Unit title: Fashion: Historical
and Cultural Perspective Assignment: Essay Tutor: Sanda Miller Level: 1
Name: Kerry-Louise Barnaby Student Number: 8001634 Date: Wednesday 5th May 2010
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„It was during the second half of the fourteenth century that clothes for both men and women took on a new form and something emerges which we can already call “Fashion” (Laver, 1969:62). Discuss.‟ The Oxford Dictionary defines fashion as: “1. Manner of doing something. 2. Style popular at a given time” (1997) In this essay I will be taking a critical viewpoint and researching not only fashion historians and theorists who agree with James Laver but also the ones who disagree. My research shows that there seems to be a general consensus that, whether it was anytime between the beginning of the fourteenth and the early sixteenth century, something resembling “fashion” did indeed emerge. Francois Boucher uses the term: “The New Spirit” (2004: p.191) to identify societies new attitude towards costume and the way people began to view life at this time. I will be analysing the social and economic factors that impacted costume at the time and therefore caused this change. In addition to analysing the fourteenth century; I will look into differing opinions from an historical and cultural perspective. If we take the literal definition of fashion as a: “2. Style popular at a given time” (1997) then it would be inaccurate to not look at the semiological theories of Ferdinand De Saussure, who says that: „The existence of fashion, if not clothing, was conditional upon there being different classes in society and upward movement between classes being both possible and desirable.‟ (Barnard 2002, p.98) If this were the case it would be plausible to argue that fashion, as it is defined today, has existed since the times of Ancient Greece and Rome. The Rulers‟ of the times would wear clothing of richer quality to show that they were of the highest standing in society.
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Lastly, I will be looking into the argument that fashion as we know it did not emerge until the nineteenth century and the arrival of Haute Couture in Paris. This essay will analyse these three historical periods and critical viewpoints and make an informed decision as to the accuracy of Laver‟s statement. As stated above, there seems to be an agreement between historians that it was during the Middle Ages that something resembling our idea of fashion began to emerge. Boucher says: „It is nevertheless possible to regard the appearance of the short tunic as the first manifestation of fashion. And indeed, from the fourteenth century onwards we find appearance in costume of new elements that owe less to function than to caprice...New influences were more frequent, less lasting, their effects more spectacular.‟ (2004: p.192) The latter part of this quote clearly defining what we refer to today as a “trend”. While Malcolm Barnard says: “From its beginnings in the fifteenth century, intensified interest in fashion...” (2007: p.1) Displaying the point that society‟s attitude towards clothing changed dramatically during the Middle Ages, and it is this attitude that created fashion as we understand it today. This development can be understood by looking at social changes that occurred during this period. During the fourteenth century we see the emergence of Humanism in Italy: people wanted to be seen as independent and individual and used clothing to do this, moreover the beginning of clothing for representative purposes began. The feudal system ended and capitalism began, making trade extremely prominent in society. Lastly:
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„Another factor, more subtle but not less important for that, was the development of the concept of ideal beauty...Greater importance was attached to the perfection of the female body, and indeed, to outward appearance in general.‟ (Boucher 2004: p.191) People saw the streets as nothing more than stages for parading their clothes.
The,
“Seduction Principal” also began and women yearned for male attention, which led to extreme competition. Clothing was no longer just utility. (See Image 9, pg 17). Iris Brook states: „Variety and Exaggeration in dress seem to have been general tendencies at this time; she who could outdo her neighbour in the size of head-dress and the width of skirts would deem the effort well worth while.‟ (1956: p.38) The fourteenth century‟s costume was hugely influenced by the architecture of the time, the tall pointed roofs and cathedrals led to the emergence of, “poulaines”, or pointed shoes, (see Image 8, pg 16) as well as tall, elaborate head-dresses, (see Images 10,11,12, pg 17-19) which were only possible because the architecture of the time allowed for it. Religion and the Church were very prominent in society during this period and people wanted to feel closer to God. The high arches, pointed roofs and head-dresses were symbolic of this. However, due to competitiveness, restrictions had to be placed on the length of points, especially on, “poulaines” which, according to research, reached eighteen inches at their peak. The social structure and behaviour changed dramatically and with it originated the idea that one could make fun of someone else‟s clothing, something which would not have happened when clothing had been utility: „The Bishop of Paris promised indulgences to anyone who insulted women wearing these styles‟ (Boucher 2004: p.200)
