9 NUTRIENT REQUIREMENTS OF ANIMALS
NUTRIENT REQUIREMENTS OF COMPANION, LABORATORY AND CAPTIVE WILD ANIMALS
nis'msr ICAR
Indian Council of Agricultural Research New Delhi
PRINTED : JULY 2013 FIRST EDITION 2013
Project Director Incharge (English Editorial Unit) Editor Chief Production Officer Technical Officer (Production)
Cover Design
Dr Rameshwar Singh Dr R P Sharma Reena Kandwal
Dr V K Bharti Punit Bhasin Dr V K Bharti and Punit Bhasin
Correct Citation: Nutrient Requirements of Animals - Companion, Laboratory and Captive Wild Animals (ICAR-NIANP), 2013
Š 2013, All rights reserved Indian Council of Agricultural Research, New Delhi
ISBN: 978-81-7164-144-4
Price: ?200
Published by Dr Rameshwar Singh, Project Director, Directorate of Knowledge Management in Agriculture, Indian Council of Agricultural Research, New Delhi 110 012; Lasertypeset at M/s Dot & Design, D-35, Ranjeet Nagar Comm. Complex, New Delhi 110 008 and printed at M/s Royal Offset Printers, A-89/1, Naraina Industrial Area, Phase I, New Delhi 110 028.
CONTENTS SI. No. Title
Page No. Companion Animals
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11.
Introduction
Feeding system Digestive system Nutrient requirements Energy Fat
Carbohydrate Protein Minerals Vitamins Water
1 2 3 4 7 9 10 11 12 13 14
Laboratory Animals 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19.
Laboratory rats Introduction Nutrient requirements Energy Protein Minerals Fibre Mouse
15 15 15 15 16 17 17
Introduction Nutrient requirements Energy
18 18 18 18
Fat
19
Carbohydrate
19
Protein Minerals and vitamins Guinea pig Introduction Nutrient requirements Model diets
19 19 21 21 22 23
NUTRIENT REQUIREMENTS OF COMPANION, LABORATORY AND CAPTIVE WILD ANIMALS
X
SI. No. Title
Page No.
Wild Animals 1. 2. 3. 4.
Spotted Deer Blackbuck Rhinoceros Asian Elephant
References
24 25 27 29 31
Annexures A1 Nutritive value of common food stuffs for dogs
37
A2 Recipes for some homemade diets for growing and adult dogs
38
A3 Chemical composition of feed ingredients commonly fed to Indian rhinoceros in captivity
38
A4 Chemical composition of feeds and fodders commonly fed to Asian elephants in zoo
39
List of Tables
40
COMPANION ANIMALS Introduction
Keeping pets, particularly dogs and cats, in India is becoming popular due to a steady rise in nuclear families and double income households. These pets are treated as a companion and almost as a member of the family. They are taken care for their diet, health and well being just like other members of the family. Dogs, besides their domestic acceptance, are also utilized as a guard in the household and as a sniffer by the police, defense and security personnel. Although there is no authentic data, as per one estimate, India has a dog population of approximately 22 million, out of which 80% are stray dogs (Rahman, 2009). Another recent survey
(http://www.creature-companions.com/indiachinapetindustry.htm) indicates that the population of pet dogs in six metros of India is about 3.6 million. At present pet cats might be much less in numbers, but they are also increasing at a very fast pace.
