2 Introduction

2 Introduction: Full access to the private Parnassia Collection

In the winter of 2021, we were asked if we would be interested in writing an essay on the black pendulum clocks that form part of the Parnassia Collection. These clocks are known as the pendules au Bon Sauvage. We were delighted and immediately said yes. We are both familiar with this type of clock because of our art historian backgrounds, our interest in the representation of “the other” and our intercultural approach of fi ne and applied arts and history. Both of us have a Dutch/colonial background. Alette Fleischer has roots in Indonesia (the East Indies) and Bart Krieger has Afro-Surinamese roots (the West Indies). In both cases this organically translated into an internal search of our own identity and a professional interest in the decolonization of art and history. The fi rst time we were introduced to the private Parnassia Collection, we were in total and complete awe. Neither one of us have ever seen that many Empire pendulum clocks on display. Each one was more beautiful and opulent than the next. The more than 150 pendulum clocks differ in the stories that they tell, as well as size and shape. All of them are in working order, fully restored and of exquisite museum quality. The black clocks (the pendules au Noir)4 have been collected over a span of some 30 years, and this collection is considered one of the most important private collections of Empire pendulum clocks in the world. The collection of black clocks started with the acquisition of a so-called Africa clock (see Picture 3) and is still growing, as every year one or two more showpieces are added to this mind-blowing collection. This means that the

4 To this day, these clocks are referred to as pendules au [n-word] in auctions, etc. In this essay we advocate alternatives like pendules au (Bon) Noir. We do not repeat the n-word. Please see the glossary.

collection is almost complete, as the number of French Empire pendules au Noir models is limited. In some cases, the designer or the maker of the clock is known. In a few cases, even the whereabouts of other copies of a particular model is also known (i.e. in a public or private collection). However, one rarely knows the provenance of the clocks: who initially commissioned or bought these? We were granted exclusive access to the entire collection and were able to study the clocks in situ, for which we are immensely grateful. The collector, who chooses to remain anonymous, sought contextualization for his collection of black clocks and offered us a unique chance to iconographically dissect the clocks fi rsthand and in detail. It also gave us the opportunity to examine all aspects of these precious objects. We even heard them chime on request. From the beginning it was clear to us that the imagery displayed by the so-called pendules au Bon Sauvage of the Parnassia Collection is problematic and does not fi t in the Black Lives Matter (BLM) era we live in today.5 Here is where our work as (art) historians begins. With this essay, we aim to contextualize these black clocks in the timeframe they were created in and displayed (ca 1790-1830), and we contextualize them in present time and ask ourselves this central question: are we, as an emancipated society, able and/or allowed to enjoy these pendulum clocks today? Our research sent us back in time to 18th century France, where the people of France were fi ghting for freedom, equality and their livelihood. Interestingly enough, this quest for equality did not include Black people, albeit there was some awareness regarding equal rights for colored people.6 Our objective was to reframe shared histories of non-whites (indigenous Americans and Africans) and Europeans in order to unlock the colonial (hidden) narratives the pendulum clocks display.

5 Black Lives Matter (BLM) is a decentralized political and social movement that seeks to highlight racism, discrimination and inequality experienced by Black people. When its supporters come together, they do so primarily to protest incidents of police brutality and racially-motivated violence against Black people. 6 Although some Black people were more privileged than others and took part in the colonial slavery system, Black people as a whole were not considered to be eligible for equality.

There is also a striking blind spot. The Black voice and Black resistance is mostly absent from this discourse. Very helpful is the 2021 publication The Dawn of Everything: A New History of Humanity, by David Graeber and David Wengrow. 7 This amazing must-read book will spin your worldview 180 degrees. In this book the authors convincingly argue that Enlightenment philosophers, such as Jean-Jacques Rousseau, in part based their ideas on the ancient life philosophy of indigenous peoples in North America and quoted some of them from original 17th century sources. We made sure to cite Black sources like this in our essay. To further balance the Eurocentric gaze and origins of all this gilded splendor, we installed a focus group of advisors with backgrounds in the international art and antiques trade, activism, afro-culture advocatism, philosophy, spirituality, and museum practice. They gave us advice, feedback, leads to (Black) source material, etc., during the six months it took to complete our research and write this essay. We also felt the need to briefl y interview about 30 of our peers (Black, White and everything in between). We wanted to know if this group is familiar with these clocks and what sentiments, feelings or thoughts they instigate or provoke today. A separate overview is attached at the end of the essay. In addition to conducting a literature review, we were able to get up close and personal with the clocks of the Parnassia Collection, as previously mentioned. This led to a couple of discoveries and the development of an iconographic method to “read” these empire clocks and decipher the meaning and their often hidden messages. We conclude this essay with some recommendations and a proposal for a new categorization of the pendule au Bon Sauvage: one that does justice to the layered, shared history of Whites, Blacks and everything in between, and one that honors and validates the variety of designs we found housed within the Parnassia Collection.

7 David Graeber and David Wengrow, The Dawn of Everything: A New History of Humanity, Allen Lane, London, 2021.

Furthermore, we drew up a list of defi nitions. We explain the current meanings of words like Creole, Amerindian, the N-word, sauvage, and Blackamoor. We highlight terminology used in the 18th and 19th centuries until now, discussing words that have been polluted and scrutinized over time. Certain terms have different meanings for different people and can be perceived as racist and derogatory.8

Alette Fleischer (PhD) and Bart Krieger (M.A.)

8 We merely aim to provide interpretations of those terms. It is not our intention to lay down the law. See the glossary attached.