The aim of this report is to study intertextuality within the Netflix series Stranger Things (2016). It is directly concerned with how intertextuality creates significance for both the narrative and the audience and makes use of rhetorical tools and semiotic signs to interpret how intertextual references are used by the creators of the show to create meanings and preferred readings. The semiotic analysis underlines the symbols and icons from other text while the rhetorical analysis seeks to understand the rhetorical context and how these signs are persuasive of an idea. The use of a grounded approach was applied to the interpretation and gathering of data which resulted in three key themes being constructed and explored, further highlighting how intertextuality has been used and why it is significant in the case of Stranger Things (2016).
This dissertation is the culmination of three years of studying at Birmingham City University where countless peers, tutors and lecturers have provided me with support and advice. With great respect and admiration, I would like to thank all those I have had the pleasure of crossing paths with in the last three years and it is my hope that everyone thrives, no matter their endeavours. Finally, and most importantly, I would like to thank all of my family members and loved ones for their unwavering support in my time at university and in my time writing this dissertation.
Netflix has produced so much programming in the last few years that it can be difficult to keep track of it all however it might be hard to for the Duffer Brother’s Stranger Things to go by unnoticed. Judging from the Average Demand Expressions from July to August 2016 provided by Parrot Analytics, the popularity and viral word of mouth that engulfed the show has placed Stranger Things in first place with a figure of over forty-seven million views, tripling Orange Is The New Black (2013) which holds second place in the fight for the most popular digital series. Created by brothers Matt and Ross Duffer and praised for its creative and intriguing story that references all things eighties, the show was released by Netflix on July 15, 2016. The initiated who methodically powered through all eight chapters of Netflix’s Stranger Things will know that the supernatural drama makes use of many eighties intertextual references both in and around the show. Often referencing iconic Steven Spielberg movies and Stephen King novels with both the director and writer taking to their twitter accounts to enthusiastically approve of the show. But with all the praise around the show’s commercial and critical success, the intertextuality is the element that constantly receives the buzz on social media and critical reviews. The Duffer Brothers have managed to not only fit in a never-ending amount of intertextual references to the eighties but have captured the feeling too. Traditionally, a reference in television or film is exactly that: a quick passing nod. The director pays respect to another director’s work that proved to be influential, audience members that pick up on the reference smirk in recognition and all continues as if nothing ever happened. References ask audiences to break their suspension of disbelief for a moment and is often distracting as a result. However, the Duffers have not only 1
implemented an unimaginable amount of intertextual references but have also utilised intertextuality in a way that elevates the narrative as opposed to breaking it. It is with this notion in mind that this report seeks to explore the use of intertextuality in Stranger Things. As a contemporary piece of digital television, the Netflix show is at the forefront of new media and exploring the theoretical writings behind intertextuality, popular culture and postmodernism may breakdown the elements that have contributed to the Duffer’s phenomenal success. In addition to this, the semiotic and rhetorical textual analysis methods will be employed to explore how intertextuality is used and what meaning is created as a result of its use. This report therefore hopes to understand the inner workings of a show that has received such critical and commercial success.
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In discussing the discourses and significance behind intertextuality, the exploration of theoretical elements that have shaped intertextuality could provide insight to its significance in contemporary media texts such as Stranger Things (2016). While there have been many similar concepts to intertextuality: allusion, nostalgia, pastiche and recycling to name a few, it is important to make clear the notion of intertextuality and how it will be used in the study of Stranger Things (2016). The earliest form of intertextuality derives from Julia Kristeva’s essay titled Word, Dialogue and Novel (1966). To summarise Kristeva, she asserts that the “literary word” is an “intersection of textual surfaces” (1966:65) as opposed to being a fixed point or meaning. Alfaro’s interpretation and analysis of Kristeva’s work argues that texts are a “dynamic site in which relational processes and practices are the focus of analysis” (Alfaro, 1996:268) as opposed to being static structures or products. Essentially, both Alfaro and Kristeva suggest that there are always texts within a text. Therefore, the concept of intertextuality requires that we, as audiences and viewers, “understand that texts are not self-contained.” (Alfaro, 1996:268) Since Kristeva’s initial coining of the term, there has since appeared a range of attitudes towards the notion of intertextuality. In Intertextuality (The New Critical Idiom) (2011), Graham Allen highlights the broad usage of the term by arguing that there exists an array of conflicting views on what intertextuality is. He explains that the term is often so widely overused in critical vocabulary that the meaning of intertextuality can be compared to other, wider terms such as “the imagination”, “history” and “postmodernism”. He asserts that many scholarly theorists and critics confidently utilise the word in an uncomplicated manner despite it being a word that is not transparently recognised as having one clear and indomitable meaning. By understanding there is 3
a difficulty in defining intertextuality as stated in Allen’s writing, it would be beneficial to focus on theoretical writing that takes place within the discipline of film and television. Susan Hayward (2013) speaks of intertextuality as a concept within the boundaries of film and television, stating that films are essentially an intertext. Hayward notes that a film can be based on an original novel, text or play which would then dictate the way it is filmed in order to adhere to the codes and conventions outlined within the original text. Furthermore, she provides an example of how intertextuality is conducted in film and television, explaining that if the “central protagonist is also a well-known singer, the audience will expect a song” (2013:219). She continues by arguing that the performance of that star would therefore refer to their star persona, a text that has been developed outside of the filmmaking process, making it reference “to another text: the star as a singer” (Hayward, 2013:219). Hayward (2013) argument builds on and focuses Kristeva’s (1966) view of intertextuality by applying it to television and film, making it more relevant to this study of Stranger Things (2016). Furthermore, Hayward (2013) suggests intertextuality is a concept that can be found in many forms of media texts. She more specifically argues that intertextuality occurs when a media text makes references to other media texts or works of art; either visually or verbally. Hayward suggests that the referencing of one text to another “influences the reading of the intertext” (Hayward, 2013:219) and can enhance certain aspects of a film for its audience. For example, a film may be based on and refer to its original text such as a novel or play, thereby referencing another text as suggested by Hayward (2013) and Kristeva (1966). Additionally, the shooting style, genre tropes and mise-en-scene may refer and pay homage to a specific author or style. Intertextual references can also consist of one text referring to another text entirely. The effect of 4
this varies depending on how the intertextual reference is used and presented. Some references are subtle and act as a quick nod toward another director’s cinematic vocabulary, acting as a sly wink to audiences in light of a clever element of the production while others serve a monetary purpose such is the case with product placement. In Cinephilia, Movies Love and Memory (2005), Marijke De Valck noted that contemporary films have a tendency to use past events, styles, tropes and images found within former media texts as a limitless treasure trove of ideas that serve as the main inspiration for new creative media. This argument put forward by Valck supports Hayward’s (2013) notion of referencing the past, however it can be better deciphered by bringing to the light the extent to which old texts are encountered within new texts in modern media. In the online journal titled Contemporary intertextuality in Films and Future Directions (2016), the author Gevi Dimi uses a case study of popular films to underline what she calls the “self-reflexive intertextuality” of cinema. Dimi (2016) notes that Marvel’s The Avengers (2012) film is a cinematic adaptation of comic books in which it transforms drawings into special effects sequences. The movie references a host of visual cues and character lines found in the original comic books, some even referencing the oldest of storylines. Another significance of this for pre-existing fans is the dynamic visual experiences and repackaging of a much-loved artefact from the past while those who were not previously familiar with the comics have a renewed reason to read them. Due to this, Dimi (2016) argues there is a clear convergence of audiences being drawn on by Marvel studios as the cinematic adaptations allow for Marvel to maximise profits. Similarly, Dimi (2016) also defines The Cabin in the Woods (2012) as a “rollicking satire of the tropes of horror movies” due to the way it embraces the stereotypical notions of the horror genre. Dimi (2016) argues that the intertextuality of the film is found in the 5
way it draws on tropes from previous films of the same genre. In this specific context, Hayward’s argument regarding the referencing of a specific style and genre trope is reinforced. Valck (2011) and Dimi (2016) address the referencing of past images, texts and genre tropes as ‘intertextuality’, Noel Carroll (1998) also notes this can include a range of film practices such as “...the recreation of ‘classic’ scenes, shots, plot motifs, lines of dialogue, themes...and so forth from film history.” (1998, 241). It can be said that Carroll’s (1998) definition of intertextuality is similar to Valck and Dimi’s ideas of intertextuality as being a method of recreating an element of the past. Noel’s definition also points out the that the practice of intertextuality often helps audiences recall something to mind without explicitly mentioning it. To summarise this chapter Carroll’s (1998) perspective is one form of the concept that is more specific to the study of Stranger Things (2016). Furthermore, as a key theorist in intertextuality, Kristeva (1966) not only coined the term for scholarly use but also underlined that texts are not unilateral in their existence but really exist as a combination of texts and it is this notion that highlights the Stranger Things (2016) as being one of the few empirical uses of intertextuality that should be explored to understand the significance of intertextuality both within the text and how it is interpreted by audiences.