V
*
These companion animals present a unique challenge to establish nutritional requirements as compared to existing data for farm animals. In addition to inherent metabolic idiosyncrasies, their nutrition and care is based on promoting lifelong good health and not on production traits as it often is the case with other livestock species. The pet’s behavior, happiness, health, longevity and overall well-being are intricately interrelated with its nutrition. As such, a correct balance of nutrients is crucial to maintain a long and healthy life for pets. Farm animal nutrition is normally focused to obtain maximum production at the lowest investment. While maintaining appropriate standards of care, trade-offs, in the case of farm livestock, are made on the basis of economics rather than emotion. Nutritional needs are strongly influenced by the animal’s life stage. Life stages of concern for productive
2
NUTRIENT REQUIREMENTS OF COMPANION, LABORATORY AND CAPTIVE WILD ANIMALS
farm animals include growth, maintenance and reproduction. For companion animals, though these life stages are applicable, maintenance constitutes essentially for a longer span of a pet’s life. Lifestyle is quite different between productive and companion animals. It is also quite
variable between individual pets. Production animals tend to live under conditions that are similar for a particular productive function, so that their level of exercise, exposure to the elements, lifestyle and general husbandry are nearly similar. Pets, on the other hand, can vary widely in lifestyle. In general, the majority of dogs and cats are house pets but there are others who hunt or work for a living.
Feeding System
Globally, in the past pets were often subjected to scraps and leftover food. This has now changed to a great extent. Pet owners are increasingly turning to manufactured pet foods, which are generally perceived to be more nutritious. Although majority of the dog owners in the western countries enjoy the convenience, economic freedom and reliability of commercially produced pet foods, some owners still prefer home-made diets for their pets. In India, the trend is reverse with a majority of pet owners relying on home-made diets to rear their pet dogs. Home-made diets constitute the mainstay of feeding and nutrition of the majority of pet dogs withmost of the dog-owners preferring to feed their dogs according to their own convenience and perceptions (Pattanaik and Sharma, 2006). A recently conducted survey, covering more than 1,000 pet dogs from different parts of the country, revealed that home-made diets of varied ingredient composition are the most common food offered to pet dogs in India (Pattanaik, 2011). Use of commercial pet foods is uncommon with only 3-4% pet owners are rearing their pets exclusively on commercial pet foods (Shakhar etal., 2010). Subsequent evaluation of some typical homeÂŹ made diets, carried out at the Pet Nutrition Laboratory of the Indian Veterinary Research Institute, Izatnagar, India, proved that these diets are not only deficient in various nutrients but also are imbalanced to meet the requirements of healthy dogs. Commercial pet foods are usually composed of a wide range of ingredients depending on the manufacturer, type of food (dry, canned, semi-moist), stage (puppy, adult, working) and expected adult body size (small, medium, large, giant) of the animal and even clinical condition (in case of therapeutic diets) of the pet. In general, marketed pet foods consist of varied blends of cereals (rice, wheat, maize, barley, oat), by-products (wheat bran, rice bran, soyabean/groundnut hulls, beat/citrus pulps, tomato pomace), meat and meat by-products (beef, chicken meal, lamb, poultry by-product meal, meat meal, meat and bone meal, fish meal), vegetable
NUTRIENT REQUIREMENTS OF ANIMALS
3
