FOUNDATION WALLS Provides support for the substructure above and it has to resist active soil pressure from the outside and wind and seismic forces (Ching, 2014). The size of the footing is based on the foundation wall load and the allowable bearing capacity of the underlying soil (Ching, 2014). CONCRETE FOUNDATION WALL In situ concrete foundation walls CONCRETE MASONRY FOUNDATION WALL Utilize easily handled small units and do not require framework.
Strings in tension hold the membrane structural system in shape (pulls the middle of the membrane canopy down to avoid water build up)
Drainage for rain water
Most of the load will pass through the concrete structural frames to the ground. Some of the loads will pass through the window and door aluminium frames so that the pressure of the load won’t break the glass.
jjj
Frame structural system
Stretcher course with raked motar joints
Expansion joint to accommodate the expansion and contraction of the bricks. Weep holes provide ventilation and provides a drainage system to allow water and condensation to escape the wall
Fixed joint: iron bar (cantilever) to wall Tension in steel rope when load is applied
Galvanized steel used on the steps because they last longer and the iron inside doesn’t rust.
FLOOR SYSTEMS CONCRETE SLABS: One-way slabs vs two-way slabs Use Structure One Way Suitable for light to moderate loads Slabs over relatively shorter spans (Ching, 2008)
Supported on two sides (may be supported by beams or load bearding walls) (Ching, 2008). Reinforcement beams are supported by girders or columns
Short spans between joists means loads have to be over relatively shorter spans as well Joist or Ribbed Slabs
Suitable for light to medium live loads. Longer spans require posttensioning (Ching, 2008).
Broad and shallow supporting beam that is economical to form because its depth is the same as the joists (Ching, 2008) Distribution rib distributes possible load concentration over a larger area (Ching, 2008)
Two-way Slabs
Suitable for medium spans and heavy loads, or when high resistance to lateral forces is required. Usually constructed without beams (Ching, 2008)
Slabs divided into column and middle strips to simplify the placement of reinforcing steel (Ching, 2008)
More efficient when spanning square or nearly square bays (Ching, 2008) Waffle Slab Carry heavier loads and span longer distances than flat slabs (Ching, 2008)
Solid heads at column supports for greater shear strength and moment-resisting capacity (Ching, 2008)
Flat Plate
Flat Slab
Concrete slab that is reinforced in two or more directions (Ching, 2008). Simplicity of forming, lower floor-to-floor heights, and flexibility in column placements make them practical for apartment and hotel construction (Ching, 2008). Suitable for light to moderate live loads over short spans (Ching, 2008). Suitable for relatively heavy loads (Ching, 2008)
Flat plate Thicker at column supports to increase shear strength and moment-resisting capacity (Ching, 2008).
Concrete Usage
Precast Retaining walls, walls, columns (W04_m3 PRE CAST CONCRETE, 2014)
Manufacturing Process
Cast, steamed and cured off sight and transferred to the construction site (Ching, 2008).
Disadvantages
Size limitation (W04_m3 PRE CAST CONCRETE, 2014)
Advantages
Better quality More standardized outcomes Allow work to progress at a faster rate Climate proof (W04_m3 PRE CAST CONCRETE, 2014) Construction joints: joints that are necessary in construction when one
Joins used
In-situ Footings, retaining walls, nonstandard structural elements (W04_m3 PRE CAST CONCRETE, 2014) Sprayed Concrete: landscapes, basement walls, swimming pools (W04_m3 PRE CAST CONCRETE, 2014). Concrete arrives on site assembly of formwork place reinforcement pour concrete vibration curing (W04_m3 PRE CAST CONCRETE, 2014) Limited time before concrete hardens Labour intensive process Difficult to control strength and quality (W04_m3 PRE CAST CONCRETE, 2014)
Construction joints: occurs when dividing construction into
material meets another or when there needs to be a gap between materials(W04_m3 PRE CAST CONCRETE, 2014). Structural joints: How 2 elements are connected to operate in concert with each other (W04_m3 PRE CAST CONCRETE, 2014).
