International Style Final Book by Kieran James Graphic Design

InternationalStyle

This is a collaborative project between

Kieran James Sarah Harrison Charles Rodriguez Rebecca Haskins James Marshall Nischal Gurung Yuxin Huang

Contents Introduction

2-5

Chapter 1

6 - 19

Origins Changing Attitudes Impact of WW1 Technology Bauhaus Influence Other Factors Origins Timeline

Chapter 3

34 - 41

Furniture and Product Design Barcelona Chair Max Bill Marcel Breuer Dieter Rams

Chapter 4

Chapter 2

20 - 33

Architecture 8-9 10 - 13 14 15 16 18 - 19

42 - 57

Le Corbusier Brutalism Louis Sulivan Frank Lloyd Wright Mies van der Rohe

Conclusion

22 - 23 24 - 25 26 - 27 28 - 29 30 - 33

58 - 67

Graphic Design and Typography 38 39 40 41

M端ller Brockmann Emil Ruder Armin Hofmann Akzidenz Grotesk Univers Helvetica The Grid

44 - 47 48 - 49 50 51

Conclusion Key Words Bibliography

60 - 61 62 63 - 67

52 53 - 54 55 - 57

Introduction

This book focuses on the art and design movement known as International Style. The movement spans from around the 1920’s to the 1960’s. It is considered part of the overall movement known as Modernism. Modernism began as a reaction to the traditional forms of design, art, music and literature which many believed were becoming outdated in a new economic, social and political environment of an emerging industrialised world. In the late 19th Century architects became increasingly dissatisfied with the decorative styling of buildings influenced by previous movements from Historicism. With the emerging industrialized society came a need for large numbers of office buildings and other commercial, residential and civic structures. The building’s function was now more important and the development of new building technologies centring on the use of steel, reinforced concrete and mass production allowed architects to design economical, and utilitarian architecture that would both use the new materials and satisfy society’s new building needs while still appealing to aesthetic taste.

"perfection is achieved not when there is nothing left to add but when there is nothing left to remove" Antoine de Saint-Exupéry

Although predominantly related to architectural styles, International style significantly influenced areas of graphic design, typography and interior and product design. Key players of this movement include architects Le Corbusier (1887-1965) and Mies van der Rohe (1886- 1969), graphic designers Josef M端ller Brockmann (1914-1996) and Max Bill (1908-1994) and furniture designers such as Marcel Breuer (1902-1981) and Dieter Rams (1932-). This book discusses the emergence and spread of International Style, places it in its cultural, social and political context whilst highlighting the work of the key players. It aims to explore the circumstances that initiated the start of the International style. Looking in detail at the effects of the movement on architectural styling. Whilst exploring the effects this movement had on interior/ furniture design. Lastly this book will explore the impact of International style on Graphic design and typography. From top left to bottom right: Le Corbusier,Mies van der Rohe, Josef M端ller Brockmann and Max Bill

Chapter 1

Origins

Changing attitudes As previously mentioned International style is considered a part of Modernism. This philosophical movement was a result of enormous socioeconomic and political change as well as significant advances in technology. Prior to Modernism, art and design was heavily influenced by historical approaches. This reapplication of historical approaches is referred to as Historicism. International Style presented a cultural rejection to Historicism. This acceptance of change resulted in new approaches towards art and design being shaped. Aesthetically Modernism generally challenged ideals surrounding form, this is particularly evident in movements such as Expressionism, a painting movement that was concerned with expressive forms. Essentially, the grandeur and decadence evident in late 19th century design was being replaced by a more simplistic visual language. International Style was not only interested in form, but greatly subscribed to the functionalist belief that function was of most importance.

"Modern life demands, and is waiting for, a new kind of plan, both for the house and the city" Le Corbusier (1923)

Composition VIII by Wassily Kandinsky (1923) Modernism often promoted self-expression through the use of colour and shape. This is in contrast to the realism portrayed in earlier paintings. Kandinskyâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s use of abstracted shape later inspired Marcel Breuerâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Wassily Chair as shown on page 42.

Influence of World War 1 Various socioeconomic and political factors played a significant role in the development of Modernism and International Style. Central to this was the aftermath of World War 1 (WWI). Europe was devastated. Rebuilding, both architecturally and economically was urgently required. This urgent need, juxtaposed with advancing technology, helped fuel the Modernist ideals. Designers embraced newer more efficient production methods. Changing political structures, as a result of the War, also had a significant impact on Modernism. This was particularly prevalent within Germany, which saw the abdication of their Keiser Willhelm II and the formation of the Weimer Republic. This political change was significant to the Bauhaus movement and ultimately the International Style as the Bauhaus were allowed to develop. Previously this was not possible due to heavy censorship.

Battle of Pozieres,in France (1916) Highlighting the damage caused to towns and villages during WW1.

Keiser Willhelm II Changing political structures following WW1 had an immense impact on Modernism. The abdication of Keiser Willhelm II led to a relaxation of previously strict censorship laws. This significantly impacted upon the Bauhaus.

Socioeconomic Impact Children playing with the Deutsche mark (1923) following the collapse of the German economy after WW1.The urgent need to rebuild coupled with economic weakness led to a greater emphasis on efficiency as a result a tighter relationship between craft and industry was called for. Following page Destruction caused by WW1

Improving Technology Modernism embraced the changing times of the early 20th century, this was immensely significant to the success of the movement. International Style celebrated new industry and advancing technology, this attitude was important because technology was on the populous conscience. The aftermath of World War 1 highlighted the importance of this attitude as embracing new technology was essential in order to aid a systemic recovery. The Werkbund was a German craft association ,which was founded in 1907. It looked to embrace the technological advances of the era by exploring the implementation of new industrial materials such as steel and concrete. The Werkbund championed new industry pushing for a tighter relationship between craft and industry. Central to the initiation of the movement was Peter Behrens his belief in the necessity of a unification of art and industry subsequently inspired International Style. Glass Pavillion by Bruno Tauts The first Deutsche Werkbund exhibition was held here in 1914.

