Designing the last place_ A Study of three cemeteries by krishna12.arch

Designing the last place A study of three cemeteries

Krishna Jadawala Guided by

Prof. Kartik Vora

Acknowledgement This research appears in current form due to efforts and blessings of several people, I would like to convey my sincere thanks to all of them. At the very outset, I express my deepest sense of gratitude to my Parents for their patience, trust and sacrifices for educating and preparing me for my future. I am extremely grateful to my sister - Pankti for her constant moral support and efforts to de-stress me during few late night working sessions! I am indebted to my Grandparents for their utmost love, care and blessings in all the aspects of my life. I place on record my honest thanks to my Guide â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Prof. Kartik Vora for his thoughtful guidance, insightful decision and critical comments that have helped me to accomplish this research work. Special thanks to Dhruvil Soni, for all the brainstorming discussions and being a second half during the last phase of my thesis. I am obliged to Kruti Shah for her considerate help in watercolour sketches and Geet Khurana for proof reading. I profusely thank my faculties at CEPT for their valuable guidance during this venture. I extend my appreciation to my colleagues of 2011 batch for making this journey of learning more joyful. I would feel incomplete without mentioning â&#x20AC;&#x153;Cept campusâ&#x20AC;? that has hosted the opportunities for developing me as a confident being. I thank the one above all of us, omnipresent God, for answering my prayers and giving me the strength during each and every phase of my life.

Content

Introduction Context/Abstract 02 Need for Study 03 Aim 04 Research Question 04 Methodology 04 Scope and Limitation 04 Overview 05

Case Study 1 : Brion-Vega

Cemetery by Carlo Scarpa

1.1 Influences on works of Carlo Scarpa 08 1.2 Organization of built forms 11 1.3 Circulation and form of movement 13 1.4 Form of elements 14 1.4.1 Circular shape 14 1.4.2 Vesica Piscis shape 15 1.4.3 Omega shape 16 1.4.4 Stepped form 16 1.4.5 Inclined form 18 1.5 Impact of materials on spatial qualities 20 1.5.1 Water Pool 20 1.5.2 Meditation Pavilion 20 1.5.3 Chapel 21 1.6 Inference 22

Case Study 2 : San Cataldo Cemetery by Aldo Rossi 2.1 Reflection on works of Aldo Rossi 39 2.1.1 Brief - “Architecture of the city” 42 2.2 Organization of the built form 44 2.2.1 Design as a whole 44 2.2.2 Similarity with Piranesi Map 45 2.2.3 Continuing language of the existing surrounding 45 2.3 Sequence of activity and approaches 46 2.3.1 Entrance to the cemetery 47 2.4 Aesthetics in form of elements 48 2.4.1 Ossuary – Square form 48 2.4.2 Communal grave – Conical form 49 2.4.3 Triangular footprint and U – shaped building 50 2.5 Impact of materials on Spatial Qualities 51 2.6 Inference 53

Case Study 3 : Igualada Cemetery by Enric Miralles 3.1 Influences on works of Enric Miralles 69 3.2 Formation of building 72 3.3 Circulation and form of movement 74 3.4 Form of elements 76 3.4.1 Burial Niches 76 3.4.2 Modular Repetition 76 3.5 Impact of materials on spatial qualities 78 3.6 Inference 81

Observations 97 Bibliography 105 Image credits 107

Introduction Context/Abstract Need for Study Aim Research Question Methodology Scope and Limitation Overview

Context / Abstract: “Death is a law, not a punishment” - Jean Dubos. Death is an ultimate destination that we all share as human beings. There exists an appropriate place in architecture that has been dedicated to the understanding and reflection of death as a journey of life. This place is termed as cemetery; where remains of the dead are buried, leaving behind traces of memories. Burial as a functional place is constructed and perceived both for the living and the dead. For living, cemetery is a place to pause while for dead it’s a place for departure. Along with housing remains of the dead, it acts as a place for living where an individual can remember and pray for their beloved ones. The visitor can involve oneself in the memories, and realizes the continuous circle of life that they are part of. “Not often does architecture have the power to communicate man’s tenuous existence on this ground” - Ken Worpole (The Last Landscapes) Architecture of the cemetery as a building typology should fulfill their programmatic requirements by reconnecting feelings of mourners to the deceased. Cemeteries offer numerous constructions of funerary architecture which has served for the disposal of corpse back to the earth. These places take into account two contrasting terms like universal and singular, immortal and temporary, and collective as well as individual. Cemeteries often become sacred spaces, as they sense death as sublime while on other hand it emphasizes the fragility of the life. Therefore one can say that, a cemetery acts as a space of memorialization of the deceased, it is represented through the specially designed architecture. “There is the powerful need for symbolism, and that means the architecture must have something that appeals to human heart.” -Kenzo Tange The architecture should fulfill the functional needs along with an ability to communicate the programmatic desires of the specific institution. In architecture, building embodies multilayered meanings and messages. Thus, architecture becomes a medium of attaching meaning to cultural and social life. According to Psychiatrist Carl Jung, symbolism is the best possible way which can hint us regarding the relatively unknown thing or for the things which are nevertheless recognized as existing. In architecture, symbolism exists at different levels. Symbolism is mostly demonstrated in cemeteries, mosques, churches, temples, monuments and other

spiritual and historical structure. We normally connect symbolism to religious and historical places, as the imagery tends to be extremely explicit and thoughtful. When the architectural forms become the medium of expression, either in plan, elevation or articulation, it can be called as symbolic. This symbolism in architecture is used to depict cultural practices or rituals of the specific region in which the cemetery is built. The presence of traditional symbols in modern architecture ensures the cultural patterns of that specific era of construction of cemetery. In many cases, the symbolism in the cemetery is formulated out of architect’s understanding on life and death. Any visitor, consciously or subconsciously, perceives these symbols of cemetery by associating it with the building one has observed before or by certain past experiences.

Need for study: ‘’Death is the only certainty in life, for the best of our knowledge all things that live must one day die. Thus death is and has arguably always been a crucial part of mankind’s existence - whether we choose to dwell on it or not.’’ - Lindsay Anne Hall (Death, Power and the Body) Architecture has an ability to fulfill functional requirements along with becoming a medium of expression. Hence, it serves both utilitarian and aesthetic purpose. User group and their requirements are one of the key factors to be kept in mind while designing a building. Cemetery, as a function is a place which celebrates life and death. This place is meant for living as well as dead. The person accompanied with the corpse should achieve the psychological comfort (mental peace) in order to bear the loss of his/her beloved. Architectural intervention of cemetery has the power to communicate a man’s temporal, short and fragile existence on this earth. The built envelope should be designed properly in terms of scale, light, form etc. such that it doesn’t overpower the sadness and rather helps in healing wound. Cemetery acts as a place that reflects the designer’s attitude towards death. Thus, architecture of the burial place can become a medium to understand architect’s ideology formulated for the journey from life to death. The design of the cemetery relates with philosophical, cultural and ritual aspects of that specific era or place. Thus, it becomes necessary to understand architecture of the cemetery in a concrete way along with the values and meaning associated to it.

Aim: This study aims to understand the architectural expression of the function specific place. In this research work, an architectural intention of the three European cemeteries having burial as a function is analyzed.

Research question: Each architect has developed their own approach towards death based on their past observations. The architecture of the cemetery can hint us the architect’s individual experiences. Thus, this research focuses on the ways in which architect’s understanding on life and death is expressed through architecture.

Methodology: The information of all the three architects and their respective cemeteries is obtained from secondary sources like references, readings and the available published data. Analyzing the data through explanatory diagrams and revealing experiences through own sketches. Looking into categories like organization of built form, form of movement, form of elements and application of materials, which is related to architect’s influential aspects as well as his past experiences. Analyzing the larger pattern of symbolism in all the three case studies based on architect’s approach towards death.

Scope and Limitations: This study focuses only on the cemeteries of western culture. However, the rituals or the myths followed by the specific (Christian) religion for burial ceremony, is not taken into consideration. Specific philosophies related to life and death is not referred. The basic understanding of life and death’s principles associated with architecture are studied from the architect’s approaches towards his design.