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At its conceptualisation in the twentieth century, the discourses of postmodernism have been used to describe a broad encompassing movement in the areas of art, architecture, criticism and philosophy. In offering a decisive description of what postmodernism actually is, there is a difficulty in doing so. This difficulty derives from the wide and popular usage of the ideology to a range of critical and cultural movements which means the term has since come to mean different things. Theorists such as Baudrillard (1995), Barthes (1968), Strinati (1995) and Lyotard (1999) and their writings tend to characterise postmodernism by its self-referential and hyper-reflexivity of pre-existing media, art styles and conventions. These concepts will be explored further and applied to the study of intertextuality and its significance in Stranger Things (2016).
To better understand the meaning of postmodernism, it is beneficial to deconstruct it and analyse the three components that form the word itself: post-modern-ism. In the context of the theoretical framework, it is suggested by Lyotard (1999) that the first syllable ‘post’ is used in reference to its questioning of ideas and values associated with the theories behind ‘Modern’ism. To paraphrase, modernism is a philosophical movement that attempted to replace many cultural norms and values across all facets of life in their belief that these trends were becoming ill-fitted to performing their tasks. The combination of post and modern therefore creates a paradox as ‘post’ does not simply imply a specific time period after modernism but rather, is also defined by its paradoxical meaning as coming ‘after’ the ‘just now’ (Lyotard, 1999) and attempts of replacing archaic systems by the modernist movement. ‘Ism’ forms the last component of postmodernism 7
and is described by Brann in her Harvard Review of Philosophy Journal (1992) as “…connoting the adoption, often perverse or specious, of the habits of a group” (Brann, 1992:4).
It can therefore be said that as a literal construct, the word postmodernism creates meaning through its paradoxical juxtaposition of the ‘after’ and the ‘here-and-now’ meanings of ‘post’ and ‘modern’ (Lyotard, 1999). Brann (1992) suggests that as an ‘ism’, there is a group that exists at the forefront of something such as art, literature or philosophy that share the same or similar ideas. With the breakdown of the concept in that way, the origins and initial aim of the ideology can be easily grasped while the direction it has moved in and developed through can also be put into perspective. One application of postmodernism is noted by Dominic Strinati (1995) as he writes about the cultural theory behind postmodernism, in that discipline, he notes that the term is often associated with “the emergence of a society in which mass media and popular culture are the most powerful institutions in society” (1995:211). Strinati argues that these institutions form the foundations of all social relationships. He goes on to say that popular culture and media structures dominate our ideas of reality and actively shape the way we define ourselves as people. This notion is highlighted by Baudrillard (1995) when he stated that “the Gulf War did not take place” (1995). In further detail, Baudrillard (1995) was actually arguing that the war was so heavily shaped by the media that reality was flattened by the sheer weight of media representations. This reinforces Strinati’s (1995) argument regarding how media dominates people’s sense of reality. Postmodernism, in terms of cultural theory, can therefore be seen as a sociocultural theory that seeks to understand a society controlled by mass media (Strinati, 1995).
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As for how Postmodernism was applied in literature, early examples of postmodernist structures and narrative styles can be found in literature such as Ficciones (1956) by one of the most celebrated and influential Argentinian writers Jorge Luis Borges. The book consisted of many short stories that followed a nonlinear narrative format. Borges (1956) work contributed to the ‘magic realism’ genre and was an early example of postmodern writing. It was stated in Seven conversations with Jorge Luis Borges (2010) that his passion for writing short stories came from a realisation about anecdotes:
“Each year a person hears four or five anecdotes that are very good, precisely because they’ve been worked on...I think fairy tales, legends, even the off-colour jokes one hears, are usually good because having been passed from mouth to mouth, they’ve been stripped of everything that might be useless or bothersome.” (Borges, Sorrentino et al 2010:128) It is this notion of condensing information into the shortest and most straightforward manner that made Borges writing inherently postmodern in its format as it was considered to have replaced the more archaic, linear format that modernists had argued was outdated. However, where postmodernism holds relevance to this study of Stranger Things (2016) is in how Postmodernism can also refer to “a textual, aesthetic practice” where the inner workings of images and how they “relate to and across each other” are revealed (McRobbie, 1994:12). It is this media and contentbased definition of postmodernism that will be applied to the study of Stranger Things (2016).
In terms of film texts, postmodern approaches to filmmaking is defined by Constable (2015) as often merging tropes or styles as well as subverting genre stereotypes and audience expectations. For example, films such as 500 Days of Summer (2009) subverted narrative tradition with its 9
nonlinear storyline and focus on pop songs. Other films such as Space Jam (1996) and Who Framed Roger Rabbit (1988) incorporated animation into their melodramatic action sequences and reflected a collage in the way they merged animation and live action. This subverting of traditional styles is highlighted by Jameson (1993) as he notes that postmodern films and television shows tend to “cannibalise, merge and juxtapose” (1993: 126) past styles in order to create new ones. Similarly, on television texts, shows such as Community (2009) have frequently dedicated entire episodes to popular culture and social phenomenon while also parodying genre tropes or character archetypes in a postmodernist style. Another popular show, Family Guy (1999), is structured to mimic the classic family sitcom but does so through animation. Furthermore, the adventures undertaken by its animated characters often ridicule and mock real world institutions and people as well as patriarchy, politics and religion. In his journal article, Burke (1988) calls this “multiple coding” where “a text is coded beyond itself” through methods such as allusion, citation, collage, pastiche and intertextuality (Burke, 1988:77), a practice that is also inherently considered postmodernist in the way it replaces traditional narrative techniques and genre conventions.
In Stranger Things (2016) the idea of multiple coding (Burke, 1988:77) is inherently useful in understanding the significance of intertextual referencing. Furthermore, it is stated by McRobbie (1994) it is the way postmodernism has been applied to film and television texts as a “textual, aesthetic practice” (1994:12) that proves useful for this report. However, having discussed the different areas that postmodernism has been used and applied, the history of intertextuality from its inception to its contemporary use is contextualised, giving further understanding to its 10
significance. By understanding postmodern practices, it will be insightful to consider how postmodern conventions are presented, if at all, in a show such as Stranger Things (2016).
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Much like the concept of postmodernism discussed in the previous chapter, ‘popular culture’ is another term that has been widely applied, encompassing many forms of art and facets of culture such as food, fashion, literature, music, film and television. In his study of the work of more than forty theorists from the end of the eighteenth century to the mid-twentieth, it is suggested by theorist Raymond Williams (1983) that there are four elements that create the idea of popular culture: “liked by many people”, “inferior kinds of work”, “work deliberately setting out to win favour with the people” and “culture made popular by the people”. (1983:237). This chapter will seek to explore the different theorists and scholars of popular culture that tend to align with one of William’s (1983) four elements in their own descriptions of the term. Exploring the four areas in which popular culture has been established may help to inform the study of Stranger Things (2016) and the significance of intertextuality.
