Manual of English Grammar

Introduction

Grammar is a set of rules and conventions that dictate how Standard American English works. These rules are simply tools that speakers of a language can use. When you learn how to use the language, you can craft your message to communicate exactly what you want to convey.

1.Syntax

Syntax is the order or arrangement of words and phrases to form proper sentences. Most basic Syntax formula subject + verb + direct object

Example: "Jillian hit the ball." Syntax allows us to understand that we wouldn't write, "Hit Jillian the ball."

The real joy in syntax comes with the ability to compose sentences in a variety of different ways. We can rearrange adjectives and adverbs, insert phrases, and more.

Syntax examples

One way to explore syntax is to know your clauses. There are independent and dependent clauses. An independent clause is one that can stand alone and form a complete sentence. A dependent clause, however, cannot stand on its own.

Simple Sentences

Remember our basic construct of subject + verb + direct object? These are called simple sentences It's a nice way to start when you're just learning the English language. There's the subject (person or thing being discussed), verb (action giver), and direct object (receiving the action of the verb). Here are some examples:

I enjoy college.

Work pays the bills.

Hurricanes are scary.

The sky is pink.

The dog loves her owner.

Complex Sentences

One of the best ways to improve our syntax is to move beyond the simple sentence. This brings us to complex sentences. These are sentences that contain a subordinate clause. A subordinate clause is an additional bit of information. This means complex sentences come together by combining a dependent clause (incomplete sentence/subordinate clause) and an independent clause (complete thought)

Even though it's ridiculously expensive, I enjoy college. Work pays the bills, whether you like it or not.

In the south of Florida, hurricanes are scary. The sky is pink, especially in the romantic city of Paris. Ever since she rescued her, the dog loves her owner.

How to Improve Syntax in Your Writing?

Use Active 1voice: .

One of the best ways to keep your syntax clear is to write in the active voice. This means the subject is carrying out the action of the sentence. The active voice avoids muddled language. For example:

Hiking up the Andes, he drinks a bottle of water.

This line is written in the present tense using the active voice. That's good. What you want to avoid is something like this:

Hiking up the Andes, a bottle of water is drunk by him

In addition to the unnecessary awkwardness of the passive voice, this sentence also implies that the bottle of water was one doing the hiking. Applying the rules of voice to your syntax allows you to write in a clear and present tense, free from an excess of helping verbs

2. Match your numbers

This refers to your use of singular and plural words. If your subject is plural, then the rest of your sentence should be too. The same goes for singular instances. Let's take a look:

The club members love riding their bikes together.

Here, we have a plural subject that matches its verb. You wouldn't write:

The club members loves riding their bikes together. You also wouldn't write:

The club member love riding his bike.

In these examples, you can see how syntax is the application of the rules.

The rules tell us the difference between singular and plural words. Syntax allows us to apply them with clarity and precision.

3. Avoid Repetition

In an effort to be clear, we sometimes tiptoe around redundancy. For example, you wouldn't want to write:

Due to his overwhelming fear, he frightfully tethered the ship to the post.

When trying to paint a picture for a reader, it can be tempting to overemphasize. But, proper syntax allows us to paint a vivid scene with our clauses, numbers, and active voice. The line above can be transformed into something like:

Overwhelming fear complicated the simple task of tethering his boat to the dock.

Of course, this sentence can be re written in many different ways. Therein lies the beauty of syntax. It allows us to apply the rules, find our own voice, and engage readers in our own unique way.

2. 8

Parts of Speech

Parts of speech is defined as words that show or perform different roles in a sentence, and these words are used to communicate our ideas clearly.

Parts of speech include: Nouns, Pronouns, Verbs, Adjective, Adverbs, Preposition, Conjunctions and Interjections.

1Nouns

.

Are words that are used to name people, animals, objects, etc.

We have different nouns categories such as: Common and proper nouns, singular and plural nouns, countable and uncontable nouns, etc.

Here are the main ones: Common Nouns are used for general things, e.g. car, house, bird, etc. Proper Nouns are used for specific names e g Japan, Will Smith, etc.

Examples of Nouns in a sentence:

My car is new. I traveled to Japan last year.

Pronouns

Are words that are used to substitute a noun in a sentence, some of the pronouns are: I he she it who yours me etc.

Examples of pronouns in a sentence:

Will Smith is very talented

He is very talented. (Replaced by the 3rd person singular pronoun)

3. Verbs

Are words that are used to describe actions by the noun or subject in a sentence, e g play, sing, run. etc.

Examples of verbs in a sentence:

She eats healthy.

They run every day in the morning.

Adjectives

Are words that are used to describe or provide more information about the nouns e g funny expensive lovely etc

Examples of Adjectives in a sentence:

The place is lovely. The cats are funny.

5. Adverbs

Are words that are used to describe or provide more information about adjectives and verbs, e.g. quietly, slowly, badly, always, often.

Examples of Adverbs in a sentence:

The athletes were running so quickly. I often eat healthy food.

6. Prepositions

Are words that are used to connect part of a sentence to another, e.g. in, out, agains, at, for, under.

Examples of prepositions in a sentence:

I left my shoes under the bed. The car is in the garage.

7. Conjunctions

Are words that are used to connect two or more ideas in a sentence, e.g. and but as unless

Examples of conjunctions in a sentence:

Ana and Mary will go to the movies togheter.

I will go to your birthday party unless you don't invite me.

8. Interjections

Are words that are used to convey strong emotions in a sentence, e.g. Wow! Oh! Yay!, Cheers!

Examples of interjections in a sentence:

Oh! We missed the class. Yay! You won the competence.

It is important to identify the different types of words to use them in the right place, also we must know that each part of speech has its own rules,

We also must identify the part of speech a Word is by identifying the function such as Content word, structure word and focus word.

WORD FOCUS WORD

Deliver and clarify the sentence or message alone:

Additional words in a message or a sentence:

Are considered similar to content words

in

as

3. THE SENTENCE

A sentence is the basic unit of thought, it describes an action and explains one or more ideas.