Overview: This research starts with studying individually the architectural expression of three cemeteries. The architecture of each cemetery is guided by the influential aspects and the method of working (representing through drawings) of the architects. Based on their experiences and observations, they have developed their own principles and approach towards death. This understanding is translated into architecture which strengthens the expression for metaphor of death. Later, on comparing all the three case studies, the way the symbolism is depicted in categories like organization of built form, circulation, form of elements and application of materials , is analyzed. The first case study is “Brion-Vega cemetery” by Carlo Scarpa built in Treviso (Italy) in 1968. The second case study is “San Cataldo Cemetery” by Aldo Rossi in Modena (Italy) built in 1971. While the third case study is “Igualada Cemetery” built by Enric Miralles in 1983 in Barcelona, Spain. The cemeteries mentioned here are designed by prominent architects who is recognized and respected for the values added to their work. The selection of this case study is done on the basis of architects belonging to same contemporary period. Also, their approach towards designing seems similar for the program like cemetery. Carlo Scarpa, Aldo Rossi and Enric Miralles have developed their own ideology towards life and death based on their experiences and observations in their journey of life. This knowledge has been translated into architecture through symbolism, either as a functional or as an aesthetic purpose. Thus, directly or indirectly, all the three case studies examines similarity in terms of symbolism. It also primarily includes influential aspects with respect to this particular project of the cemetery. The influences are further categorized into biographical, inspirational and theoretical aspects. These aspects have shaped the architect’s method of working and representation techniques. To understand the reason behind each architect’s principles on life and death, the categories of influences proved useful. The understanding of life and death is reflected at various scales of built form. Looking at the larger scale, the formation of building in plan and the form of movement in cemetery relates to the architect’s ideology regarding life. When the plan is used as symbols, it is represented through shapes. For example, the plan of cemetery designed by Enric Miralles and Aldo Rossi has direct replication of human body. On the other hand, organization of Brion Vega cemetery is derived based on the hierarchy, form and character of the spaces. Architectural elements that is perceived to ease the use of buildings, also conveys

symbolic significance. Symbolism is the organized use of recurrent symbols in building to establish an added level of meaning. It can also be termed as an iconic representation which carries some specific conventional meaning. When symbolism is used for a functional place like cemetery, it hints the visitor of something relatively unknown but already in existence! Symbolism when used in architectonic parts can convey monumentality and can become a medium to convey architectâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s approaches or principles. These symbolic elements can be either functional or it can just be a physical add-on layers in architecture like sculpture, painting, patterns etc. In this research work, the symbolism is also analyzed through physical aspects of built form. These physical aspects include form of the elements and application of the materials. Symbolism in the form of elements is either used as openings or structural purpose as well as for ornamentation purpose. In Brion-Vega cemetery, Symbols like Vesica Piscis and Omega celebrates the significance of life and death while ziggurat stepped pattern is used for articulation purpose. Cube and cone as a form is used by Aldo Rossi in his cemetery to signify memories as the only remains after death. In case of Igualada cemetery, the overlapping of multiple repetitive elements of burial niches and the undulating curves encourages the movement which emphasizes on the journey from life to death. Application of the materials formulates actual experience of the space. The way the material has been applied in these three cemeteries, relate to the metaphor of death with respect to the way individual architect perceives death. For example, Carlo Scarpa has used water to depict the visible but unapproachable spaces of his cemetery. Aldo Rossi has created long colonnades from stucco concrete that conveys monotonous feeling which depicts the death. Enric Miralles has incorporated rusted and left over materials during construction on the site to reflect rawness and transition during the journey.

Case Study 1

Brion-Vega Cemetery by Carlo Scarpa 1.1 Influences on works of Carlo Scarpa 1.2 Organization of built forms 1.3 Circulation and form of movement 1.4 Form of elements 1.4.1 Circular shape 1.4.2 Vesica Piscis shape 1.4.3 Omega shape 1.4.4 Stepped form 1.4.5 Inclined form 1.5 Impact of materials on spatial qualities 1.5.1 Water Pool 1.5.2 Meditation Pavilion 1.5.3 Chapel 1.6 Inference

1.1 Reflections on the works of Carlo Scarpa Biographical Aspects Carlo Scarpa was born on June 2, 1906 in Venice, Italy. His mother opened a tailor workshop when Scarpa was just 2 years old. From a very young age, he used to draw design for his mother‘s client. Being close to this profession, has inbuilt in him sense of conversion of two dimensional drawings to three dimensional products and carefully handling of edges. Right from very tender age, he got to learn an importance of precision in cutting and creating balanced montages. As Scarpa was born and brought up in Venice, he was always conscious about understanding history of the place and continuing the traditions through architecture. Venice being a city on water, Scarpa always imagined his daily routine life with reference to water. Since his childhood, water was the primary mode of transport/movement but in his architectural project water is introduce to govern the areas which are not accessible. He has learnt to use water as an element by controlling flow of it in his various projects including Brion cemetery.

Inspirational Aspects The work of Scarpa depicts the influence from Japanese belief and Chinese ideograms. Scarpa was inspired by the Wabi-Sabi beliefs of Japanese culture. WabiSabi originated from Buddhist belief which teaches the beauty in imperfection. Along with the simplicity, this belief also appreciates the use of asymmetry, roughness and irregularity. Wabi-Sabi celebrates the crevices, cracks and other marks that time and weather has left behind. On comparing this belief with death, Wabi-Sabi belief reminds us that (we) human beings are temporary and everyone has to finally return to dust. This harsh reality is projected in cemetery by using concrete as a rough and unfinished material. Chinese ideograms and Shoji screens of Japan are taken as an inspiration to be used in cemetery’s door and entrance (fig. 1.1, fig. 1.1a). Scarpa has borrowed the aspects of light from Corbusier. Relative’s tomb designed by Scarpa has similar light conditions to that of La Tourette by Le Corbusier. In both the buildings, two surfaces don’t meet and the light is allowed to enter through small slit (fig. 1.2, fig. 1.2a). This gap allows the junctions of the building to reflect lightness in construction. The way of bringing light inside space is also similar in chapel of Brion cemetery and Ronchamp. In both of these buildings, the openings

in vertical plane are in angular form (fig. 1.3, fig. 1.3a). This creates the diffused light that build up an atmosphere of calmness and divinity. Carlo Scarpa also relished more deeply upon the works of Frank Lloyd Wright for articulation. Frank Lloyd Wright has used stepped articulation in his project “House at Talisen West” which is prevailing throughout Brion’s cemetery (fig. 1.4, fig. 1.4a). In A.D. German Warehouse, Frank Lloyd Wright has carved the patterns on the stone slab such that it acts as crown of the building (fig. 1.5). Such variations of details are found at various junctions in cemetery designed by Carlo Scarpa (fig. 1.6). Russian American architect Louis Kahn also motivated Scarpa by utilizing basic geometric forms in plan and elevation. Scarpa’s use of two intersection circle as aperture on the entrance passage shows similarity with the corridor at Assembly of Dhaka by Louis Kahn (fig. 1.7, fig. 1.7a). Scarpa’s approach towards details also reflects close relation with Kahn for his project of Salk Institute. In Salk institute, the slim water channel runs through the entire plaza which has similarity with water channel at Brion cemetery (fig. 1.8, fig. 1.8a). Scarpa met Hoffman at one of his lectures in early age. Josef Hoffmann was an Australian architect whose architectural style was abstract and more sober. Hoffman believed that “Lavishness cannot be always attained with decoration but by using variety of form with contrasting materials”. The Stoclet House built in a rectilinear form diverges from curvilinear form which is associated with the Art Nouveau movement. In Stoclet palace, Hoffman has used another material to define boundary of the building (fig. 1.9). Scarpa has interpreted the same notion of marking the border in Brion cemetery by using mosaic tiles and metal (fig. 1.10). Inspired from Hoffman’s art pieces, the drain outlets in Brion cemetery is casted in bronze and acts as ornamented sculptural pieces.

Theoretical aspects As a draftman, to create a complex as well as a complete vision, he used to superimpose sequence of same sketch or drawing on one another (fig. 1.11). Hence, his approach towards architecture became multilayered which cannot be perceived from a single vision. The lines and the marks on the paper are mostly representation of his process of designing rather than the final product. One has to recognize his various sources from which he drew inspiration to understand the wide ranging scope of Scarpa’s projects. Scarpa refused the neorationalist and postmodern influences of 1970s in his projects. He rather preferred to explore the decorative system that is evolved from 09

the material of modern architecture. Carlo Scarpa was always in touch with his artisans and craftsmen. The revisions of his drawings were made such that it reflects a pre-industrial attention to old methods of construction. Scarpa hardly got to build an entire project like many other Renaissance architects. But the Brion cemetery is an exceptional case where a complex design has dominance of repetition of symbolic gestures. These motifs are placed to create harmony and fluidity in the cemetery.

1.2 Formation of Building Brion cemetery is built by Carlo Scarpa in San Vito d’Altivole near Treviso, Italy. Scarpa began to design the addition of the existing municipal cemetery in 1968. The enclosure is the private burial ground for the Brion family. Some of the distinct elements of his design are Prato (lawn), vegetative water pool, sloped boundary wall, private meditation pavilion, a public chapel and tomb of the couple and the relatives[1]. The architectural plan of Brion-Vega cemetery is shown in fig 1.12. The L-shaped configuration establishes a clear orientation towards the existing cemetery (fig 1.13).

