Observing From a Lens of Equity

Recognizing the impact of segregated recreation

By Kristine M. Fleming, Ed.D.

Children Playing Statues at the Birmingham Civil Rights Institute, a cultural and educational research center in Birmingham, Alabama, that promotes a comprehensive understanding of the significance of civil rights developments. Among park and recreation professionals and academics, there is a push to establish equitable parks within communities across the United States. While much work needs to be done in this area, recognition of past injustices toward marginalized groups must be acknowledged. Although the country is rich in recreation opportunities, not all residents have equal or equitable access. The willingness to recognize the history of segregation in leisure and recreation as it relates to African Americans is needed to establish equitable parks for all communities to access.

Homer Plessy, plaintiff in the 1896 Supreme Court case Plessy v. Ferguson

Parks and the Civil Rights Movement

For some, recognizing the United States was established on principles of racial inequities is difficult to grasp, but cannot be denied based on the history of policies and practices put into place to legalize segregation in public institutions, such as schools, transportation, and parks and recreation. The decision to legalize segregation occurred as a result of the 1896 Supreme Court decision of Plessy v. Ferguson, which involved the arrest of Homer Plessy, a man who was one-eighth (12.5 percent) African American, for sitting in the whites-only section of a train car after purchasing a first-class ticket without any issues. Only after being asked to verify his race by the conductor was he arrested for sitting in the whites-only section. The Supreme Court decision of Plessy v. Ferguson would legalize the “separate but equal” policies and practices that spawned during the Jim Crow era.

While the roles of the Montgomery Bus Boycott, Rosa Parks and Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. during the Civil Rights movement are often discussed when learning about segregation and discrimination, the Jim Crow era that involved legal forms of segregation took place from 1896 to 1964. During this time, African Americans were forced to follow local, state and federal agency policies legalizing and enforcing segregation in parks and recreation programs. Although the period of legal segregation may seem long ago, for most, we are within one to two generations of knowing someone who grew up at the end of Jim Crow and was impacted by the laws of segregation put

Equity in Parks and Recreation: A Historical Perspective

Parks and recreation are critical infrastructure to society, adding beauty, clean water, clean air, places for exploration, recreation, socialization and peace. However, they also represent places of discrimination, segregation, trauma and disparity. Historical and contemporary land-use policies have shaped the contours of public park and recreation spaces across the nation in ways that continue to make it easier for some, and much harder for others, to experience open spaces.

To expand access, one must first understand the factors that have shaped the unfair access and distribution of park and recreation facilities across communities. The new NRPA resource, Equity in Parks and Recreation: A Historical Perspective, explores U.S. history, the evolution of parks and recreation and urban planning, and how it brought us to the inequities in access to parks and recreation that exist today. The resource’s story map is a snapshot of policies and stories of park inequities throughout U.S. history and the opportunities and challenges ahead. It is designed to acknowledge and reflect upon the experience of unequal access and abject practices. Most importantly, the story map is meant to inspire the transformation of a just and equity-driven park and recreation system for all.

To view the story map, visit nrpa.org/Equity.

into place to deny access to parks and recreation. Using a critical lens of equity, professionals and academics who are committed to establishing equitable parks and recreation programs must be willing to understand the extent to which policies and practices were established throughout history to legally segregate and deny access to spaces for leisure among African Americans that continue to impact communities today.

Throughout the 20th century, parks and recreationrelated programs were established, including the National Park Service, state park systems and various youth organizations. While these institutions are instrumental in the history of parks and recreation, at the same time, the 1896 Supreme Court decision of Plessy v. Ferguson prevented African Americans from accessing these programs — especially among citizens who were white. Even more telling is the fact that many African Americans helped establish these systems, but were denied access to these spaces. For example, African Americans were legally denied entrance into National Parks until 1945 despite the fact that Black troops helped establish Yosemite and Sequoia National Park, as well as other outdoor recreation areas. Although national parks were legally desegregated in 1945, the presence of African Americans in some parks did not occur until after the Civil Rights Act of 1964 was signed.

