and right strokes meet is the apex.The apex may be a sharp point, blunt, or rounded and is an identifying feature for some typefaces.

ASCENT LINE The invisible line marking the farthest distance between the baseline and the top of the glyph.

ARC OF STEM A curved stroke that is continuous with a straight stem.

AXIS An imaginary line drawn from top to bottom of a glyph bisecting the upper and lower strokes is the axis.

ARM A horizontal or upward, sloping stroke that does not connect to a stroke or stem on one or both ends.

ASCENDER An upward vertical stroke found on the part of lowercase letters that extends above the typefaceâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s x-height. The height of the ascenders is an identifying characteristic of many typefaces.

BALL TERMINAL A circular form at the end of the arm in letters. Many sources consider a terminal to be just the end (straight or curved) of any stroke that doesnâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t include a serif.

BODY HEIGHT The complete area covered by all of the characters in a font. In typography, the body height refers to the distance between the top of the tallest letterform to the bottom of the lowest one.

BAR The horizontal stroke in letters. Also referred to as Crossbar. The horizontal or sloping stroke enclosing the bottom of the eye of an e is also a bar.

BOWL The fully closed, rounded part of a letter.

BASELINE The invisible line where all characters sit. In most typefaces, the descenders on characters such as g or p extend down below the baseline while curved letters such as c or o extend ever-so-slightly below the baseline.

BRACKET The bracket is a curved or wedge-like connection between the stem and serif of some fonts. Not all serifs are bracketed serifs. Brackets can have different shapes with deep or gentle curves. Brackets may taper.

BEAK A sharp spur, found particularly at the top of letters in some 20th centry Romans. Definition: A beak is a type of decorative stroke at the end of the arm of a letter, connected to the arm by the terminal. Similar to a spur or serif, it is usually more pronounced.

BILATERAL SERIFS A serif extending to both sides of a main stroke. They are reflexive.

CAP HEIGHT The height of a capital letter measured from the baseline. In typography, cap height refers to the height of a capital letter above the baseline for a particular typeface. It specifically refers to the height of capital letters that are flat—such as H or I—as opposed to round letters such as O, or pointed letters.

DESCENDER The part of the letters that extends below the baseline. The portion of some lowercase letters, such as g and y, that extends or descends below the baseline is the descender. The length and shape of the descender can affect readability of lines of type and is an identifying factor for some typefaces.

CAP LINE A line marking the height of a font’s uppercase letters.

DESCENDER LINE The invisible line marking the lowest point of the descenders within a font.

CROSS STROKE A horizontal stroke that intersects the stem of a lowercase t or f.

DESCENT LINE The invisible line marking the farthest distance between the baseline and the bottom of the glyph.

CROSSBAR The horizontal stroke in letters. Also known as a Bar.

DIACRITIC A ancillary mark or sign added to a letter. Diacriticals are the accent marks used on some characters to denote a specific pronounciation. Rare in English, they are a common occurrence in French, German, Italian, Spanish, and other languages.

CROTCH An acute, inside angle where two strokes meet.

DIAGONAL STROKE An angled stroke.

DOT A small distinguishing mark, such as an diacritic on a lowercase i or j. Also known as a Tittle.

FINIAL A tapered or curved end.

EAR A small stroke extending from the upper-right side of the bowl of lowercase g; also appears in the angled or curved lowercase r.

FLAG The horizontal stroke present on the numeral 5.

EYE Much like a counter, the eye refers specifically to the enclosed space in a lowercase â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;eâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;. Also Known As: counter

HAIRLINE A thin stroke usually common to serif typefaces. In typeface anatomy, a hairline is the thinnest stroke found in a specific typeface that consists of strokes of varying widths. Hairline is often used to refer to a hairline rule, the thinnest graphic rule (line) printable on a specific output device.

HOOK A curved, protruding stroke in a terminal. Usually found on a lowercase f. Something curved or bent like a hook.

ITALICS A cursive alphabet which is matched with a roman font and used along chiefly for emphasis. While roman typefaces are upright, italic typefaces slant to the right.

LOWERCASE The smaller form of letters in a typeface. The little letters or non-capital letters of the alphabet are lowercase glyphs. They make up the bulk of written text, with uppercase or capital letters used primarily only to start sentences or proper names.

MEAN LINE Imaginary line running along the top of non-ascending, lowercase letters. The meanline falls at the top of many lowercase letters such as “e,” “g” and “y.” It is also at the curve of letters like “h.”

LEG Short, descending portion of a letter. The lower, down sloping stroke of the K and k is called a leg. The same stroke on R as well as the tail of a Q is sometimes also called a leg. Also Known As: tail A branch or part of an object or system.

LIGATURE Two or more letters are joined together to form one glyph or character. In typography some ligatures represent specific sounds or words such as the AE or æ diphthong ligature. Other ligatures are primarily to make type more attractive on the page.

LINK A stroke that connects the top and bottom bowls of lowercase double-story g’s. In typeface anatomy, the link is that small, usually curved stroke that connects the bowl and loop of a double-storey g. Also Known As: neck, terminal A connecting element or factor.

LOBE A rounded projecting stoke attached to the main structure of a letter. A curved or rounded projection or division.