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This, referring to women who wore the horned head-dress as the church saw the horns as an invocation to the devil. This shows that not only did people indulge in elaborate styles but people began to be judged and ridiculed on their appearance. Clothing can also be analysed from a semiological perspective. Saussure and Laver both agree that clothing has always been used as a Signifier in society, however while Laver observes clothing from an historical perspective, Saussure does so from a semiological one. They both see clothing as a representative tool however their views on the origins of fashion differ. Saussure argues that as long as society has been able to make more than the minimum required, and divide itself into classes, there has always been a type of fashion in existence, which has been used for representative purposes. Moreover, if fashion is as the dictionary defines, it has existed since the Palaeolithic era, whether this invention was due to modesty or utility we cannot be sure. What we can be sure of, is that at this time people needed to keep their bodies warm from the cold climate, they would kill animals, eat the meat and drape the hides over their bodies; clothing was probably necessity and nothing more. (See images 1, 2, 3, pg 11-13) However, it was still the style appropriate to the time and therefore fashion can be argued in this context. The prehistoric period saw the invention of the first eye needle made of mammoth ivory, bones of reindeer or tusks of walrusâ€&#x;. This meant that people could sew the skins together to make them more functional. „...the skin of a beast merely wrapped round the shoulders very hampering to his movements, but it left part of the body exposed. He therefore desired to shape it in some way...Once cloth manufacture, on however small a scale, had been established, the way was open for the development of costume as we know it.â€&#x; (Laver 2002: p.10-12)
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It was also during this time that “tanning” began, which was a way to dye the clothes by using the bark from a tree. This was not utility but something to make the clothes look different and so the luxury principal and desire to be individual was already in place. During the Ancient civilisations of Greece, Rome and Egypt, society always had a hierarchy. (See Images 4, 5, 6, pg 13-14)
Clothes were seen as a mark of how high a level of importance
you were in society which explains why slaves were often naked. The first dyes (after tanning) were discovered from a shellfish called the “Murex Brandaris”. The colour was created out of a white liquid in the shellfish. The longer it was left under light, the more drastic the change; meaning that only royalty could afford the deeper colours. „By carefully timing the exposure, it was possible to obtain colours right up to a deep, almost black purple, the tint most highly prized.‟ (Boucher 2004: p.54) During this time, hygiene was hugely important and many would shave their heads and wear wigs. The Pharaoh, Emperor and upper-classes would wear the most elaborate wigs and accessories to assert authority as people of great importance. (See Image 7, pg 15) Warriors dress also differed creating a uniformed attire to distinguish them from others. An interesting historian to note at this point is Iris Brooke, who says: „If the costume of a period is, as Mr. James Laver suggests, the mirror of the soul, there are several interesting reflections in the costume of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. The contrast between the dress of the noble and that of the labourer is more striking than at any later period in English history, and it indicates the distinction which the feudal system demanded between the powerful baron and the powerless serf...men and women found ample opportunity for self-expression in dress” (1956: p.7-8)
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Supporting the idea that Laver sees clothes as a signifier. Brooke agrees that clothing distinctions were at their most, “striking”, at this time, but not that fashion emerged: „It is impossible at this early date to talk of fashion, as we understand the word‟ (Brooke 1956: p.10) Lastly, there are others who argue that fashion, as we understand it, started with the appearance of Haute Couture and Charles Frederick Worth in the second half of the nineteenth century, (see Images 13, 14, pg 19-20). Worth was an Englishman who moved to Paris and was the first couturier recorded in history. Before the nineteenth century tailors had always gone to the upper-class‟ homes to make their clothes, Worth however, demanded that people go to him at his fashion house however wealthy, with the exception of the Empress Eugenie. He was the first to show collections four times a year and introduced the concept of using women to parade the clothes in front of his clients, inventing the idea of catwalk models and seasonal attire. „Worth was the first to stress the liveliness of his creations by employing young girls to wear his models for customers. It has been said that these “doubles”, who were later to be called “mannequins”, were chosen for their resemblance to his principal customers.‟ (Boucher 2004: p.385) During the nineteenth century we also saw the invention of the sewing machine invented initially by a French tailor called Thimonnier which was later perfected by Isaac M Singer in 1853. The sewing machine was to, „revolutionise the garment industry‟ (Boucher 2004: p. 358). The sewing machine meant that clothing could now be made more efficiently, and it paved the way for mass producing and, “prêt-a-porter” clothing to be mass distributed, making clothing easier for all classes to access.