Beam Spacing
Span
Joist
smaller sections (W04_m3 PRE CAST CONCRETE, 2014). Control Joints: accommodates the expansion and contraction of concrete; ensures that concrete doesn’t crack by controlling the amount it expands (W04_m3 PRE CAST CONCRETE, 2014)
Activity
Engineered Timber Products Laminated Veneer Lumber Laminating thin sheets of timber together
Properties
Properties
Grain aligned lengthways High Strength Used for structural systems (beams, posts, portal frames)
(DIY trade, 2009) Glulam Glue laminated timber (back sawn)
Grain aligned lengthways Used for structural systems (beams, posts, portal frames) Glued pieces of dress sawn timber
(Boise Cascade, 2009) Cross Laminated Grain laid in alternating direction Timber Provides strength in 2 direction Gluing and Used in structural panels pressing thin laminated together
Sheet Products Plywood Pressed thin laminates
Medium Density Fibreboard Made by breaking down hardwood or softwood waste into small fibres
Grains in alternating direction Used in structural bracing, flooring, formwork and joinery
Glued with wax and resin and bound by applying high temp. and pressure More dense than plywood Even quality Used for non-structural application (joinery)
2 strand board Made by layering hardwood and softwood residuals
Used as part of the structural system (eg flooring), cladding finishes and bracing
Timber Flanged steel web joists
Light Steel Tubes
Timber Sheet Material
I-Beam: Used for floor joists and rafters because they have high strength to weight ration and are lightweight
LVL Flanges: Top and bottom flanges resist bending, tension and compressive strength (Woods Product Victoria, 2009)
Box beams Used for floor joists and rafters 2 web members allows for the member to have a decorative face and wiring to run through the middle (Woods Product Victoria, 2009) COLUMNS Short columns: Shorter, thicker load applied to the column cross section does not exceed the compressive strength of the material (Ching, 2008). Compressive Strength (Pa) = Load (N) / area (mm2) Fails by crushing Shear failure of column at the Chemistry Building, Tohoku University, Sendai, JAPAN 2011 http://reidmiddleton.ďŹ les.wordpress.com/2011/06/ chemistry-bldg-colum-shear-failure.jpg
Long Columns: Colum length to smaller cross section >12:1 Fails by buckling
Fixed/ Fixed
Pin/Pin
Pin/Fixed
Roller/Fixed
Roller/Pin
FRAMES Bracing to resist lateral forces (rigid frame) (Ching, 2008) Fixed frame: more resistant to deflection, but more sensitive to support settlements and thermal expansion and contraction Fixed joints Hinged frame Pin joints: prevents high bending stresses by allowing the frame to rotate as a unit, and sit flexes slightly when stressed by temperature change Three-hinged frame: 2 rigid frames connected by a pin joint (Ching, 2008) More sensitive to deflection, but least affected support settlements and thermal stresses (Ching, 2008). (Ching, 2008)
Pin Joints
LOADBEARING WALLS Most effective when carrying coplanar, uniformly distributed loads Most vulnerable to forces perpendicular to their planes. Any openings on loadbearing walls weakens it and the lintel or arch must support the load above so that the stresses will travel around the door/window and to the ground
ACTIVITY Architecture plan
Footing
LOAD PATHS
(Feng, 2014)
TRUSSES Tension Compression
Flat trusses: not as efficient as pitch or bowstring trusses
Pratt Truss: more efficient to use a truss type in which the longer web members are loaded in tension Howe Truss: vertical members are in tension Belgian Truss
Metal or cement roof decking
Members are bolted or welded with gusset plate connectors
Lateral bracing to hold loads Gaps for mechanical services such as electricity and ventilation
Trusses use fewer materials and can hold heavy loads ROOFS Flat Roofs Slopes about 3â ° Efficiently covers a building and may be structured and designed to serve as an outdoor space Not completely flat to avoid ponding
Structure of flat roof Reinforced concrete slab Flat timber or steel Truss
Timber or steel beams and decking
Wood or steel joists and sheathings
Sloping Roofs Materials used, requirements for underlayment and eave flashing depends on the slope (Ching, 2008) Tiles >15â ° Sheet metal roofing >5â ° Sheds rainwater easily to eave gutters (Ching, 2008)
Activity
WATER PROOFING 3 MAIN STRATEGIES: 1. Remove any openings 2. Keep water away from openings 3. Neutralize forces that move water (Gravity, momentum, pressure, etc.) Tank
Used to waterproof basement Membrane made from artificial rubber Wrapped around construction
Agricultural Drainage Aggregate
Slotted plastic pipe
Drip System
Prevents water from clinging to the underside of the surface
Tiles or weather proofing boards
Tiles
Weatherboards
Momentum
Gaps in complex labyrinth shape
Rain Screen
PEC (Pressure equal chamber) created by placing an air barrier o the internal side of the labyrinth. This will equalize the pressure so that water will not be pushed inside.