Bauhaus Influence The tightening relationship between industry and craft was later echoed by the Bauhaus, which was founded in 1919. Bauhaus was arguably the most significant movement to influence Swiss design. Pioneered by Walter Gropius, the movement centralised around educating arts and crafts promoting avant garde ideas. The formation of the movement was largely a result of political changes and social turmoil within Germany. The newly established Weimer republic recognised the importance of mass production as a means to meet demand and efficiently keep cost low. This allowed the Bauhaus to flourish. The Bauhaus movement also introduced a sense of universalism, promoting the idea that design was interconnected, this principle was prevalent to the International Style. Bauhaus was founded in Germany following World War 1. Social changes within Germany enabled Bauhaus to flourish, with strict censorship laws within Germany being abolished following the end of WW1. De Stijl, which was founded in 1917, also looked to merge with industry with craft. The movements sought international unity with art and design. German pioneer Mies van der Rohe similarly pursued modernist principles on design, again embracing new industrial materials and the merging between industry and design. Top Bauhaus in Dessau The Bauhaus school played a critical role in the development of Modernism and International Style. Cutlery for the Wertheim department store by Peter Behrens (1901-2) Key figures embraced new materials and production methods.

Other Factors International Style really began to gain momentum following the dispersion of key Bauhaus practitioners across Europe and America. Bauhaus was stifled by the Nazi regime, which rejected their modernist principles. Several key figures within Bauhaus subsequently fled Germany including Walter Gropius and Mies van der Rohe. This was significant in allowing their modernist principles to survive and flourish in otherwise toxic environment. The principles of clarity and visual order later influenced International Typographic Style,otherwise referred to as Swiss Style. This graphic design focused movement came to prominence in the 1950â&#x20AC;&#x2122;s in both Germany and Switzerland. The development of the style coincided with rising corporate culture. Its clean visual language with an emphasis on clarity and information layout was well suited to brand identity.

Walter Gropius (1883-1969) Walter Gropius later fled to Britain in 1934 following the rise of the Nazi party.The dispersion of key thinkers was critical for the formational of International Style.

Philip Johnson (1906-2005) He later fled to Britain in 1934 following the rise of the Nazi party.The dispersion of key thinkers was critical for the formational of International Style. Left The Modern architecture: International Style (1932) exhibition was significant in the initiation of the movement. Curated by Philip Johnson and HenryRussell Hitchcock, the exhibition looked to reinforce the unified visual language of the movement by showcasing the style.

18 M ax

‘G min be rap H w ca hic offm ith m in e De ann th a p sig w e fie opu n M rote an ld l a . rt u th ex al’ e t b th oo is k

19 o ll ap 62 mos des . p c of e Op o ign w wa ara tin pe ed or W k tch nce g fo a the tc of , t r m hat he a m h i n in c w im a re ini al s s ate ma is t t a yle d a l rc d hi lik pie te e c ct a e ur e.

Th cr e E e Th at lec m e fi ed tro a to ga rst by stat ty the zin iss Die ic S po te e u p gr Sw . A e o r R ea ap iss M f N am ke a r e hi e styl ga ue s in wa z e of ine Gra 19 s de de fik 59 . si gn vote an d d

s de

Jo th sef e Zu Mü ric lle h rB st ud roc io km

Fa ank so llin Llo ut gw yd hw a es ter Wri te . B gh rn ui t Pe lt i de nn n 1 sig sy 93 ne d lv 5 an in ia ru ra l

on r R a oh C e ha de ir si g

va el

th e

M W arc as el si Br ly e C ue ha r ir de s

19 Lo

07 te 19 er ex chn 07, kbu in plo olo loo nd co dus ring gic ked wh al ic nc tri t re al m the ad o e h w te va m i a m a . te pl nc bra s fo ria em e ce un s ls su enta of t the ded ch tio he as n o era st f n , b ee e y la w nd

d by ns- en th ser z-G ty und e H if ty rote pe ry . B p e sk fa . I ce t w erth fac is a e o to as r l r be th d A ele eal is a G e s w fi ty e t id el rst s pe d y us an ed s s er if fo

th ain Su w e lli or ver righ van ld y fir t bu co n st i sk ldin stru ys g, ct e cr ap it w d t er as he s in one th e of

18 Origins Timeline

Following page Fallingwater designed by Frank Lloyd Wright

-5

19 ve Ed 57 tic fo ua by a w un rd M as dr H ax de o y in ffm Mie ve Sw an di lop itz n a ng ed e er la t th r w in i nd e H th . aa s

St ax fo ool Bill u w nd In des se ante ry 195 ign d De 4 t ed th rif b h t t e ra ype o ad ern e F the ng in d y r & en Ulm e of sev a lin Pe ch th er ea ig typ n a e Lu l w r sa ot e m eig ns ity pe hts fo to nt s

Em Sc il D ho Rud H esig ol, er pu offm n a the fou bl an t t he nd h is ed he n.E e s ad B m c o d hi il R ho f G ase r s o bo ud l w aph l ok er as ic â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;T als Ar s yp o m in og ra ph yâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;

co e F van ns arn d tru sw er R ct ed orth oh du ho e d rin us esi g e, gn 19 It e 45 wa d -5 s 1

-3

-1

ho as a lle de us n u Co ar sig e th nre nte ch n r m a ite ed ee m lise po ra ct by d i Le th llio pr ine C e F n in oje or c bu ren hab t to si ch ita er -S nt w is s s

uh a by us s a ar flue bec r. Wa cho Th ch nt l o a t e ite ial me e B r l w ct cu o au Gro as ur n e rren e o ha piu u an ts f th s s d m in M e m od er ode ost n de rnis si t gn . in

in as a ijl, ex 19 D also ha pre 17.P utc k rm ss ro h a now on a po rtis n a n n y t an ew en ic m s n e d ut ts o or op of ve opl de ia D m as e e t n r id Sti nt icis fo ea jl m l o so un , f s ug de h d pi rit t to ua l

or ld

Chapter 2

chapter 1 Architecture

Le Corbusier Architecture was heavily influenced by International style most notably attributed by Le Corbusier. Corbusier’s concept lavished in the idea of space, simplicity and modern structural design. Corbusier identified three major architectural discoveries; the contrast between space, classical proportion and geometric forms - a unified idea crucial to the modernism of todays architecture. As mentioned in chapter one the rise of an industrialised society lead to new building technologies such as steel and reinforced concrete. These materials were central to Le Corbusier’s designs, this is evident in ‘Maison Dom-Ino’ designed in 1915. The layout of this plan was completely independent from the structure of the design, the idea surrounding this proved to be a free-standing rigid building designed for the mass production aspect Corbusier had inherited. Collaborating with artist Amedee Ozenfant, he applied principles of purism that lead to architecture that was fully refined and simplified. It was believed that architecture would end up being as efficient as a factory assembly line. Corbusier expresses his thoughts thoroughly in his book ‘Vers Une Architecture’, he stated ‘a house…is a machine for living in’. However, despite this expression, Corbusier was determined to reintroduce nature and freedom into society. He began to use his concepts and theories to create structurally fascinating and influential architecture, he created ‘Ville Contemporaine in 1922, which was envisaged to be divided into 24 functional zones and ‘Ville Radieuse in 1933-1935, which proved to show a considerably cheaper way of living through a long building in parklands. It was after the Second World War that Le Corbusier began the design of The Unite d’Habition in Marselles. This concept began in the hope to rebuild cities for the European housing problem at the time. Designed to house over 1600 people and totalling 17 stories, Unite d’Habition aimed to hold housing, shops and clubs. This is still viewed as an influential architectural achievement today.