Both the boundary walls are oriented differently. The wall towards the

existing cemetery responds the context. While the boundary wall on north and west sides are inclined inward towards the cemetery, depicting inward nature of the boundary wall (fig 1.14). The buttresses to support the inclined wall are on the side of the wall which is facing country side (fig 1.15). Also, the built forms of all the three functions are oriented differently (fig 1.16) The orientation of functions depends on location, nature, shape and accessibility. The tomb of the family holds its functional importance and acts as a node for the schema of “L-shaped” cemetery. It is located at the north-west corner - the sunniest part during maximum time of the day. Due to circular form of the tomb, its radial orientation and dynamic nature is reflected. The meditation pavilion is located at the north-east corner which remains shaded throughout the day because of the boundary wall behind it. The chapel is located in the west-south corner and it is rotated at 45 degrees from the boundary wall. The chapel is surrounded by the pool of water with the narrow indirect entry created between the water. Scarpa mentioned that “The piece of land was so large such that it becomes lawn. Hence to rationalize this expanse of space, a small temple was introduced at the other end.” This temple can also be used for funeral purposes[2]. Site as a whole is a larger square which is further made up of four small squares. Out of which one square occupies meditation pavilion, other has couple’s tomb while the third square has chapel. The fourth square has the existing older burial space which is open for public. Tomb of couple occupying the central hinge position, has a visual connection with chapel as well as the meditation pavilion. The rectangular 1 Bell, Berry. ” The Brion Cemetery and the Narrative of Redemption.“ Rome (Carleton University) – ACSA International Conference, 1999. 2 McCarter, Robert. “Carlo Scarpa.” London : Phaidon Press, 2013

meditation pavilion is extrovert in nature because it is partially open till eye level (fig 1.17). Also, the space being shaded and between the water pool creates an atmosphere of silence and serenity. This environment is favorable to maintain concentration during the meditation. The public chapel is set apart and isolated from the other two private functions. The chapel doesn’t occupy perspectival relation with the tomb[3] (fig 1.17). The square form is rotated at 45 degrees to the direction of arrival but it opens up its welcoming entry through the floating path created on the water. The vertical walls creating larger volumes in the chapel enforces one to concentrate inside the sacred space created. Hence, this depicts the introvert nature of the chapel.

3 Martin, Madison. “Creating harmony through architecture: Brion Sanctuary at San Vito d’ Altivole”. Venice 2014 – 4th edition, 2014.

1.3 Circulation and form of the movement Sequence (hierarchy) of the activity to be perceived is derived by organization of the built form (fig 1.18). There are three entrances to this cemetery for which the scale depends on character of the space an individual is entering[1]. The main entrance is through propylaeum, second through side near the chapel and third through the funerary path (fig 1.19). The entry of the chapel is from surrounding countryside which is easily accessible. While the meditation pavilion being private, is located at the far end and have a simpler rectangular form. The journey leading to this meditation pavilion is dark and narrow (fig. 1.20). The tomb acts as a central pause point while moving from one end of the site to other. Due to this reason, tomb occupies primary hierarchical position. There is a path that links different functions on the site by tying up the scattered built forms (fig 1.19). This continuous path is along the wall towards existing cemetery. An alley with neither side exits nor outward view is a direct form where a visitor has only one choice of how to experience the space[2]. Though the path is continuous, it has threshold and choices which defines the processional sequence. As a significance of the threshold, ground shift has steps which are toned and each footstep sounds a different pitch (fig 1.21). There is a small gap between causeway and the pavilion floor which enforces the visitor to take a pause and look down into the water[3] (fig 1.22). Lack of openings on the boundary walls enforces an individual to engage in the world of blue (water pool) and green (lawns) which the architect has constructed. An individual is isolated from the external countryside worries and can attain peace amidst these natural elements which is creating a calm atmosphere. The openings in the boundary walls, which is adjacent to the path can pause or alter one’s movement because of the external view. This can indirectly shape the movement of circulation. Scarpa has not created literal thresholds by changing the flooring material of two different spaces. Rather, he has mentioned a pause in movement itself that highlights the transition from one space to another. This pause forces us to think for a moment of direction which one is heading towards. These significant thresholds are also present throughout the journey of our life. Thresholds are relevant when we take a break to decide before we enter the new phase of life. 1 Co., Francesco Dal. “ Carlo Scarpa : the complete works.” London : Electa/ architectural press, 1986. 2 Smith, Philip. “Carlo Scarpa Essay – Brion Monumental Tomb.” O2 landscape 3 Bell, Berry. ” The Brion Cemetery and the Narrative of Redemption.“ Rome (Carleton University) – ACSA International Conference, 1999.

1.4 Form of elements According to Scarpa, every structure should work in harmony. All the four functions are scattered and have different forms. But to create fluidity amongst these variations, repetition of shapes in certain elements as well as similarity material is used throughout the cemetery. Hence, along with the continuous path, repetition of these certain shapes helps in harmonizing different structures visually while moving through the cemetery. These shapes are related to certain understanding of life and death. These symbolic gestures play an important role in cemetery as it is a place which celebrates life and death.

1.4.1 Circular shape The eye catching example is the circular shaped footprint within which two main tombs of Onorina Brion and Giuseppe are placed[4] (fig 1.23). The tomb appears to be slightly sunken into the ground but the concrete floor with circular footprint is at the same level as landscape. To give an expression of being buried into the earth, the surrounding prato (lawn) is uplifted and has concrete periphery. Two slab of stones angled inward of about 5 feet tall, lies under a broad concrete arch of about 15 feet wide[5]. Hence at certain points, Scarpa has tried to bring together his sharp angles and soft curves. This circular place containing Sarcophagi of the couple is covered with semi-circular arched shaped Acrosolium. The arc present on top of the tomb acts as shelter as well as bridge connecting two sides. This bridge can be perceived as the journey between life and death. The chapel doors have a circular form when seen from front elevation(fig 1.24). Through this door, main entrance of the chapel is framed which imitates the Shoji screen of Japanese culture. Shoji screen is a divider that consists of translucent paper over a frame of wood holding together a lattice of bamboo or wood. Significance of circular shape In the ancient times, the supreme being was represented by a sphere. Sphere is the symbol of a being with no beginning and no end, continually existing, formed perfectly and profoundly symmetrical. Circle also represents recycling, eternity or puzzle regarding the cycle of life. Circles are present at the end of several axes, in which they act as nodes within the design[6]. The placement of this node gives the vitality to the design. Node acts as a transition point from which certain energy is 4 Co., Francesco Dal. “ Carlo Scarpa : the complete works.” London : Electa/ architectural press, 1986. 5 Sterngold, James. “In a corner of Italy, a rare, lovely tomb.” The New York Times – Travel, 27 August, 1989. 6 Smith, Philip. “Carlo Scarpa Essay – Brion Monumental Tomb.” O2 landscape.

redirected or renewed. Here, circle depicts the positive attitude towards death. Just as circle doesn’t have any end, similarly death is not an end and it implies entering the idea of life after death.

1.4.2 Vesica Piscis On the propylaeum passage’s centerline, the aperture is formed by two intersecting large circles to form “Vesica Piscis” (fig 1.25). The impression an individual gets on entering is by looking through his/her two eyes[7]. The question arising here is whether it is a door or window? When a visitor looks through this opening, portal of Vesica Piscis hovers above the surface of narrow watercourse on the other side of the wall. Due to this reason an individual is in constant visual connection to the sacred element (water) which provides calmness to the mind. The outer ring-like edges are brass channels carrying murano glass mosaic tiles that are flushed with concrete wall’s inner and outer faces (fig 1.26). These rings have pink colour on left side and blue on the right, which signifies the unity of husband and wife. The name of the deceased are inset in ivory letters in sarcophagi’s inclined outer faces which is beneath an ebony handle and also has intersecting double circle brass plate[8] (fig 1.27). These interlocking circles on tomb emphasize the male and the female resting in the tomb. Significance of Vesica piscis: When two circles of same radius intersects in such a way that center of each circles lies on circumference of the other, Vesica Piscis is formed. In Latin, this name means bladder of the fish. Circle being considered as one of the balanced and profoundly symmetrical shape, the addition of Vesica Piscis represents the expansion of unity into duality of female and male. By overlapping of two circle (union of man and woman), an offspring is formed. Hence, this intersection represents birth (life). Considering the case of Jesus Christ, the two dimensional figure has served as a symbol for the miracle of the fishes. It has religious and symbolic meaning in christian and Gothic Art. It highlights virgin Mary and Christ child (fig 1.28). The goddesses of all religions recognize her power and significance invariably by the use of Vesica Piscis. For example, the overlapping pools of water and the chalice well cover is found in goddess’s garden in Glastonbury (fig 1.29). Drunvalo Melchizedek in his Flower of Life symbolism uses the Vesica Piscis 7 Noever, Peter. “The other City.” Ernst & Sohn – UK, 1989. 8 McCarter, Robert. “Carlo Scarpa.” London : Phaidon Press, 2013

considering it the geometric image through which light was created. The symbol also represents that heaven and earth are interacting. The Vesica Piscis has been called the Womb of the Universe. As cemetery is directly related to an individual’s physical being, this geometry is actually present in human body. Organs like eyes, mouth, ear, brain, vagina, hypothalamus, pineal gland etc follows the shape of Vesica Piscis.