protein (soybean meal, corn gluten meal, flax seed meal), fats (animal fats - tallow, poultry fat; vegetable oil - sunflower oil, safflower oil) along with mineral and vitamin supplements, flavoured compounds, preservatives, etc. Unlike commercially available foods, home-made diets have not been adequately tested with animal feeding trials or laboratory analysis to confirm their nutrient content and nutrient availability. Home-made diets are often crudely balanced and may not achieve satisfactory palatability, digestibility or safety. These diets are mostly deficient in protein, calories, calcium, phosphorus, vitamins and micro-minerals (Pattanaik, 2011). Deficiency of protein, due to an unpalatable diet of low-protein concentration or poor quality dietary (vegetarian) protein resulting in decreased digestibility or dietary imbalance (too much fat or carbohydrates in the diet), induces poor health. Optimization of nutrient profile of a home-made diet to match the requirement couldbe an effective strategy to provide complete nutrition. Pawar et al. (2009 and 2011) demonstrated that optimization of nutrient profile of rice-milk-based homemade diet induces positive effects on growth, gut health indices and immune response of Spitz pups. The chemical composition of some of the common food ingredients typically used in home-made diets for dogs is given in Annexure (Al). A few examples of recipes for home-made diets are also listed for reference (Annexure - A2). Pet nutrition research is in its infancy in India. As such, there is not enough data available to draw conclusive inference on the requirements for various nutrients under Indian conditions. Digestive System
Dogs and cats are monogastric carnivores with limited post-gastric fermentation abilities. They are colonic fermenters much alike pig and human beings. The dentition pattern is suggestive of the fact that dogs can thrive well on omnivorous diets whereas, cats require more of a carnivorous diet. Dogs, as a matter of fact, are adapted to consume diets that are slightly more omnivorous than the cats. The stomach acts as a reservoir of food, and initiates chemical digestion of protein. The proximal stomach expands during temporary storage of food, allowing consumption of discrete meals rather than many small meals. This is more important in canines, which are large meal feeders in contrast to cats, which generally prefers to eat small meals. Most of the enzymatic digestion occurs in the small intestine; the intestinal mucosa and pancreas being the source of enzymes. The pancreas secretes enzymes proteases, Upases and amylases into the gut in response to passage of acid chime. It also secretes bicarbonate salts which help in optimizing the luminal pH for the pancreatic and intestinal enzymes to
4
NUTRIENT REQUIREMENTS OF COMPANION, LABORATORY AND CAPTIVE WILD ANIMALS
function efficiently. Bile, stored and concentrated in the gall bladder, is released in response to the presence of lipids and their end products in duodenum. Both in dogs and cats more than 99% of bile acids normally are conjugated with taurine to form taurocholic acid, taurodeoxycholic acid and taurochenodeoxycholic acid, and the process is obligatory in cats. The primary role of the large intestine is the absorption of electrolytes and water. Besides, it provides an optimal environment for microbial fermentationof escaped nutrients. Theresident bacteria in the colon ferment nutrients and endogenous secretions that escape digestion and absorption in the small intestine. Dietary protein, resistant starch, non-starch polysaccharides, etc. are fermented by the resident bacterial population leading to the production of short-chain fatty acids and lactate, besides carbon dioxide and hydrogen gases. Other fermentative end products include hydrogen sulphide, methane, ammonia, branched-chain fatty acids, amines, phenols, indoles and skatols (some of the latter are responsible for the characteristic faecal odour). Based on their gastrointestinal system both the cats and dogs should be classified as carnivores. Historically, dogs have been considered omnivores because of their scavenger hunting adaptations but cats are considered as true carnivores. Although both cats and dogs belong to the order Carnivora, significant nutritional, metabolic, behavioural and dietary differences exist between the two species. These differences include the cat’s unique energy and glucose metabolism. Cats are unable to metabolize sugars in large quantities (Kienzle, 1993a, b, 1994; Washizu et al., 1999). Their unique physiological status involves a higher protein requirement besides specific requirement for dietary taurine, arachidonic acid and pre-formed vitamin A. Sensitivity to deficiency of arginine and inability to convert tryptophan to niacin are also important metabolic typicality in cats. Many of these metabolic compulsions entail an obligatory requirement for animal tissues in the diet of cats. Further, in general cats are considered to exhibit decreased apparent nutrient digestibility than their canine counterparts.