PURPOSE

As mentioned before sentences usually describes an action or explain ideas, and it always has a purpose and a tone that adds meaning to the sentence.

Declarative: when is a statement.

Example: Kevin is from Guatemala.

Interrogative: ask a question.

Example: How old are you?

Imperative: when a person gives an order or makes a request.

Example: Wash the dishes.

Exclamatory: shows strong feelings.

Example: Happy birthday Sandy!

ELEMENTS

Subjects and predicates are the two basic and necessary elements for all sentences to make sense, sentences can also have an object and a prepositional phrase.

Subject: we can determine the subject by asking "who or what?", it can be a person, animal, thing, or concept that does an action.

Predicate (verb): expresses what the subject is doing, you can determine it by asking the questions "what was the action or what happened?"

Object: similar to the subject it can be a person, animal, or thing. To determine the object in a sentence we can ask "the subject did what?" Or "To whom/for whom?"

Prepositional phrase: is when a phrase stars with a preposition and modifies a word in the sentence. Prepositional phrases can answer more than one question.

Examples: "Where?" "When?"

TYPES OF SENTENCES

Independent clause

This type contains a subject and a predicate and is a complete idea, which means it can stand alone as a sentence.

I like cake.

She reads many books.

Dependent clause

Also known as a subordinate clause, it must be attached to an independent clause to make sense, otherwise, it will be an incomplete sentence.

Even though I like cakes, (...)

Because she reads many books, (...)

Simple sentences: contains a simple subject and predicate, it may also have an object and modifiers.

He completed his math homework.

Compound sentences: a compound sentence contains at least two independent clauses.

Compound subjects: a simple subject that has two or more nouns or pronouns.

Compound predicates: is a simple predicate that consists of two or more verbs or verb phrases

She completed her movie review and created a reference list.

His shoes and ankles were covered with mud.

SENTENCE DIAGRAMS/PARSING

These diagrams can help to picture the structure of the sentence, and see the relation between the words and their grammar function. To make the diagram we will need two sections that indicate subject and predicate, and every modifier will be below the word it modifies.

In the case of compound elements, diagrams are similar to single elements in a sentence, write them on parallel baselines and connect them with a vertical line of dashes

On the line of dashes, write the conjunction that joins the parts. When two or more are connected by a conjunction, write the modifiers on slanted lines below the Word that they modify. Then draw a line of dashes between the slanted lines and write the conjunction on the line of dashes.

EXCERCISE

ORIGINAL (1) Dark, damp night. (2) A silver of moon. (3) Shone in the black sky. (4) We could hear the howling of a lonesome dog in the distance between its howls not a sound could be heard across empty marshes. (5) Inside the huge old house. (6) Lit a fire in the cavernous fireplace. (7) Warmth. (8) Filled the room. (9) Sat before the fireplace. (10) Waited for Mrs. O’Leary to begin telling one of their mysteries. (11) It was. (12) A night to be thankful. (13) With other people.

1. What is the topic of the paragraph?

It describes a night where everyone is happy to be indoors with a warm fire and other people around.

2. What information do you think is missing in sentence 2? Doesn't tell us what the silver moon did.

3. Which sentence provides the missing information? Sentence 3

4. What do you think is wrong with sentence 4? There are 2 sentences in one.

5. How would you rewrite sentence 4 so that it is clearer?

'We could hear the howling of a lonesome dog in the distance. Between its howls not a sound could be heard across the empty marshes 2

6 What is wrong with the entire paragraph?

The sentences are not separate, they don't show where one ends and the other begings

It was a dark, damp night. A silver of moon shone in the black sky. We could hear the howling of a lonesome dog in the distance. Between its howls not a sound could be heard across the empty marshes. Inside the huge old house, we lit a fire in the cavernous fireplace. Warmth filled the room, and we sat before the fireplace and waited for Mrs. O’Leary to begin telling one of her mysteries. It was a night to be thankful that we were with other people.

4. NOUNS

A noun is a word that name something, such as a person, place, thing, or idea. In a sentence, nouns can play the role of subject, direct object, indirect object, subject complement, object complement, appositive, or adjective.

TypesofNouns

·Nouns form a large proportion of English vocabulary and they come in a wide variety of types.

·Nouns can name a person: Albert Einstein

·Nouns can also name a place: Mount Vesuvius

·Nouns can also name things, although sometimes they might be intangible things, such as concepts, activities, or processes Some might even be hypothetical or imaginary things.

Proper nouns Common Nouns

A proper noun is a specific name of a person, place, or thing, and is always capitalized

Ex: Does Tina have much homework to do this evening?

Tina is the name of a specific person

A common noun is the generic name of an item in a class or group and is not capitalized unless appearing at the beginning of a sentence or in a title

The girl crossed the river.

Girl is a common noun; we do not learn the identity of the girl by reading this sentence, though we know the action she takes

Types of common nouns

Common or generic nouns can be broken down into three subtypes: concrete nouns, abstract nouns, and collective nouns. A concrete noun is something that is perceived by the senses; something that is physical or real.

Nouns as subjects

Nouns as objects

Every sentence must have a subject, and that subject will always be a noun. The subject of a sentence is the person, place, or thing that is doing or being the verb in that sentence

Nouns can also be objects of a verb in a sentence An object can be either a direct object (a noun that receives the action performed by the subject) or an indirect object (a noun that is the recipient of a direct object)

Nouns as subject and object complements

Another type of noun use is called a subject complement In this example, the noun teacher is used as a subject complement

An appositive noun is a noun that immediately follows another noun in order to further define or identify it.

Plural nouns, unlike collective nouns, require plural verbs. Many English plural nouns can be formed by adding -s or -es to the singular form, although there are many exceptions.

Appositive nouns and nouns as modifiers

Plural nouns

COUNTABLE NOUNS are nouns which can be counted, even if the number might be extraordinarily high (like counting all the people in the world) Countable nouns can be used with a/an, the, some, any, a few, and many.