Remove openings
Openings can be removed by using silicon rubber to cover any gaps, or doors and windows may simply be omitted when constructing the structure
Heat Heat gain/loss occurs when: 1. Heat is conducted through the building envelope 2. Building envelope and building elements are subjected to radiant heat sources 3. Thermal mass is used to regulate the flow of heat through the building envelope
Ways to control heat: THERMAL INSULATION reduces heat conduction DOUBLE OR TRIPLE GLAZING co that the air spaces between glass panes reduces the flow of heat THERMAL BREAKS made from low conductive materials to reduce heat transfer RADIATION CONTROL uses reflective surfaces to reduce building elements from becoming warm SHADING SYSTEM such as eaves, blinds, screens, vegetation and verandas Large areas of exposed THERMAL MASS can be used to store head (suitable for places with large differenced in temperature between day and night), includes masonry, concrete and waterbodies. Air Leakage Eliminate openings and air present at openings Neutralize forces that move air Wrap the building in polyethene or reflective foil sparking to provide an air barrier Weather stripping around doors, windows and other openings RUBBER Types of rubber Synthetic EPDM
Use
Neoprene
Control Joints
Silicone
Seal
Natural
Seals, flooring, insulation, piping, hosing, gasket, control joints
Gasket and control joints
Considerations Rubber may deteriorate when exposed to weather, especially sunlight
PLASTIC Thermo Plastic: Mouldable when heater Hard when cooled Can be recycled Thermosetting Plastic: Can only be shaped once Elastomers: Synthetic Rubbers Considerations: can degrade in the sunlight which makes it brittle Needs to be checked and maintained regularly Can expand and contract PAINT Oil Based paint: Good high gloss finish Not water soluble Water Based Paint Safer for painter’s health Durable and flexible Tools can be cleaned easily Considerations: Needs to resist chipping cracking and peeling Fading may occur due to exposure to UV light
GLASS Flat Glass Clear Float Glass
Laminated Glass
Tempered Glass
Simplest to manufacture cheapest Tough plastic interlayer is bonded together between 2 glass panes Quenched Bending strength is 4-5 times greater than annealed glass
Tinted Glass Wired Glass
Like laminated but with steel wire
Shaped Glass Glass Fibres Curved Glass
Produced in moulds
Glass Channels
Used for low risk areas Breaks into sharp dangerous shards Improved safety and security Glass fragments adhere to plastic when shattered Used in highly exposed situations or when large panes of glass are required Shatters into small pelletshaped fragments Useful in sun-exposed situations as it reduces UV light Accepted as low cost fire glass
Used in telecommunication Expensive as moulds have to be designed Used in faรงade system
DOORS
Rough Opening Door Leaf Door Stop
Head Door Jamb
Architrave
Handle
Door Sill
Swing
WINDOWS Aluminium
(Ching, 2008)
Timber
BUCKLING Column
Beams under different loads
Deflection Bending Moment
Resisting Moment Bending stress
(Ching, 2008)
Aluminium Fascia (1mm thick) Aluminium Flashing (0.48mm) Fibreglass Roof Sheet (1.4, 1.8mm) Timber Beam
Plywood (20mm) LVL
External Timber Batten Screen Insect Screen
ANNOTATIONS WATERPROOFING: Small overhang of aluminium fascia so that rain water won’t damage the plywood inside (drip system) Flashing redirects water away from the structure Slope on surface of structure also serves to redirect water Timber beams support the fibreglass roof sheet