Maison Dom-Ino by Le Corbusier (1916) New materials and production techniques were central behind this iconic design. Right Ozenfant House in Paris by Le Corbusier (1922) A collaboration with the Cubist painter and writer Amédée Ozenfant.

Brutalism Le Corbusier was a pioneer of Brutalism, this movement promoted rigid formal approach to architecture. Similarly to International style the movement was not concerned with expression and individuality, but rather an emphasise on control and function. The design of the 1953 Secretariat building, also known as the Palace of Assembly in Chandigarh was one of his most recognised Brutalist buildings. The city of Chandigarh was notably the first planned city in India’s post-independence and was primarily designed by Corbusier, this is significant because it was rare that one architect could have such wide spread control over an urban development. It was after the partition of Punjab that Corbusier was commissioned by the first prime minister of India to build the city of Chandigarh. As a brief for the new city, Corbusier was assigned to build a city that was ‘unfettered by the traditions of the past, a symbol of the nation faith in the future’. Brutalism’s public perception was somewhat negative. This was highlighted by its name that describes something ugly. This was largely due to the movements use of concrete, which was viewed as unwelcoming and aesthetically harsh.

Palace of Assembly in Chandigarh by Le Corbusier (1963) One of the most famous examples of Brutalist architecture. The Palace of Assembly is a legislative assembly which comprises of three building belonging to the capitol complex; Legislative Assembly, Secretalriat and High Court. Left Robin Hood gardens in London by Peter and Alison Smithson (1972) English architects Peter and Alison Smithson are considered pioneers of ‘New Brutalism. The movement avocated functionalist principles,rejecting a polished aesthetic.

Louis Sullivan Another influential architect on International style was Louis Sullivan (1856-1924). Louis Sullivan’s architecture was a mixture of plain geometry and lack of ornamentation. This is evident in his major principle idea of ‘form follows function’. The only signs of ornamentation would be engraved into the stone of the building, and would be kept to a minimum. In the 1880s Louis Sullivan had indicated to Chicago architects that they would have to use more advanced modes of construction if they wanted to remain in practice; as stated in chapter one the advances in new building materials such as steel and concrete allowed Louis Sullivan to design the Wainwright building effectively, as seen on the following page. The use of fireproof steel frames, with its ability to provide multistory rentable space; also enabled speculators to develop downtown sites to the absolute optimum. The use of these steel frames along with the invention of elevators allowed architects to double the height of their office buildings. These steel frames were the structural skeleton of the building. Louis Sullivan followed the principles of functionalism mainly influenced by his view ‘form follows function’. Functionalism was an aesthetic doctrine developed in the early 20th century, Functionalist architects design utilitarian structures, in which the interior design follows the outside forms principles. There was little to no regard to traditional devices such as axial symmetry and classical proportions, although they recognized a human need for nature. Louis Sullivan designed with the principles of combining the world of nature with science and technology. He attempted to balance ornamentation into the whole building design rather than merely applying it through added details. Louis Sullivan insisted that architecture had to embody the human connection with nature and to democracy, while still accommodating the most modern functional needs and materials.

Louis Sullivan Louis Sullivan subscribed to the functionalist principle that aesthetics were less important.Louis Sullivan famously stated “form follows function”

Wainwright building in Missouri by Louis Sullivan (1890-91) The Wainwright building is credited for being the first successful application of the steel frame construction. The tenth story is a frieze of intertwined leaf scrolls framing circular windows, and is capped with Sullivanâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s characteristic overhanging roof slab.

Frank Lloyd Wright Frank Lloyd Wright was an American architect and interior designer, designing over 1000 structures and completed 532 works. He believed in designing structures which were in harmony with humanity and its environment. Frank Lloyd Wright’s views on architectural space, ornamentation, and the relationship with the site inspired generations of architects and designers. Frank Lloyd Wright introduced the word ‘organic’ into his theories on architecture; this was an extension of his mentor Louis Sullivan. Frank Lloyd Wright changed the phrase ‘form follows function’ to ‘form and function are one’, he showed this through his work by using nature as the best example of this integration. Organic architecture follows the design process of nature by adapting to each site, climate, and set of materials. Organic architecture took on a new meaning when adapted by Frank Lloyd Wright, instead of it being a representation of nature the principles of nature had been reinterpreted so that they could build forms that are ‘more natural than nature itself’; respecting the properties of materials, and respect for the harmonious relationship between the design and the function of the building One of the most recognized pieces of Frank Lloyd Wright’s work is Fallingwater, as shown on the following page.Built in 1935 in rural southwestern Pennsylvania. The home was built party over a waterfall, Frank Lloyd Wright thoroughly fused the house with the site, so much so it looks part of the nature. The use of interlocking geometry of the planes and the flat texture-less surface of the main shelves demonstrates the use of international style features. The building has a lot of clear glass windows to allow the outside to flow freely into the inside. Frank Lloyd Wright described this site as ‘organic’; the house is engaged with its surrounding showing how nature and function can work harmoniously.

Frank Lloyd Wright Frank Lloyd Wright acknowledged the human need for nature; he clearly accomplished this through his work, as well as recognizing the need for function within a household. Right: Falling water by Frank Lloyd Wright (1936) Fallingwater is one of Frank Lloyd Wright’s more powerful pieces with its structural drama and beauty; it is his most inspiring integration of man and nature.