UNCOUNTABLE NOUNS are nouns that come in a state or quantity which is impossible to count; liquids are uncountable, as are things that act like liquids (sand, air) They are always considered to be singular, and can be used with some, any, a little, and much

Possessive nouns

Possessive nouns are nouns that possess something; i e , they have something You can identify a possessive noun by the apostrophe; most nouns show the possessive with an apostrophe and an s

EXERCISES

Write the nouns in the following sentences and state their kind also

5. Verbs

a word that characteristically is the grammatical center of a predicate and expresses an act, occurrence, or mode of being, that in various languages is inflected for agreement with the subject, for tense, for voice, for mood, or for aspect, and that typically has rather full descriptive meaning and characterizing quality but is sometimes nearly devoid of these especially when used as an auxiliary or linking verb.

Type

Action Verbs

Action verbs, as their name says, are used to refer to actions. These can refer to physical actions that are performed with bodies or objects, such as jump, hit, or sing, or mental actions that we use our brains to perform, such as think, consider, or memorize. Most verbs you will find are action verbs. run swim help ignore believe

work at a factory. Cats chase mice. We listened to the woman’s amazing story.

2.Stativeverbs

Unlike action verbs, stative verbs refer to conditions or states of being. Generally speaking, we use stative verbs to describe things like qualities, states of existence, opinions, beliefs, and emotions. When used in a sentence, stative verbs do not refer to actions. It is important to know that some verbs can be used as either action or stative verbs depending on their meaning in the sentence. We are less likely to use stative verbs in the continuous verb tenses.

List of stative verbs

love want own have resemble

The mansion has five bathrooms. Allie loves her younger sisters. My car needs an oil change.

3. Transitive verbs

A transitive verb is a verb that is accompanied by a direct object in a sentence. The direct object is the noun, pronoun, or noun phrase that is having something done to it by the subject of the sentence. Both action and stative verbs can have direct objects, which means they can both be used as transitive verbs.

Leonardo ate a delicious pepperoni pizza. The wealthy man bought three paintings. She really hates broccoli.

4. Intransitive verbs

The opposite of a transitive verb is an intransitive verb. A verb is an intransitive verb if it is not used with a direct object. Remember, only nouns, pronouns, and noun phrases can be direct objects. Prepositional phrases, adjectives, and adverbs cannot be used as direct objects

Airplanes fly. The children slept while the adults worked.

The terrified monkeys hid in the trees after they saw the gigantic hungry snake.

be become seem appear grow

Mike is a great dancer. That gold watch looks expensive. Suddenly, the mall got really crowded.

5.

Linking verbs

Linking verbs are a special type of stative verb whose name gives a big clue as to what they do. Linking verbs are used to link a subject with a subject complement. A subject complement describes or identifies the subject of the sentence or clause. Linking verbs can function as intransitive verbs, which do not take direct objects

6. Helping verbs (auxiliary verbs)

Helping verbs, also called auxiliary verbs, are helpful verbs that work with other verbs to change the meaning of a sentence. A helping verb combines with a main verb in order to accomplish different goals.

be have do can will

The musician has performed in concerts all over the world. My cat is getting slow in her old age. Cheetahs can run incredibly fast.

7. Modal verbs

Modal verbs are a subgroup of helping verbs that are used to give a sentence a specific mood. Each modal verb is used differently, and they can express concepts such as ability, necessity, possibility, or permission.

8. Regular verbs

A verb is considered a regular verb if its past tense form and past participle ends in ed, d, or the verb is a t variant verb. For example, the verb look is a regular verb because both its past tense form and past participle is looked. Sometimes, regular verbs may slightly change spelling.

can may might must would

Onceyoufinishyour homework,youmayplay outside.

eggstothemixingbowl.

List of regular verbs

jump becomes jumped slip becomes slipped try becomes tried sleep becomes slept lend becomes lent

He walked two miles to the post office. We purchased all of the supplies that we needed for the camping trip.

Tiffany had noticed something strange about Marcus’s story.

9. Irregular verbs

An irregular verb is a verb whose past tense and past participle form doesn’t end in ed, d, and doesn’t use the t variant. Often, the spelling of these verbs changes dramatically or may not even change at all.

were,be,being,andbeeneatbecomesate ,eatenflybecomesflew,flowncatchbecomescaught , caught setbecomesset ,set

bebecomesam,is,are ,was

10. Phrasal verbs

Phrasal verbs are combinations of a verb with prepositions and/or adverbs that have a different meaning from the individual words used to form them. For example, the verb shut means “to close,” and the adverb down means “not up” or “in a descending direction.”

However, the phrasal verb shut down means to stop the operation of something.

Cindy knew all of the right answers. This junky computer has given me nothing but headaches since I bought it.

The workers took the furniture out of the moving truck.

ask for put up with talk down to lock up cut across

The frustrated business owner closed down his store.

Dave loves to show off his baseball trophies.

My mother always told me it is a good idea to put some money away in case of emergencies.

11. Infinitives

Our last type of verb isn’t actually a verb at all sorry about that! However, infinitives look a lot like verbs because they are derived from them. An infinitive of a verb is identical to the base form of the verb. For example, the infinitive form of the verb open is open. Typically, we use infinitives with the word to in order to form infinitive phrases. Infinitive phrases can be used for a variety of reasons, such as to act like nouns, adjectives, or adverbs.

To play guitar in a rock band is my goal. If you are looking for the best restaurants in town, Luis is the person to ask. The writing in the letter was too small to see.

An adjective is a word that modifies nouns or pronouns.

Modify = Change meaning

Adjectives give the answer:

Which? How Many? What kind?

Let's watch the movie! (Which movie?)

just received our new product! (What kind of product?)

will finish my classes soon! (In how many days?)

Articles

More frequently used adjectives are the articles: a, an, and The.

A, an : indefinite article

The : definite article

Example:

The band played "the" song specific song The pand played "a" song. - non-specific

Placement of Adjectives

Before the nouns or pronouns.

A comma can separate the adjective from that it modifies.

Example: Crowded and dusty, the bookstore has an excellent selection.