Nutrient Requirements There are two sources of published information that provide nutrient requirement information for dogs and cats. TheNationalResearch Council (NRC, 1985) has compiled lists of minimum requirements and the Association of American Feed Control Officials (AAFCO, 2008) has developed standards of practical nutrient profiles of food for dogs and cats, based on commonly used ingredients. The extremely heterogeneous anatomical features and physiological attributes of different breeds of dogs make the breed as one of the important factors while working out the nutritional requirements. For example, it is extremely difficult to visualize
NUTRIENT REQUIREMENTS OF ANIMALS
5
that nutritional requirements for a Yorkshire puppy, which multiplies its birth weight by a factor of 20 over just 8 months, could be the same as that of a Mastiff puppy, which multiplies its birth weight by 100 times in 18 to 24 months before reaching its adult size (Pibot, 2007). Many of the important factors that determine the nutritional requirements are, in turn, influenced strongly by breed of the animal, for example, digestive capacities, type of skin and coat, pathological risks and life expectancy. Small breeds are often fussy, and need a highly palatable diet to be fed ad libitum. Medium, large and giant dog breeds are usually willing to consume less palatable diets and need to be fed in portion-controlled manner. Small and medium dog breeds grow slower, and need to be changed to a senior diet at 7 years of age compared to 5 and 6 years, respectively in case of giant and large dog breeds. Small breed dogs need a calorie dense diet because of higher energy requirement per unit body weight as compared to large breed dogs. Large breed dogs are susceptible to high calcium (Ca) intake and skeletal disorders due to rapid growth rate whereas, small breed dogs meet Ca requirements at lower Ca : Metabolizable energy (ME) ratio, and hence are less prone to skeletal disorders. Skin and hair renewal can represent up to 35% of an adult dog’s daily protein requirement (Scott et al., 2001). Even with dogs of similar body weight, wide variations in maintenance energy requirements are observed between different breeds. The collective nutritional approach has therefore been progressively transformed, and nutritional requirements are arrived taking size into account first for each breed of the animal. As energy density determines the food intake in dogs and cats, it is highly essential that the diets are properly balanced so that requirements for all other nutrients and energy needs are met at the same time. Hence, it is more appropriate to express levels of nutrients in the food in terms of ME concentrations rather than in terms of percentages on weight basis. The nutrient requirement Tables of NRC (2006) provide nutrient allowances in ‘units/kg DM’, “units/1,000 kcal ME” and “units/kg BW0 75”. The “units/kg DM” data assume an energy density of 4.0 kcal ME/g DM. However, under Indian situation with majority of dogs being reared on home-made diets, it is assumed that a dietary energy density of 3.5 kcal ME/g DM would be more appropriate. Accordingly, the requirements are derived from the NRC (2006). However, for foods with energy densities different from 3.5 kcal ME/g DM, the recommendations should be corrected for energy density. Unlike NRC (2006) recommendations, the requirements are clustered into two categories, (a) growth and reproduction and (b) adult maintenance, and given as “units/100 g DM”. Protein requirements are decided as per AAFCO (2008) and European Pet Food Industry Federation (FEDIAF, 2008) recommendations keeping in view
6
NUTRIENT REQUIREMENTS OF COMPANION, LABORATORY AND CAPTIVE WILD ANIMALS
