Handbook of Fisheries And Aquaculture by Kisan Forum Pvt. Ltd.

Handbook of

Fisheries and Aquaculture

ICAR

PUBLISHED BY

DIRECTORATE OF KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT IN AGRICULTURE INDIAN COUNCIL OF AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH NEW DELHI 110 012

FIRST EDITION SECOND REVISED EDITION REPRINTED

JULY 2006 JULY 2011 JANUARY 2013

Technical Co-ordination : Dr S Ayyappan Secretary, DARE & Director General ICAR, Krishi Bhavan New Delhi 110 114 Dr (Ms) Usha Moza Principal Scientist, ICAR Krishi Anusandhan Bhavan II Pusa, New Delhi 110 012 Dr A Gopalakrishan Principal Scientist, Kochi Unit of NBFGR CMFRI Campus, Emakulam Kochi (Kerala) 682 018 Dr (Ms) B Meenakumari Deputy Director General (Fisheries), ICAR Krishi Anusandhan Bhavan II Pusa, New Delhi 110 012

Dr J K Jena Director, NBFGR Canal Ring Road P.O. Dilkusha Lucknow (Uttar Pradesh) 226 002 Dr A K Pandey Principal Scientist, NBFGR Canal Ring Road P.O. Dilkusha Lucknow (Uttar Pradesh) 226 002

Project Director (DKMA) : Incharge (English Editioral Unit) : Editorial Team :

Chief Production Officer : Technical Officer (Production) :

Dr Rameshwar Singh Dr R P Sharma Shashi A Verma Aruna T Kumar Dr Obaidur Rahman Dr Sudhir Pradhan

Dr Virender Kumar Bharti Punit Bhasin

ISBN : 978-81-7164-106-2 ? 1,000

Published by Dr Rameshwar Singh, Project Director, Directorate of Knowledge Management in Agriculture, Indian Council of Agricultural Research, Krishi Anusandhan Bhavan I, Pusa, New Delhi 110 012; Printed at M/s Chandu Press, D 97, Shakarpur, Delhi 110 092.

Contents Publisher â&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Note

Preface Preface to First Edition 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. 37.

Indian Fisheries Fish Genetic Resources and their Conservation Pelagic Fisheries Demersal Fisheries Oceanic and Deep-sea Fisheries Crustacean Fisheries Molluscan Fisheries Island Fisheries Riverine Fisheries Estuarine Fisheries Reservoir Fisheries Floodplain Wetland Fisheries Coldwater Fisheries and Aquaculture Sport Fisheries Carp Breeding and Seed Production Carp Culture Catfish Breeding and Culture Freshwater Prawn Breeding and Culture Integrated Fish Farming Wastewater Aquaculture Cage and Pen Culture Ornamental Fish Breeding and Culture Shrimp Seed Production Shrimp Farming Mariculture Soil and Water Quality Management in Aquaculture Aquaculture Engineering Fish Genetics Fish Physiology Biotechnology in Fisheries and Aquaculture Nutrition of Finfishes and Shellfishes Fish and Shrimp Health Management Climate Change - Impact and Mitigation Aquatic Pollution Fish as Health Food Fish Harvest Technology Fish Processing Technology

vii

1 32 66 90 106 115 137 159 169 208 238 275 302 326 358 380 401 413 439 449 469 500 533 548 561 591 623 641 658 705 734 762 794 822 843 862 877

38. 39. 40. 41. 42. 43. 44. 45. 46. 47. 48.

Demand and Supply of Fish Trade and Export of Fishery Products Human Resource Development in Fisheries in India Fisheries Extension Responsible Fisheries and Aquaculture Fisheries Legislation Fisheries Financing Development initiatives in Fisheries and Aquaculture Scenario of Fishery Cooperatives Sea Safety and Disaster Management Information and Communication Technology in Fisheries

Appendices Contributors

Scientific Names Subject Index

897 907 920 933 950 964 988 996 1006 1012 1020

1041 1058 1068 1081

1. Indian Fisheries Indian fisheries is increasingly contributing to the nutritional security of the country, with the present production of fish and shellfish from capture fisheries and aquaculture being around 8.0 million tonnes. The country also has an important role in global fisheries as the second largest producer of fish in the world and higher enhancement levels as compared to world fish production levels (Table 1.1). Table 1.1. Fish production in the world and India (million tonnes) Year