May come after a linking verb and modify the subject. An adjective follows the word that it modifies and is separated from it by a comma. }

Proper Adjectives

Adjectives are formed from a proper noun.

Nouns used as Adjectives

Some nouns function as adjectives without changing form.

ownership.

Prpnouns / Pronominal Adjectives

Pronouns function as adjectives when they modify a noun.

that function as

Indefinite: few, many, several, some

: that, this, these, those Interrogative: what, which, whose

ADJECTIVES EXCERCISE

WHICH? WHAT KIND? HOW MANY?

Let’s not play in the first game.

(Which game?)

We have new neighbors. (What kind of neighbors?)

The earth revolves around the sun in 365 days.

(In how many days?)

ADVERBS EXCERCISE

HOW, WHEN, WHERE, HOW OFTEN, OR TO WHAT EXTENT?

The dog walked quickly.

(How did the dog walk?) The play was immediately successful.

(When was the play successful?) The subway takes you anywhere.

(Where does the subway takes you?) Mary seldom loses at chess.

(How often does Mary seldom lose at chess?)

Aunt Jessica entirely sincere in inviting us to stay.

(To what extent is sincere aunt Jessica?)

Language Usage

Usage refers to the conventional ways in which words or phrases are used, spoken, or written in a speech community.

The Difference Between Grammar and Usage

Grammar refers to the manner in which the language functions, the ways that the blocks of speech and writing are put together. Usage refers to using specific words in a manner that will be thought of as either acceptable or unacceptable.

Here's a reminder of what they are and how they work

Alliteration

This is where the first letter of a word is repeated in words that follow. For example, the cold, crisp, crust of clean, clear ice Assonance

This is where the same vowel sound is repeated but the consonants are different. For example, he passed her a sharp, dark glance, she shot a cool, foolish look across the room.

Colloquial language

This is language used in speech with an informal meaning For example, chill, out of this world, take a rain check

Dialect

This is a version of a language spoken by people in a particular geographical area.

Dialogue

This is a conversation between two or more people sometimes an imagined conversation between the narrator and the reader Dialogue is important in drama and can show conflict through a series of statements and challenges, or intimacy where characters mirror the content and style of each other's speech. It can also be found in the conversational style of a poem.

Dissonance

This is discordant combinations of sounds For example, the clash, spew and slow pang of grinding waves against the quay

Enjambment

This is device used in poetry where a sentence continues beyond the end of the line

Hyperbole

This is exaggerating for a purpose it is not meant to be taken literally. For example, we gorged on the banquet of beans on toast.

Imagery

This is where strong pictures or ideas are created in the mind of the reader. Similes, metaphors and personification can all be used to achieve this they all compare something 'real' with something 'imagined'

Irony

This is where words or ideas are used humorously or sarcastically, to imply the opposite of what they mean

Metaphor

This is where a word or phrase is used to imply figurative resemblance, not a literal or 'actual' one For example, he flew into the room

P U N C T U A T I O N

Punctuationisthetoolthatallowsustoorganize our thoughts and make it easier to review and share our ideas. In simple terms, punctuation marks are a symbol to create and support meaningwithinasentenceortobreakitup.

Rules

1. All Punctuations Must be Parallel

When the main clause is interrupted with a comma or a dash, it must be interrupted with the same punctuation marks at the beginning and at the end.

2 A Colon Must Appear at the End of a Clause

A colon must be used at the end of the main clause If the sentence is already complete, you may use a colon to add a list, elaboration, or restatement

3 Semicolons are Used for Equal Emphasis

A semicolon can connect two related independent clauses in a compound sentence as a substitute to a coordinating conjunction

This one is probably the most straightforward. Also referred to as a full stop, the period denotes the end of a sentence. A full sentence is considered as one that is complete and declarative.

Question Mark

A question mark also ends a sentence, however it ends a sentence that is a direct question Typically, sentences that are questions begin with what, how, when, where, why, or who

ExclamationPoint Comma Colon Semicolon Dash

An exclamation point or exclamation mark is also used at the end of a sentence when that sentence expresses an intense emotion

Commas are used to insert a pause into a sentence. The purpose of the pause can be for different reasons, such as to separate ideas, phrases, or even alter the structure of a sentence.

Example:

Dr. Smith read his patient’s chart.

A colon has three primary uses. One way to use it is when introducing something, such as a quote, an example, a series, or an explanation.

Example: Why didn’t you like the movie last night?

Example:

“Look out behind you!” she yelled.

Similar to a colon, a semicolon links two independent clauses. However, in this case, the clauses are more closely related than when you would use a colon.

Example: Joe, it was nice to see you again.

Example: They didn’t have time to waste: it was already late.

Example:

Last summer we traveled to London, England; Paris, France; Rome, Italy; and Athens, Greece.

Typically shorter in length, the en dash is used to denote a range, such as between numbers or dates.

Example: The company was operational from 1990-2000.

Hyphen

A hyphen is used in compound words when two or more words are connected. Here are some examples of hyphenated words:

Brackets

Brackets are used to clarify something or for technical terms or explanations. It can also be used to clarify a subject when quoting another person or text.

Example: Step by step

Braces

Braces are usually used in operations.

Parentheses

Parentheses are used to supply further details or information or as an aside.

Example: Adam said that “[summer] is my favorite time of year. ”

Example: 6{3x+[28+2]}=xy

Apostrophe

Apostrophes are meant to show that a letter or letters have been omitted and also to indicate the possessive or contractions. It can also be used to pluralize lowercase letters.

Quotationmarks

Quotation marks are used to denote text, speech, or words spoken by someone else. It is also used to indicate dialogue.

Ellipsis

They are used to jump from one sentence or phrase to another while omitting unnecessary or obvious words. It’s also used when quoting someone and unnecessary words are left out.

Example: Kate (who is Matt’s wife) likes to go for walks.

Example:

I’ve been working from home for 6 months and it’s great.

Example:

She told him that she “prefers not to think about that.”

Example:

When Martin Luther King said “I have a dream…” he was talking about civil rights and an end to racism.