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The economy had become largely capitalised which meant that ready-to-wear shops could be opened in Paris. This idea began with the opening of the “Belle Jardinière” in October 1824 and soon after, the first department store was opened, with the help of the engineer Gustav Eiffel, named “Bon Marche”. This would not have been possible without the help of the banks and upper-classes who made a great deal of profit. „Department stores were born of the idea, formulated by a number of traders, of gathering several shops together in large, common premises...these shops attracted mainly women customers, and by the choice and range of articles sold, they exercised an undeniable influence on women‟s clothing” (Boucher 2004: p.370) From the nineteenth century fashions started to centre round profit making. Trends were dictated by the Designers but the stores would pick only the items they believed would make a profit, these ideals still centre around fashion today. In the nineteenth century people started to become obsessed with the idea of being “fashionable”. Clothing was adapted from the influence of the upper classes, and styles changed according to what people wanted to wear. Utility was not the priority – it was about looking the best. Women especially, would pay fortunes for a great dress and it was during, „this period when we first see women‟s coats in the sense we give them today.‟ (Boucher 2004: p.346). The nineteenth century brought fame to couturiers and tailors who were now seen as people of influence and the dictators of fashion, instead of people who merely made clothes. The nineteenth century is also when fashion started to be influenced by literature, and artists began to paint everyday styles rather than posed portraits. Popularity of fashion magazines rose drastically and women almost began to depend on them. The first fashion magazine emerged in 1672:
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„Called Mercure Galant, the magazine began to regularly offer comment on the latest clothing styles and was read throughout Europe.‟ (Fashion Encyclopaedia 2010: Introduction) Initial fashion publications were dependent on what women needed, such as tips on housework, self-educating and needlework, however the social conditions of the time meant that women were seen as trophies. Women mainly stayed inside and so fashion magazines began to provide more cultural references. The, “Lady‟s Book” was released in June 1830 and as circulation spread the fashion magazine market grew. These magazines included editorials, notices, needle patterns, fictional stories by the likes of Edgar Allen Poe and fashion reports. In 1867 “Harper‟s Bazar” was founded which later changed its name to, “Harper‟s Bazaar” which went on to be considered one of America‟s leading Fashion editorials, (see Image 15, pg 20). Today we have a huge variety of weekly, monthly and quarterly fashion magazines making them a huge part of female culture that can be traced back to the nineteenth century. It is also important to note that during the nineteenth century, when fashions were influenced largely by literature there was a revival in fashions from the Middle Ages such as the “poulaines”. „It looked to the Middle Ages and the East, as these were reflected and heightened in history and novels” (Boucher 2004: p.363) Despite all the economic and social changes in the nineteenth century they still wanted to look back to the Middle Ages for inspiration as society was intrigued by this historical period. In my opinion, all three viewpoints can be argued and none are right or wrong.
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From a Marxist or sociological perspective we can see that fashion has always been used to divide classes. It has been that way since the ancient civilisations; it is still like that now and will probably always be that way. While the nineteenth century was when many of the things that we class as “fashion” began to emerge, for example, department stores, prêt-a-porter, the importance of fashion designers and magazines. It is easy to see why many argue that it was not until this point that “fashion” began. My reason for agreeing that Laver‟s statement is extremely valid is not based on the costume of the fourteenth century but society‟s change in attitude towards clothing. The fourteenth century was when people began to compete against one another. Today, I believe the main factor in defining fashion is the competition between people. We wear clothing to represent our identities and the amount of importance placed on clothing is extreme. People want to look the best and will do anything to achieve that. If fashion is more than just costume of an era but also the attitude, it would seem, based on my research that the attitude we hold today towards clothing and fashion did emerge in the fourteenth century.
Without society‟s
attitude, fashion would not exist, it would still be called costume and it would be utility, not luxury.
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http://lucasgalo.files.wordpress.com/2009/01/h-and-g-lg.jpg Image 1: Palaeolithic Costume - the beginning of civilisation and clothing pure necessity and modesty – see it only covers the “sexual organs” and footwear for walking on hard surfaces.
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http://photos.bravenet.com/272/478/925/3/4D681DB6CB.jpg Image 2: Although a more recent interpretation of clothing during the Prehistoric era, it shows the draping of animal fur and the more elaborate jewellery of the upper classes – society begins to divide classes.
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http://www.texasbeyondhistory.net/plateaus/peoples/images/hattie-sm.jpg Image 3: This image shows traditional hide worn by the prehistoric people.
http://www.costumes.org/history/roman/1882ancientrome.jpg Image 4: Costume of Ancient Roman civilisation, more commonly referred to as the Toga, as you can see, the cloth is draped and mainly white, there is very little colour at this time.
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http://www.ermoumag.com/blog/wp-content/uploads/ermou-mag-42.jpg Image 5: Ancient Greek costume, as can be seen, it is remarkably similar to that of Ancient Rome, it is still draped but there is a little more colour and more distinguishing between class and profession.
http://www.costumes.org/history/egypt/egyptkretchmer.jpg Image 6: Ancient Egyptian costume is very similar again, but the most significant difference is the vast array of colour and headgear.