â&#x20AC;˘950-51 711-61 " rO-71 ;i :-3i " 190-91 amo-oi 2805-06 2806-07 2107-08 .2108-09 2009-10 '

World

23.50 43.60 66.20 72.30 98.26 129.00 136.09 140.48 142.30 145.10 147.45

% change

India

85.53

0.75 1.16 1.76

51.83 9.21 35.91 32.35 5.73 3.00 1.30 1.97 1.62

2.44 3.84 5.66 6.57 6.87 7.13 7.63 8.00

% change

India's share (%) 3.19 2.66 2.66 3.37 3.91 4.39 4.82 4.89 5.01 5.25 5.42

54.67 51.72 38.64 57.38 47.40 16.08 4.57 3.78 7.01 4.85

r urther, with an annual yield of over 4.93

million tonnes from the inland fisheries sect.: r. India is next only to China in the area. Increase in production of finfish and :ialae....lfish from 0.75 million tonnes in 1950to 8.0 million tonnes during 2009-10, 11 times growth in the last six decades, iiis at testimony to the contributions of the The share of inland fisheries sector, mUkh was 29% in 1950-51, has gone up to iÂŤ*er 6 1* o: at present (Table 1.2). While the marine sector is almost mamimiiinied by capture fisheries, aquaculture iiiiimi: reea the principal contributor in inland ffimkianes sector, with a share of 78%. Besides pmwidmg livelihood security to more than 1114 mill:;?, people, the sector has been one attic major foreign exchange earners, with mraiomoe reaching ?10,048 crore in 2010-11

Table 1.2. Fish production in India Year

1950-51 1960-61 1970-71 1980-81 1990-91 2000-01 2001-02 2002-03 2003-04 2004-05 2005-06 2006-07 2007-08 2008-09 2009-10

Fish production (million tonnes) Marine

Inland

Total

0.534 0.880 1.086 1.555 2.300 2.811 2.83 2.99 2.941 2.779 2.816 3.024 2.920 2.978 3.070

0.218 0.280 0.670 0.887 1.536 2.845 3.126 3.210 3.458 3.526 3.756 3.845 4.207 4.659 4.930

0.752 1.160 1.756 2.442 3.836 5.656 5.956 6.200 6.399 6.305 6.572 6.869 7.127 7.637 8.00

Source: Flandbook on Fisheries Statistics. Government of India.

HANDBOOK OF FISHERIES AND AQUACULTURE

accounting for about 18% of the agricultural export. Producing 5.42% of the world’s fish, India trades to the extent of 2.5% in the global fish market. The contribution of fisheries sector, at an overall annual growth rate of 4.5% during the previous five year plans is estimated around 1.10% to the GDP and 5.3% to the agricultural GDP.

Marine fisheries With vast resources in terms of 8,118 km long coast line, 0.53 million km2 of continental shelf and 2.02 million km2 of exclusive economic zone, the marine fisheries in India has been playing a pivotal role in meeting the demands of fish over the years (Fig.1.1).

PAKISTAN

/ Coastline of India - 8118 km Indian EEZ - 2.02 million km2

West Bengal

Gulf of Kutch j

Myanmar

INDIA

Gujarat

Calcutta

,V»re»o<

Bombay

Visakhapatnam

BAY OF BENGAL

£ i'

:ra;:

S.W. Region

(Andaman &

Nicobar

Island

Lakshadweep

I I *

iSRILANKA

Andaman sea

Gulf of Mannar

Maldev islands

INDIAN OCEAN

% Fig.1.1. Indian coastline along with exclusive economic zone (EEZ).

The marine fisheries sector in India has registered a phenomenal growth during the last five decades both quantitatively and qualitatively (Fig.1.2). While the subsistence fisheries during the early 1950’s produced about 0.5 million tonnes annually, the current annual production is about 3.0 million tonnes, forming 76.3% of the revalidated fishery potential of 3 .93 million tonnes, comprising 1.67 million tonnes of pelagic, 2.02 million tonnes of demersal and 0.24 million tonnes of oceanic resources.