9.Spelling

helps convey the precise meaningofasentence–andinfactcan

A comma tells the reader to pause and assimilate information. They are also used to separate the items in a series.

A semi-colon links independent clauses that are closely related in meaning when they are not linked b conj nction

A colon introduces a list or a summation. It can also be used to link an idea that has been introduced in an independent clause. End punctuation

period, question mark, and exclamation mark – denotes the end of a sentence.

•

Parentheses enclose words that are not directly related to the main thought of the sentence but provide important information, or to provide examples.

• A dash signals a sudden change of thought or break in a sentence. Dashes can also be used in place of parentheses to emphasize information.

•

Quotation marks indicate direct speech. All punctuation marks are enclosed within the quotation marks except for semi-colons, colons, and question marks when they are not part of the quotation.

• An apostrophe indicates that letters are missing from a contraction, or shows possession (i.e., that one thing belongs to another). The word (its) spelled without an apostrophe is a possessive; spelled with an apostrophe (it’s) is a contraction of it is. Similarly, whose is a possessive pronoun, and who’s is a contraction of who is. Do not use an apostrophe to form the plural of numbers or letters (the 1990s, a box of PCs).

Capitalization

Like punctuation, capitalization helps convey information. The first word of every sentence is capitalized, signaling that a new sentence has begun. Proper nouns the name of a particular person, place, or thing are capitalized to indicate uniqueness. However, it is not correct to use capitalization merely to make a word look or seem important.

Capitalize Names and Other Proper Nouns

My favorite author is Jane Austen. Tom and Diane met at Judy’s house. Have you met my dog, Boomer?

Names are proper nouns. The names of cities, countries, companies, religions, and political parties are also proper nouns, so you should capitalize them, too.

Don’t Capitalize After a Colon (Usually)

In most cases, you don’t need to capitalize after a colon

I have one true passion: wombat racing

There are a couple of common exceptions One is when the word following the colon is a proper noun

There is only one place I want to visit: New York City

The other exception is when the words following the colon form one or more complete sentences.

Maggie wears a brimmed cap at all times for these two reasons: Strong light often gives her a headache. She also likes the way it looks.

Capitalize the First Word of a Quote (Sometimes)

Capitalize the first word of a quote when the quote is a complete sentence.

Mario asked, “What is everyone doing this weekend?”

Stacy answered, “My sister and I are going to the water park.”

You should always capitalize people’s names.

Don’t capitalize the first word of partial quotes.

Gretchen said she was “way too busy” to join the gym.

Mr. Thompson described the rules as “extremely difficult to understand if you don’t have a law degree.”

Capitalize Days, Months, and Holidays, But Not Seasons

The names of days, months, and holidays are proper nouns, so you should capitalize them.

I hate Mondays!

Tom’s birthday is in June.

Oh no! I forgot about Valentine’s Day!

The names of seasons, however, are not proper nouns, so there’s no need to capitalize them.

I hate winter!

Having a summer birthday is the best.

Capitalize Most Words in Titles

The capitalization rules for titles of books, movies, and other works vary a little between style guides. In general, you should capitalize the first word, all nouns, all verbs (even short ones, like is), all adjectives, and all proper nouns. That means you should lowercase articles, conjunctions, and prepositions—however, some style guides say to capitalize conjunctions and prepositions that are longer than five letters.

Capitalize Cities, Countries, Nationalities, and Languages

The names of cities, countries, nationalities, and languages are proper nouns, so you should capitalize them.

English is made up of many languages, including Latin, German, and French.

My mother is British, and my father is Dutch.

The capital of Botswana is Gaborone.

Capitalize Time Periods and Events (Sometimes)

Specific periods, eras, and historical events that have proper names should be capitalized.

Most of the World War I veterans are now deceased.

In the Middle Ages, poor hygiene was partly responsible for the spreading of bubonic plague.

Middle school students often enjoy studying the social changes that took place during the Roaring Twenties.

However, centuries—and the numbers before them—are not capitalized.

In the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, England blossomed into an empire.

10. Linguistics Skills

Is the capacity of everyone to understand and express themselves, it means to have both written and oral communication. It is also the ability to use the language to communicate to others. We have 4 main linguistics skills, and these are: Listening, Speaking, Reading and Writing.

Listening: Is the first learning skill, it is the capacity we acquire by our ears and mind.

Speaking: Is the second skill we acquire; we start learning sounds and with time we learn to communicate.

Reading: When we already know how to listen and speak, we learn to read, preparing ourselves with content, teaches or educators that help us to acquire and develop the techniques to read.

Writing: Is the fourth skill we gain in our learning process, similar as when we speak.

There are also some other important linguistic skills that help for both personal and professional communication, these are: Bilingualism, Language Acquisition, Sociolinguistics, Pragmatics, Syntax, Cross-cultural communication, Linguistic Analysis, Psycholinguistics, Semantics and Phonetics.

Bilingualism: Is the ability to speak two languages or more.

Sociolinguistic: Is the study between the languages and the society

Language Acquisition: Is the process that humans acquire or the capacity to acquire to perceive and produce a language.

Pragmatics: Is the study of how the language is used in social context, how to understand and how to interpret the languages

Syntax: Is the structure of the language, the way we need to arrange the words toghether, so it facilitate the wey of reading of understanding for others.

Linguistic Analysis: Is the process of breaking a language into its component parts, in order to understand how language works.

Semantics: is the study of the meaning of the language, to write them or communicate them correctly into a sentece, since there are words that are use for different meanings

Cross-cultural communication: Is the ability to communciate efectively with people from different cultures.

Psycholinguistic: is the study of how our mind process the language, how to produce the language and how it will influence our thoughts and behavior

Phonetics: Is the study of the sounds of the language, so are able to identify if these differ or are similar from other sounds.

andidioms

PREPOSITION

There are 2 types of phrasal verbs:

PHRASAL VERBS Separable

I need to take back the blouse i left at the mall.

I need to take it back.