1.4.3 Omega shape This intersection circular shape when divided from the center horizontally, it is perceived as omega. This symbol is present in the meditation pavilion, where it acts as an eye piece (fig 1.30). At bottom of the facade facing the cemetery’s western side is a brass connector carved with double intersecting circle forming much smaller pair of eye like openings. Through this opening an individual can frame view of the tomb. This eyepiece is set too low for men but female’s eyes are aligned with the aperture. He designed this double circle aperture to be used for viewing by standing women, while most men have to bend to obtain the same view[9]. The low projecting lintel on the entrance propylaeum is flat faced which carries a small cubic brass piece centrally casted into its top edges[10]. This brass piece has a carved sphere that pierces the top and forms inverted omega shape. Significance of omega shape As per the Greek alphabets, Omega is the last letter while alpha is the first letter. The letter omega is also mentioned in the field of Eschatology. Eschatology is a theology concerned with the final events of history or ultimate destiny of humanity. Thus, Omega depicts the end of everything and Cemetery has death as a function which celebrates the end of life of earth.

1.4.4 Ziggurat (stepped) shape The front elevation of the concrete propylaeum is densely stepped in 5.5 centimeter of horizontal and vertical bands (fig 1.31). These bands recede at 45 degree angles from wall’s front face. The only exception to this stepping is flat-faced low projecting lintel. At the propylaeum’s base, the ziggurat stepping turns to the left on both the sideways. While at the top, the stepping pattern moves to the right. The stepping on the facade is designed in such a way that vertical visual balance is created by not making it monotonous mirror L-form. Secondly, this stepping pattern is also 9 McCarter, Robert. “Carlo Scarpa.” London : Phaidon Press, 2013 10 McCarter, Robert. “Carlo Scarpa.” London : Phaidon Press, 2013

repeated in tomb of the couple. The two tombs stand on the base made up of white marble. The bottom is slightly curved and has trapezoidal shaped granite walls. These surfaces are intricately carved with 3.5 centimeter ziggurat-stepped pyramidal patterns[11] (fig 1.32). Here, in both the cases, the ziggurat patterns are used for articulation purpose. The elevated canopy of meditation pavilion has an outer steel edged shell of thin, larch wooden boards inlaid in ebony. The larch board revetment is set in flat 2d version of ziggurat pattern. The arrangements of boards are in such a proportion that it creates an image of mother giving birth to child (fig 1.33). The positioning of wooden planks implicit an idea of beginning of life. Thus, the ziggurat pattern in two dimensions is used to convey an understanding of birth. While walking up the ramp from entrance, chapel’s left back corner comes into the view. The walkway is surrounded by water, beneath the surface of which can be seen a complex series of ziggurat stepped concrete ribs-beams (fig 1.34). Such use of water helps in creating an illusion of floating walkway. The faded vision of these steps conveys an idea of submerged ruins by adding the character of Venetian architecture. One of the facade of the chapel is opened by a series of five narrow vertical openings (fig 1.35). Inside the chapel, the edges of windows are cast in vertical pyramidal ziggurat pattern with gold leaf material sheets of metal (fig 1.36). These features add in amount of light that bounces off the steel framing the marbles. The use of light and the way it interacts with its surrounding is carefully articulated through shadows. The surface absorbs and reflects light so beautifully because of juxtaposition of different materials. The external facade has positive projection and matching negative indention casted into the surface towards the center. The same plane they share, also carries a cross formed highlighted in the image (fig 1.37). Hence in this case, the concrete stepped pattern is used in articulating the facade as well as the openings. Significance of stepped pattern This stepped pattern articulation is not only limited to moldings but it is also used to give form to the edges and various openings on nearly all the surfaces. These elements often results in pyramidal V-shaped form that enforces the visitor to rethink whether it is solid or void and oriented horizontally or vertically. This pattern is derived from Scarpa’s wall and flooring pattern involving L-shaped three quarters square. Concrete appears to be massive material, but the material’s delicate nature 11 McCarter, Robert. “Carlo Scarpa.” London : Phaidon Press, 2013

is reflected by the breaking pattern of shadows. Hence, certain quality of light and shadow has been created by Scarpa using the grid of 5.5 centimeters which doesn’t overburden the visitor in terms of visual aspects. The use of these steps also articulates the facade itself without applying any other external heterogeneous materials. This stepped articulation can be compared with the displacement or shifting of slabs. The edges of the slab are progressively shifting from their original position. It creates a notion of getting displaced to the other world after death.

1.4.5 Inclined form The enclosure boundary wall can be considered as high and folding concrete planes on the periphery of the site, where inclination of wall depicts the inward character. The inclined wall is angled 60 degrees from the horizontal plane and 30 degrees from the vertical plane. The cemetery’s new horizon is established at 240 centimeter height which is a level above eye level. Because of its position and shape, the boundary wall acts as an empowering element. Solid surrounding wall has an opening at the point opposite the chapel’s entry space. This halt or pause connects monumental tomb with the outer country side. Rather than attempting to connect the walls at the center, Scarpa has separated the walls creating perforated honeycomb like structures. This perforated structure defuses the corner to be an overly muscular juncture[12] (fig 1.15). This structure creates a dramatic effect and also strengthens the connection of monumental tomb to the village. Here, inclined shape of the boundary wall helps in establishing solid new horizon for the cemetery and enforcing the visitor to get involved in the tranquility of the place created by an architect. Tombs of the couple are set into the earth, under the heavy low roof which sets the notion of being underground. The tombs are slightly bent inward towards each other (fig 1.38). The bending encourages down to earth nature of the couple and respect towards each other even after the death. Relation shrine along the north boundary wall has massive concrete enclosure which is slightly lifted above the ground. The roof is aligned with the inclined outer wall and is tilted to form 60-30 degree angles (fig 1.39). The rectangular mass hovers around 1 meter above the grass[13]. A visitor has to slightly bow down to enter this shaded space where the graves of brion’s relatives are marked by marble tombstones placed in a non-repeating pattern on inclined ground (fig 1.40). Because of the 12 Smith, Philip. “Carlo Scarpa Essay – Brion Monumental Tomb.” O2 landscape 13 Martin, Madison. “Creating harmony through architecture: Brion Sanctuary at San Vito d’ Altivole”. Venice 2014 – 4th edition, 2014.

inclination, height of the space is set low such that the person has to bend and offer respect while entering.

1.5 Impact of materials on spatial qualities 1.5.1 Water pool Water is synonymous with the life. It inspires us with its nature of adaptability, change, flow, persistence as well as destruction. It can be as terrible as it is gentle. The calmness of water of the pool can bring peace to mind. It has equal religious importance because it purifies the sin. Scarpa grew up in Venice, a city built on water. In many of his projects, he has incorporated the collection and control of flow of the water. Being a Venetian architect, Scarpa has self-consciously borrowed water as one of the seven Asian elements to soften the overall effects in cemetery. The areas of water pool are highlighted in fig. 1.41. A course of water weaving through the compound is introduced as an element of serenity and to create an ambience of sacredness (fig 1.42). Chapel is surrounded by water and hence it creates an impression being on island, isolated from the world. On reaching the mausoleum boundary, water disappears into the ground and path descends to base of the tomb which is sunken[14]. At certain places, water disappears to remind us about the water absorptive density and projects the areas of inaccessibility. The disappearing of water locates the earthly remains of the interred bodies. The linear channel and running water guides visual passage but the destination seems hidden. The source of water channel is found in pair of small cylindrical concrete vessels, from which the water flows into narrow channel (fig 1.43). The concept is similar to the key - hole shaped source which is found in the court of Myrtles at Alhambra, connecting the water course that flow back towards the large pool (fig 1.44).