INDIAN FISHERIES

3.5

-i

3.0

Intensification of mechanized fishing, substantial growth in motorization, multi day fishing, extension of fishing grounds, Seasonal closure of the fishery

2.5 -

Use of improved gear materials, export trade expansion, increased mechanization, initiation of motorization of country craft /v

2.0 -

| 1.5 1.0

Landings predominantly by non-mechanized craft and gear

0.5

Phase I

Phase III

Phase II

0.0

§Sio§St8§?Lÿrÿ§oooocoa><£a>ooo 0)0)050)0)0)050)05050) T—

T—

T-T—

T—

0)050)0)05000

T-T-T—T-T—

T—

CNCMCN

Year Fig. 2. Marine fisheries during different phases of growth

Research efforts in the areas of biology of commercially important species and monitoring their stocks for proper management; judicious exploitation and conservation; exploratory surveys, mapping of productive fishing grounds andlocation of new areas and resources; and environmental studies relating to fisheries, along with emphasis on mechanization of indigenous crafts, introduction of mechanized fishing boats, improvement of fishing gears and upgradation ofinfrastructure facilities over the years have contributed to the observed growth in the sector. Important marine fisheries resources of the country are: (z) Pelagic resources (oil sardine, mackerel, seer fish, tuna, lesser sardine, anchovies and ribbonfishes); (if) demersal resources (perches, sciaenids, catfishes, polynemids, flat fishes, pomfrets, eels, sharks, skates, rays and fishes which are mainly caughtby trawls); (Hi) mid-water resources (Bombay duck, silver-bellies and horse mackerel); (z'v) crustacean resources (prawns, shrimps, lobsters and crabs); (v) molluscan resources (oysters, mussels, clams, chank, squids and cuttlefishes); and (vz) seaweed resources. Among the coastal states, Gujarat followed by Tamil Nadu, Kerala, West Bengal andMaharashtra contribute a major share (59.2%) to the marine fish production of the country. However, considering the production per unit length of coast line, West Bengal has the maximum production of 2,259 tonnes/km followed by Karnataka (953 tonnes/ km), Kerala (878 tonnes/km), Goa (682 tonnes/km), Tamil Nadu (496 tonnes/km) and Maharashtra (439 tonnes/km). While the east coast has 57.2% of the total coastline (4,645 km including 1,912 kmin Andaman and Nicobar Islands), it contributes 28.8% of die total fish production, with rest 70.2% contributed by west coast.

HANDBOOK OF FISHERIES AND AQUACULTURE

Diversification of fishing practices The annual potential yield from the Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) of India has been estimated as 3.93 million tonnes, of which 2.24 million tonnes is from the zone up to 50 m depth and 1.69 million tonnes in deeper waters. Considering the current yield from 0-50 m depth zone reaching almost the potential level, refraining from further increase in yield from this zone, focus therefore, needs to be given on the region beyond 50 m depth for enhancing production in the years to come. Though several modem gears, namley trawling, purse seining, gill nets, mechanized hooks and line, jigging, trolling lines, etc., are under operation at present, traditional gears such as ring seine, stake net, shore seine, trammel net, mini trawls, gill nets and hook and line are also bringing bulk of the catches. At present, about 279,546 fishing crafts comprising 53,684 mechanized boats, 44,578 motorized crafts and 181,284 non-mechanized crafts are in operation. While mechanized fishing sector of the country produces 64% of the marine landings, motorized and artisanal sectors contribute 26 and 9% respectively. There are about 170 deep-sea fishing vessels of >20 m overall length (OAL) operating along the east coast.

The present fish production in the marine sector has been largely due to: (z) introduction of mechanized fishing vessels and synthetic gear materials, and the development of infrastructure for preservation, processing and storage in the 1950s; (it) expansion of trawl fleet and indigenous boat construction in the 1960s; (z'z'z) introduction of purse-seining, diversification of fishing, development of fishing harbours and expansion of export trade in the 1970s; (z'v) motorization of traditional fishing craft, introduction of ring seines and increase in the number and efficiency of craft and gear in the 1980s; (v) substantial growth in the number and efficiency of trawlers and motorized craft, and acoustic fish detection and satellite-based remote sensing techniques; advances in electronic navigation; (vz) change in the export trade from resource-based to food-engineering based industry in the 1990s. The pattern of marine fish landings in India during the past fifty years clearly reveals that the contribution by the artisanal sector to the total production was significant up to the sixties. As a result of the popularization and consequent expansion of mechanized fishing during the subsequent periods along with the motorization of artisanal crafts, the contribution by the artisanal sector declined considerably. The contribution by the mechanizedandmotorized sectors accounts for 87% of the total catch while the artisanal sectors accounts for only 13%. The growth in marine fisheries certainly has led to significant increases in the production, employment generation, domestic and export earnings. Trawling has been the most common commercial demersal fishing method and the deleterious effects of this non-selective fishing method on the associated biodiversity are well documentedâ&#x20AC;&#x201D;a bottom trawl capturing 40-50 species of target as well and non-target fish and shellfish species of different stages. In this regard, necessary modifications such as incorporation of juvenile escapement device and by-catch reduction device have been made. Design of multi-gear fishing vessels and conversion