COMPOSITE MATERIALS (W09_m1 Composite Materials 2014) Composite Material Fibre reinforced cement
Composition Cellulose fibre, cement, sand and water
Usage Cladding for exterior or interior walls and floor panels
Fibre glass
Glass fibres and epoxy resin
Aluminium Sheet Composite
Aluminium and plastic
Transparent roof/ wall cladding, preformed shaped products Feature cladding material
Timber Composite
Timber with engineered timber and galvanized press steel
Beams and trusses
Fibre reinforced polymers
Polymers with timber, glass or carbon fibres
Decking, external cladding, beams and columns for pedestrian bridges
Benefits Fire resistant, resistant to permanent and water damage, rotting and warping Fire resistant, weather proof, light weight and strong Less expensive sheets can be manufactured that is weather resistance, unbreakable and shock resistant Uses minimum material, maximum efficiency, cost effective, easy to install and accommodate services High strength to weight ratio, corrosion resistant
MOVEMENT JOINTS Expansion joints: Continuous, unobstructed slots Constructed between 2 parts of a structure, permitting thermal or moisture expansion to occur Can be control or isolation joints Control joints: Continuous grooves of separations formed in concrete gravel slabs and concrete masonry walls to form a plane of weakness Isolation Joints: Divides a large or geometrically complex structure into sections so that different movements or settlements can occur between parts
FINISHES Plaster Gysum plaster: most commonly used Durable, light weight, fire resistant
Metal Lath: A plaster base fabricated of expanded metal or of wire fabric that is galvanized or coated with rustinhibiting paint (Ching, 2008). Gypsum Lath: A panel having an air entertained core of hardened gypsum plaster faced with fibrous, absorbent paper to which plaster adheres (Ching, 2008) Trim Accessories: Various accessories made of galvanised steel are used to protect and reinforce the edges and corners of plaster surfaces (Ching, 2008).
ACTIVITY
Basement (Parking lot) Load path
Precast Concrete for the basement walls (load bearing walls)
Sprinklers (Fire proofing) Reinforced block work
Services (electricity and gas)
Roof
Hand rails (health and safety regulations to keep workers safe) Ponding
Drain to remove water after rooftop garden is placed
Water tank
Preparations for solar panel instalment Steel beams with holes for water drainage. This reduces corrosion of the steel members
Hole to drain water
Steel Stud wall
Services (electricity wiring)
Nogging to help strengthen vertical members to prevent buckling
MATERIAL SELECTION Considerations Health (IEQ)
Heroes Water based paint Bamboo Termimesh Fibre cloth
Source & Waste
Bamboo Recycled materials Sizalation
Energy
Australian made goods Timber Diodes
Pollution
Linoleum flooring Natural linseed Wool
Lifecycle
Villains Paints (VLCs) Glues Timber floor finishes Carpets (retain dust) Cleaning Chemicals Hardwood (Timber) Tiling
Aluminium Down lights Thing with low energy rating Imported goods PVC Cigarette smoke External pollution
Problem Reduce lifespan Nausea Asthma Sick days Comfort
Solution Reduce dust minimize horizontal shelves Cleaning products
Takes up space Limited resources Waste of money Breeds disease Climate Change Wasteful Global warming Pollution created Global warming
Use renewable resources
Embodied energy Higher star rating