1.5.2 Chapel The atmosphere outside chapel is focused and calm. But the serenity of this created ambience is in contrast to highly dynamic and polycentric architecture. Wall of chapel is lined with 10 vertical windows which are almost floor to ceiling showcasing the pool of water over which the temple is placed[15]. This arrangement allows the sunlight to shine through bouncing off the water’s surface on the wall 14 Bell, Berry. ” The Brion Cemetery and the Narrative of Redemption.“ Rome (Carleton University) – ACSA International Conference, 1999. 15 Martin, Madison. “Creating harmony through architecture: Brion Sanctuary at San Vito d’ Altivole”. Venice 2014 – 4th edition, 2014.

and ceiling. Chapel is devoid of any religious symbols but has rich materials like wood, brass and marble. The pyramid shaped skylight on top of the chapel allows divine light to enter the space and makes it sacred (fig 1.45). Chapel being the religious place, Scarpa has tried to attain stillness by the use of light and materials. A set of steps or layers is seen in geometric progression which creates a perspectival path[16] (fig 1.46). This perspectival path culminates into the ceiling of gold and light. The sky is framed in such a way that destination is defined by brightness and material value.

1.5.3 Meditation Pavilion This place invites a visitor for reflection and meditation. Scarpa has created a sitting in meditation pavilion which is not only a fitting memorial but it also becomes a place for living to engage in contemplation. This bench is created in middle of pond of water lilies so that visitors could sit and think. Evidence of meditation pavilion is created as it is set in square pool that is surrounded by concrete walls and colour bands of mosaic tiles (fig 1.47). Instead of placing an activity of concentration amidst the enclosed walls, it is placed at the far end in shadow such that an individual can interacts with the green and blue. The top edge of the boundary wall is continued with the colourful mosaic tiles such that cemetery’s new horizon is re-defined. Majorly the vision of cemetery is composed of cold and grey concrete when a visitor is in the pavilion. The repetitions of the use of concrete gives the sense of oppression but the fine line of eye catching mosaic tiles on the surrounding walls brings in a ray of hope in monotonous shade. Considering the case of overall cemetery, walls are casted in rough plain concrete but embellish at edges and top by not introducing curves but by using sharp ziggurat stepped patterns. Scarpa’s design always reflects passion for strict and angular composition and materials of modern architecture like raw concrete and steel. Overall form of the building is fabricated in rough concrete while details are molded in heterogeneous materials like brass, steel, marble and bronze. The use of these materials in detailing visually softens (modifies) the massiveness of the concrete. Also, the way the heterogeneous materials are used, fine lines between life and death is differentiated.

16 Martin, Madison. “Creating harmony through architecture: Brion Sanctuary at San Vito d’ Altivole”. Venice 2014 – 4th edition, 2014.

1.6 Inference Scarpa wrote about the Tomba: â&#x20AC;&#x153;I consider this work, if you permit me, to be rather good and which will get better over time. I have tried to put some poetic imagination into it, though not in order to create poetic architecture but to make a certain kind of architecture that could emanate a sense of formal poetry ... The place for the dead is a garden ... I wanted to show some ways in which you could approach death in a social and civic way...â&#x20AC;? Scarpa is amongst those second generation architects who is sympathetic to cityâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s culture. Considering the fact that past is never dead, he has designed the cemetery where an individual can engage with the built form as well as natural elements. The design of a cemetery stands out more like an impressive memorial that has multiple modern features which are respectful and not overwhelming. Scarpa responded to traditional funerary architecture by using modern form that includes circle and square where as modern materials including concrete, steel and glass. Scarpa has incorporated elements like water pond full of lilies, the double happiness windows and the bridge over sarcophagi to communicate the idea of love, death and the pilgrimage of human spirit. Modern architecture majorly deals with functional spaces and thoughtful structures. In this cemetery, Scarpa has fulfilled the aspects of functionality along with exploring the quest for representation and expression through making. Symbolic gestures like Vesica Piscis, omega shape and ziggurat stepped pattern are used throughout the cemetery in form of openings, structures as well as articulation. These gestures are translation of understanding of life and death through built forms. When linked with program of the cemetery, Vesica Piscis indicates birth, omega shape stands for death and circular shape for the eternity. The ziggurat motif casted in concrete is widely used in cemetery and serves different meaning to the details. At places, this motif is used under the water which leaves an impression of ruins that are loaded with past memories. At other places, it just acts as an articulation element to break the massiveness of materials or to break the linearity. Hence, this motif acts as a perfect detail for architecture of the cemetery. Carlo Scarpa falls within an era of 20th century modern architects like Le Corbusier, Louis Kahn, Frank Lloyd Wright and Alvar Alto from whom he has drawn inspiration regarding light, use of form and materials and the method of handling details. However, he has always worked with a certain formal constraints. These restrictions arose out of his work in Venice where the compulsions were laid due to location and physical factors. The idea of Venice was deeply rooted in his lifestyle. This influence

is significant when Scarpa has created recesses and steps within the floor plains even for this cemetery which is not going to flooded. Water along with an element to maintain an atmosphere of serenity, acts as barrier element for unapproachable spaces. On the other end, it is also a guiding element for the cemetery. Scarpa hardly produced any final set of drawings for any of his projects. His drawings were mostly in form of scribbling on top of one another. These drawings are about layering which is partly a record of his design process and partly of what the actual building is[17]. As each elements has to be perceived from different aspects, ziggurat stepped patterns might have been derived from super imposing of the lines. Scarpaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s design deals with linear lines and massing which is derived by his techniques of grooving, carving and stepping. This technique helps him to understand the massiveness of concrete and lightness of glass as a modern material. The design of Brion cemetery is such that it invites people of community to this place of serenity for peaceful meditation and reflection of satisfaction rather than sorrow. Hence, Scarpa aims at creating an architectural experience where an individual views the purpose of death rather than its simple material result. In this cemetery, he has left many symbolic elements and details in unobvious ways. This allows the visitor to fill the gap based on their own perception and connect the design to a sensory level.

17 Salazar, Dunia. The function of form: Meaning in works of carlo scarpa. Texas Tech. University, Decâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;17

Figures

1.1 /1.1a : Brion-Vega cemetry door inspired from Japanese Shoji screen

1.2/1.2a : Similar light condition through slit in Le Corbusierâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s La Tourette and Brion-Vega cemetery

1.3/ 1.3a : Similar angular openings in plan of chapel by Carlo Scarpa and Ronchamp by Le-Corbusier

1.4/1.4a : Identical stepped articulation on Carlo Scarpa and Frank Lloyd Wrightâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s project

Fig 1.5 /1.6 : Similarity in intricately Carved patterns in Brion cemetery and A.D. German Warehouse

1.7/ 1.7a : Corridor with the same characteristics in Assembly hall at Dhaka (Louis Kahn) and Brion Cemetery (Carlo Scarpa) 1.8/1.8a : Water channel acting as a guiding element in Salk Institute (Louis Kahn) and Brion cemetery (Carlo Scarpa)

1.9/ 1.10 : Different material ia used to highlight border of the building or element in Carlo Scarpa and Josef Hoffmanâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s project.

1.11 : Drawings by Carlo Scarpa which emphasizes the superimposition of lines on each other

1.12 : Architectural plan of Brion-Vega cemetery

1.13 : The L-shaped configuration responding to existing cemetery

1.16 : Site comprises of four squares; out of which each square has different function

1.17 : Diagram showing orientation and form of three functions. It also denotes extrovert nature of Pavilion, radial orientation of tomb and introvert nature of chapel

1.14 : Inward inclination of the boundary wall

1.15 : Image showing the butresses on the other side to support inclined wall

1.20 : Image showing dark and narrow approach towards meditation pavilion

1.18 : Orientation of three forms with respect to each other is shown in this isometric view

1.19 : Diagram showing the path towards the wall of existing cemetery and the three entrances

1.21 : image depicting gaps in the causeway which is acting as a threshold 1.22 : image showing tonned steps acting as threshold

1.23 : Tomb of the couple placed on the circular footprint.