the comparative lower protein digestibility usually expected of home-made diets. Requirements for amino acids are included in the Table 1 based on the AAFCO nutrient profiles. It is expected that a diet consisting of a blend of good quality vegetable proteins and animal protein (wherever possible) would take care of the needs. No reductions were made in the mineral requirements of NRC (2006) while expressing it on a lower energy density of 3.5 kcal ME/g DM, as it is assumed that there would be wider variations in the bioavailability of minerals from the diverse ingredients typically used to prepare home-made diets for dogs and cats. Likewise, vitamin requirements were also kept high (similar to the original NRC recommendations) expecting the same to be contributed mainly by food ingredients, although it is expected that a scientifically formulated diet must have added sources of minerals and vitamins to ensure proper health. There are no data available on the requirements of minerals and vitamins for the animals under tropical climatic conditions. Hence it was thought prudent to have an added margin of safety by providing a —15% higher requirements for the minerals and vitamins which are critical for health and well-being of the companion animals. The requirements for various essential nutrients are listed in Table 1. The requirements given in Table 1 are meant for normal pets reared under household conditions, with minimal to moderate level of activity. These requirements, therefore, may not be enough for working dogs. As such there is no requirement specified for working dogs. However, after summarizing the existing studies, NRC (2006) suggested the adequate intake for working dogs to be 90 g protein and 59 g fat per 1000 kcal ME, equivalent to 35 and 49 percent of total ME, respectively. In contrast, the equivalent requirement for maintenance of an adult dog is 25 g protein and 13.8 g fat per 1,000 kcal ME. However, an increase in the amount of extra protein and fat for working dogs should be incremental depending on the degree and duration of endurance. Table 1. Nutrient requirements5 (proteins, amino acids, minerals and vitamins) of dogs and cats at various physiological stages Nutrient
UniT
Protein Arginine Histidine Isoleucine Leucine Lysine Methionine-cystine Methionine
JL JL JL JL JL _9_
JL _9
Dogs Cats Growth and Adult Growth and Adult reproduction maintenance reproduction maintenance 30.0 22.0* 18.0 25.0 0.62 0.51 1.25 1.04 0.22 0.31 0.18 0.31 0.45 0.37 0.52 0.52 0.72 0.59 1.25 1.25 0.77 0.63 0.83 1.20 0.53 0.43 1.10 1.10 0.62 0.62
7
NUTRIENT REQUIREMENTS OF ANIMALS
Nutrient
Phenylalanine-tyrosine Phenylalanine Threonine Tryptophan Valine Taurine Total fat Linoieic acid Minerals Calcium Phosphorus Magnesium Sodium Potassium Chloride Iron Copper Zinc Manganese Selenium Iodine Vitamins Vitamin A Vitamin D Vitamin E Vitamin K Thiamin Riboflavin Pyridoxine Niacin Pantothenic acid Cobalamine Folic acid Biotin Choline
Unit*
Cats Dogs Adult Growth and Adult Growth and reproduction maintenance reproduction maintenance
0.89
0.73
0.58 0.20 0.48
0.48 0.16 0.39
8.0 1.0
5.0 1.0
g g g g g g mg mg mg mg mg mg
1.2 1.0 0.04 0.22 0.44 0.29 8.8 1.1 10 0.56 0.035 0.088
0.4 0.3 0.06 0.08 0.40 0.12 3.0 0.6 6 0.48 0.035 0.088
0.80 0.72 0.04 0.14 0.40 0.09 8 0.84 0.48 0.03 0.18
0.29 0.26 0.04 0.07 0.52 0.10 8 0.50 7.4 0.48 0.03 0.14
IU IU IU mg mg mg mg mg mg gg gg gg mg
505 55.2 3 0.164 0.138 0.525 0.15 1.7 1.5 3.5 27
505 55.2 3 0.163 0.225 0.525 0.15 1.7 1.5 3.5 27
170
170
330 22 3.8 0.1 0.55 0.4 0.25 4 0.57 2.25 75 7.5 255
330 28 3.8 0.1 0.56 0.4 0.25 4 0.575 2.25 75 7.5 255
9 g 9 g g g g g
0.88 0.42 0.73 0,25
0.62 0.20 9 0.5
7.5
0.88 0.42 0.73 0.16 0.62 0.20 9 0.5
Source: Adapted from NRC (2006), AAFCO (2008), FEDIAF (2008) Presumes an energy density of 3.5 kcal ME/g DM [ME value determined as per modified Atwater values of 3.5, 8.5 and 3.5 kcal/g for protein, fat and carbohydrate (nitrogen-free extract; NFE) respectively] fPer 100g dry matter *May be increased to 22.5% in case of puppies of 4-14 weeks of age.