The most often perceived and logical starting point in defining the term ‘popular culture’ would be to say that it is any cultural phenomenon that is widely renowned and “liked by many people” (William, 1983:237). It is arguable that by following this quantitative approach, a range of credible results can be easily obtained. John Storey (2009) surmises that examining quantitative results such as sales figure and attendance records allows for an idea of what is considered popular by the masses to be constructed by a researcher. However, Strinati (1995) notes that with this quantitative approach, there is an inherent difficulty in proving what is considered to be ‘popular’. He states that this difficulty derives from not knowing the “...figure over which something 12
becomes popular culture, and below which it is just culture” (2004:7). A clear example of this being novels and books that are only required to sell nine thousand copies in the first week before being considered a best seller by the New York Times. Whereas online videos on YouTube have to receive hundreds of thousands of views before being considered as trending. While any definition of popular culture would require some form of a quantitative index, Storey (2009) also suggests that by itself, numerical data alone “is not enough to provide an adequate definition of popular culture.” (2009:12). Therefore, it can be said that while there is indeed a quantitative element, a text also needs to consist of other elements to justify it as being popular culture. Interestingly the company behind Stranger Things (2016): Netflix, is notoriously secretive with its viewer ratings and rarely provides information regarding the interests and viewing habits of its subscribers. This further reinforces Strinati’s (1995) notion that popularity cannot be quantified by numbers alone.
Another element of popular culture, defined by Williams (1983) as “inferior kinds of work” (1983:237) is named by the way it situates itself in relation to other cultural artefacts and texts. A prime example of this being the ideas of high and low culture. To summarise Raymond Williams in Keywords: a vocabulary of culture and society (2015), high culture is commonly described as being a set of cultural arts representing intellectual and artistic superiority. These art forms: classical music, ballet, fine art, literature and poetry are argued to be only indulged in by the elite few. At the other end of the spectrum, low culture is noted by Williams (2015) to be any and all practices and interests that are indulged in by the masses. Edgar and Sedgwick’s (2002) description of popular culture reinforces this notion when they suggest that popular culture texts are often used to “articulate the differentiation of society in terms of gender, age or race, and to constitute the 13
self-understanding of those groups” (2002:247). William’s (2015) statement regarding how low culture is any practice or interest which is widely popular with the masses sheds some light on the commercial and critical success of the Stranger Things (2016) show.
Storey (2009) argues that popular culture has had political and capitalist “dimensions” (2009:14) embedded within. This is also suggested by critical theorists who follow Marxism and conflict theory such as Adorno and Horkheimer (1972). These theorists suggest that through popular culture, mass media is used to indoctrinate and influence the masses into passively accepting the capitalist systems of consumerism and politics (Adorno and Horkheimer, 1972). This reinforces Williams’ (1983) suggestion that popular culture can also be “work deliberately setting out to win favour with the people” (1983:237). Similarly, Petracca and Sorapure (2012) argues that due to popular culture’s inherent nature of ‘commonality’, popular culture often has the power to influence the masses. Petracca and Sorapure (2012) therefore argues that popular culture has created a societal condition in which it has become harder and harder to distinguish ‘consumption’ from ‘popular culture’. It is argued in an article by Ernest Dichter (1966) that the influential power of popular culture is furthered by phenomena such as word of mouth and word of mouse which is the passing of information from person to person via oral or online communication respectively (Dichter, 1966). Theorist Strinati (1995) also reinforces this notion when he argues that what consumers buy and the determining factors behind the act of buying has become intertwined and influenced by popular culture. This form of popular culture is useful to understanding how Stranger Things’ (2016) popularity was fuelled by its use of intertextual
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references to the popular culture of the eighties within the show as a form of persuasive rhetoric to watch the show.
The final notion that creates the idea of popular culture is defined by Williams (1983) as “culture made popular by the people” (1983:237). Brummett (2004) calls this “culture of the people” (2004:57) and suggests that popular culture can be seen as the vernacular of the people which dominates society at a particular point in time. Sociologists such as Durkheim (1976) who follow the functionalist perspective argue that popular culture does not have the ulterior motives as previously suggested by critical theorists Adorno and Horkheimer (1972). Durkheim (1976) believes that popular culture serves society by acting as a glue that holds social groups together by creating a sense of solidarity and cohesion with sports being underlined as one form of popular culture that helps to establish a sense of unity. In applying the writings of Durkheim (1976) to audiences of media texts, it can be theorised that the act of sharing and watching similar texts in film and television also creates a sense of unity. Arguably, it is this same sense of unity noted by Durkheim (1976) that lead to the word of mouth and word of mouse on social media (Dichter, 1966) that engulfed Stranger Things (2016), popularising it. Having discussed and underlined the elements of popular culture that can be considered insightful in the study of intertextuality in Stranger Things (2016), the theoretical writing behind the concept may provide some reasons as to why particular texts were referenced within Stranger Things (2016) and how they are significant to both the show itself and the audience.
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Research is often seen as a scientific and “systematic effort to gain new knowledge.” (Redman and Mory, 1933:10). Kothari (2014) notes that while research can be seen as a movement from one point in the unknown to another point in the known, it is also a “voyage of discovery” (2014:14). Having previously discussed the scholarly writing behind the areas of postmodernism and popular culture, it is the focus on intertextuality and more specifically the use of intertextual referencing that points to the ideas of popular culture and postmodernism. Therefore it is of great importance to select the correct research methodology that will correctly identify intertextual references and reveal why elements of postmodernism and popular culture make the reference itself significant in Stranger Things (2016). For this study, there were a range of research methods that were applicable, each with their own strengths, weaknesses and theoretical implications. In order to study intertextual references within the Netflix series Stranger Things (2016), a research method that clearly identifies and explores them will allow for a greater understanding as to why certain references have been used by the makers of the show and how they have proved significant. Within the field of film studies, there are several types of textual analyses which prove useful to studying video and mise-en-scene. Semiotic analysis (Saussure et al, 1991) and rhetorical analysis (Aristotle, translated 1909) can both be considered subcategories of textual analysis and can be applied when seeking out and scrutinising intertextual references within Stranger Things (2016). To be able to use the two types of textual analysis methodologies to their fullest extent, it would be beneficial to underline the extent of their working limitations in order to correctly apply the most fitting method to each intertextual reference identified and to understand the significance behind each one: 16
At its core, semiology is considered the study of signs (Saussure et al, 1991). Key theorist Barthes (2009) argues that signs have two stages: the signifier and signified which he calls the dyadic model. The signifier is often seen as the form in which the sign manifests itself within the physical plane of existence and the signified can be described as the concept the sign represents. Similarly, the concept of denotation and connotation can also be used to describe the relationship between the signifier and the signified. For example, the signifier and signified can be anything in the miseen-scene of Stranger Things (2016) such as, framing, lighting, props and costume. The costume of a character may denote a particular idea, or if it similar to another character from another text, it becomes an intertextual reference which alludes to another character in order to use some aspect of that character to further reinforce an idea or notion. The uses of a semiotic analysis can be further explained by Gillian Rose (2011) in her work that a semiotic analysis deconstructs particular cinematic elements in the mise-en-scene by assessing its initial denotation while also providing a range of analytical tools that allow for the isolation of the signified connotation. As suggested by Metz and Taylor (2007), film is a “cinematographic language� (2007:68) that includes images, performative gestures and objects as well as diegetic and non-diegetic sound. By laying out elements of the cinematographic language (Metz and Taylor, 2007:68) and systematically analysing both the signifier and signified meanings, the complex associations that create significance can be revealed. This means that a semiotic analysis can be used to better interpret and interrogate the scenes, moments and characters of Stranger Things (2016) as opposed to simply describing it. This focus and scrutiny of the cinematic elements and mise-en-scene is particularly useful to the question at hand as a semiotic analysis excels in identifying intertextual references outside of the 17
narrative content such as the plot and characters. By studying certain signs as being dyadic two stage processes of signification (Barthes, 2009), a semiotic analysis offers a method of identifying a subject or element and then deciphering the significance behind it in a way that other methods do not. The secondary form of textual analysis used was rhetorical analysis, specifically to identify rhetorical speech and rhetorical context. To understand the strengths and weaknesses of this method, a brief exploration of the concept was undertaken. The word rhetoric finds its origins in Aristotle’s description: “the available means of persuasion” (Translated 1909:32). To summarise Aristotle (1909), there were three forms of persuasion that could be projected by a speaker in their speech: logos, pathos and ethos (Aristotle, 1909). Logos is logically using facts and figures as a means of persuasion while pathos is described as being the form of persuasion that utilises the speaker's emotion or motivation. Ethos is a form of persuasion based on the speaker’s authority, intelligence, credibility and character. Aristotle’s (1909) theories of rhetoric is reflected in key theorist David Bordwell (1989) who applied Aristotle’s (1909) ideas to the written word and argued that “rhetoric is the shaping of language to achieve one’s ends” (1989:206). This is reinforced by another key authority in rhetoric, Kenneth Burke (1966), who suggests that language does not simply just “reflect reality” but it also acts as a “selection” and “deflection” of it too (1966:45). To summarise, rhetoric is the use of language to persuade and “achieve one’s ends” (Bordwell, 1989) that originated in speech and was then used in written literature. In relation to media studies, rhetoric is most often applied to the analysis of photographs and advertising. The use of rhetoric to study video is a relatively new field and is not widely and thoroughly explored in academic writing. This meant that applying a rhetorical analysis to moving 18
images in the way that it was originally applied to speech and literature would not create solidified and widely accepted results. Instead, the rhetorical analysis was used as a secondary form of textual analysis to understand why a sign, identified through the semiotic analysis, exists by contextualising it in terms of its purpose, audience and focus. The rhetorical analysis method is therefore more suited to discussing how a reference may be used to persuade (Aristotle, 1909) the audience. The original medium of rhetoric and persuasion usually involved two parties, the speaker and their audience (Aristotle, 1909). In film and television, the most obvious use of rhetoric by filmmakers can be found in the dialogue, or scripting of the show, while other audio elements such as the soundtrack can also contain persuasive elements. To summarise, the rhetorical analysis, while not as well suited to video analysis compared to semiotic analysis, was applied according to its strengths of contextualising and breakdown of speech and literature.