1.24 : Circular shape of the chapel door in elevation

1.27 : intersecting double circle brass plate on coupleâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s tomb

1.25 : Aperture of vesica piscis form on the entrance

1.28 : Image depicting the existence of god Jesus in the shape of vesica piscis 1.29 : Water pool and well cover in Glastonbury in the shape of vesica piscis

1.26 : Two intersecting rings made up of blue and pink mosaic tiles

1.30 :eye piece at the height of eye level of women framing the view of cemetery

1.31 : image showing stepped pattern used in L-form and receding at 45 degrees from front face

1.32 : surface of the coupleâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s tomb are carved with stepped pattern 1.33 : 2d version of arrangement of stepped pattern

1.37 : cross depicting the cricufication of Jesus is depicted as a part of ornamentation of facade

1.34 : concrete rib-beams which are seen submerger in the water leaving an impression of ruins 1.35 : facade which has stepped pattern for ornamentation purpose

1.36 : interior of chapel having openings of stepped pattern casted with gold leaf metal sheet

33 1.38 : image showing two tombs inclined towards each other

1.40 : interior shaded space of relativeâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s tomb that has mild light entering through slit on the top

1.39 : inclination of relativeâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s tomb with respect to the boundary wall

1.41 : diagram showing the location of water pool in cemetery

1.42 : a course of water acting as a guiding factor throughout the cemetery

1.43 : image showing the water flowing through small cylindrical vessel

1.46 : perspectival path which is culminating into ceiling of gold and light

1.45 : cut out in the ceiling allowing the skylight to enter

1.44 : water source in court of myrtles at Alhambra

1.47 : image of meditation pavilion highlighting the mosaic tiles band and sitting

Case Study 2

San Cataldo Cemetery by Aldo Rossi 2.1 Reflection on works of Aldo Rossi 2.1.1 Brief - “Architecture of the city” 2.2 Organization of the built form 2.2.1 Design as a whole 2.2.2 Similarity with Piranesi Map 2.2.3 Continuing language of the existing surrounding 2.3 Sequence of activity and approaches 2.3.1 Entrance to the cemetery 2.4 Aesthetics in form of elements 2.4.1 Ossuary – Square form 2.4.2 Communal grave – Conical form 2.4.3 Triangular footprint and U – shaped building 2.5 Impact of materials on Spatial Qualities 2.6 Inference

2.1 Influences on works of Aldo Rossi Biographical aspects Rossi was an Italian architect born in Milan on 3rd May, 1931. His father was engaged in manufacturing of bicycles. Hence, from a very tender age he has closely observed a profession which deals with assembling different parts to form a larger unit. This ideology is reflected in his design of cemetery, where he has assembled fragments to create an experience of journey from life to death. In childhood, he came across urban landscape paintings of Italian painter Mario Sironi and Giorgio Morandi. Inspired from them, he used to make paintings in childhood in form of collages, which later became his mode of presenting designs. These paintings project a haunting expression by shrinking the buildings of the city and swelling everyday objects like pots and kettle to fill the frame. Since very tender age, he had aspirations for film and drama. These film aspirations were transformed into architecture through the use of metaphors in his designs. “My observation of things has remained my most important formal education; later observation is transmuted into a memory of these things.”[1] Rossi also excelled into product designing like coffee makers, wrist watch, pen, kettles, coffee pot, chair etc. (fig. 2.1, fig 2.2). The design of this products were mainly influenced by his personal memories of buildings, forms and shape that he has been using since his childhood as he was a good observer. Students of interior designing, product designing, architecture, art or critical writing can look up to Rossi’s work at some point or other which depicts the versatile nature of an architect. Simplified geometric shapes include cube, cuboid, cylinder and cone. He used metaphors in architecture to symbolize belief, theories and experience. In 1966, Aldo Rossi wrote the book called “The architecture of the city”. Rossi won one of the most prestigious awards in the field of architecture - the Pritzker prize, where the juror Ada Louise Huxtable described him as “a poet more than an architect”[2]. He also got international recognition in three fields: art, theory and architecture.

Inspirational aspects Giovanni Piranesi was an Italian artist who was famous for his etchings of Rome. 1 Rossi, Aldo. Aldo Rossi – A scientific autobiography. Cambridge : The MIT Press, 1981. 2 “Spotlight: Aldo Rossi | Archdaily.” 3 May.2017. Accessed 15 May, 2017.

Piranesi uses number of perspective points to make the observer feel lost in the space. The frequent use of vertical railings and the horizontal pathways in his painting named “The imaginary prisons” strengthens the fragmented uncertainties of the space (fig. 2.3). Aldo Rossi’s paintings also has inspiration from earlier works of Piranesi which includes manipulation of human scale, combination of classical motif, organization of fragmented elements and modulation of space by using lights and shadow. Along with painting, the direct influence is seen in the plan of organization for the city of dead by Aldo Rossi and Piranesi (fig. 2.4). The comparison between Piranesi’s map for underground funerary complex in Rome and Aldo Rossi’s San Cataldo cemetery is done in section 2.2.2. Rossi’s work also reflects inspiration from Giorgio de Chirico who was an Italian artist and writer. He was interested in traditional painting techniques which influenced Surrealist painters. Surrealist painters deal with unexpected juxtaposition, introducing an element of surprise and an illogical scene with photographic precision. They developed neo-classical painting techniques which allowed the unconscious to express itself and have often used metaphysical themes. Rossi and Chirico extracted fragments from the composed city and hence they convey similar metaphor of silence and emptiness through their architecture (fig. 2.5). Guiseppe Terragni was an Italian architect who designed Danteum which is an unbuilt monument in Rome (fig. 2.6). This monument is dedicated to Alighieri Dante who was a metaphysical poet. Terragni have derived plan which includes rigid geometry based on golden rectangle and square[3] (fig. 2.7). The architecture is derived from Danteum poem “The divine comedy” where the visitor experience passing through sequence of spaces like purgatory, hell and paradise. Terragni developed a design of the physical structure of the afterlife taking into consideration the allegory written by Dante (fig. 2.8). Terragni have incorporated this experience in his architecture through repetition of coloumns, walls as well as play of light and shadow. Rossi during his student days came across Terragni’s buildings which imbibed in his memories and furthur got reflected in his architecture. Le Corbusier’s buildings were generated by emphasizing light factors. While Rossi created his forms by using more conventional signage and stripping down the ornamentation detailing to almost unadorned surfaces. Rossi’s architecture has more importance for shadows than for light. He has compared shadows to ghost from the past that hides as well as highlights the volumes of his design at the same time. 3 “The Danteum of Guiseppe Terragni - paper architecture - WordPress” 9 Aug. 2012, Accessed 20 March. 2017.

Rossi’s architecture draws an inspiration from Game of the Goose which he grew up playing in his childhood[4]. Game of the Goose is a popular children’s board game in Italy where players move along a board of 63 numbered spaces. The journey is full of spiraling route on which a player encounters obstacles such as a bridge, well, maze, and a skull which ultimately depicts the death. The direction in the game is anticlockwise which is against the passing time. Hence the player moves forward with the relation of time. The plan of the cemetery also acts as a game where pause points were compared to the thresholds of the life. The fine line between life and death is not known in advance but the halting journey of rapid progressions and stubborn pauses resembles the journey. The fortune hurtles the wanderer randomly in backward and forward steps but it finally leads to a defined destiny. Rossi considered himself as a wanderer moving ahead towards a certain objective in life but encounters some unexpected diversion in this uncertain journey.

Theoretical aspects Rossi was a Viennese architect and his sources of northern classicism and poetry helped him to frame his ideology. Rossi challenges the schemes of modern typology with ancient and vernacular counterparts. Rather than emphasizing ornamentation during that period, he has established an order of things that created a moment of present as a suspended passage linking past and future. Rossi was a neo-rationalist because his designs deal with ideas of limited range of buildings of 1920 and 30’s Italian rationalist architect. He believed that rather than coming up with individualistic architecture that disrupt the fabric of surrounding context, the design should merge with the common types. Many times, Rossi was considered as a postmodernist as he utilized aspects of historical styles and rejected many aspects of modernism. Throughout the 1960 and 70’s, Rossi was considered more as a theoretician and teacher rather than an architect[5]. Due to the damage caused by World War 2, there was a great amount of work either to be restored or to be newly constructed. Because of high demand and competition, Rossi allowed himself to express his unique ideas through construction. Secondly, there was the “economic miracle” phenomena during that time in Italy. Hence, Italy was able to afford many architectural projects. This phase proved an important period to start his journey. Rossi composes architectural plan, section and elevation in a single frame such that 4 “Postmodern in architecture: San Cataldo Cemetery by Aldo Rossi.” 30 July.2015, Accessed 20 April. 2017. 5 “Aldo Rossi | Italian architect | Britannica.com” 3 Oct. 2016, Accessed 21 April, 2017

it forms collage. This distribution of building parts suggests that they form an equally important representation of city. Sections are heavily shadowed to emphasize the infinite vastness of interior[6]. Rossi also uses paintings to represent his architectural spaces as well as elements. His paintings contain columns, domes, chimneys, cones and clock towers colliding with city skyline and composed in square. These paintings were more of a collage composed with simpler architectural forms and geometric shapes where the fragmented and distorted buildings represent the temporal and permanence character that Rossi believes in (fig. 2.9). “In architecture, every window is the window, both of the artist and of anybody at all, the window children write about it ‘tell me what you see from your window.”[7] In his paintings, windows were one of the excessively used objects as it is a very fine line between interior and exterior. Rossi’s paintings have silhouettes of people staring out from window, sitting in an empty room, playing in the corridor and walking towards nowhere.