Local Governments Resist Desegregation

While the National Park Service made efforts to desegregate federal parks, local and state parks continued to reinforce segregation, meaning places where African Americans could enjoy the outdoors were few and far between. Accessing these limited designated spaces often

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required traveling on different roads and using entrances strategically placed away from white guests. More importantly, state parks often made available to Black people were of lesser quality with a lack of camping areas and amenities found compared to the “whites-only” areas. In addition, city ordinances were put into place to outlaw integrated forms of recreation to prevent African American and white community members from interacting with one another. Examples of integrated recreation considered to be illegal included playing sports and board games with people of different races. In Alabama, even walking through a park was illegal for Blacks. Laws of legal segregation would continue to exist even after the 1954 Supreme Court decision of Brown v. Board of Education that challenged Plessy v. Ferguson to end legal forms of segregation in public schools. Although public school segregation was challenged in Brown v. Board of Education, the decision would open the door to allow citizens to challenge legal forms of segregation in other institutions, such as parks and recreation.

Although many attempts were made to desegregate parks and recreation programs at federal levels, many local governments would continue to reinforce policies and practices of legal segregation. This occurred even after the Civil Rights Act of 1964, which indicated discrimination may not occur based on race, religion or gender. The intent to desegregate public places proved to be more difficult to accomplish than imagined as communities that did not support desegregation efforts took it upon themselves to close or defund recreation programs or establish private club memberships to allow agencies to select their members. This was evident in communities where city park pools were filled with concrete or city golf courses were leased to organizations for $1 to establish members-only golfing in an effort to maintain segregation. Building private pools also became more popular after the Civil Rights Act of 1964, which maintained efforts to segregate Black patrons from accessing pools with white patrons.

The efforts that were made to maintain segregation in parks and recreation after legal segregation had ended continue to have an impact on African Americans’ equitable access to parks and recreation programs today. This is apparent when analyzing the number of park and recreation spaces, programs and resources available in predominantly Black communities. More specifically, some economically and racially segregated cities, such as Tallahassee, Florida, offer equitable distribution of parks; however, the park size and acreage available increases in areas of the city that

A whites-only bench has inscriptions left as a memory of racism and segregation.

Part of an exhibit at the National Civil Rights Museum, which is also the site of the Assassination of Dr. Martin Luther King Jr., shows protestors.

include predominately white, middle class citizens. Furthermore, communities with fewer Latino and Black residents received higher park ratings using The Trust for Public Land’s ParkServe data (tpl.org/ParkServe).

Depending on the size and demographics of the area, the disparities that exist today are connected to the history of policies and practices put into place to maintain segregation. This is demonstrated through the federal housing policies that implemented segregation by creating suburban neighborhoods specifically for working and middle class white families. As a result, African Americans were excluded from opportunities to purchase homes or mortgages at comparable rates, known as “redlining.” Subsequently, these areas received less government funding, thus impacting resources available to establish equitable and accessible parks and recreation programs. Moreover, as African American communities grew and sought equitable access to parks and recreation programs, the interaction between neighboring communities increased. With the majority of well-funded parks and recreation programs exclusively located in predominantly white communities, attempts were made to displace African American communities or close and defund parks and recreation programs. These efforts to close and defund, rather than desegregate in an attempt to integrate, continue to demonstrate the need for some peoples’ willingness to recognize and acknowledge the inequitable access to parks and recreation programs.

Learning From the Past

As park and recreation professionals and academics continue to focus on the need to establish equitable parks, the willingness to recognize and evaluate the history of segregation in leisure and recreation as it relates to African Americans must be considered. Obtaining historical information into how parks and recreation programs were established helps to provide additional insight into how programs are managed and the need for additional support and resources to establish equity in programs. While the responsibilities of each park and recreation professional and academic varies depending on the role, we must be willing to own the responsibility if equity is truly our intent. To formulate a strategy to combat the factors of inequities, we must be able to recognize historical policies and practices put into place during the Jim Crow era, which continue to impact parks and recreation.

Kristine M. Fleming, Ed.D., is a Visiting Associate Professor in the Department of Health, Physical Education and Recreation at Florida A&M University.

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OPERATIONSOPERATIONS

How to Build a Cost-Effective Gaming Center

By Ivy O’Shaughnessy and Greg Boehm

As esports continue to grow and evolve, local park districts and communities are learning more and more about ways to engage youth and adult gamers alike. A recent poll by the National Alliance for Youth Sports found that 70 percent of kids stop playing sports by the age of 13, while 90 percent of kids ages 12 to 17 play video games. Providing a space for kids to play esports in your community can be a great way to keep them involved with your park and recreation department.