INDIAN FISHERIES

P of trawlers to long liners are some of the other important interventions. This also

P requires assessment of stocks of different fish species on a continuous basis for setting

B* op maximum sustainable yields and maximum economic yields. Further, closure of V

trawling by mechanized vessels for 45-60 days during southwest monsoon along the west coast and 45 days during April-May along the east coast is one of the restrictions being followed under the Marine Fishing Regulation Act, 2004. To a great extent, this has helped recruitment of several species and showed signs of recovery of a few stocks.

Sustainability of marine fisheries An analysis of the impact ofbiodiversity loss on ocean ecosystem services, projected a global collapse of all currently fished taxa by the mid-21st century. This was based on controlled experiments on effects of variations of marine diversity on primary and secondary productivity, resource use, nutrient cycling and ecosystem stability as also long-term trends in 12 coastal and estuarine ecosystems. The risks include beach closures, harmful algal blooms, oxygen depletion and species invasion, among others. However, the analysis also indicated the positive effect of the marine protected areas iMPAs) onbiodiversity restoration across different marine ecosystems andproductivity enhancement. As regards the possible impact of climate change, has been predicted fluctuations in major fisheries due to frequency and intensity of extreme events. In the Indian context, small increment in sea surface temperature has been observed to be influencing pelagic fish species like sardine and mackerel to be moving northwards retd higher incidence of the species on the east coast. It is predicted that further rise in temperature might lead to bleaching of corals, affecting the coral-associated fish communities. | Marine fisheries, largely practised as coastal fisheries, is an open access, multispecies, multi-gear regime. Unrestrained expansion of fishing efforts and extensive use of non-selective fishing gears have led to increasing pressure on several groups of fishes. Over-exploitation of the coastal resources by artisanal and small mechanized fishing sector over the years, especially up to 50 m has been leading to reduction of catch per unit effort, with annual production levels showing a plateau. f The major issues in the sector are-excess coastal fishing capacity and overÂŹ exploitation, unregulated open access fisheries, discards at capture/indiscriminate capture of juveniles and sub adults, coastal pollution and environmental degradation, biodiversity loss due to both natural processes of climate change and anthropogenic pressures, increasing fishing costs and reduced profitability, poor infrastructure at fishing harbours and landing centres and linkages for domestic marketing, of oceanic and deep-sea resources, emerging inter- and intra-sectoral conflicts, and sea safety. A paradigm shift would be necessary from increasing marine fish production to increasing profitability and sustaining the marine fishery resources through management interventions. In this context, reducing overcapacity in the mechanized sector and diversification of fishing for capture of underutilized deep sea and oceanic resources assume high significance. For tackling the issues responsible for depletion