2.1.1 Architecture of the city City is considered as the synthesis of disassociated parts which constantly undergoes changes, be it the natural or manmade. Rossi uses two different meaning to describe the city. Firstly, the city is seen as a gigantic man-made object which is growing over a period of time. Secondly, it is an urban artifact which is characterized by their own form and history. Rossi considers city as an object of art[8]. This work of art includes urban artifacts such as buildings, streets, urban furniture etc. Urban artifacts are changeable with time which justifies the formation, development and alterations of form. This process is demonstration of transformation of social and daily life practices. Rossi believes that city as a whole is important rather than its individual parts. However, Rossi also viewed the city as per human’s achievement per excellence. Every function can be articulated through forms and forms can exist as an urban artifact. If the monument of the city has survived because their forms have accommodated different functions, then it becomes a motivating element. The building is considered as a pathological (immoral) building, if it stands isolated and serves nothing to the surrounding context and the city.

6 Canniffe, Peter Jones & Eamonn. Modern architecture through case studies 1945-1990. New York: Routledge, 2007, pg 196. 7 Rossi, Aldo. Aldo Rossi - A scientific autobiography. Cambridge: The MIT press, 1981. 8 Rossi, Aldo. architecture of the city – urban artifacts as a work of art. Cambridge, Massachusetts: The MIT press, 1982.

City itself becomes the locus of the collective memory[9]. This memory helps one to grasp the importance of urban structure. City can be considered as the collective memory of people of the city - living as well as dead (fig. 2.10, 2.11). Hence Rossi proposed the idea of city for the dead. Buildings and cities survived through the times. This survival is because Rossi believes that memory is the part of architecture. Function keeps on changing over a period of time and hence events bring life to the building more than functions. Monuments depict the past events which happened earlier. These monuments survive for years as urban artifacts for the city to narrate those times which existed. It states that the buildings remain static for years but the only thing that changed was how they were used and adapted. The urban artifacts have the character of permanence while the activities and events are temporal

[10]

(fig. 2.12).

It is not only the form of architecture which constitutes the concrete form of the urban structure. But the city which was established and evolved, depends on multiple forces within the urban artifacts in the city. Rossi forms the city by assembling the various fragments like memory, history, monumentality and permanence. Similarly his drawings are fragments of his buildings, shapes, objects and people where each fragments varies in scale for different composition. Hence, buildings were looked as fragments of larger units which is the city.

9 Rossi, Aldo. architecture of the city - city as a history. Cambridge, Massachusetts: The MIT press, 1982. 10 Rossi, Aldo. architecture of the city â&#x20AC;&#x201C; the collective memory. Cambridge, Massachusetts: The MIT press, 1982.

2.2 Formation of building The neo-classical cemetery at Modena designed by Cesare Costa between 1858 and 1876 started becoming overcrowded.

Scarpa attempted to address this

problem between 1967 and 1969, but the attempt seems to be a failure. Hence a competition was called out to design an extension which was won by Rossi in 1971.

2.2.1 Design as a whole Cemetery has a rectangular area of around 320 x 175 m enclosed with double storey building[11]. A U-shaped building, cube, truncated cone and a stepped triangle is found within the short axis from south to north (fig. 2.13). Surrounding the central building, there exists two and half kilometer long corridor located under open burial fields. North wall was moved to the position parallel to east wall. Here, it serves as a connection between old and new cemetery as well as entrance. North end of Rossi’s cemetery is defined by the series of plantations. Plan of the cemetery is bilateral. The neo-rational nature of Rossi focuses on the purity of form where the meaning is attached to the composition. The ossuaries of the cemetery are the fragments reassembled like a rib cage in a human body. Overall configuration or composition can be viewed as a “skeletal configuration” with ribs, skull, pelvis, arms and legs which is influenced from the injuries that he had suffered from (fig. 2.14). Rossi considered Costa cemetery and the outer boundary as the city realm in which he is proposing a design for the extension of the cemetery. The plan of the building on the periphery is almost similar to the Costa cemetery which is also devoid of ornamentation. The cemetery plan has three primary forms - cone, ossuary and central triangular spine surrounded by three storey rows of burial recesses (fig. 2.15). Courtyard for the city of dead is considered to be empty except for the three structures[12]. During most of the day in Italy, crowd throng the piazzas and public with the noisy vehicles creating chaos. But the courtyard of the cemetery remains empty and gets never filled up. Hence, absence being the most salient feature of the Rossi’s cemetery, it is just bones and buildings.

11 Johnson, Eugene J. “What remains of man - aldo Rossi’s modena cemetery.” Journal of the society of architectural historians (March 1982): 3-5. 12 Ghirado, Diane. “The blue’s of Aldo Rossi’s sky.” Architectural Associations no. 70 2015: 160.

2.2.2 Similarity with Piranesi Map In Piranesi Map, majority of the area on the right of Tiber is occupied by the cluster of funerary monuments[13] (fig. 2.16). Here, Hadrian’s tomb sits on the square based plan. Beyond this square shaped plan, U-shaped group of buildings forms Sepulchra. This U-shaped buildings embrace the bottom of fan shaped structure and at apex of the fan sits a round building called Basilica. It later forms group of monuments where cremation takes place labeled as Bustum Hadriani. Rossi has emphasized the idea of city for dead which is similar to the funerary complex designed by Piranesi (fig. 2.4). Hence, the general layout and the connections with respect to axis between Rossi’s and Piranesi is identical.

2.2.3 Continuing language of the surrounding context Rossi noted the problem of joining the new cemetery’s design to existing Jewish and Costa cemetery. Hence, he enclosed the site with the most simplest and primitive architectural forms. Size of Costa cemetery is similar to San Cataldo, but the internal organization or composition of the project changes. This dislocation with respect to scale and context is aligned with the axis of Jewish cemetery. The top and bottom axis of San Cataldo cemetery is aligned with Jewish and Costa cemetery (fig. 2.17). Central axis of Costa cemetery is aligned along in the axis of internal U-shaped design proposal[14]. This axis doesn’t fall in the center but acts as an axis to demarcate the spaces. The language of the costa cemetery and buildings on the periphery has the same language followed in terms of scale, shape and the sloping roof.

13 Johnson, EugeneJ. “What remains of man - aldo Rossi’s modena cemetery.” Journal of the society of architectural historians (March 1982): 41-42 14 Moneo, Rafael. “Aldo Rossi : The idea of architecture and the Modena Cemetery”. pg 119

2.3 Circulation and form of movement Death is clearly recalled in the procession through this skeletal form from cube towards the grave. The entrance of the cemetery is followed by a cubical structure made up of concrete. Through the central axis, this cubical structure leads to cone shaped structure. The central axis gradually increases in height and decreases in length respectively (fig. 2.18). Hence, a symmetrical plan has cone on one side and cube on the other side creating a balance. Diogo said that during his stay in hospital, Rossi started “coming to terms with the idea of his own death,” and the experience caused him to re-evaluate his approach to architecture. This composition in plan shows an assembly of fragments which represents the configuration of human body[15]. The position of ossuary depicts the head while cone symbolizes the phallus (fig. 2.14). The U-shaped porticoes form shoulders and arms. Keeping the context in mind, cone becomes a 25meter phallus that carries the dual meaning of cremation as well as generation i.e. death and life. Ribs like buildings are placed in a triangular footprint and the journey of life is symbolized through the central axis which is similar to spine or vertibral column. The journey is culminated by the conical shaped communal grave which is at tip of the triangular footprint (fig. 2.19). The journey from cube to conical grave depicts the timelessness and infinity when compared to the journey of life. The emptiness and the timelessness that death is synonymous with, is tried to symbolize in this long stretch that leading to the communal grave. The sequence of movement in San Cataldo cemetery is similar to Hannes Meyer project - Central cemetery at Basel (fig 2.20). In Meyer’s project, the great steps are curved in plan to respond to hillside, but curve is flattened out in the elevation. Meyer’s steps lead to round building having conical roof - the columbarium. This relationship between centrally planned building and steps in Meyer’s project is similar to relation between triangle and cone in bird’s eye view of Modena cemetery (fig. 2.21). The form of movement in San Cataldo cemetery is emphasized through straight axis between cube and cone. This form of movement is identical to Aldo Rossi’s project of monument to the resistance in Segrate in Italy. It is a memorial in park which is made by assembling of basic forms like prism, cylinder and cuboid (fig 2.22). The way all the three forms come together to emphasize the journey from prism to cylinder is shown in miniature painting (fig 2.23). Thus, ranging from 15 Maers, Jassica. “post modern architecture : San Cataldo cemetery.” Dezeen magazines 30 july 2015.

monument in a park to a building like cemetery, Rossi emphasizes the journey by defining starting and ending element through basic shapes.