Energy The daily energy requirement is the sum of the energy that is required for resting metabolic rate, voluntary muscular activity, meal-induced
8
NUTRIENT REQUIREMENTS OF COMPANION, LABORATORY AND CAPTIVE WILD ANIMALS
thermo-genesis besides adaptive thermo-genesis, i.e. maintenance of body temperature when exposed to adverse weather. Because of its critical importance, energy is always the first requirement to be met by the diet. The daily energy requirement of dogs depends upon the amount of energy that the body expends each day. Metabolizable energy (ME) is the preferred unit of energy expression for calculating the requirements in pets. The energy density (ME value) of food is of utter importance in pet animals. It is the principal factor that determines the quantity of food that an animal eats and therefore, has a direct bearing on the amount of all other essential nutrients that it ingests. The energy density of any diet must be adequate to allow the pet to consume sufficient amount (volume) of food to meet its energy demand. The dog is unique in that it has the widest range of normal adult body weight (in relative terms) within any single species. Three power functions have been proposed by various workers to arrive at the ME requirement in dogs, viz. 0.67, 0.75 and 0.88. In its latest recommendations, NRC (2006) has expressed ME requirements using the allometric equationME req = K x BW0-75 with the K value for adult maintenance as 130 with the K value ranging between 95 for inactive pets to 200 for young adult and active pets. The factor for average active kennel dogs is 130. For cats, two factors are used, viz. BW째 67 and BW째 40, the latter for the maintenance requirements of cats with body condition score >5.0. ME requirement is influenced by many factors other than the breed (or body size) including stages of life cycle, environment, level of activity (exercise), metabolic status and nutritional status (malnutrition vs. obesity). Variability in BW of individual dogs and the environmental condition may result in a requirement that is up to 25% greater or lesser than the predicted value. The energy requirementpredicted above is for maintenance but stages oflife that result in increased energy needs whichinclude growth, gestation, lactation, period of strenuous physical work and exposure to extreme environmental conditions. After weaning, growing puppies require approximately 2 times the energy intake per unit of body weight as adult dogs of the same weight. This amount should be reduced to 1.6 and 1.2 times of the maintenance level once a puppy reaches 40 and 80 per cent of adult weight, respectively (NRC, 1985). The age at which a puppy will attain these proportions of adult weight varies with the adult size of the breed. In general, large breeds of dogs mature more slowly than the small breeds. The rate of growth in early stages is very rapid. Most dog breeds attain 50% of their mature adult weight at around 5 to 6 months of age. Energy needs increase substantially for bitches during gestation and lactation. During the first 3 or 4 weeks it remains the same as that of
NUTRIENT REQUIREMENTS OF ANIMALS
9
maintenance. Thereafter, it starts increasing and will be around 1.25-1.50 times the normal maintenance requirement by the end of the gestation period. Lactation is one of the most energy demanding stages of life for an animal depending upon the size of the litter. Energy needs of the bitches during lactation can increase as much as 3 times the normal maintenance requirement. Both physical work and environmental stresses can cause increased energy needs in dogs. Short bouts of intense physical exercise may cause only a small increase in energy needs, but a regular programme of prolonged exercise may cause increased needs of up to 2-4 times maintenance levels (NRC, 1985). In the cold conditions, depending upon the severity, there can be an increase of 1.2-1.8 times of the normal maintenance needs in dogs (Blaza, 1982).