HANDBOOK OF FISHERIES AND AQUACULTURE

of fisheries in coastal waters as discussed above and for sustaining the growth of the sector, need-based management measures must be formulated either as input controls (restriction of fleet size, mesh size, closed season) or output controls (restriction on fishery for certain species, size of fish caught, etc.)- Other regulatory measures such as ban on the destructive gears, promotion of marine sanctuaries, installation of artificial reefs and sea ranching, effective code of conduct for responsible fishing, etc. would aid in sustaining the coastal fisheries. Awareness creation among all stakeholders against non-sustainable fishing practices with a participatory approach has become inevitable in fisheries management. The approach to ecosystem-based management would need to consider the complexities in the multi-species, multi-gear fishery, which is provided in the Code of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries. The efforts at assessing the sustainable fishing stock sizes for different species, as also being done by the Marine Stewardship Council (MSC), takes into account aspects of carrying capacity, biomass at each trophic level and the optimal number of craft and gear required for sustainable harvest of pelagic, mid-water and demersal species. The MSC standard is consistent with the ‘Guidelines for ecolabeling of fish and fishery products from marine wild capture fisheries’ adopted by the FAO in 2005. Efforts at certification of some of the important fisheries in the country are underway. Establishment of Marine Protected Areas (MPAs), restoration of critical habitats and stock enhancement through provision of fish aggregation devices (FADs) and sea ranching are some of the recent interventions. As regards sea safety, while communication facilities such as radiotelephone and Global Positioning System (GPS) are being included in the fishing vessels, satellite-based Vessel Monitoring System (VMS) is still to become operational. Facilities at the fishing harbours and landing centres need to be upgraded, along with product diversification, value-addition and domestic marketing, to realize the value of marine fish landings. These can be achieved in a time frame of 5-10 years by agencies, namely ICAR, Department of Animal Husbandry, Dairying and Fisheries (DADF), Marine Products Export Development Authority (MPEDA) and Ministry of Environment and Forests.

Deep-sea fishing In view of the concerns regarding the stagnating catches from inshore waters, it is relevant to consider the potential of the offshore waters (Table 1.3). Deep-sea fishing is a potential commercial activity, wherein issues of both investments andpolicy are being examined. They include the aspects of mid-sea transfer of fish and onshore landing, ensuring a minimum component of Indian crew on the vessels and related capacity building, deferred payment for vessels, complying with the regulations of the Indian Ocean Tuna Commission (IOTC), provision of necessary infrastructure for landing and processing deep-sea fishes especially tuna for overseas markets, single window facility for clearances for different agencies such as the Ministry of Agriculture, Reserve Bank of India, Director General (Shipping) and Coast Guards and other related issues. In order to exploit this component, the steps suggested are—

INDIAN FISHERIES

iiitrocluction of vessels comprising 500 tuna

Table 1.3. State of exploitable fisheries

resources in EEZ Jong liners/drift gill netters, 18 purse- seiners and 15 squid jiggers-as well as developing (in ’000 tonnes) storage and harbour facilities incorporating Resource Potential Harvestable total quality management (TQM) and hazard yield stock analysis and critical control points (HACCP) Yellow fin tuna 115.0 57.50 Itoncepts. To realise the full potential and Big eye tuna 12.5 6.25 85.2 ensure that the country benefits from deep- Skipjack tuna 42.60 5.1 2.55 sea fishing, it is necessary that the authorities Billfishes Sharks 26.2 13.10 wdertake measures such as deployment of coastal pelagic 6.8 3.40 19.9 9.90 lOTC-recognized observers on fishing Oceanic squids 1.10 Bpessels; monitoring, control and surveillance Deep sea lobsters 2.3 Total 273.0 136.40 HpiCS) of vessels; and provision for certified feiraders at the landing sites. Several developing countries with tuna resources not exploited up to the allowable catchlevels pave enteredinto fisheries access agreements with developed nations, providing access io the formers’ fishing grounds with suitable compensations. This concept is yet to be adopted in India.

Island fisheries The waters of Andamans have some of the world’s richest tuna stocks, as per the "Government of India’s Revalidation Committee Report, 100,000 tonnes of coastal Inna and 82,000 tonnes of oceanic tunas are available for exploitation and export around the Island. Potential tuna resources in the seas around Lakshadweep have been estimated to be between 50,000 to 90,000 tonnes, while only about 10,000 tonnes are caught mostly by pole and line and troll. At Lakshadweep, over 85% of the total landings constitute tunas of which about 50% is used for ‘masmin’ production and the is consumed fresh. Exporting chilled tuna to Japanese markets, where sashimi gade tuna would fetch up to US $ 15/kg, would be the most profitable proposition, requires facilities of on-board chilling and cold chain to the mainland and further, Ifeoverseas destinations. The main constraints in marketing tuna are: lack of proper pUk marketing chain, fishers not getting adequate value for their diversified catch fcellow-fin and non-tuna species), high cost of tuna cans, poor connectivity with the mainland, lack of public awareness on environment-friendly and responsible ways for iBMwing practices. ft In order to establish a standard module of fishing, processing and export of tuna, it jiMEcessary that modem new vessels including mother/collector vessels are introduced amd the existing boats are upgraded by fibre-reinforced plastic (FRP) lamination of hull, provide live bait tanks, insulated fish box and solar panels in the Hunts. Acquisition of special vessels, both in the range of 15-30 m and over 30 m be required, for fishing sashimi grade tuna. ‘Pay and Fish’ concept is being practised in some countries that would be practical with VMS in place. Apart from fistong, handling practices are important for tuna exports because retaining the texture