With the information gathering methods of textual analysis offering a close frame by frame identification and scrutiny of Stranger Things (2016), a way to interpret the data gathered was needed to fully understand how intertextual referencing is presented and why it is significant. The grounded theory approach is described by Corbin and Strauss (1990) in their journal article as a method that is most easily defined by its characteristics. The authors argue that “data collection and analysis are interrelated processes” (1990:6) and that during the interpretation of data, “categories must be developed and related” (1990:7) while an analysis should make “use of constant comparisons” (1990:9). At face value these rules of collecting and interpreting data were relevant to this study of comparisons due to its nature of referencing. However, the argument put forward by Corbin and Strauss (1990) is that it is the researcher’s responsibility to catch the 19
interplay that happens prior to the end-product and that the inner workings of the data should also be considered. In essence, the grounded approach theory is a method of interpreting and analysing data as it is received to better understand how the end result was constructed. In application, the grounded theory approach was used specifically for the identification of themes. While there is some suspicion surrounding the grounded approach theory due to the way it imperialistically trespasses on any and all academic disciplines, the way it is grounded in data collection was useful to this study as it meant that no overarching assumptions were made until all the data was collected and a reasonable and logical conclusion could be drawn from its analysis.
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As for how the two types of textual analysis were applied to Stranger Things (2016) in this report, the first season of the show consisted of eight episodes, or “chapters” (Netflix, 2016) available for analysis. With that in mind, the entire eight-chapter season was not fully analysed scene for scene but moreover, was watched in a ‘first pass’ as an audience member would and then again on a ‘second pass’ and combed for references and noted down in a scholarly manner. This allowed me to identify which references were more noticeable by an audience member and which needed to be identified with the keen intent of a researcher. With that in mind, findings were then collated, by theme, into three analytical chapters which were identified through the use of a grounded theory approach. Due to the nature of the subject of study being a media text that combines video and audio elements, all references were applicable to each chapter be it visual, verbal or production based. In more detail on how the key themes were identified, a grounded approach theory was used in conjunction with what could already be theorised to a certain extent. For example, the Netflix description of the show openly stated that the show was a “nostalgic nod to [the] 1980s” (Netflix, 2016). Therefore, the theme of 80s nostalgia could be theorised prior to the analysis while the remaining themes of family and horror were only highlighted after compiling the findings made in the second viewing of the show. While selecting specific episodes from the show to analyse would have undoubtedly allowed for a more focused approach, looking at the whole show as a unified piece would more accurately reflect Netflix’s popular binge-watching culture as argued in The Netflix effect: technology and entertainment in the 21st century (McDonald and Smith-Rowsey, 2016). By adjusting the scope of the analysis in this way, the study is more applicable to viewing habits and allowed for a more 21
coherent look while seeking out how intertextual references were presented to the audience. That said, it is important to understand how the analysis This meant that the themes, cinematography and performance of the cast as well as elements of the mise-en-scene could be assessed and thoroughly combed for intertextual references to other media, genres and even auteur styles. The method of semiotic and rhetorical therefore acted as tools of identification to uncover the significance of intertextual references as well as how they are presented to the audience while also providing a methodological toolbox to interpret and interrogate the text. In retrospect, having critically analysed the visual and audio elements of Stranger Things (2016) through a semiotic analysis and rhetorical analysis respectively, it would have been useful to maximise the potential credibility of the results by combining the two textual analysis methods with another methodology that would have worked to verify or strengthen the findings. It is important to recognise both the possibilities and the limitations of the research conducted in this study and a tertiary method such as a focus group would have been able to strengthen any subjective interpretations or assumption made by myself as the main researcher. Other audience focused research methods could have also filled this area of additional research, methods such as surveys would have allowed for a greater reach of research participants but is restricted by the structure and the way results are collected. Participants would only be limited in their responses and researchers would not be able to press for expanded answers. On the other hand, interviews would have allowed for more in-depth and expanded answers but are limited to the views of a few participants. Ethnography and virtual ethnography would have also been beneficial to this study as the method allows for a wide range of sources to be used across the internet but is limited to the views of the online community studied 22
The Duffer Brothers’ highly popular Netflix show Stranger Things (2016) takes place in the quiet town of Hawkins, Indiana where a series of events occur as a result of the disappearance of a twelve-year-old boy named Will Byers and the appearance of a twelve-year-old girl named Eleven. While the story itself is held in high regard, the show has also been popularised by the way it creates nostalgia through its intertextual referencing. It’s no secret that the show is full of references, but in studying these references, this report seeks to understand the significance, impact and effect of implementing so many while also exploring how intertextuality has become a core element of storytelling in contemporary film and television texts. The methodological approaches of a semiotic and rhetorical analysis will be used to identify which areas of the show may have been influenced by other texts or seek to create a response through the Duffer Brothers’ use of intertextual referencing. Both semiology and rhetoric are concerned with how meaning is created through signs and language respectively. In this context, I will be applying the two textual analysis methods to uncovering how cinematic codes and conventions have been used to create intertextual references. It would be beneficial to the presentation of findings to divide this analysis into three chapters based on the theme that an intertextual reference has been rooted in. The chapters will each discuss how the makers of Stranger Things (2016) have seamlessly reconstructed scenes and art styles from the eighties era of film and television by analysing content both within the show and around it. Elements of the show such as tropes, themes, lighting, framing and colour will all be interrogated as signs of intertextuality. By exploring these intertextual references in accordance with the research design of this report, an initial assessment of findings suggests that there are a 23
range of eighties references placed in episodes across the entire season. However, while utilising the grounded approach theory along with further scrutiny, it has been revealed that there are two genres that are seamlessly merged into the show (Jameson, 1993) and drawn upon as sources for referencing within the realm of the eighties: the family and horror genres. Interestingly, the two genres that are most referenced are also the two genres that were the highest grossing in the 1980s. E.T: The Extra-Terrestrial (1982) and Aliens (1986) are two examples of films in the family and horror genres that are frequently referenced with Steven Spielberg’s E.T (1982) being the highest grossing film in its decade with $359,197,037 million dollars while Ridley Scott’s Aliens (1986) became a cult hit, raking in $85,160,248 million. Having discussed the concepts of postmodernism, popular culture and intertextuality, the theoretical writing behind these concepts will be used to help interpret the findings made in each chapter.