"less is more"

Mies van der Rohe Mies van der Rohe was a German architect, striving to create a new modern form and functional theory of architecture, an unornamented style incorporating geometric shapes, new construction techniques and materials. The buildings he designed were usually flat roofed, asymmetrical with ribbon windows in a rectangular form. Mies van der Rohe followed the ideals of rationalism and minimalism; Rationalism within architecture kept a strong commitment to the conquests of the aesthetics of Cubism. ‘Less is more’; became a guiding principle within his work. Mies van der Rohe believed in structural honesty and designed some of the earliest glass and curtain wall office towers on the 1950s. The Farnsworth house was designed by Mies van der Rohe it is one of the most famous examples of modernist domestic architecture and was considered unique in its day. The house's structure consists of precast concrete floor and roof slabs supported by a carefully crafted steel skeleton frame of beams, girders and columns. The facade is made of single panes of glass spanning from floor to ceiling. This is a pure example of international style; Mies van der Rohe stated at the time, “The essentials for living are floor and roof. Everything else is proportion and nature. Whether the house pleases or not is inconsequential”. He believed the house was functional, and fitted the needs for living.

Mies van der Rohe (1986-1969) Pioneer who's "less is more" quote that has come to define the movements simplistic aesthetic approach. Following page Farnsworth house (1951) One of his most famous architectural designs.This building epitomises several key International Style characteristics.

Chapter 3

Furniture and Product Design

International style not only influenced architectural design, but also furniture and interior design. It applied similar principles in that the furniture aimed to be clean, functional and balanced. This chapter will look at the work of Mies van der Rohe, Max Bill, Marcel Breuer and Dieter Rams.

"Good design is as little design as possible. Less is more â&#x20AC;&#x201C; because it concentrates on the essential aspects and the products are not burdened with nonessentials. Back to purity, back to simplicity" Dieter Rams

Dieter Rams (1932-) Influential German designer, whose work adheres to principles of simplicity and clarity. Dieter Rams believes good design is honest, unobtrusive and innovative. Previous Page Interior of Villa Savoye

ipod Classic 6th Generation (2007) Left Pocket Radio T3 (1958) Apples ipod classic designed by Jonathan Ive clearly shares resemblance to Dieter Rams pocket radio which was designed nearly 50 years before.This highlights the timelessness of International styles design principles

Mies van der Rohe The first significant example of product design to be analysed in this chapter is the Barcelona Chair designed by Ludwig Mies van der Rohe , a German-American architect who was widely considered as one of the pioneering masters of modern architecture. The Barcelona Chair was designed for providing the break of the King and Queen of Spain when he was visiting the German pavilion in the international exposition in Barcelona of 1929. It was 12mm thick, solid core steel to provide extra strength, a clean single piece finished without screws or bolts to reveal the famous â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;Xâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; shape which was in keeping with the original structure of The Barcelona chair. Individual genuine leather panels are cut for the seat cushions and hand welted and tufted. Each individual leather panel is then hand stitched and piped to cover the seat cushions. Top grain Italian leather is used on the cushions for a soft buttery finish. The cushions are supported by buckle straps and not Velcro straps as on inferior versions. The back cushion is slightly curved to the shape of the steel as per the original design. In general the whole design of the chair is functional and simple. It is unique not only because of its design, but also the different aim of the design. International style designers claimed to want simple, functional and mass-produced products for the working class people but the Barcelona Chair is difficult to produce and it was a custom design for the Spanish King and Queen. With this chair, Mies van der Rohe made an important artistic statement; he showed how negative space could be used to transform a functional item into sculpture.

Barcelona Chair by Mies van der Rohe (1929) The Barcelona chair highlights Mies van der Rohe meticulous attention to detail.The chair was designed without the use of any nuts and bolts.

Max Bill The next two classic products to be mentioned are the Ulm Stool and the Chronoscope Watch. They are both designed by Max Bill, who was a famous Swiss architect, industrial and graphic designer. He was also the president of Ulm School of design, which is seen as the heir to the Bauhaus School. In 1954, Bill designed the Ulm Stool for his school. The design style of Bill is identified as the clarity of appearance and the precise of proportion, which makes the Ulm stool a classic example. It is not only without any decoration, his minimalist style also has many functions such as bedside tables and chairs. In the meantime his work expertly combined elements of work and leisure. The Ulm Stool cancels the difference between work and leisure. Another typical example is the Chronoscope watch as seen below. Designed that Bill for a German brand that is called Junghans in 1962. Opting for a minimal appearance, Max Bill created a piece of watch that was styled like a work of minimalist architecture. Perhaps not surprisingly since Max Bill was closely connected to the master of less-is-more, Mies van der Rohe, in his early years at the Bauhaus. Max Bill designed it so all elements effortlessly blended together: design, craftsmanship, quality and materials. The appearance of the watch was simple and clean but the contrast of the appearance was strong which created the sense of elegance. Top Ulm stool (1954) The success of the Ulm Stool lies in its versatility. The simplicity of its design and shape make it suitable throughout the home. Right Chronoscope watch (1962) A elegant blend of industry and craftmanship,highlighting Max Bills meticulous attention to detail.

Marcel Breuer and Dieter Rams The fourth typical example to be analysed in this chapter is the Wassily Chair,as shown on the previous page. The chair was designed by Marcel Breuer, a Hugarian-born modernist architect and one of the masters of modernism in 1925. It is the first chair which is structured using pipes, and it was designed for commemorating Breuer’s great mentor Wassily Kandinsky. The Wassily Chair is seen as a sign of international style product design, not only its clean appearance but also the material of it is easy to be acquired. The main materials were textile and pipe and that is why it was mass-produced easily. The design concept behind the Wassily Chair is exactly the same as the principle of International Style design. The last example to be analysed is the LE1 Electrostatic Speaker designed by Dieter Rams in 1959, a famous German industrial designer who closely associated with the consumer products company Braun and the functionalist school of industrial design. There are only two main parts that are visible for the whole speaker, which are the thin steel structure and a big rectangle speaker unit. The design idea was to only present the speaker, there is no decoration on the appearance and that makes the design totally functional. In fact, Apples Mac was heavily inspired by this early speaker design. Right LE1 Electrostatic Speaker by Dieter Rams (1959) Advocates Dieter Rams principle that “good design is long lasting” having later inspired Apples design of the Mac. Left Wassily Chair by Marcel Breuer (1925) Highlights International Styles empthasis on the abstraction of form.