PHRASAL VERBS Inseparable

What does ASAP stand for? ASAP stands for as soon as possible.

PREPOSITIONAL VERB PHRASAL

Is a group of 3 words were the particle or preposition cannot be separated

Verb + Particicle + Preposition Examples; Get on with. Look out for.

Phrasal verbs and idioms?

These are alike since both of them are:

Dificult to understand? Idioms include phrasal verbs

Idioms?

Idioms are multiple word or phrases that cannot be predicted from the literal menaing, they have the followin characteristics.

Metaphoric expressions

Used more in oral thatn written language. Starts in childhood and continues in adulthood. Multiword phrases

difficulties on translations

Lack of historical and cultural context.

Language interference can affect the interpretation.

Idioms?

Idioms are multiple word or phrases that cannot be predicted from the literal menaing, they have the followin characteristics.

Metaphoric expressions

Used more in oral thatn written language. Starts in childhood and continues in adulthood. Multiword phrases

difficulties on translations

Lack of historical and cultural context.

Language interference can affect the interpretation.

CONNOTATION

Refers to the meanings that we associate with the word beyond the literal dictionary definition. The connotation of a word includes all of the emotions and feelings that go alongwiththeuseoftheword

Examples

The word " run " has many meanings physically running, depart or go (I have to run, spent (it has run its course), or even a snag in a pair of hose (a run in my hose).

DENOTATION

Refers to the literal or primary meaning of a word, in contrast to the feelings or ideasthatthewordsuggests.

A child could be called a child, kid, boy, girl, son, daughter.

Two terms that are related to semantics are connotation and denotation.

1Semantics 1. Semantics

Semantic refers to the different meanings of words, phrases, signs, or other symbols. The study of these meanings is called semantics. Just as important as the individual meaning of a certain word in semantics is the relationship between different signifiers and how meaning in one word influences meaning in another word or sign.

Semantics is a branch of linguistics that looks at the meanings of words and language, including the symbolic use of language. It also refers to the multiple meanings of words as well.

Semantics allow us to communicate and to “read” the world and people around us in all sorts of meaningful ways.

E X E R C I S E S

1. Which of the following statements is the best semantic definition?

Answer: Though these three concepts are interrelated, B is the correct answer. A is the definition of syntax and C is the definition of diction.

A The set of rules and processes that govern the structure of a language, specifically word order.

B The meaning of words and symbols, and the relationship between meanings.

C The style of speaking or writing as dependent upon choice of words.

2. What does the following quote from George Orwell’s 1984 have to do with semantics?

Semantics demonstrate the range of thought and expression available to humans, and the Party in Orwell’s dystopia wants to limit the range of meaning so that people will be unable to think about things that are in confrontation to the Party’s ideas

“Don’t you see that the whole aim of Newspeak is to narrow the range of thought? In the end we shall make thoughtcrime literally impossible, because there will be no words in which to express it Every concept that can ever be needed will be expressed by exactly one word, with its meaning rigidly defined and all its subsidiary meanings rubbed out and forgotten.”

3. We generally think of the ocean as blue However, in the Odyssey, Homer famously referred to the sea as “wine dark ” What does this fact have to do with semantics?

C. There was, perhaps, no word that meant “blue” in the way we now know it, and thus Homer’s labelling of the sea as “wine dark” was a way of comparing it and contrasting it to other meanings and colors

A In Homer’s day the sea was objectively blue, he just didn’t know it

B. The sea was a different color in Homer’s time, and it has since changed to blue.

C. There was, perhaps, no word that meant “blue” in the way we now know it, and thus Homer’s labelling of the sea as “wine dark” was a way of comparing it and contrasting it to other meanings and colors.

12.

SPELLING SKILLS

We learn to spell at the same time as we learn to read and write. Spelling requires the ability to split words into sounds and then match those sounds to letters and letter combinations, the problem with English is that there are many ways to spell the same sound, there are also plenty of silent letters, words that break the rules and foreign words with unintuitive spellings.

Know how to properly spell is important, having a poor spelling can interfere with our ability to communicate, it can also affect the employment opportunities, making spell mistakes is not professional and tolerance for typos is low.

Making connection between verbal expression and written communication is more difficult, it requires a combination of observation and formal instruction. Spelling, reading, writing and comprehension skills are all closely linked.

These are some ways to learn how to spell:

Introduce groups of words that are spelled in a similar way. Talk about different letter combinations and the sound they represent.

Suffixes, affixes, and consonant clusters are also useful to know.

Read a lot, the more you see how a words is spelled correctly in reading, the more likely you are to remember it. It also very important to read because it's not always possible to spell a word if you haven't seen its written form.

Writing activities also automatize the process. You can also learn by associate words with images and sounds.

Writing on computer can be helpful too. When you type on a computer, spelling is logged in muscle memory.

DISCUSSION

A group discussion involves people sharing ideas or perspectives on a main topic.

This type of discussion tests the following skills:

Leadership skills

Communication skills

Social skills and behavior

Politeness

Teamwork

Listening ability

General awareness

Confidence

Problem solving skills

How does it work?

Participants

Since most group discussions are on round table the participant range can go from 7 to 12 in a group, the number of candidates depends on how experiment the group is. If their knowldgement is low or the group is new in this type of discussion the range should go from 5 to 7.

The average duration is 15 minutes, but it can depend on the number of candidates in the group. The panelist or judges can extend the discussion for more than 15 minutes, they can also end the discussion in between if needed. The participants should not consider assumptions that the group discussion will last only 15 minutes.

Are the people who judge the

Process of a group discussion

RULES

Prepare for the topic

Prepare some short points and explain them briefly in the discussion

Be confident

It would help you if you stay confident about your content.

Participants introduction

You should be aware of your colleagues Leadership

Try to take the lead if you are confident about your knowledge of the topic

Avoid false information

Do not present wrong information. Do not fight

Some participants can get aggresisive, don't fight during the discussion.

13.

TEST TAKING skills

Test-taking skills are cognitive skills that allow students to undertake any test-taking situation in an appropriate manner, and to know what to do before, during, and after the test.