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http://images.google.co.uk/imgres?imgurl=http://karenswhimsy.com/public-domainimages/ancient-egyptian-clothing/images/ancient-egyptian-clothing1.jpg&imgrefurl=http://karenswhimsy.com/ancient-egyptianclothing.shtm&usg=__znRlPVMkQcpBJxfT9rMl6zdM1tg=&h=815&w=500&sz=153&hl=en&start=1&it bs=1&tbnid=iBSV6VDzww2sM:&tbnh=144&tbnw=88&prev=/images%3Fq%3Dancient%2Begyptian%2Bclothing%26hl% 3Den%26client%3Dfirefox-a%26sa%3DX%26rls%3Dorg.mozilla:enGB:official%26gbv%3D2%26tbs%3Disch:1 Image 7: Image of an Upper Class Ancient Egyptian woman. Note the draped toga with the embroidery and elaborate jewellery and headgear. This image is in black and white but it would be fairly accurate to suggest that the toga was a colour other than white, as the upper-classes often wore brighter and richer colours!
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http://misswilbur.org/images/medieval/medievalclothing.jpg Image 8: Costume of the middle ages, note the extreme length of the “poulaines� pointed shoes and the costume, begins to be slightly more fitted.
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http://www.fancydressstore.ie/CUuploads/Shop/items/157/22415_medieval_lady.jpg Image 9: Middle-ages costume. Notice the use of more expensive and richer fabrics such as velvet and the deep colours, as well as the huge sleeves.
http://www.costumes.org/history/medieval/headress/countessarundell13th.GIF Image 10: The Horned-Headdress from the middle ages.
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http://www.objectlessons.org/upload//images/A35293_m.jpg Image 11: The Crespine Headdress of the middle ages.
http://images.google.co.uk/imgres?imgurl=http://fashionindie.com/wpcontent/uploads/2009/11/imagen12.png&imgrefurl=http://steampunkerie.blogspot.com/2009/11/designer-watch-patrickveillet.html&usg=__WUUNs8G6VGPHBf3x8JrkcYF7JM=&h=480&w=450&sz=137&hl=en&start=9&itbs=1&tbnid=yCwDUXS1MVePnM:&tbnh=129&tbn w=121&prev=/images%3Fq%3Dmedieval%2Bhead-dresses%26hl%3Den%26client%3Dfirefoxa%26rls%3Dorg.mozilla:en-GB:official%26gbv%3D2%26tbs%3Disch:1
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http://www.scottish-wedding-dreams.com/images/ladies-patterns-headdress-McCalls-M4806390.jpg Image 12: An assortment of medieval headdresses.
http://www.zimbio.com/100+Most+Influential+People+in+Fashion/articles/220/Fashion+Influential +46+Charles+F+Worth Image 13: Portrait of Charles Frederick Worth father of Haute Couture and examples of his creations.
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http://www.europe.org.uk/files/1037_393px-winterhalter_elisabeth.jpg Image 14: Another of Worth’s absolutely beautiful creations
http://www.harpersbazaar.com/cm/harpersbazaar/images/1867-first-cover-140-0107-de.jpg Image 15: Cover of the first major fashion magazine, “Harpers Bazar” which later changed its name to “Harpers Bazaar”.
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Bibliography: Books:
Barnard, M., 2002. Fashion as Communication. 2nd Ed. London: Routledge
Barnard, M., 2007. Fashion Theory A Reader. 1st Ed. Oxon: Routledge
Boucher, F., 2004. A History of Costume in the West. 4th Ed. London: Thames & Hudson Ltd
Brooke, I., 1956. English Costume of the Later Middle Ages The Fourteenth and Fifteenth Centuries. London: Adam & Charles Black
Laver, J.,2002. Costume and Fashion a Concise History. 4th Ed. London: Thames & Hudson
1997. The Oxford Minireference Dictionary and Thesaurus. 3rd Ed. Great Britain: Oxford University Press
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17/04/2010. Fashion Encyclopedia European Culture – 17th Century. http://www.fashionencyclopedia.com/fashion_costume_culture/European-Culture-17thCentury/First-Fashion-Publications.html
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02/05/10. http://www.harpersbazaar.com/cm/harpersbazaar/images/1867-first-cover-1400107-de.jpg
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02/05/10. http://misswilbur.org/images/medieval/medievalclothing.jpg
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17/04/2010. Luminous Lint for Collectors and Connoisseurs of Fine Photography. http://www.luminous-lint.com/app/theme/340/
02/05/10. http://www.objectlessons.org/upload//images/A35293_m.jpg
02/05/10. http://photos.bravenet.com/272/478/925/3/4D681DB6CB.jpg
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02/05/10. http://www.scottish-wedding-dreams.com/images/ladies-patterns-headdressMcCalls-M4806-390.jpg
02/05/10. http://www.texasbeyondhistory.net/plateaus/peoples/images/hattie-sm.jpg
02/05/10. http://www.zimbio.com/100+Most+Influential+People+in+Fashion/articles/220/Fashion+Infl uential+46+Charles+F+Worth
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