HANDBOOK OF FISHERIES AND AQUACULTURE

is required for exports in order to command the price. Important requirements for post-harvest handling of tuna are in terms of ice plants, chilled storage, freezing facilities, cold storage, canning plants, insulated vehicles, curing and waste-disposal facilities. In view of theisland fisheries resources andthemarkets almost only overseas, it is necessary that the two island systems are equipped with processing facilities and exports made directly without bringing the produce to the mainland.

Mariculture as a new dimension Mariculture, with technologies developed in the recent years, is an option for supplementing the marine capture fisheries and also for gainful employment for the fisherfolk in the coastal areas. Mussels, oysters and seaweeds have been the main component of mariculture, with some possibilities of crab and lobster fattening. Green mussel, Perna viridis and brown mussel, P. indica are the two important mussel species available in the country, the culture technologies of whichhave already been standardized. Rack method, long line and raft culture methods are used for mussel farming depending on the water depth and nature of the site. Commercial mussel farming has started in the south-west coast during the last 15 years and from a meagre production of about 20 tonnes in 1996, the cultured mussel production of the country has increased to around 18,432 tonnes in 2010. Edible oyster farming hadbeen in different forms at a low level, but got an impetus in the 1970s with the technology of collection of spat and growing the spat to adult stage. Indian backwater oyster, Crassostrea madrasensis is the most important candidate species for farming and also having a wide distribution. Two types of farming methods are followed, viz. the rack and ren, and the rack and tray method. Production levels of 120 tonnes /ha/year are achieved by the tray method. At present, Kerala has well-established commercial farms and more than 2,000 villagers directly involved in oyster farming. The production has increased from 5 tonnes in 1996 to 2,450 tonnes in 2010, mainly from three main estuaries, Ashtamudi, Kayamkulam and Vembanadlakes in Kerala. The pearl oyster resources include the golden pearl oyster, Pinctadafucata in Gulf of Mannar, Palk Bay and Gulf of Kachchh producing golden pearls, and the black lip pearl oyster, P. margaritifera in Andaman andNicobar Islands producing black pearls. The pearl culture programme was initiated in the country in 1972 and there have been some commercial ventures, that however need to be enhanced to be competitive at the global level. Of the 60 commercial species of seaweeds available in the country, only a few of them, viz. Gracilaria, Gelidiella, Sargassum and Turbinaria, are commercially important. The seaweed resources of the country are mainly confined to the coasts of Tamil Nadu and Gujarat. Culture of seaweeds in the country mostly deals with cultivation of Gracilaria edulis due to its high regenerative capacity. During the last decade, cultivation of Kappaphycus, a carragenophyte, has attracted the attention of entrepreneurs along the south-east coast andis spreading to other areas. Without proper