Students who have or acquire test-taking strategies or skills will positively affect their testing competency and, hence, their academic performance.

Studies indicate that those students with test-taking strategies:

(1) have improved attitudes toward tests;

(2) have lower levels of test anxiety; and

achieve better.

What makes a good test taker?

In order to be a successful test-taker, students must learn how to focus completely on the task at hand. Whether it is studying material, completing practice exams, or sitting for the real test, those who concentrate fully and intensely can score well. Developing your ability to do as much requires time and practice.

a plan of action or policy designed to achieve a major or overall aim.

Reading comprehension test-taking strategies

·Understand story structure

·Take notes as you read

an outline

·Don’t save your best ideas for the end of your essay.

all the options in detail

check your bubble sheet/scantron

out for

Would not. Did not.

leave a question blank.

15. PUBLIC SPEAKING SKILLS

Public speaking is a soft skill that requires excellent communication skills, enthusiasm, and the ability to engage with an audience. Soft skills are interpersonal skills that are less technical and more about how you interact with others.

Demonstrates your knowledge. You are always at your best when you can articulate your thoughts clearly and effectively. Public speaking skills help you do exactly that. After all, the true worth of the knowledge you possess can only be realized when you can show and apply it.

Demonstrates your confidence. Not only does public speaking increase your knowledge during the process of preparation but it also develops and demonstrates your confidence. Whether you are interviewing for a job or hoping for a promotion, your confidence is what will make you stand out among other candidates.

Helps you lead better. The higher you climb up the career ladder, the greater will be the number of people you shall have to lead. As a result, the need for public speaking skills and the confidence pertinent to it also increases, making it one of the determining characteristic when considering someone for promotion.

How to improve public speaking skills

Prepare with practice.

Once you have prepared a presentation or speech by giving it a logical flow and making it more vibrant with the addition of examples, stories, and visually appealing props, only then your true preparation begins

Accentuate your strengths.

Analyze yourself as a public speaker and identify your true strengths and weaknesses Most of us tend to imitate other public speakers who are popular amongst the crowd However, the best way is to be yourself and focus on your own strengths

Keep your ears and eyes open to feedback.

Although, all sorts of public speaking do not involve direct interaction between the speaker and his audience, there are various ways in which audience is able to provide feedback.

The five P’s of Presentation

The five p’s of presentation are planning, preparation, consistency, practise and performance.

Planning. The amount of time may be calculated by giving one to five minutes per audience member and then adding some factors of the importance of the event.

Preparation. No great presentation is delivered, and every good presentation could be improved by better preparation. Preparation involves understanding the audience needs.

Consistency: the supportive media of image, font, and color adds elan to the message.

Practice: is the answer to so many of the worries about poor presentations and the reason so many presentations are great. It is more than reading out the script a few times.

Performance: as that defines a presentation as being more than simply a recitation. It is about engagement with the audience, reacting to issues and even ideas, and being real.

16.Time Management!

Is the process to plan and control the time that is dedicated to work on some activities, either individually or in a group, within a period without causing stress, or working on it at the last minute.

One of the main things we can achieved when working with time management is to improve the efficiency and productivity when working on our activities.

There are two words that are easy to identify once we can reach the time management skill. Urgent: immediate attention.

Important: tasks matter, avoiding them may have consequences.

Benefits

There are so many benefits that we will be able to acquire by improving our time management skills, some of they are:

Stress relief:

By working on a “to do” list, we will be able to reduce anxiety, as we will work on the tasks/activities according to their importance.

More time:

Following up on “deadlines” will give us free time to spend it on hobbies or personal activities

Set and Reach Goals:

By practicing a good time management, the ability to reach our objectives become easier.

17. Vocabulary Skills

Vocabulary refers to the words we must understand to communicate effectively. Educators often consider four types of vocabulary: listening, speaking, reading, and writing. Listening vocabulary refers to the words we need to know to understand what we hear.

5 ways to improve your vocabulary skills.

1. Learn the roots of words

To build a strong foundation for your vocabulary, it’s helpful to understand the roots of words. Many words have a common root and a prefix or suffix that helps you determine what the meaning might be.

2. Focus on practical terms and words

Some industries have different definitions for words or use entirely new words, which is called jargon. If your coworkers and others in your field use technical jargon, try focusing on building your vocabulary to incorporate these words.

3. Create word associations

Word associations can help you remember certain words or phrases. For example, the word “gargantuan” means very large. Try creating a sequence with the word, such as tiny, small, medium, large, giant and gargantuan.

4. Complete regular vocabulary tests

At the end of each week, create a quiz that includes the vocabulary words, root words or other language aspects that you’ve been studying. Taking a quiz or test can increase your ability to retain new words.

5 Take a writing class

As you build your vocabulary, you can also improve your writing skills, which will benefit you in your professional life. Take a writing course online or at a local adult educational institution that incorporates assignments and tests to help you boost your ability to communicate effectively through writing.

Tiers of Vocabulary

There are three 'tiers' that vocabulary can be placed into.

1. Basic Vocabulary

Basic and simple words are the first things that build up a child's vocabulary. These are tricky words, early reading words, adjectives, verbs or nouns. They typically only have a single meaning.

2. High-Frequency Vocabulary

This tier is also sometimes called multiple meaning vocabulary tier, as the words within it can have more than one meaning. These words are also important for reading comprehension, used for direct instructions and may be descriptive.

3. Low-Frequency Vocabulary

These are words that are only used for a particular topic, so they may be called topic vocabulary. A child's low-frequency vocabulary might encompass topics like the weather or geography.

I T E R A C Y S K I L L S

Literacy skills include listening, speaking, reading and writing.

Reading is the process of looking at written symbols and letters and understanding the meaning of them.

Decoding:The decoding definition in reading is the process of working out how to say (or how to begin sounding out) an unfamiliar written word.

Phonemic awareness:Phonemic awareness is a component of phonological awareness that exclusively refers to the observation of phonemes.