image

Chapter 4

Graphic Design and Typography

Josef Müller Brockmann This chapter explores the impact of International Style on graphic design and typography. Like the architectural principles of International Style, the graphic and typographic principles sought clarity and simplicity. Graphic designers Josef Müller Brockmann, Emil Ruder and Armin Hofmann maintained that the use of minimal elements of graphics was the most effective method of communication. Josef Müller Brockmann established his own design studio in Zurich, where he founded ‘Nueue Graphik’ magazine (Fig 1), which involved the principles of Swiss design. (Graphis n.d.) This magazine is considered to be an important publication in graphic design. It was collaborated with 3 other Zurich designers – Richard Lohse, Carlo Vivarelli, Hans Neuberg. Magazine dedicated its content to contemporary and historical design of Swiss style, typography and photography. This publication furthered the Swiss design rules internationally making Switzerland the centre of the International style. However, in terms of his work what best describes his designs is minimalistic; it is very clear and iconic. The following page shows one of his most recognized works his use of photography is extremely powerful and memorable; the cropping of the motorcycle and seeing the full body of the running child puts you in the situation where it makes you the witness of the incident that’s about to happen. What makes the poster really effective and unique is the details you see of the close up of the motorcycle, which we don’t often see and gives us the uncomfortable situation suggesting that something bad is about to occur. This aspect of using extreme close ups has influenced many designers today such as M/M Paris, an art and design company and fashion house Balenciaga. M/M Paris has combined their knowledge of ‘Swiss style’ with punk aspects when collaborating with Balenciaga.

Cover design of 'Neue Graphik' magazine. The influencial magazine was founded in 1958 running untill 1965.In this time 17 issues were released. Right Proteggete i bambini (1953) One of Josef Müller Brockann's most famous examples of design.The poster is part of a road safety campaign. Previous Page Büro by Theo Ballmer (1928) Für das Alter by Carlo Vivarelli (1949)

His influences come from several art movements and designs that are very similar to each other such as De Stijl, Suprematism, Constructivism, and Bauhaus. Mostly his works are conceptually abstract with geometric elements especially his ‘Zurich Tonhalle Concert posters.’ (Fig 3) It is also based strictly upon rules of typography, grids and use of neutral colours, which are all principles of International style. The use of grid systems reinforces the purpose and importance of its simplicity, describes Josef Müller Brockmann in his book, Grid system (1996). These simple clean graphic messages and shapes he creates is what the viewers embraces and makes it easier to be understood. Josef Müller brockmann was also involved in educating the future graphic designers about the Swiss style. Emil Ruder was also in Basel School of Design who was taught by the same mentor, Ernst Keller.

Below Right Zurich Tonhalle. musica viva. Concert poster (1959) Below Left Zurich Tonhalle. musica viva. Concert poster (1971)

Next page: Zurich Tonhalle. musica viva. Concert poster (1958)

Emil Ruder Emil Ruder is considered to have played a key role in teaching typography and developing Swiss Style. His book ‘Typographie’ advocates Swiss typography theory, its design principles and studies done by his students. What he has done in his teachings in typography is he has ‘abandoned the conventional rules of and replaced them with new rules that satisfied the requirements of his new typography.’ In this book, Ruder's philosophy in typography was explained into 19 chapters, showing a multitude of possible ways to see and develop in typography. It is clear to see throughout the book impact of using negative space and grid structures. Here is one of his most recognized pieces of work. The arrangements of text and illustration are carefully composed. How illustration placed towards the left creates the space for text, which creates less distraction. He has given attention towards negative space as previously mentioned. This creates perfect co-ordination and adds balance between the illustration and the text. 'Die gute Form' by Emil Ruder (1958) what is the poster about?

Die gute form (1958) Emphasizing Emil Ruder focus on negative space and heavy abstraction.

Die gute form Poster design highlighting Emil Ruders experimental approach towards typography.

'Typographie' written by Emil Ruder (1967) One of the most distinguished design book. Emil Ruderâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Typographie is highly regarded. Itâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s teachings have been hugely influential on design, inspiring generations of designers.

Armin Hofmann

Armin Hofmann is recognized for using geometrical and graphical shapes, lines, black and white colour in his poster designs. All of his work conveys simplicity, abstraction and use of Akzidenz- Grotesk typography. This type was popularly used in Swiss Style. His career began as a teacher at the Basel School of Arts and Crafts where he met Emil Ruder. He created a series of posters throughout his career. ‘Successful poster(s) must be clearly viewed from a distance of one hundred feet away’, writes Steven Heller in Armin Hofmann ‘Poster Collection’ book. One of his most talked about designs is Die Gute Form. It involves complexity, simplicity and abstraction, which attracts the audience due to the geometrical letterforms, which almost look like symbols. This is what catches audience curiosity to investigate further. “He believed that the more complex the environment became, the more minimal and clear the design should be.” Cleanliness, simplicity and concentration were very important in his work. He respected ethical responsibilities designers needed to take such as his restriction in the use of colours in his work, 'Designing also means being aware of your ethical responsibilities.’ Giselle Poster (1959) Poster advertising the ballet Giselle.The soft imagery contrasts effectively against the sharp geometric typography.The implementation of similar typography was common within the Swiss Style.

Akzidenz Grotesk International style had a profound influence on typographic design. Designers who embraced these ideals sought to achieve them with a single type family, therefore sans-serif was created. The typeface easily accommodates modern design’s abstract, intellectual attitudes, and was adopted by most designers practicing at this time. Akzidenz Grotesk was the first widely-adopted sans serif typeface, and a big influencer on many later neo-grotesque typefaces, such as Helvetica and Univers. Akzidenz Grotesk was created in 1898 by H. Berthold AG type foundry, and was originally called ‘Accidenz-Grotesk’. This versatile typeface was suitable for both headlines and body copy. The slight quirks present in the typeface give it a bit more visual interest than other, similar neo-grotesques.

“Typography has one plain duty before it and that is to convey information in writing" Emil Ruder

Olma by Josef Müller Brockmann (1959) Poster advertising an annual agricultural fair in St Gallen, Switzerland.This poster is using Akzidenz Grotesk.

Univers

Adrian Frutiger (1928-) Designer behind the Univers typeface.

Univers is a typeface created by Zurich trained Adrian Frutiger, designed in 1954 it was introduced by Emil Ruder to be used on Neue Grafik, a magazine created by Josef M端ller-Brockmann in 1959. Beforehand M端ller-Brockmann and his colleges exclusively used Akzidenz on their publication. Univers is based on AkzidenzGrotesk and the biggest strength for it is its diversity, consisting of 44 faces, with 16 uniquely numbered weight, width, and position combinations. It also works well as both body copy and display.