Minimize waste Choose natural organic materials Timeless materials Materials that are easy to disassemble and reuse
LATERAL FORCES Caused by earthquake and wind loads Wind: a function of the size of the exposed surface area to the wind. It acts on the surface with minimum value at the base and maximum value on the highest element. Tall thin slaps are most effected by wind loads Earthquake load: a function of the amount of mass above the foundation. Acts on the base. Resisting lateral loads 1. Bracing of buildings 2. Diaphragms and sheer walls 3. Moment joints Diaphragms: -
Resist and collect lateral forces in the horizontal planes of a structure and transfers them to the vertical bearing elements (W10 s1 Lateral Supports, 2014) Rigid materials with sufficient bracing are considered to be diaphragms (W10 s1 Lateral Supports, 2014)
Braced Frames: -
Truss structures that provide diagonal paths for moving the lateral loads through the structure’s vertical planes (W10 s1 Lateral Supports, 2014) Most commonly use x and k bracing (W10 s1 Lateral Supports, 2014)
Shear Walls: -
Structural elements made from rigid elements that resist lateral loads in the vertical plane (W10 s1 Lateral Supports, 2014) Collect lateral loads from the horizontal resisting elements and transfer them to the foundation (W10 s1 Lateral Supports, 2014) Must have sufficient rigidity to accommodate any discontinuity in the geometry of the structural frame (W10 s1 Lateral Supports, 2014)
Seismic Base Isolators -
-
There are connections placed between foundations and the substructure that allows the substructure and superstructure to move independently of the foundation during earthquakes (W10 s1 Lateral Supports, 2014) Constructed of layers of steel and rubber with a central load core, nylon sliders or rollers base isolators require special connections for utilities entering and exiting the building (W10 s1 Lateral Supports, 2014)
Moment resisting frames: -
-
Structural systems that are constructed with rigidly connected joints that provides a continuous interface between the horizontal and vertical elements and makes the frame rigid enough to act as a monolithic unit under the impact of lateral loads (W10 s1 Lateral Supports, 2014) lateral loads are resisted by the rotation of the beam and column joints as well as the bending action of the beams and columns (W10 s1 Lateral Supports, 2014)
Design considerations for wind loads: -
Wind loads heavily influences the designs of tall narrow multi-storey buildings (W10 s1 Lateral Supports, 2014) when height of a building is much greater than its width, it might result in drift and lateral instability (W10 s1 Lateral Supports, 2014)
Design considerations for seismic loads: -
Form, geography, scale and arrangement of building mass and structure are significant Buildings that have regular configuration are those that provide a direct path for load transfer and have a symmetrical geometry (W10 s1 Lateral Supports, 2014). These buildings perform better
ACTIVITY
Aluminium Fascia Fibreglass roof sheet
WATERPROOFING Aluminium Fascia over hangs a little, creating a drip system Flashing under the aluminium fascia redirects the water away from the structure Slope of aluminium fascia redirects water off the structure Timber beam supporting fibreglass roof sheet Plywood and LVL are structural elements used to hold the canopy together Aluminium products are used as they are relatively cheap and light weight.