Reading fluency:Reading fluency brings word recognition and comprehension together

Reading comprehension: Reading comprehensionis the understanding of what has been read through the learning and processing ofreading skills.

Vocabulary

Children learning to read (and most people) typically have two kinds of vocabulary, which is the collection of all the words a person knows and uses in conversation.

Reading comprenhention

Spelling

Children learning to read (and most people) typically have two kinds of vocabulary, which is the collection of all the words a person knows and uses in conversation.

19.sLiteracy kills Awareness of print Phonemic awareness

WReading ritting

Conclusion to grammar

We’ve focused so much on the intricate details of grammar and language in this section, that now it’s time to step back and look at the big picture once again. It’s easy to get lost in the weeds of exactly what each rule means and how it works.

Once we start to look at naturally occurring language we see that there is systematic variation in the choices people make. These choices relate to both the meaning and the context of the communication.

Specifically we have looked at differences in mode between grammar in speech, especially conversation, and in writing.

Often people have a choice over whether to use their dialect or to communicate using what has come to be called standard English. Exploring the grammar of English can help us look at a level of variation which is much more subtle

Ithelpstoremember practicethatlanguageisa ofpatterns. Somepatternsyou knowandusewell; othersyoumaynot practiceknowandneedtofurtherwith.

Vocabulary

Syntax

Syntax is the order or arrangement of words and phrases to form proper sentences. Examples:

1. The dog barked.

Subject → verb

2. Subject → verb → direct object The dog carried the ball.

Search Abstract nouns

An abstract noun is a person, place, or thing without a physical form, meaning that a person cannot interact with abstract nouns using their five senses: sight,scent,taste,touch,orhearing.

Honestyisthebestpolicy. Thereisnopossibilityforyoutoreachhomeby sixintheevening.

Search Structure Words

words are words belonging to the categories of articles, auxiliaries, conjunctions, prepositions and pronouns, it incluses determiners, prepositions, and conjunctions.

A noun is a word that refers to a thing (book), a person (Noah Webster), an animal (cat), a place (Omaha), a quality (softness), an idea (justice), or anaction(yodeling).It'susuallya singleword,butnotalways:cake, shoes, school bus, and time and ahalfareallnouns

loves watching the cat playingwiththepinkyarn. Visiting Big Ben was a highlightofthetriptoEngland

torefertosomeoneorsomething

you do not need to use a noun, often because the person or thing has been mentioned earlier

was

about.

Pronouns for passive voice.

It is used in third person singular andpluralinanyofthetenses,to formthepassivevoice.

Examples:

Aletterisbeingwrittenbyme. A horse is being ridden by him.

acceptedthejoboffer.

ranacrosstheyard.

IVerbsarewordsthatdescribean action or talk about something that happens. They take many different forms depending on their subjects, the time they refer to and other ideas we want to express.

Verbs

Action verbs

IDescribe the behavior or action ofsomeoneorsomething.

Examples:

Eimibroketheplate.

wrote a letter to the bank manager requesting for a bankstatement.

Correlative Conjunctions

As / as Both / and Either / or Hardly / when If / then

Just as / so Neither / nor

To correlate, working in pairs to join phrases or words that carry equal importance within a sentence.

Examples:

1.

Sam is neither rich nor famous.

2. I like both high heels and tennis shoes.

Subordinating Conjunctions

Comparison = whether, than Concession = even though Condition = unless, if. Time = after, before, until Place = wherever Manner = How, as Reason = Because, so.

Subordinating conjunction is a word or phrase that links a dependent clause to an independent clause, meaning that it cannot stand by itself, these types of conjunctions include.

Examples:

1. Even though I’m leaving I don’t know where to go. 2. I’ll keep studying until I pass the test.

Prepositions

a word that expresses a relationship between a noun or pronoun and another word to indicate direction, time, location in a sentence.

andhidduringthegame.

onFriday.

Adjectives

An adjective is a word that modifies or changethenounsorpronouns.

Examples:

Herfancydressseemstobevery expensive.(Fancy)

Let’s watch the funny movie. (Funny)

Focus Words

It is the last content Word in the sentence that has the focus when you introduce a subject.

Examples:

1.

I love red bell peppers

If I want to stress that I love the red bell peppers as compared to you or someone else loving them, then “I” will be the focus word. If I want to stress that I love them, not just like them, then “love” will be the focus word.

Purpose

Sentences that usually describe an action or explain ideas, and it always has a purpose and a tone that adds meaning to the sentence.

Kevin is from Guatemala Happy birthday Sandy!

Independent clause

Sentences that usually describe an action or explain ideas, and it always has a purpose and a tone that adds meaning to the sentence.

like cake.

reads many books.

Dependent Clause

Also known as a subordinate clause, it must be attached to an independent clause to make sense, otherwise, it will be an incomplete sentence.

Even though I like cakes, (...) Because she reads many books, (...)

Simple Sentences

Contains a simple subject and predicate, it may also have an object and modifiers.

Examples:

He completed his math homework.

She walked back home from school.

Compound Sentences

Sentence that connects two independent clauses, typically with a coordinating conjunction like and or but.

Examples:

She completed her movie review and created a reference list. His shoes and ankles were covered with mud.

Modals

Is a type of verb that contextually indicates a modality such as a likelihood, ability. Modal verbs always accompany the base form of another verb having semantic content.

Examples:

Adrian will buy new shoes.

I can go to Chicago

Category that expresses time reference. Tenses are usually manifested by the use of specific forms of verbs, particularly in their conjugation patterns.

Simple Present Tense.

Present Continuous Tense.

Idioms

Is a phrase or expression that typically presents a figurative, nonliteral meaning attached to the phrase; but some phrases become figurative idioms while retaining the literal meaning of the phrase.

The ball is in your court Spill the beans.

Transitive verbs

A transitive verb is a verb that is accompanied by a direct object in a sentence.

Examples:

Leonardo ate a delicious pepperoni pizza. The wealthy man bought three

Search

Collective nouns

adjectives

Pronouns as adjectives

Search

Dialect

change

Thanks for checking!