Left: Universe composition by Adrian Fruitigar This composition highlights the various different widths the Univers typeface was available in.

Helvetica Helvetica was published in 1957 and designed by Max Miedinger in Switzerland. It is now a widely used sans-serif font, but its original purpose was to be a competitor to Akzidenz. It was previously known as Neue Haas Grotesk but renamed Helvetica (meaning Swiss in Latin) in 1960 so it would be more marketable internationally. It was designed to fit a consistent programme of weights and widths, meaning it lost much of its strength. Its uniform, upright character makes it similar to transitional serif letters. One of Helvetica's more remarkable features is its large x-height, which is even larger than that of Univers, giving the letterforms increased volume, allowing for better legibility than many sans-serifs.

"It's air, you know. It's just there. There's no choice. You have to breathe, so you have to use Helvetica" Erik Spiekermann

Max Miedinger (1910-1980) Designer of the Helvetica typeface Erik Spiekermann Quote Influencial designer who is personally against the universal nature of the Helvetica typeface.This quote highlights the prevalance of Helvetica in our society. Designing This Book Helvetica has been an integral part of designing this book,being used throughout.

Helvetica today Helveticaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s clarity and uniformity has made it an ideal typeface for many brand identityâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s

The Grid

Another Swiss style trait is the use of Grid systems and the influence it has had on the structure of magazines, posters and more recently web design. A grid system is used to help graphic designers organise the information of a page into a logical and coherent format. A grid subdivides a page vertically and horizontally into margins, columns, inter-column spaces, lines of type, and spaces between blocks of type and images. The subdivisions form the basis of a modular and systematic approach to the layout, particularly for multipage documents, making the design process quicker, and ensuring visual consistency between related pages. The sizes of the gridâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s components are determined for ease of reading and handling for the viewer.

Jan Tschichold (1902-1975) Pioneer behind the grid.Jan Tschichold sought to create a sense of visual order.

However the Grid system wasn’t always the predominant process of arranging type onto a page. Books were once a luxury only the richest could afford and would take months of work to produce. The bookmakers knew a secret system, now known as a ‘canon’, that allowed them to arrange the blocks of text into a harmonious unit. Jan Tschichold, a swiss typographer, sort to rediscover this process of producing the ‘perfect book’, studying the work of J. A. Van de Graaf he developed the Van de Graaf Canon. This is a process of dividing a two-page spread that leads to the text block outcome having the same ratio of the page, but also positions it in perfectly whole units. Typographers like Herbert Bayer and Jan Tschichold, called for some order to be imposed on what seemed like ‘fractured chaos’. Jan Tschichold continued to explore subtle horizontal and vertical alignments, and used a limited range of fonts, type sizes, and type weights. The Grid was most notably popularised by the graphic designer Josef Müller-Brockmann, in his book Grid systems in graphic design. The work of MüllerBrockmann helped to expand Swiss style across the world into International typographic style, as it is known today. Top Van de Graaf Canon Developed by Jan Tschichold the Van de Graaf Canon is a principle that helps make a harmonious page composition. Grid systems An influencial book by Josef Müller Brockmann which explores various grid compositions.

The difference between grids used today and the page layouts of the past are found in increased flexibility and mathematical dexterity. The advances in technology and the use of computers has made greater precision easy, and contemporary grids subdivide the page into small component parts that can be combined in numerous ways that still ensure cohesion in the design. The Grid system is widely used today in web design, the core principles of simplicity and usability are maintained to organise information for the viewer to quickly access. The grid is often so important it is the first priority of the designer, once a consistent logical screen layout is established it allows you to â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;plug inâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; text and graphics without having to rethink the basic design approach on each page. The Grid system has progressed from a secretive system that only the privileged knew about to a widely used template that designers adopt in modern media 3 Collumn Grid Extracts from Emil Ruderâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Typographie showing the grid system in action. Following Page Seagram Building (1958) Designed by Mies van der Rohe this skyscraper highlights the movements influence on skyscrapers today

Conclusion

As has been demonstrated International Style significantly influenced areas of graphic design, typography and interior and product design. Pivotal to this cultural shift and way of thinking about designing were Le Corbusier and Mies van der Rohe and graphics designers MĂźller-Brockmann and Max Bill and furniture designers such as Marcel Breuer and Dieter Rams. Towards the end of the 20th century designers criticised paintings and books no one understood, buildings no one wanted to live in or bare to look at, and faceless, alienating products with little sensuous appeal. This led to the increasing appeal for expression and subsequently the decline in International style. However International style principles are still relevant today.

"a house is a machine for living in" La Corbusier

Interior of Villa Savoye Stairwell of Le Corbusier's Villa Savoye,highlighting his sterile approach to the living environment. Le Corbusier Quote This attitude is arguable a reason why the International Style lost relevance.International Style promoted a sterile and universal living environment, Houses lacked any personality and sense of homeliness. International Styleâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s one size for all attitude went against the common demand for personalisation and individuality.

Dancing House in Prague (1992) Postmodernism advocated a great sense of personality and self expression.

Key Terms International style

A functional style of 20th-century architecture, so called because it crossed national and cultural barriers. It is characterized by the use of steel and reinforced concrete, wide windows, uninterrupted interior spaces, simple lines, and strict geometric forms.

Historicism

Brutalism

A stark style of functionalist architecture, especially of the 1950s and 1960s, characterized by the use of steel and concrete in massive blocks

Organic architecture

Follows the design process of nature by adapting to each site, climate, and set of materials.

In artistic and architectural contexts, excessive regard for past styles.

Modernism

A movement towards modifying traditional beliefs in accordance with modern ideas, especially in the Roman Catholic Church in the late 19th and early 20th centuries

Expressionism

An artistic and literary movement originating in Germany at the beginning of the 20th century, which sought to express emotions rather than to represent external reality: characterized by the use of symbolism and of exaggeration and distortion.

Functionalism

An aesthetic doctrine developed in the early 20th century, Functionalist architects design utilitarian structures, in which the interior design follows the outside forms principles.

Bauhaus

A school of applied arts established by Walter Gropius in Weimar in 1919 and noted for its refined functionalist approach to architecture and industrial design.