LOOP The enclosed or partially enclosed counter below the baseline of a double-story g. In a double-storey g, the loop is the enclosed or partially enclosed counter below the baseline that is connected to the bowl by a link.

OLD-STYLE FIGURES Numbers with varying heights, some aligning to the baseline and some below. Style of Arabic Numerals where the characters appear at different positions and heights as opposed to the modern style of all numerals at the same size and position are called Old Style Figures.

SERIF A stroke added as a stop to the beginning and end of the main strokes of a character. In typography, a serif is the extra stroke found at the end of main vertical and horizontal strokes of some letterforms.

OPEN COUNTER The partially open space within a character that is open on one end.

SHOULDER The curved stroke aiming downward from a stem. The curve at the beginning of a leg of a character, such as in an “m.”

OVERSHOOT Ascenders extending into the space of a following character. In typeface design, the overshoot of a round or pointed capital letter (like O or A) is the degree to which it extends higher or lower than a comparably sized “flat” letter (like X or H), to achieve an optical effect of being the same size.

SPINE The main curved stroke of a lowercase or capital S. The spine is the main left to right curving stroke in S and s. The spine may be almost vertical or mostly horizontal, depending on the typeface.

SPUR A small projection off a main stroke.

STEM Vertical, full-length stroke in upright characters. The stem is the main, usually vertical stroke of a letterform. Also Known As: stroke A main or heavy stroke of a letter.

STROKE A straight or curved diagonal line. The main diagonal portion of a letterform such as in N, M, or Y is the stroke. The stroke is secondary to the main stem(s).

SWASH A flourish addition replacing a terminal or serif. A swash is a typographical flourish on a glyph, like an exaggerated serif. Capital swash characters, which extended to the left, were historically often used to begin sentences.

TAIL A descending stroke, often decorative. In typography, the descending, often decorative stroke on the letter Q or the descending, often curved diagonal stroke on K or R is the tail. The descender on g, j, p, q, and y are also called tails. The back, last, or lower part of something.

TEARDROP TERMINAL The teardropped ends of strokes in letters of some typefaces.

TERMINAL The end of a stroke that does not include a serif. In typography, the terminal is a type of curve. Many sources consider a terminal to be just the end (straight or curved) of any stroke that doesnâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t include a serif.

HUMANISTIC

GARALDE Appeared during the French Renaissance period.The name ‘garaldes’ is a contraction of the names of the French punchcutter Claude Garamond and of the Venetian printer Aldus Manutius.The first garaldes were based on the humanists, but they are more sophisticated, have narrower proportions and more fluent transitions.

The oldest Italian, mostly Venetian, printing type, designed at the end of the fifteenth century during the Italian Renaissance, are based on the handwriting of the humanists. This script went back to the Carolingian minuscule of the ninth century. In 1470, Nicolas Jenson, a French printer who worked in Venice, was one of the first to cut a refined humanistic typeface. This is generally seen as the prime example for the first group of types we use to this day: the humanists.

TRANSITIONAL

MODERN OR DIDONE

The transitionals are early neoclassical typefaces that appeared in the middle of the eighteenth century and were usually designed for a specific purpose. They are seen as the first types that were really designed. These mark the transition between the Renaissance and neoclassicism.

These are the late neoclassical seriffed types and their name is a combination of the French printing family Didot and the Italian printer Bodoni of Parma. The typeface Bodoni by Giambattista Bodoni, also known as the ‘king of the typographers’ (principe dei tipografi) or ‘printer to the kings’, is seen as the highlight of the didones.

SLAB-SERIF

HUMANISTIC SANS-SERIF

The slab-serifs are constructed typefaces and in general have hardly any thick-thin contrast. Some early slab-serifs are called egyptians – after the popularity of the Napoleonic campaign in Egypt and the resulting interest in Egyptology. (Confusingly, many of the geometrically constructed slab-serifs designed a hundred years later all bear egyptian place names such as Karnak, Luxor, Memphis etc., but they have nothing to do with the shape of the earlier egyptians which used the Grotesque form as their basis.) The Clarendon typeface is so typical for this group that in some English classifications the term ‘slab-serif ’ is replaced with ‘Clarendon’.

Sans-serifs are typefaces that owe their essential form to writing. The French word ‘linéal’ unsurprisingly means ‘advancing in a straight line.’ They first appeared at the beginning of the nineteenth century (Caslon Foundry, 1812/14), but only in capitals. The first sans-serif with lowercase appeared in England in 1834. Towards the end of the nineteenth century, every self-respecting foundry had a number of sans-serif typefaces with several variants. The humanistic sans-serifs are different because they follow the proportions of the classical Roman capital for the capitals and the humanistic manuscript hand for lowercase letters.

GROTESQUE SANS-SERIF The sans-serif grotesques appeared as a result of the popularity of the Swiss style of typography after the Second World War. Sans-serif started to get used more and more frequently with the advent of the Helvetica in 1957, created by the Swiss Max Miedinger.

GEOMETRIC SANS-SERIF The geometric sans-serifs seem to be drawn with ruler and compass. It takes a lot of skill to produce clearly legible typography with these typefaces. Good microtypography, such as choosing the right letter spacing and line interval, is very important.

“When typography is on point, words become images.” Shawn Lukas