Fat Fats are important components of diets of pet animals as a concentrated source of energy. More importantly, they supply the essential fatty acids (EFAs), which function in maintaining and structural integrity of cell membranes. The EFAs are needed for various inflammatory and immune responses, besides being essential for the synthesis of eicosanoids such as prostaglandin and leukotrienes which are important regulators of cell functions. They are also vital for maintaining normal skin structure and function. Dietary fats generally improve palatability and add an acceptable texture to the foods. They also serve as carriers for fat-soluble vitamins. Dogs require a minimum of 8% (growth and reproduction) or 5% (maintenance) of dietary fat, on a dry-matter basis, at least 1% of which must be available as linoleic acid. Dogs fed on food containing normal levels of protein tolerate very high levels of fat (e.g. sled dogs). However, very high fat food with very low protein content may impart adverse effects in dogs. Dogs and cats are unable to synthesize linoleic acid making it dietary essential in both the species. Additionally, cats exhibit low “-6 desaturase activity and cannot meet their physiological requirement for arachidonic acid through biotransformation from linoleic acid, especially for the maintenance of normal pregnancy and neonatal growth and maintenance. Consequently, both linoleic acid and arachidonic acid (AA) are considered essential nutrients for cats. Of the (omega -6) polyunsaturated acids (PUFA), linoleic acid is involved in the maintenance of the cutaneous water permeability barrier, and arachidonic acid regulates epidermal proliferation via prostaglandin E2. The long chain PUFAs, arachidonic acid, and in particular decosahexaenoic acid (DHA) are known to support correct neural andvisual development in mammalian species. Recent research data demonstrate the importance of dietary lipid sources, in particular DHA,
10
NUTRIENT REQUIREMENTS OF COMPANION, LABORATORY AND CAPTIVE WILD ANIMALS
on neurological function in terms of trainability (Kelley et al., 2005). The DHA is the preferred substrate for retinal uptake in early development when the demand for DHA is the greatest. For neural development, arachidonic acid is also important. Supplementation with ±-linolenic acid and linoleic acid during gestation and lactation is an ineffective means of increasing the milk content of DHA and AA, respectively, to supply enough for neonatal nutritional modifications. It is thus preferable to have small amounts of DHA and/or eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), as well as arachidonic acid in foods for growth and reproduction (Bauer et al., 2004, 2006; Heinemann and Bauer, 2006). Dietary deficiencies of EFAs are uncommon but may occasionally occur in dogs and cats fed on poor quality, low fat dry foods or inappropriately formulated home-prepared diets. EFAs should constitute at least 2% of the daily caloric intake to prevent deficiencies. The percentage of linoleic acid varies greatly depending on the fat source. Safflower oil and corn oil constitute good sources of linoleic acid. Fish oil is a concentrated source of arachidonic acid. Although there is an increasing evidence of the beneficial effects of omega- 3 fatty acid, the current information is insufficient to recommend a specific level of omega-3 fatty acid for adult dogs (NRC, 2006). The effects of omega- 3 fatty acid depend on the level as well as on the ratio of omega6 to omega-3 fatty acid. Very high levels of long chain omega-3 fatty acid can decrease cellular immunity, particularly in the presence of a low level of omega-6 fatty acid (Wander et al., 1997; Hall et al., 1999).
Carbohydrate
Carbohydrates are very important dietary factors in dog’s food. They supply energy as well as the physical characteristics allowing for effective processing-manufacturing. Being an excellent source of energy, carbohydrates should be provided adequately in the diets so that protein will not be used as energy which can be used for growth and tissue repair. However, carbohydrates are not an essential component of puppy’s diet, provided that sufficient protein is available for glucose synthesis. Similarly, while carbohydrates are physiologically essential, they are not indispensable components of the diet of gestating/lactating bitches. In fact, it has been shown that lactating bitches fed a carbohydrate-free diet required 30 per cent dietary protein compared to 16 percent when fed a diet containing carbohydrates (Kienzle andMeyer, 1989). Nonetheless, carbohydrates form a useful and economical source of energy in dog’s diet. Fibers are kind of carbohydrates that modify the mix of the bacterial population in the small intestine, and can help in managing chronic diarrhoea. In dogs and cats, to obtain maximum benefit from the fibre source, it must be moderately fermentable. Fibre sources that have low fermentability (e.g. cellulose)
Fi r s tf e wpa ge soft hi sbooka r epubl i s he d onki s a n. c ombyi t spubl i s he r . I fyouwi s ht opur c ha s eaha r dc opy oft hi sbook,pl e a s ec ont a c tt hepubl i s he r .
Publ i sher
Dr .Ra me s hwa rSi ngh Di r e c t or a t eofKnowl e dgeMgt .i nAgr i . I ndi a nCounc i lofAgr i c ul t ur eRe s e a r c h Kr i s hi Anus a ndha nBha va n-1, Pus a-Ne wDe l hi1 10012. Pr i c e-Rs .200/ -