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It can be said that the makers of Stranger Things (2016), such as the producers, scriptwriters, directors, camera operators, editors and even the cast, all play a role in constructing a portrayal of the eighties as well as a nostalgia for it. This is done through an array of intertextual references to media texts that were considered popular culture in that time period. By implementing references to popular culture and iconography from the eighties both within the show and in the material framing the show, the Duffer brothers create moments and scenes that are instantly recognisable for audience members familiar with that time period while also creating a retro feel for younger audiences in an aesthetic way that appeals to them. The use of the iconography and imagery from the eighties as a presentational tool of persuasion can be seen immediately in the show’s Netflix page. Here it can be seen that the bold font in the centre, positioning of subjects and characters to be facing outward from the centre as well as the style of the drawings and its bold red and blue colouring on a black background closely resemble the logos and posters of the Star Wars franchise. By itself, the colouring and design of the poster simply establish the main characters of the show. These references to George Lucas’s films in the image are therefore used in a rhetorical and persuasive manner to entice viewers into watching the show by appealing to their sense of eighties nostalgia. As well as the image on the Netflix page, a closer examination of the Stranger Things (2016) logo, also reveals the intertextual referencing behind it. As a logo, it is literally a reoccurring sign that represents the show as a brand, appearing frequently within the opening sequence of the show and in the content around it. The logo can also be considered a presentational tool of persuasion through its use of the selected font. The significance behind the font is two-fold: firstly, it 25
resembles the classic versions of Stephen King’s novel covers and secondly, it utilises a well-known font originating in the 1980s: ITC Benguiat. In addressing the resemblance to the Steven King’s book covers, Ross Duffer stated in an interview with Vulture Magazine that: There was a two-fold inspiration. One was, in terms of the font and the title design, going back to those old vintage Stephen King books. We sent 12 different old covers to Imaginary Forces, who were designing the titles — we wanted it to be in the style of these novels. There’s something about when we were kids, when you would open up one of these big fat Stephen King novels that we loved. We wanted the show to have that sort of feeling every time you got to a new chapter. (Ross Duffer, 2016. Vulture Magazine) In analysing the rhetorical context of this statement, the creators cite Stephen King’s novel covers as “a big inspiration” on the aesthetic design of the logo. This holds significance for the audience as it establishes the tone of the show for audience members who are aware of King’s novels by utilising the reputation of King as being a successful writer of the horror genre, specifically in the eighties. By implementing intertextual referencing so intricately within the Netflix content and on the branding of the show, the creators have reinforced the idea of eighties nostalgia even before the first episode has run. Lyman Frank Baum’s (1900) writing discusses ideas of rhetoric and persuasion (Aristotle, 1909). He argues the significance of product placement in a shop window as a means of effectively selling goods. Baum (1900) notes that “placing them before the public in a particular manner caused the viewer to [feel] a desire for it”. By that same merit, it can be argued that the makers of the show exploited the format of Netflix as a “shop window” (Baum, 1900) whose users consistently browse through and placed the intertextual references within the logo and images to establish a sense of nostalgia for the eighties which in turn enticed viewers into watching the show.
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In addition to this, the ITC Benguiat font, created by Ed Benguiat in 1979, was emblematic of many aspects of pop culture throughout the 1980s and 90s of the United States. Artefacts of popular culture such as the Choose Your Own Adventure (1979-1998) game books and popular media such as The Smith’s album Strangeways Here We Come (1979) as well as Paramount’s anti-piracy warning in their video tapes all employed the ITC Benguiat font. The font is therefore representative of the eighties and creates a nostalgia for it due to the way it is used to promote the show. The studio behind the title sequence, Imaginary Forces, has produced a range of titles for popular media such as Mad Men (2007), The Pacific (2010), Jessica Jones (2015) and Transformers: The Last Knight (2017). In the Stranger Things (2016), it can be seen in the title sequence that the designers at Imaginary Forces have digitally replicated the gritty look of eighties era film grain. On their website, the description of the Stranger Things (2016) title is as follows: A disjointed version of The Stranger Things title starts the sequence which typographically sets the tone for the show. Imbuing the opening with a sense of unease, the music informs the movement of the type as the letterforms slide together to form the title. The Stranger Things main title mimics an optical look which reflects the time period of the show, it also seems as if light is passing through film, creating a lush haptic quality. (Imaginary Forces, 2016) The explanation states that the title sequence “mimics an optical look” which describes the manual way of creating a title sequence using a camera and a projector. This manual process was common practice in the 1980s before digital animation software was developed and it often created granularity as a by-product of the process. By mimicking a traditional title sequence as well as the method used to create it, the creators of the show have further referenced another element of the eighties in a subtle way. The intertextual references to other mediums in the Stranger Things (2016) logo and title sequence therefore symbolises several things in terms of the 27
rhetorical context. The show utilises visual intertextuality within its poster and logo to draw on eighties nostalgia to promote and engage audiences and establish the tone of the show. The Duffers do this by recreating the style of the time, both in design choices and production methods to provide a comprehensive allusion to the period’s aesthetic style. In considering the rhetorical context of the character wearing the dress, Eleven’s background as a test subject deprived of all familial connections and love was originally dressed in a white hospital gown in flashbacks and early episodes. What this truly represents is a miniature story arc similar to a coming of age story, a classic motif and a story often used in eighties films such as The Breakfast Club (1985) and Stand By Me (1986). This same character convention and narrative context is found in E.T (1982) and the creators of Stranger Things (2016) therefore allows the audience to understand the scene by utilising their knowledge of a popular film from the eighties thus creating a nostalgia for it. Beyond the visual use of the costume as an intertextual reference to E.T: The Extra-Terrestrial (1982), the performance of both characters further reinforces the purpose of the scene as underlining how disconnected these characters are to the real world. Eleven’s fascination with the television while watching He-Man and the Masters of the Universe (1983) (which in itself is a direct reference to the popular cartoon of the eighties), directly references E.T’s shock of Tom’s tail burning in the classic American cartoon of Tom and Jerry (1940), both animated shows act as signifiers to the innocence and naivete of the respective characters. The rhetorical context of this for the audience is that this intertextual reference is blended in seamlessly and references a popular media text of the eighties in order to fulfil the narrative purpose of the scene There are also a range of references that are not directly made within the narrative content but are rather made by the casting aspect of production. Casting often denotes the budget assigned to 28
a production but also echoes the Hollywood era of star power. With talent such as Winona Ryder being cast in a lead role as Joyce Byers, the actress can also be considered a symbol or sign referencing the eighties. Winona Ryder and her acting career gained recognition for films such as Lucas (1986), Beetlejuice (1988) and Edward Scissor hands (1990). Excluding Stranger Things (2016), these titles make up Winona Ryder’s most well-known pieces of work and in consideration of this, Ryder inherently represents the films of the eighties that fuelled her stardom. As stated by Hayward (2013), in casting a star that has a persona and history developed outside the production of the show, she is inherently text in herself. The Duffers utilise Ryder’s star power from the eighties by casting her in a show based on the eighties, furthermore, by being a physical link to films released twenty years ago, Ryder’s appearance itself ensures the construction of nostalgia for that time period (Hayward, 2013). In addition to this, Ryder’s character is then used in an emotional performance in chapter four of the show where the actress frantically takes an axe to the wall of her home. While this is seen as a signifier for insanity by the other characters in the story, members of the audience may see this as a signifier and intertextual reference to the infamous axe wielding character of Jack Torrance as played by Jack Nicholson in The Shining (1980), which happens to be another film from the eighties. This is a clear example of the “intersection of textual surfaces” (Kristeva, 1966:65) within the Netflix show where the complex layers of meaning are also a highly postmodern feature. While visual references can allude to a range of different media texts from varying genres and time periods, verbal references are more restricted to the world and lore of Stranger Things (2016). With the story being set in the fall of 1983, it is no wonder that the children of the show make frequent verbal references to The Empire Strikes Back (1980) and Return of the Jedi (1983). 29
In accordance with the Stranger Things (2016) timeline, the Star Wars films were released three years and three months prior to the events that take place in the Netflix show. With that logic, George Lucas’ original trilogy of films were at the height of their popularity in the timeline. In the second episode of the show, Mike shows Eleven his toy Yoda, who is a prominent character in the Star Wars franchise. Similar verbal references that further the narrative while also creating nostalgia are interwoven into the story at several points, with Dustin telling Eleven to use her powers to make a replica of the Millennium Falcon ship levitate and Lucas using the Lando Calrissian character from Star Wars as a metaphor for betrayal. As a narrative device, they are used to subtly create a comparison between Eleven’s telekinetic powers to the ‘force’ as seen in the Star Wars universe while also highlighting the time period that the story is set in, which also creates nostalgia as a consequence. Similarly, references to Tolkien’s written work such as Lord of the Rings (1954) and The Hobbit (1937) serve a similar purpose within the narrative where the children of the show give the name of “Mirkwood” to the road where Will goes missing. In that sense, most verbal references tend to serve a clear purpose in the narrative and create meaning by establishing an allusion, which on literary terms is the assumption that the reader or audience is in some way familiar with what is referenced, consequently becoming a connotation or signifier. Other verbal references are an example of multiple coding (Burke, 1988:77), such as Dustin’s humorous side quest for a “chocolate goo you eat with a spoon”, also creates a sense of nostalgia for the eighties and has even created a positive outcome for the company behind the chocolate pudding. Director of Brand Communications at ConAgra Foods, Lanie Friedman, tells MUNCHIES in an interview: Snack Pack pudding has been a family favourite for years, and we're thrilled it was featured on the show, we're always looking for ways to better connect with our consumers, so if 30
they want throwback packaging we'll certainly consider it. Stranger things have happened! (Lanie Friedman, 2016. MUNCHIES) This is noteworthy because aside from being product placement, the makers of the show have used a product native to the 1980s. While Snack Pack Puddings were later acquired by ConAgra Foods and still exists today, the Duffer brothers have implemented the original packaging of the product in aluminium cans as seen on the show, by implementing the original packaging of the product, a sense of nostalgia is again created within the audience members who recognise it. It can also be argued that this product placement has a narrative purpose of humanising characters, such as Dustin, while also providing humour to avoid compassion fatigue. Compassion fatigue is a narrative term used to describe when readers or audiences are overloaded with intense emotions and become less likely to sympathise with characters in a story. In considering the rhetorical context of the scene, the character of Eleven had just visited the “upside Down” in a homemade sensory deprivation tank, confirmed the death of Barb Holland (Shannon Purser) and had an emotional performance with Winona Ryder’s character. By that order, the Duffer brothers use Dustin’s obsession with chocolate pudding with the purpose of evading compassion fatigue in the audience while also being a direct intertextual reference to popular food culture of the eighties which also creates nostalgia.