INDIAN FISHERIES

processing facilities, seaweed cultivation has yet not been a commercial Inity in the country. countries like China and Vietnam, sea cage farming is a common practice whose tentials have just been demonstrated in the country with culture of seabass (Lates mmifer). This could provide supplementary income for fishers as also livelihoods Bing the closed seasons for capture fisheries. In order to take mariculture forward, it ary that potential mariculture sites along the Indian coast are mapped with ma to prevalent tidal and wave conditions, water quality and aquatic pollution, of seed and feed, infrastructure and access to markets. The potential fishes BKsiroge culture include groupers, snappers, seabass, rabbitfish and cobia. Success has achieved in open sea cage culture of seabass, cobia and other marine fish species. BWhdtive intensification and scaling up of these culture systems and developing a of practices can lead to substantial increase in the production of marine fish. traditional practice of artisanal cage farming can also be improved and expanded and training programmes to the fishermen by central/state government agencies. Breeding and seed production of marine finfishes such as (Epinephelus spp.) andcobia (Rachycentron canadum) is of utmost importance for systematic cage farming in the country. Possibilities of cultivation of cucumber {Holothuria scabra)-a major and preferred export item from Indiabe explored, with its achieved success in breeding. The growth of H. scabra in farms was three-times faster because of the rich organic matter present at fcottom of the farm. The prospect of developing commercial interest in lobster (Panulirus spp.) in India is bright mainly owing to the substantial increase in consequent to the heavy demand from export market. Seabass (Lates calcarifer) cobia have been successfully bred and their seed production technology These species will form viable choices for shrimp farmers as well as crop for ecological balance of the coastal aquaculture systems. leurship response would determine the commercial projects with assured ' institutional finance. is expected to be a major activity in coastal areas in the years to come. Hkai Ihe wide spectrum of cultivable species and technologies available, the long and the favourable climate, mariculture is likely to generate considerable amongst the coastal population. However, development of mariculture needs done keeping in view the environmental and social issues, including management such as feeds, fertilizers and chemicals and the access of fishers to their sites for capture fisheries. While the strategy will be to develop mariculture areas by following norms of environmental sustainability and social equity, a need for relook at the permissible species of marine organisms that can be and used for cultivation. Several countries have now relaxed regulations for of sea cucumbers and sea-horses, in view of the technologies available for and further possibilities of ranching. This would facilitate not only new but also add to conservation efforts throughlarge-scaleranching that could mandatory for a culture unit. A scientific leasing policy for coastal waters

HANDBOOK OF FISHERIES AND AQUACULTURE

and bringing the cultured commodities under value chain for export or upward domestic markets are essential, as at present, most of them are non-conventional produce without set processing or marketing models.

Coastal and brackishwater aquaculture Brackishwater aquaculture in India, though a traditional practice in bheries of West Bengal and pokkali fields of Kerala, the scientific farming in the country has been initiated only in early 1990s. The commercial farming, however, is confined to a single commodity, i.e. shrimp, Penaeus monodon, owing to its high export potential. The total area under shrimp culture in the country at present is 12.88% (154,598 ha) of the potential water area of 1.2 million ha. The production of shrimp has recorded over five-fold increase from 28,000 tonnes in 1988-89 to 144,346 tonnes in 2006-07 and operating at around 100,000 tonnes over the years. Among the coastal states, Andhra Pradesh followed by West Bengal have been the largest producers of shrimp, together contributing 79% of the total aquaculture production of the country and also possessing 77% of the area under farming. About 52% of the farms are less than 2 ha holdings and are operated by small cultivators. Farms over 5 ha size amount to only 19% of the total area under cultivation. The infrastructure facilities established over the years include hatchery chains both in private and public sectors, laboratories, and aerators besides buildings and communication networks. Since the development of this sector, about 3 lakh persons have gained direct employment in aqua-farming and about 6-7 lakh persons are employed in the ancillary units and activities. In brackishwater aquaculture main emphasis is on a single shrimp species, Penaeus monodon by virtue of its excellent export value. In addition, there are a number of shrimp species, viz. Fenneropenaeus (Penaeus) indicus, P. merguiensis, P penicillatus, P. japonicus, P semisulcatus, etc. and finfish species like seabass (Lates calcarifer), grouper (Ephinephelus tankina), grey mullet (Mugil cephalus), pearl-spot (Etroplus suratensis), milkfish (Chanos chanos) and mud crabs (Scylla serrata and S. tranquebarica), which are ideal for brackishwater aquaculture. In order to develop brackishwater aquaculture through the sponsored schemes, Department of Agriculture and Cooperation, Government of India established 39 Brackishwater Fish Farmers Development Agencies (BFDAs) in all the coastal states and the UT of Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Brackishwater aquaculture is presently synonymous with coastal aquaculture, that too dependent on a single species, tiger prawn, Penaeus monodon. However, with increasing salinization of inland soils, spreading to over 8 million ha, inland saline aquaculture could become an important economic activity in the years to come. In the sector the major problems, viz. lack of disease-free shrimp seed, slumping prices of shrimp in overseas markets and lack of diversification, are impacting on the growth. The semi-intensive culture practices mainly with black tiger prawn have been the core activity in shrimp farming. With the white spot syndrome virus affecting the seed, main concern over the last decade has been its control and management. Dependence of the culture practices on a single shrimp species and further dependence

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