One way of growing your community’s esports program is by creating a gaming center (or a LAN — local area network — center) where community members can use gaming personal computers (PCs) or consoles. However, this does not have to be limited to just esports and gaming. It also can be used for programs in game design, 3D animation and many other science, technology, engineering and math (STEM) fields.

The Beginner’s Mindset

What are some of the most important things to consider when just beginning the process of setting up a gaming center? We talked to Pat Bodame, superintendent of recreation for Hoffman Estates, Illinois, who just recently finished the process of creating a gaming center in their community — known as the ESports Zone — to get some insight into the process. Here are some of Bodame’s suggestions:

Space – “Space is probably the number one thing to think about. You want to create an environment that works for gamers. It is finding that look and feel so when they enter the space, there is the ‘wow’ factor. Within park districts, space always can be a challenge. But if you have the right room and aesthetics, it should work out nicely.”

Computers – “Plan ahead on your technology needs. This was the one area we put all of our resources into to ensure we had the best computers and gaming systems for the public to use. We all know how quickly technology can become obsolete, and it’s worth it to spend a little more now and get the top-of-the line systems.”

Sales and Marketing – “Think about packages/memberships/daily fees/rentals. This all needs to be part of your business plan and will help lead to success for your space. The number one thing that was and is still on my mind is how to generate more revenue within that space.”

Budget – “We completed our ESports Zone for $35,000 in upfront costs. That does not include yearly items, such as internet and salaries. Our space used to be a teen center that would cost the district anywhere between $6,000 to $10,000 a year to operate.”

In addition to these suggestions, it will be helpful to gather some data points early on from your community to guide your decisions during the planning process. One of the first things you may need to do is simply survey your community to see whether there is interest in a space like this. Following are some questions that will help guide you in designing your gaming center to meet your community’s needs: • How many gamers are there currently in your community? • What games are they playing? • What gaming systems are people in your community using? (e.g.,

PC, Xbox, PlayStation and Nin-

PHOTOS COURTESY OF PAT BODAME The optimal esports gaming center includes six to 12 personal computers, each outfitted with a monitor, headset, mouse, keyboard and gaming chair.

tendo Switch) • What types of events would gamers like to see at a gaming center in your community? • What days and times would gamers be most likely to visit the community gaming center?

Researching What to Purchase

Creating a center with gamingcapable computers and peripherals does require a bit of research into what specific brands or types of computers you may want to go with, but you will benefit from spending as much time researching and comparing prices as you can. The process of selecting and purchasing equipment can seem like a daunting task. However, breaking it down into sections will help make the process easier.

Internet, Space and Layout

It’s important to make sure all PCs and consoles have access to the internet within your gaming center. Ideally, you will want to have wired internet for all the gaming stations, but wireless also will work (tinyurl. com/2xemn677).

PCs, Consoles and Peripherals

You will need at least six PCs in your gaming center, with 12 PCs being the optimal number. This will ensure that there is enough equipment for teams to be able to utilize the gaming facility. Each PC also should be outfitted with a monitor, headset, mouse, keyboard and gaming chair. In addition, you will need gaming consoles and controllers. The most popular consoles are PlayStation, Xbox and Nintendo Switch. Each gaming console will require access to a TV or monitor. It is recommended that you have at least one of each gaming console to start your gaming center.

How to Fund the Space

While initial starting costs may seem high, there are a multitude of revenue streams that can be generated from a gaming center. “Funding of the space should be done through daily fees and memberships,” says Bodame. “There are also ancillary services, such as rentals, birthday parties and tournaments, that all can be used to generate more revenue in the space.” Some of the primary forms of revenue gain can be found through daily fees, membership fees, special events, private events and local partnerships. “[Tournaments/leagues] were our best event,” Bodame says. “Running monthly tournaments is a great way for people to check out your space at a small cost. It gets people engaged and creates a fun atmosphere for the players.”

Educational Benefits

Outside of being used for gaming leagues and events, gaming centers also provide ample educational opportunities. Gaming PCs are powerful enough computers to run beginnerlevel game development software and other computer programs that will introduce users to STEM career fields and paths. Some examples of STEM-focused software include Unreal Engine, Unity, Adobe Suite and Blender. Gaming camps that utilize competitive, team-based games also can provide leadership opportunities to older and more experienced players in the form of coaching. Utilizing near-peer mentorship through esports coaching can be a great way to teach social-emotional learning values to young gamers in your community.