WORKSHOP Group 1 Deflection: 42mm Point Load: 370 kg Materials: 1200 x 3.2 x 90mm Ply x 2 1200 x 35 x 35mm Pine x 2 Block of pine placed in the middle to keep the plywood together where the load will be placed
Plywood holds more loads in this orientation, but if not enough nails are placed along the top, it will buckle
Plywood buckled where there weren’t enough fixings
Group 3 Deflection: 68mm Point load: 340 kg Materials: 1200 x 3.2 x 90 mm Ply x 1 1200 x 35 x 35mm Pine x 3
Short column: fail by crushing. Can hold heavier loads than long columns
Large spacing between columns. Weak point and most likely to break between columns first
Group 2 Deflection: 33mm Point Load: 180 kg Materials 1200 x 3.2 x 90mm Ply x 2 1200 x 42 x 18 mm Pine x 2
Large spacing between columns. Most likely to break in this area
Plywood used to strengthen joints
Broke at weak point, but the plywood column joints did not take any damage
Group 4 Deflection: 70mm Point Load: 460 kg Materials 1200 x 3.2 x 90 mm Ply x 1 1200 x 24 x 18 mm Pine x 3
Upside down
Plywood placed on the bottom as extra reinforcement, though it would probably have been more effective if it was put on the sides
Grain direction allows the beam to hold more loads
Middle pinewood broke first because there were too many nails in it
Plywood came loose. Needed to use screws rather than nails as they have more holding power
GLOSSARY Deflection: the perpendicular distance a spanning member deviates from a true course (Ching, 2008) Bending moment: an external moment tending to cause part of a structure to rotate or bend (Ching, 2008) Resisting moment: an internal moment equal and opposite to a bending moment (Ching, 2008) Bending stress: a combination of compressive and tension stresses developed at a cross section of a structural member (Ching, 2008) Moment: the magnitude of force that influences the rotation of an object Retaining walls: a structure that retains (holds back) any material (usually earth) and prevents it from sliding or eroding away(Dictionary of construction, 2014). Strip Footings: continuous foundation of which the length considerably exceeds the breadth(Dictionary of construction, 2014). Pad Footings: A thick slab-type foundation used to support a structure or a piece of equipment(Dictionary of construction, 2014). Slab on Grade: A type of construction in which footings are needed but little or no foundation wall is poured (Dictionary of construction, 2014). Substructure: The foundation of a building that supports the superstructure (Dictionary of construction, 2014). Joists: Parallel beams of timber, concrete, or steel used to support floor and ceiling systems(Dictionary of construction, 2014). Steel Decking: Light-gauge, corrugated metal sheets used in constructing roofs or floors (Dictionary of construction, 2014). Span: The distance between the inside surfaces of the two supports of a structural member (Dictionary of construction, 2014) Girder: A large principal beam of steel, reinforced concrete, wood, or a combination of these, used to support other structural members at isolated points along its length (Dictionary of construction, 2014) Concrete Plank: A hollow-core or solid, flat beam used for floor or roof decking. Concrete planks are usually precast and prestressed (Dictionary of construction, 2014). Spacing: the position (two or more items) at a distance from one another (Dictionary of construction, 2014) Stud: an upright timber in the wall of a building to which laths and plasterboard are nailed (Dictionary of construction, 2014). Nogging: a horizontal piece of wood fixed to a framework to strengthen it (Dictionary of construction, 2014). Lintel: A horizontal supporting member, installed above an opening such as a window or a door, that serves to carry the weight of the wall above it (Dictionary of construction, 2014). Seasoned timber: timber dried to a moisture content that is stable Axial Load: The longitudinal force acting on a structural member Buckling: The collapse of a slender vertical element which has been subjected to compression, leading to a sudden sideways deflection (Dictionary of construction, 2014). Rafter: One of a series of sloping parallel beams used to support a roof covering (Dictionary of construction, 2014). Purlin: One of several horizontal structural members that support roof loads and transfer them to roof beams (Dictionary of construction, 2014). Cantilever: a long projecting beam or girder fixed at only one end (Dictionary of construction, 2014). Eaves: the part of a roof that projects beyond the outside walls of a building Portal Frame: a rigid structural frame consisting essentially of two uprights connected at the top by a third member (Dictionary of construction, 2014). Alloy : a metal made by combining two or more metallic elements