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While it’s clear that the references made both around and within the show of Stranger Things (2016) are all based on elements of popular culture from the 1980s, these references tend to serve a specific purpose besides underlining the show’s story as being set in the eighties. In applying the grounded approach theory to notes made in both the primary and secondary viewing, there was a considerable amount of intertextual references that were representative of two genres: horror and family, both of which were prominent in the 1980s based on awards and the popularity of sequels. With the previous chapter focusing mainly on the visual, verbal and production based refences to the eighties in general, this chapter will focus on the intertextual references that underline and reinforce codes and conventions of the family film genre to understand the significance of intertextuality within Stranger Things (2016) as well as how it is used in this particular manner. The family film genre often consists of codes and conventions that are appropriate for younger audiences but may also consist of elements that would just as easily appeal to adults and older members of the audience. Additionally, the family genre is malleable in the sense that it often falls within the boundaries of other genres such as comedy, action, adventure or fantasy in the case of Stranger Things (2016). In exploring the tropes and motifs behind the family film genre in Embodied visions: evolution, emotion, culture, and film (2009), it is argued by Grodal that family films typically explore ideas of relationships such as a character’s own identity and their relationship with themselves, parent-child attachment and relationships, be it romantic or social. By that merit, each of the three story arcs in Stranger Things (2016) have utilised one of these relationship tropes of the family film genre; either by conforming to it or by 32
subverting the expectations of it with the use of intertextual references which underlines how intertextuality has become significant in this regard. The references help to deepen and add complexity to fairly common and mundane tropes of the genre. On one hand, the show conforms to traditional family genre conventions in the story arc that follows the adventures of Eleven (Millie Bobby Brown), Mike Wheeler (Finn Wolfhard), Dustin Henderson (Gaten Matarazzo) and Lucas Sinclair (Caleb McLaughlin). These characters are first introduced playing Dungeons and Dragons, a classic board game from the 1980s, which, as children playing games, conforms to the family film genre as it is something that children stereotypically do. This is later subverted when the characters take on more mature tasks such as taking the search of Will into their own hands. In exploring this arc of characters further, it is also useful to note that as a whole, the story of Stranger Things (2016) operates a non-linear structure by utilising several parallel plot lines, making the show inherently postmodernist in its structure (Constable, 2015) as it does not abide by traditional narrative rules. The creators of the show have not defined one main character and built the story around him or her but instead there are a range of protagonists and the narrative structure is built around their adventures. In this case, the children struggle with their friendships, familial relationships and often verbally reference characters from popular culture in order to construct their own identities. All of which are traditional tropes of the family genre as suggested by Grodal (2009). The struggles that these characters face all happen as they are absorbed in a conspiracy larger than themselves and in analysing this particular story arc, the most noticeable intertextual reference is found within the casting of characters. As discussed in the previous chapter with the subject of Winona Ryder, casting can be considered an intertextual reference to stardom as a text (Hayward, 2013:219). 33
Though the young actors and actresses do not possess established careers that were cemented in the eighties like Winona Ryder, the way they are presented both narratively and visually are a clear reference to the eighties Spielberg film The Goonies (1985) as well as Stephen King’s Stand By Me (1986) film. In terms of the narrative, the Stranger Things (2016) arc following Mike and Eleven consists of a group of misfits who are labelled as losers in school in their search for their lost friend Will. Interestingly, this is another story written by Steven Spielberg which follows a group of pre-teen misfits in their search for long lost treasure while being chased by the ‘bad guys’. Similarly, a Stephen King novel titled The Body (1982) is a story that follows a group of boys as they set out into the wilderness in search of a boy, who much like Will, is presumed dead. The book had a film adaptation called Stand By Me (1986) and both the chapter name of episode four: The Body (Netflix, 2016) and a scene in episode five reconstructs the iconic railway scene from the Stephen King film. All three stories can be considered as being a part of the family film genre however where The Goonies (1985) conforms to the family film genre with humour and light-heartedness, Stand By Me (1986) stands at the opposite end of the spectrum by subverting the genre with darker themes and the idea of death, decay and dysfunctional families. Stranger Things (2016) merges the two films and takes a middle ground. The Duffers subverts the traditional expectations of the genre, such as light hearted comedy, age appropriate violence and fairy-tale endings by endorsing swearing, violence and dysfunctional families. They conform to the genre by implementing light-hearted humour and by using popular culture references to soften the harsh tone that comes with the elements that subvert the family film genre.