Purism

An early 20th-century artistic style and movement founded by Le Corbusier and the French painter AmĂŠdĂŠe Ozenfant (1886â&#x20AC;&#x201C;1966) and emphasizing purity of geometric form. It arose out of a rejection of cubism and was characterized by a return to the representation of recognizable objects.

Rationalism

Rationalism within architecture kept a strong commitment to the conquests of the aesthetics of Cubism

Cubism

An early 20th-century style and movement in art,especailly painting,In which perspective with a single viewpoint was abandoned and use was made of simple viewpoint was abandoned and use was made of simple geometric shapes,interlocking planes and later collage.

Minimalism

A deliberate lack of decoration or adornment in style or design

Simplicity

The quality or condition of being plain or uncomplicated in form or design

Swiss style

Emerging from the Modernist and Constructivist ideals,the Swiss Style can be defined as an authentic pursue for simplicity, following the principle "less is more"

Bibliography Introduction Books

Heller, S (1999). Less is More: The New Simplicity in Graphic Design . North Light Books . Julier, G (2004). Thames & Hudson Dictionary of Design since 1900. London : Thames and Hudson Ltd. p121-124. p139-142. p169-172 M端ller-Brockman, J (2008). Grid Systems in Graphic Design: A Handbook for Graphic Artists, Typographers, and Exhibition Designers. Niggli Verlag; Bilingual edition.

Online Resources

Friedman, V. (2007). Designing With Grid-Based Approach. Available: http://www.smashingmagazine.com/2007/04/14/designing-with-gridbased-approach/. Last accessed 7th Apr 2014. International Style. Available: http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/ topic/291280/International-Style. Last accessed 9th Apr 2014. Jeys, A. (2013). Say What You Mean: A Quick Guide To Graphic Design Styles. Available: http://visualfusiongraphicdesign.com/say-what-youmean-a-quick-guide-to-graphic-design-styles/. Last accessed 7th Apr 2014. Kroeger, M. (2007). Timeline for Graphic Design History. Available: http:// dgi-indonesia.com/timeline-for-graphic-design-history/. Last accessed 9th Apr 2014. Novin, G. (2012). The History of Graphic Design . Available: http://guitynovin.blogspot.co.uk/2011/07/chapter-42-swiss-grade-style-and-dutch. html. Last accessed 10th Apr 2014. Roberts, L. (2008). A Brief History Of Grids . Available: http://www. graphics.com/article-old/brief-history-grids. Last accessed 10th Apr 2014. Terror, D. (2009). Lessons From Swiss Style Graphic Design. Available: http://www.smashingmagazine.com/2009/07/17/lessons-from-swissstyle-graphic-design/. Last accessed 7th Apr 2014.

Chapter 1 Origins Books

Brockmann,J.M(1996)Grid systems in graphic design:a visual communication manual for graphic designers,typographers and three dimensional designers.4th ed.Stuttgart:Verlag Gerd Hatje.pp.49-104

Page 12 Ww1 destruction - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Gibraltar_bunker_ Pozieres_(AWM_EZ0098).jpg

Drucker,J.Mcvarish,E(2009)Graphic design history:a critical guide. NJ:Pearson.p.162-186.pp.258-280

Page 13 Willhelm ii http://www.dsm1918.de/EKTAS_DOWNLOAD/KAISER_WILHELM.jpg

Hollis,R.(year)Swiss graphic design:The origins and growth of an International style,1920-1960 Julier,G.(2004)The Thames & Hudson dictionary of design since 1900.4th ed.London:Thames & Hudson.pp.30,38,42,72,90,106-7,111,121

Page 17 Cultery http://24.media.tumblr.com/4e5885469032b13f04fb0e227c652e08/ tumblr_mwgz1bejAd1rpgpe2o1_500.jpg

Kinross,R(2004)Modern typography:an essay in critical history. London:Hyphen.pp.103-158 Meggs,P.B.Purvis,A.W(2006)Meggs history of graphic design.4th ed.New York:Wiley.p.356-374

Page 17 Bauhaus https://www.google.co.uk/search?as_st=y&tbm=isch&hl=en&as_ q=bauhaus&as_epq=&as_oq=&as_eq=&cr=&as_

Uddin Khan,H(1998)International style:Modernist architecture â&#x20AC;&#x201C; 19251965.Benedikt Taschen.pp.11-63.pp.89 - 115

Page 18 Walter Gropius http://alejandrapuch.com/presentacion-walter-gropius/

Online Resources

Terror,D (2009) Lessons from swiss style graphic design [online] Available from: http://www.smashingmagazine.com/2009/07/17/lessonsfrom-swiss-style-graphic-design/

Images

Page 11 Composition VIII (1923) Wassily Kandinsky http://s3.transloadit.com.s3.amazonaws. com/4b30ae61b7c84e42b6be045272ec3211/ c0/1f1015a64a274393389a5f17850617/aeg_wedding_bildindex2.jpg

Page 19 International Style exhibiton http://www.archdaily.com/409918/ad-classics-modern-architectureinternational-exhibition-philip-johnson-and-henry-russell-hitchcock/

Chapter 2 Architecture Online Resources Adelyn Perez (2010) AD Classics; Fallingwater house/ Frank Lloyd Wright [online] available from; http://www.archdaily.com/60022/adclassics-fallingwater-frank-lloyd-wright/ Date accessed 2/4/2014

Artifice.inc (1994) Wainwright building [online] available from http:// www.greatbuildings.com/buildings/Wainwright_Building.html date accessed 4/4/2014

City of Chicago. Louis H. Sullivan [online] available from http://

webapps.cityofchicago.org/landmarksweb/web/architectdetails. htm?arcId=14 date accessed 4/4/2014

Designboom (2000) Ludwieg Mies Van Der Rohe [online] available from http://www.designboom.com/portrait/mies/bg.html date accessed 5/4/2014

Images Page 26

Robin Hood Gardens

http://aavisitingteachers2010.wordpress.com/page/2/ Page 29

Wainwright building (2011) [online image]

available from https://stlouis-mo.gov/government/

departments/planning/cultural-resources/city-landmarks/ Wainwright-Builiding.cfm Date accessed 4/4/2014 Page 31

Fallingwater (2014) [online image]

available from http://www.fallingwater.org Date accessed 5/4/2014

Design Museum (2006) Frank Lloyd Wright [online] available from

Page 33

2/4/2014

http://www.remixtheschoolhouse.com/content/mies-van-

http://designmuseum.org/design/frank-lloyd-wright Date accessed:

Fallingwater (2014) fallingwater [online] available from http://www.