Soffit: the underside of an architectural structure such as an arch, a balcony, or overhanging eaves (Dictionary of construction, 2014). Top Chord: The upper section of a truss Drip: A groove in the underside of a projection, such as a windowsill, that prevents water from running back into the building wall (Dictionary of construction, 2014). Vapour Barrier: Material used to prevent the passage of vapor or moisture into a structure or another material, thus preventing condensation within them. See also perm (Dictionary of construction, 2014). Gutter: A shallow channel of wood, metal, or PVC positioned just below and following along the eaves of a building for the purpose of collecting and diverting water from a roof (Dictionary of construction, 2014). Parapet: That part of a wall that extends above the roof level Insulation: A material that provides a high resistance to heat flow (Dictionary of construction, 2014). Downpipe: a pipe to carry rainwater from a roof to a drain or to ground level (Dictionary of construction, 2014). Flashing: A thin, impervious sheet of material placed in construction to prevent water penetration or direct the flow of water (Dictionary of construction, 2014). Sealant: An impervious substance used to fill joints or cracks in concrete or mortar (Dictionary of construction, 2014). Window sash: a framework that holds the panes of a window in the window frame (Dictionary of construction, 2014). Deflection: The bending of a structural member as a result of its own weight or an applied load (Dictionary of construction, 2014). Moment of inertia: It is a measure of an object's resistance to changes to its rotation (Dictionary of construction, 2014). Door furniture: the handles, lock, and other fixtures on a door (Dictionary of construction, 2014). Stress : Intensity of internal force (i.e., force per unit area) exerted by either of two adjacent parts of a body on the other across an imagined plane of separation (Dictionary of construction, 2014). Shear Force: A force acting on a body which tends to slide one portion of the body against the other side of the body (Dictionary of construction, 2014). Sandwich Panel: A prefabricated panel that is a layered composite formed by attaching two thin facings to a thicker core (Dictionary of construction, 2014). Bending: The bending effect at any section of a beam Skirting: A corner block where a base and vertical framing meet (Dictionary of construction, 2014). Composite beam: A beam combining different materials to work as a single unit, such as structural steel and concrete or cast-in-place and precast concret (Dictionary of construction, 2014). Shear Wall: A wall portion of a structural frame intended to resist lateral forces, such as earthquake, wind, and blast, acting in the plane or parallel to the plane of the wall (Dictionary of construction, 2014). Soft story: a multi-storey building in which one or more floors have windows, wide doors, large unobstructed commercial spaces, or other openings in places where a shear wall would normally be required for stability as a matter of earthquake engineering design (Dictionary of construction, 2014). Brace frame: A wooden structural framing system in which all vertical members, except for corner posts, extend for one floor only. The corner posts are braced to the sill and plates. Fascia: A board nailed across the ends of the rafters at the eaves (Dictionary of construction, 2014). Cornice: An ornamental molding of wood or plaster that encircles a room just below the ceiling (Dictionary of construction, 2014).
REFERNCES Ching, F 2008, building construction illustrated, Wiley, New Jersey Dictionary of Construction 2014, Web finance INC, USA viewed May 18 2014, < http://www.dictionaryofconstruction.com/> Home-Dzine 2005, Home-Dzne, France viewed May 10 2014, < http://www.home-dzine.co.za/garden/garden-frenchdrain.htm> Wood Products Victoria 2009, Wood Products Victoria, Victoria viewed May 10 2014, < http://www.wpv.org.au/docs/STPG.pdf> W10_m1 Heroes and culprits 2014, video recording, Melbourne University, Australia. Director by Clare Newton W09_m1 Composite 2014, video recording, Melbourne University, Australia. Director by Clare Newton W09_c1 Construction Detailing 2014, video recording, Melbourne University, Australia. Director by Clare Newton W08_m1 GLASS 2014, video recording, Melbourne University, Australia. Director by Clare Newton W08_c1 OPENINGS: DOORS & WINDOWS 2014, video recording, Melbourne University, Australia. Director by Clare Newton W07_m3 Paints 2014, video recording, Melbourne University, Australia. Director by Clare Newton W07_m2 Plastics 2014, video recording, Melbourne University, Australia. Director by Clare Newton W07_c1 Detailing for Heat and Moisture 2014, video recording, Melbourne University, Australia. Director by Clare Newton .