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In exploring the visual look of the characters and its significance, the cast of Stranger Things (2016) also resemble characters from the Spielberg and King films in terms of the way they are framed, their character traits and performance. Chris Chamber, from Stand By Me (1986) and Mike Wheeler both share character traits that define their role in the group. Both characters act as leaders of the group and can be seen as quick-witted and smart. The character of Dustin and Lawrence ‘Chunk’ Cohen from The Goonies (1985) also bear resemblances in terms of their body structure and humorous outlook on life. Furthermore, these characters have key narrative roles and providing humour which halts compassion fatigue. Aside from resembling the characters from other films, the scenes from which these characters have become iconic are also reconstructed in the cinematography of Stranger Things (2016). As previously mentioned, a scene from the final act of Stand By Me (1986) where the characters walk along a railway is reconstructed in terms of framing, angles and focus. In chapter five, Mike Wheeler and his friends use a compass to find the whereabouts of a portal, unbeknownst to them, Eleven manipulates the compass needle to lead them in circles. The shot composition and placement of the characters in the foreground and background are identical as the group walk along a railroad with trees lining each side of the frame. The scene itself is therefore an intertextual reference to the film Stand By Me (1986). This is noteworthy as the number of Spielberg films referenced is unparalleled which suggests there is an affinity between Spielberg and the Duffer brothers. This is further reinforced by the repeated referencing of E.T: The Extra-Terrestrial (1982), which is another Spielberg film within the ‘Family Film’ genre. Stranger Things (2016) contains a wealth of visual, narrative and thematic elements that are directly influenced by Spielberg’s sci-fi family 35
classic. From the very first episode of the Netflix show, there is a clear reference to the opening sequence of E.T: The Extra-Terrestrial (1982) where the character of Eleven (Millie Bobby Brown), is discovered in the same manner that Spielberg’s E.T is discovered. As seen in each scene, both frames share many presentational similarities; first and foremost, the composition of the shot directly reflects E.T: The Extra-Terrestrial (1982) in the way that the subjects, Elle and E.T, are both framed according to a specific shot composition method aptly named the “Rule of Thirds” (Smith, 1797). This is seen with E.T being framed on either side by stems in the cornfield and Eleven framed on either side by trees in the background behind her. In addition to this, lighting is also used to reflect the E.T (1982) film, namely a handheld torch shone directly onto the face of the subject which is used to add a point-of-view element in the way that viewers are thrust into the view of the child/teenagers that discover E.T/Eleven respectively. Furthermore, the context of the scene also references E.T (1982) with how both characters are narratively introduced. Both characters are runaways found by a local child who is shocked with their finding. In further exploring the show’s visual references to the family film genre, E.T: The Extra-Terrestrial (1982) becomes a recurring factor with the setting of Stranger Things (2016) itself also drawing upon E.T (1982). While the town of Hawkins is not the same suburban landscape of California as seen in Spielberg’s 1982 film, the visuals of both locations bear similar features; rows of houses in close proximity to a forest with the motif of young boys cycling around unrestricted. As described by Fiske and Hartley (1982), “denotation is what is photographed, connotation is how it is photographed” (1992:91). With that in mind, the Duffer brothers have reconstructed both the denotative and connotative elements of these different scenes in their own show by replicating both the narrative and visual feel of the characters and settings found in E.T (1982), The Goonies 36
(1985) and Stand By Me (1986) as well as the way they are filmed (subject composition, framing and performance) (Carroll, 1998). By doing so, the Duffers have intertextually referenced these films through their camerawork, all of which come from the family film genre, albeit each conforming to the genre in its own way while also adding to it by subverting it. It is also noteworthy that all of these films that the Duffer brothers have intertextually referenced, are films from the eighties and are all works of King and Spielberg. In the other story arcs, the show also subverts traditional conventions of the family genre by portraying families within the show as being broken and dysfunctional and therefore deviating from the traditional nuclear family structure portrayed in many children’s and family films. Winona Ryder’s character, Joyce Byers, is a single working mother who struggles to raise her two sons. Jim Hopper (David Harbour) is a divorced alcoholic who struggles with the death of his child. In further subverting the family film genre, the tertiary story arc that follows the teenagers of Hawkins, namely Nancy Wheeler, Steve Harrington and Jonathan Byers, deals with the complex relationships and social situations that occur with the coming of age of teenagers: sex, alcohol, violence and voyeurism are all depicted in the show and are uncharacteristic of the family film genre. In this sense, intertextual references to films such as The Goonies (1985) serve the purpose of engaging audiences with the relationships of the characters while the subversion of genre conventions provide a sense of realism and grittiness to the show. The juxtaposition of the two ways that conventions of the family genre are used is significant as it provides a fresh perspective on the genre, effectively revitalising it by continuously surprising audiences, who have become complacent to the genre, through intertextual references.
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Another genre frequently referenced directly in the narrative and mise-en-scene is the horror genre. Common characteristics of the horror genre, as argued by Paul Wells (2007), include the use of limited or low lighting, unnatural camerawork with high or low angles and sound, both diegetic and non-diegetic. All of these qualities combine to create a sense of fear for the audience. In exploring this notion in Stranger Things (2016), much of the intertextual references discussed so far have been from films and popular culture of the 1980s. With that in mind, the creators of the show have referenced empirical uses of horror conventions from a range of films spanning the eighties. Intertextual references effectively create meaning by assuming that the audience has a level of familiarity with the referenced subject. This means that intertextual references typically rely on popularised signs and symbols to be effective. Interestingly, there are a range of intertextual references with some being popular knowledge and others being somewhat obscure as well as subtle in their implementations. In considering how the family film genre has a tendency to include elements that appeal to younger audiences, the use of the horror genre and these more obscure references in passing may be one of the elements that create appeal for older audiences. To highlight this notion, both the apparent and subtle intertextual references will be explored and analysed. To begin, there are clear and repeated references to Aliens (1986) in the cinematography of the show as well as clear references to Carrie (1976) and Firestarter (1984) in the narrative side of the show. Sci-fi horror elements akin to the Alien franchise, such as claustrophobic space suits and nervous soldiers scanning abandoned corridors with the flashlights attached to their guns is replicated in several scenes across the entire season of Stranger Things (2016). The most obvious 38
reconstruction of these elements can be found in the first episode of the Netflix show where Dr Brenner (Mathew Modine) leads men into the lab where the portal to the “upside down� had materialised. In this two minute sequence, the men dress themselves in their hazmat suits, arm themselves and descend into the lower levels of the lab before methodically moving through corridors in a military fashion. As for the cinematography, camera and framing is placed behind the characters and moves slowly along with them which can also be seen in the forty-eighth minute of Aliens (1986) where the colonial soldiers descend onto the planet’s surface via a drop ship and are filmed in the same way. While the rhetorical context of both scenes are similar, the use of high camera angles forces the viewer to look down on the characters, suggesting for the audience that the masculine soldiers in both texts are in fact vulnerable. These high angle shots are used in conjunction with close ups of their faces that create an uncomfortable invasion of space which adds an aura of uncertainty for the audience based on their expressions. In addition to this, the props and lighting also reflect the source material in Aliens (1986). As the characters in both texts use light sources that are mounted on their weaponry, the combination of unlit interiors and the frantic snapping around corners of the soldiers as they scan for potential targets means that the lighting in each scene is unstable. The incoherent lighting creates a sense of fear for the dark unknown. In considering the rhetorical context of the episode as being the pilot, the Duffer brothers utilise this fear of the unknown as the monster in the show has yet to be revealed to the audience. Furthermore, the Alien films have also been referenced through the setting and artistic style of the upside-down dimension where a goo-like webbing is left by the monster and aliens of each text. While this webbing causes confusion for the characters of the show, this is a clear signifier to any 39
audience member familiar with the Alien franchise that the goo like webbing means a hive, as well as danger, is nearby. Additionally, the narrative premise of the upside down being a darker version of our own reality and a dimension spawned as a result of a government experiment echoes the Stephen King novel: The Mist (1980) where a failed government experiment brings about a mist where otherworldly monsters invade earth. The darkness and reduced visibility in both the upside down and the mist can be seen as traditional limitations of light in order to create a fear for the unknown while the references to the goo like webbing from Aliens (1986) that cover the land in the upside down can be seen as sign for danger by audiences. In further exploring Stephen King’s influences on the narrative elements of the show, it can be said that the character of Eleven as well as her back-story is an homage to the author’s written work. Aside from being telekinetic as opposed to being a pyrokinetic, Millie Bobby Brown’s fugitive character is based on Charlie McGee from Firestarter, a popular novel (1980) and film (1984) by Stephen King which is further reinforced in flashback scenes where Eleven is cinematically framed in the same way that Charlie is with both girls wearing headgear and testing their powers in a room at a table. Having discussed Stephen King’s significance as a credible author of the eighties and his influence on the title sequence of Stranger Things (2016) in a previous chapter, it can be said that the influences of King are two-fold in the sense that the intertextual references to his work creates a nostalgia for both the eighties, his horror and supernatural fiction writing. Another apparent intertextual reference can be found in episode three’s reveal of the faceless monster. The scene itself and the way the monster is shot and animated can be considered a nod to A Nightmare on Elm Street (1984) while the physical look and design of monster itself is an intertextual reference to Aliens (1986) and Predator (1987). The computerised elastic effect used 40
in episode three for the faceless monster pressing and clawing through a wall is very similar both in lighting and framing to a scene found in Director Wes Craven’s horror classic where Freddy Kreuger presses his face and hands through a wall. The framing makes use of a point of view shot which places the audience in front of the wall while the lighting in both scenes come from a high angle, causing the monster to cast a shadow which again plays on the genre conventions of the darkness and the unknown (Wells, 2007). Aesthetically, the faceless monster in the show draws on both Aliens (196) and Predator (1987). The monster is designed with no specific features on its face save for its mouth that open up into four arthropod like mandibles. This is reminiscent of both the xenomorphs and the Yautja hunters and Xenomorphs in Aliens (1986) only have a mouth while the yautja in Predator (1987) has a mouth that opens into four mandibles. These horror films are further referenced in the narrative context of Stranger Things (2016) where the monsters hunts its human victims much like a yuatja in Predator (1987) while kidnapping them and taking them back to its hive in the upside down to be used as incubators birthing more monsters much like the xenomorphs in Aliens (1986), as was the case with the character Barb Holland (Shannon Purser). The Duffer brothers have arguably implemented these intertextual references within the design of the monster to both induce a fear that is already associated with the xenomorphs and yuatja while also signifying that the monster from the upside down has animalistic and predatory traits. In addressing the more obscure references, the makers of Stranger Things (2016) have created a show that has a range of coexisting genres which means both narrative and cinematic elements must accommodate the codes and conventions of each genre. Traditional eighties horror films, such as Aliens (1986) and A Nightmare on Elm Street (1984) have a much larger freedom to establish their premise as being a horror film as well as the entirety of their films to do so. 41
Stranger Things (2016) on the other hand must establish conventions of the horror genre subtly in order to not interrupt the flow of other genre conventions throughout the show. The Duffer brothers do this by implementing small and subtle intertextual references throughout the season, even in the least suspecting places, to subconsciously create the idea of horror which also foreshadow events that appear later in the show. Examples of this include a movie poster for The Evil Dead (1981) in Jonathan Byer’s room, a poster for Spielberg’s Jaws (1975), and a movie poster for The Thing (1982) in Mike’s basement, which is also a film being watched by their science teacher Mr Clarke (Randy Havens) in one of scenes and verbal references between Joyce and her son Will to the clown called Pennywise from Stephen King’s book IT (1986) at Castle Byers. Equally an Indiana state trooper guarding the morgue is seen reading King’s Cujo (1981). While these intertextual references take the form of small elements of the background and mise-en-scene and have no immediate impact on the narrative, they act as sign-posts that subconsciously point toward the idea of horror for the audiences. In looking at the overall use of intertextual references to horror movies and the genre itself, the results of this chapter deviates from the findings made in the other chapters in the sense that references to the horror genre are much more based on style and the utilisation of horror camera composition, lighting and design in order to create the idea of fear.