It is recommended that in addition to computers you have at least one PlayStation, Xbox and Nintendo Switch to start your gaming center.

A Worthwhile Investment

While creating a project such as this can be intimidating, with preparation and a pre-planned budget, a gaming center can become a reality for your local community. As esports continue to grow in popularity, there are many successful gaming centers that currently exist across the country to look to for examples. A gaming center can be an extremely worthwhile investment for your community in a world that continues to rely more and more on technology and careers in STEM.

Ivy O’Shaughnessy is Partner Success Manager for GGLeagues (ivyo@ggleagues.com). Greg Boehm is Partner Success Manager for GGLeagues (gregb@ggleagues.com).

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Making History in New Rochelle

Located in southeastern New York, with nearly 80,000 residents, the City of New Rochelle is approximately 20 miles north of New York City. Founded by French Protestants — known as Huguenots — who fled religious persecution in 1688, many of the settlers were artisans and craftspeople from the City of La Rochelle, France — thus the name “New Rochelle.” In March 2020, history was made just down the street from New Rochelle’s City Hall. A local lawyer became the second confirmed case of coronavirus (COVID-19) in the state. Schools were immediately closed, all public gatherings were canceled and neighborhood residents sheltered in place. The National Guard was sent in for precautionary measures. At that time, the idea of hosting any form of summer recreation for youth seemed like a pipedream. However, New Rochelle’s Parks and Recreation Commissioner William Zimmermann looked at the challenge as an opportunity, rather than a roadblock. “We learned throughout the pandemic that park usage was at an all-time high and residents of all ages were craving our city’s parkland and open green spaces,” says Commissioner Zimmermann. “That was the moment we knew we had to get creative for Summer 2020.” The “Outside the Box in Our Zimmermann and his staff worked together to form “Outside Parks” program was offered free the Box in Our Parks.” Although camps and organized team sports of charge and hosted at parks and athletic fields citywide for were not permitted statewide, small outdoor group recreation in children of all ages. parks, under the proper supervision and COVID-19 protocols, were permitted. The newly created program was offered free of charge and hosted at parks and athletic fields citywide for children of all ages. Traditional summer day camp was replaced by small groups of 15 to 20 children participating in yoga, fitness classes, kayaking, gardening and other activities outdoors that promote healthy and safe fun.

As a respected professional from the field with 46 years of experience at multiple municipalities in New York State, along with past service on the NRPA Board of Trustees, Commissioner Zimmermann thought he had seen it all. “Personally, I’ve managed through several national disasters and, of course, being in the New York metropolitan area, we endured the tragedies of September 11 in an intimate way.

Yet, the COVID-19 pandemic experience has been the most unique,” he reflects. “You never knew what the next challenge or roadblock would be. But I could not be prouder of the way our staff rose to the occasion and put so many smiles on children’s faces across our city.”

New Rochelle is rich in history in many ways. In the heart of New Rochelle lies historic Lincoln Park, once the site of Lincoln

Elementary School. The area was the focus of a 1961 landmark decision that garnered nationwide attention in a desegregation case that eventually made its way to the U.S. Supreme Court. The decision would lead to the first-ever court-ordered closing of a segregated school in the North. When entering Lincoln Park, visitors immediately come upon the anniversary dedication plaque. The sign reads:

“On this site stood Lincoln School, the first segregated school in the North to be closed by a court order. This tablet honors all who participated in this struggle for equality in education and commemorates the 25th anniversary of the landmark Taylor v. Board of Education of New Rochelle decision of 1961, a milestone in the search for unity in the midst of our diversity.” It was only fitting that this historic site would become the first location in the city for the “Outside the Box in Our Parks” recreation program.

“Summer 2020 will be remembered as a season of recreational challenges we will never forget,” adds Zimmermann. “But through creativity, hard work and trust from our local leaders, parents and children, our department successfully filled a huge community void. For this type of unprecedented recreation to also take place at one of the most historic locations in our area made it an even more special summer of 2020.”

– Vincent Parise, Deputy Commissioner for City of New Rochelle Parks and Recreation

PARKS & RECREATION SEPTEMBER 2021 ◆ THE EQUITY ISSUE ◆ MITCHELL SILVER’S NEXT CHAPTER ◆ LYNNBROOK PARK: BEYOND THE DESIGN