Mies van der Rohe der-rohe

fallingwater.org Date accessed: 2/4/2014

Page 34-35

H.F. Koeper (2013) Louis Sullivan [online] available from http://

available from http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Mies_

www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/572949/Louis-Sullivan Date accessed 2/4/2014

Farnsworth Building (2009) [online image]

van_der_Rohe_photo_Farnsworth_House_Plano_USA_9. jpg Date accessed 5/4/2014

Michael D. McCumber (1997) Frank Lloyd Wrightâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Fallingwater

[online] available from http://www.fay-west.com/fayette/fallingwater/ Date accessed 2/4/2014

Whitecap films (2010) Louis Sullivan [online] available from http:// louissullivanfilm.com/sullivan/ Date accessed 2/4/2014

Chapter 3 Interior and Product Design

Chapter 4 Graphic Design and Typography

Online Resources

Books

SwivelUk (n.d.). Barcelona Chair. [online] Avaliable from: http://www. swiveluk.com/uk/mies-van-der-rohe-barcelona-chair.html [Accessed 10 April 2014]

Images

Page 40 Rohe, M. Barelona Chair. (n.d.). [online image]. Available from: http://www.swiveluk.com/media/catalog/product/cache/1/ima ge/5e06319eda06f020e43594a9c230972d/L/M/LMVDR121NLE013-3_1_1_1_1_1_2_1_1/Mies-Van-Der-Rohe-Barcelona-Chairwww.swiveluk.com-330.jpg [Accessed 10 April 2014] Page 41 Bill, M. Chronoscope Watch. (n.d.). [online image]. Available from: http://www.nova68.com/Merchant2/graphics/00000001/027460000. jpg [Accessed 10 April 2014] Page 42 Breuer, M. Wassily Chair. (n.d.). [ online image]. Available from: http:// www.designclassics.co.uk/images/T/med-wassily-chair.jpg [Accessed 11 April 2014] Page 43 Rams, D. Braun LE1 Electrostatic Speaker. (n.d.). [online image]. Available from: http://www.designsojourn.com/wp-content/ uploads/2010/04/LE1-loudspeaker-e1270656735691.jpg

Brockmann, J. M. (1996). Grid System in Graphic Design. Switzerland: Ram Publications; Bilingual edition. Carter, S. (2002). Twentieth Century Type Designers. London: Lund Humphries Publishers. Friedl, F. (1998). Typography. Kรถln: Konemann UK. Garfield, S. (2011). Just My Type: A Book About Fonts. London: Profile Books. Gomez-Palacio, B. (2012). Graphic Design, Referenced: A Visual Guide to the Language, Applications, and History of Graphic Design. Gloucester: Rockport Publishers. Graphis. (n.d.). Graphis. Retrieved 03 10, 2014, from http://www. graphis.com/bio/1/josef-muller-brockman/ Haslam, A. (2006). Book Design. London: Laurence King Publishing. Heller, S. (2012). 100 Ideas That Changed Graphic Design. London: Laurence King Publishing. Hollis, R. (2002). Graphic Design: A Concise History. New York: Thames and Hudson. Kane, J. (2011). A Type Primer. 2nd ed. London: Laurence King Publishing. Lupton, E. (2010). Thinking With Type: A Critical Guide for Designers, Writers, Editors, and Students. 2nd ed. New York: Pr. Purcell, K.W. (2006). Josef Muller Brockmann. New York: Phaidon Press. Ruder, E. (1967). Typographie. Switzerland: Arthur Niggli Ltd. Williams, J. (2012). Type Matters! London New York: Merrell Publishers.

Online Resources

Amazon. (n.d.). Amazon. Retrieved 03 12, 2014, from http:// www.amazon.com/Typographie-Manual-Design-Emil-Ruder/ dp/3721200438/ref=sr_1_1?s=books&ie=UTF8&qid=1394621648& sr=1-1&keywords=Typographie%3A+A+Manual+of+Design Heller, S. (2003). Poster Collection . Zurich: Lars MullerPublishers. Ruder, E. (2001). Typographie. Switzerland: Aurther Nigi ltd. Haslam, A. (2010). The Secret Law of Page Harmony. Available: http://retinart.net/graphic-design/secret-law-of-page-harmony/. Last accessed 8th Apr 2014. The Grid System. Available: http://www.thegridsystem.org/. Last accessed 9th Apr 2014.

Video

Gary Hustwit. (2007). Helvetica. [Film]. UK: Swiss Dots Ltd.

Images

Armin Hofmann, Giselle, 1959 http://www.aiga.org/uploadedImages/AIGA/Content/Inspiration/ aiga_medalist/AH_Giselle.jpg

Hofmann, Armin (1954) At:http://www. emuseum.ch/view/objects/asitem/ Exhibitions$00401611/30;jsessionid=AE53C81C5433EF14D0851557 1A5E90AF Accessed on: 07.04.2014 Josef M端ller-Brockmann, Weniger L辰rm, 1960 http://www.internationalposter.com/pimages/SWX14546z.jpg Josef M端ller-Brockmann, Beethoven Concert Poster, 1955 https://m1.behance.net/rendition/modules/72596963/disp/ bb5ed63f5ea5be74f30df05a99ab1f94.jpg Josef M端ller-Brockmann, Der Film, 1960 http://www.blanka.co.uk/i/products/821.jpg Neue Grafik magazine Issue 1 (1958) Cover designer: Carlo Vivarelli At: http://magazinearchive.co/portfolio/neue-grafik-magazine Accessed on: 04.04.2014 Ruder, Emil (1958) At: http://thinkingform.com/2012/03/20/thinking-emilruder-03-20-1914/ Accessed on: 09.04.2014

Brockmann, Josef (1953) http://hogd.pbworks.com/w/page/18698633/Josef%20MullerBrockmann%20Swiss%20Auto%20club%20poster%201954 Rhiannon krowchuk 2010, accessed 2014-03-10 Accessed on: 04.04.2014 Brockmann, Josef (1953) At: http://2.bp.blogspot.com/--9Q5apjFLp8/UIo5nSA8tBI/ AAAAAAAACd8/ Emil Ruder, Typographie, 1967

http://farm3.staticflickr.com/2635/3923214090_910ea7181f.jpg