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To conclude, the semiotic and rhetorical analyses of Stranger Things (2016) has revealed the many ways in which intertextuality is used and a large portion of this report has explored the significance of the references themselves in terms of what their use offers the audience as well as the purpose of the references in the show itself. For example, the report has revealed that references to 80s popular culture are used to persuasively influence the audience’s reading of the text and are also used to progress narrative elements and establish the setting in a realistic manner which creates a sense of nostalgia as a result of the successful use of references. As for references to the 80s family film genre, the makers of the show subvert expectations of the family film genre by portraying the dysfunction in families as well as the gritty realities of life which adds complexity to otherwise mundane genres and story conventions. Arguably, for the audience this is an element of modern television that is well-received by those who appreciate realism. Finally, references to the horror genre provide the most stylistic use of intertextual referencing where camera angles, lighting and costume design are all influenced by the horror films that are referenced. It can be said that references in this area make use of pre-existing and well established horror designs and conventions to further its own agenda of creating fear for the audience. Here it can be seen that each chapter has addressed the effects of using intertextual references both for the audience and for the production itself. While it has been addressed in a previous chapter that there are limitations in this analysis, such as the speculated significance that intertextuality has for the audience, it is apparent that further 43
research can be undertaken to better understand the significance of intertextuality specifically for audiences. However, where the deconstruction and exploration of cinematic codes and conventions are involved, the use of the textual analysis methods have proved to be suitable in concluding the significance of intertextuality in the Stranger Things (2016) show. Ultimately, the use of intertextuality is significant as it adds a layer of deeper meaning and quality through the stylistic and narrative uses of referencing. In subverting and complicating the genres they allude to, the Duffers have created a more heterogeneous text that lends itself to analysis and rewards an audience for their attentiveness. This is what I conclude to be a significant marker and contribution to its critical success. Consequently, these references to popular eighties culture and the works of Steven Spielberg and Stephen King draw on the audience’s affinity for that period through the notion of nostalgia. This affinity is very much imprinted onto the text by the Duffer Brothers who, in the embedded interviews of chapter VIII, confirmed King and Spielberg to be their childhood heroes. It is clear then that for the Duffers this is a personal work that expresses a reference to a further text, that of their own affinity and engagement with the cultural period they grew up in. In exploring the significance of intertextuality in Stranger Things (2016), it has been insightful to observe how an element of contemporary television has directly contributed and expanded the cultural phenomenon of digital television.
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● 500 Days of Summer, 2009 [Film]. Directed by Marc Webb. Dune Entertainment. ● A Nightmare on Elm Street, 1984 [Film]. Directed by Wes Craven. New Line Cinema ● Aliens, 1986 [Film]. Directed by James Cameron. Twentieth Century Fox Film Corporation, Brandywine Productions. ● Beetlejuice, 1988 [Film]. Directed by Tim Burton. Geffen Company. ● Carrie, 1976 [Film]. Directed by Brian De Palma. Red Bank Films ● E.T: The Extra-Terrestrial, 1982 [Film]. Directed by Steven Spielberg. Universal Pictures, Amblin Entertainment. ● Edward Scissor hands, 1990 [Film]. Directed by Tim Burton. Twentieth Century Fox Film Corporation. ● Firestarter, 1984 [Film]. Directed by Mark L. Lester. Dino De Laurentiis Company, Universal Pictures. ● Jaws, 1975 [Film]. Directed by Steven Spielberg. Zanuck/Brown Productions, Universal Pictures. ● Lucas, 1986 [Film]. Directed by David Seltzer. Twentieth Century Fox Film Corporation ● Predator, 1987 [Film]. Directed by John McTiernan. Amercent Films, American Entertainment Partners L.P. ● Space Jam, 1996 [Film]. Directed by Joe Pytka. Warner Bros. Family Entertainment, Northern Lights Entertainment. ● Stand By Me, 1986 [Film]. Directed by Steven Spielberg. Columbia Pictures Corporation. ● Star Wars: Return of the Jedi, 1983 [Film]. Directed by Richard Marquand. Lucasfilm. ● Star Wars: The Empire Strikes Back, 1980 [Film]. Directed by Irvin Kershner. Lucasfilm. ● The Avengers, 2012 [Film]. Directed by Joss Whedon. Marvel Studios, Paramount Pictures. ● The Breakfast Club, 1985 [Film]. Directed by John Hughes. Universal Pictures, A&M Films. ● The Cabin in the Woods, 2012 [Film]. Directed by Drew Goddard. Lionsgate. ● The Evil Dead, 1981 [Film]. Directed by Sam Raimi. Renaissance Pictures. ● The Goonies, 1985 [Film]. Directed by Steven Spielberg. Warner Bros. ● The Shining, 1980 [Film]. Directed by Stanley Kubrick. Warner Bros., Hawk Films. ● The Thing, 1982 [Film]. Directed by John Carpenter. Universal Pictures, Turman-Foster Company ● Transformers: The Last Knight, 2017 [Film]. Directed by Michael Bay. Hasbro, Paramount Pictures. ● Who Framed Roger Rabbit, 1988 [Film]. Directed by Robert Zemeckis. Touchstone Pictures.
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● Community, 2009 [Television Series]. Created By Dan Harmon. Krasnoff Foster Productions. ● Family Guy, 1999 [Television Series]. Created By Seth MacFarlane, David Zuckerman. 20th Century Fox Television. ● He-Man and the Masters of the Universe, 1983 [Television Series]. Created By Lou Scheimer. Filmation Associates. ● Jessica Jones, 2015 [Television Series]. Created By Melissa Rosenberg. ABC Studios, Marvel Studios. ● Mad Men, 2007 [Television Series]. Created By Matthew Weiner. Lionsgate Television. ● Orange Is The New Black, 2013 [Television Series]. Created By Jenji Kohan. Tilted Productions. ● Stranger Things, 2016 [Television Series]. Created By Matt Duffer, Ross Duffer. 21 Laps Entertainment. ● The Pacific, 2010 [Television Series]. Created By Steven Spielberg. DreamWorks, HBO Films. ● Tom and Jerry, 1940 [Television Series]. Created By William Hanna, Joseph Barbera. MetroGoldwyn-Mayer
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