2.3.1 Entrance to the cemetery There is an arcade which serves as an entrance and a connection between old and new cemetery. The entrance of the cemetery has vertical fins on the ground floor which opens up to view the centrally designed cube i.e. house for dead. These triple height vertical fins are arranged very nearer to each other to project the entrance of dark Narrow Street like character (fig. 2.24). Though brief of the project is public, form of the entry is not welcoming. Walls on the periphery somehow question the public nature of the project. Facing the old cemetery, a rectangular building is placed parallel to the outermost building. This building has long portico which is two storey high and fins are depicted by the vertical walls or flanges. The old and new cemetery is connected due to this transparency. This rectangular block has a top floor which connects to the building through the bridge. The columbarium corridor stretch throughout the ground floor which is similar to the connecting block. The character of labyrinth of Crete is similar to the cemetery designed by Aldo Rossi[16]. Labyrinth of Crete is a two-story enclosure with bare walls that has rectangular door and square window openings carved in it with triangular roofs covering it. This Crete was used as a maze to any visitor and as a prison also (fig. 2.25). The same character of maze was experienced while walking through Rossi’s long subterranean passages which appears dark and also lacks in providing clear directions. The journey of life is associated with the maze where an individual is unaware about the consequences of next phases. Prison according to Rossi had loaded experience which is similar to the thought of death. Rossi was much carried away by prison as a building type. The south side of the cemetery is marked by the vertical flanges that resemble prison bars (fig. 2.26). It conveys meaning that an individual cannot escape death. Rossi has described death as an ultimate goal of life and one should accept it in a positive way.

16 Johnson, EugeneJ. “What remains of man - aldo Rossi’s modena cemetery.” Journal of the society of architectural historians (March 1982): 43.

2.4 Aesthetics in form of elements Rossi is considered to be an architect, whose architecture is represented in form of art and the one who painted his own compositions. Repetition of elements in Rossi’s work appreciates the character of space and helps in strengthening the metaphor that he uses for the cemetery. To convey the idea of memory, familiarity and pure geometry, Rossi has repeated the fragments in form of shapes, elements and symbols. The use of this form creates the silence and emptiness as a metaphor of death. Thus, the understanding of architect’s life and death are expressed through the form of elements.

2.4.1 Ossuary – Cube form Square as an element is repeated throughout the plan and elevation on various scales. Openings such as windows in house of dead as well as windows on long U-shaped buildings are square (fig. 2.27). Shape of ossuary is also cube and facades as it sides are also cube. The domination in landscape is also viewed in shape of square. The landscape of the project is the necessary element to give a monumental character to ossuary. Also, the house for dead has evidences of Palazzo Della Civilta Italiana in physical as well as experiential form (fig. 2.28). Thus at Modena, the cube has the main function for those who died in war. The Milanese architecture group BBPR in 1945 designed the Monument to the Victims of the Concentration Camps in the weeks following the Liberation day (fig. 2.29). This cube is tridimensional grid of 212cm and formed by intersection of cube and Greek cross. Cube as a memorial form used for ossuary is inspired to Rossi from the monument to dead[17]. Secondly, Rossi also took inspiration from Cuneo cube. Cuneo cube has to be approached by a set of steps which are triangular in shape. Similar stepped triangle reappears in the Modena project which leads to cube (fig 2.30). These steps ascend towards an unroofed cube resembling a kind of inverted mastaba. Third, the facade also shows similarity with Hannes Meyer project - Central cemetery at Basel (fig. 2.20). The Meyer’s project is dominated by a circular building whose wall has puncture of five rows of identical round arch windows. The elevation of the building is similar to Rossi’s cube if an individual omits its conical roof and colonnaded portico. Openings of the ossuary Facade of the ossuary has porous quality. The openings in bottom seems like door which invites for close inspection. The term “House for dead” stands for the ones 17 Johnson, EugeneJ. “What remains of man - aldo Rossi’s modena cemetery.” Journal of the society of architectural historians (March 1982): 44-47.

who no longer need protection and the shelter. Open doors and windows without shutter and mullion as well as roofless walls and rooms depict the feeling of incompleteness. The opening clearly marks the influence from painting by Mario Sironi. This roofless and floorless cube has chamfered openings, without window frame and door which was influenced by the painting called “Periferia” by Mario Sironi (fig. 2.31). The painting is of urban landscape with the presence of rail tracks, roads, houses, chimneys and factories. As he was also inspired from Austrian architect Loo’s work, de-ornamentation is achieved by looking at window sills, cornices, column capitals and windows which is hardly articulated. The cold rugged structure symbolizes death. This character reminds us of being in a place where death is not conveyed visually by articulating but responding it in a metaphorical way.

2.4.2 Communal grave - conical form The use of conical structure in cemetery gives us an idea of recalling the form from his memories of chimneys of school, factories and brickworks of Po Valley and north Italy[18]. Rossi has also featured conical form in his project of school at Fagnano (fig. 2.32) and town hall at Borgoricco (fig. 2.33). Rossi in his text for competition mentioned “the chimney of a deserted factory” with the reference to the process of de-industrialization that the northern Italy passed through. The roofless conical structure has steps going inside at lower level where ashes of dead people are kept. This place acts as a focal point and the locus of the city of dead. A cone at a Modena serves two functions where upper layer has an amphitheater for gathering while lower level acts as a resting place for bones of indigent (fig. 2.34). In Rossi’s cemetery, there are two different separate monument - cone and cube i.e. one for the war dead and another for the indigent. The art work - “Town hall of Muggio” has the use of truncated cone that forms a fulcrum on which the whole composition turns (fig. 2.35). Le Corbusier has used cone in Assembly building at Chandigarh to depict the secular character (fig. 2.36). On other hand, cone is also used in modern industrial water towers. Hence, Rossi intends to use cone at Modena to house religious as well as civil functions[19]. The cone and smoke stack appears in the painting by Giorgio de Chirico - “The 18 Ghirado, Diane. “The blue’s of Aldo Rossi’s sky.” Architectural Associations no. 70 2015:165 19 Johnson, Eugene J. “What remains of man – Aldo Rossi’s Modena cemetery.” Journal of the Society of Architectural historians (March 1982) : pg 47-48

Philosopher’s Conquest” and “The Anguish of Departure” (fig. 2.37, 2.7a). Another project, the most closest and direct source for Rossi’s conical form is Boullee’s project (fig. 2.38). To create a circular sitting, Rossi has inverted the inner dome which can act as an gathering space or amphitheatre.

2.4.3 Triangular footprint and U- shaped building In this cemetery’s design intervention, a triangle attached with blocks depicts a spine connected to rib cage. This rib bones are further connected to different parts of body. In Rossi’s design, porticoes occurred in triangle as well as U-shaped buildings which surround it. During those times, Emilia and Lombardy was famous for porticoes streets and square which might have inspired Rossi to use in his designs. These long never ending colonnades reminds of his project Gallaratese housing quarters in Milan (fig 2.39). De Chirico’s painting “the mystery and melancholy of streets” also found the similarities in term of linear porticoes which are facing the street (fig 2.40). Rossi’s idea of insertion of triangle in centrally planned Renaissance city is similar to the sketch “codex atlanticus” by Leonardo Da Vinci (fig. 2.41). In this sketch, radiating from a centrally planned square placed in the middle of the city, Leonardo lays out a triangular residential quarter with stepped sides[20] (fig 2.42).

20 Johnson, Eugene J. “What remains of man – Aldo Rossi’s Modena cemetery.” Journal of the Society of Architectural historians (March 1982) : pg 53

2.5 Impact of materials on spatial qualities The ossuary (house for dead) is covered in terracotta, while the perimeter building enclosing the courtyard features steely blue roofs. The roof of the surrounding building is blue in colour and the axis is in continuation from Costa cemetery. It is set behind an open landscape that gives building a foreground to set the contact (fig 2.46). The colour of the roof is sky blue which seems like an industrial shade and breaks the visual language of skyline. Facade of ossuary is clean but the clarity is lost in terms of form as we enter. The facade behaves as a fake face while interior is flooded with staircases, steel columns and vertical lift core (fig. 2.44). The building from inside seems like chaotic collage of steel members and hence lack in articulation intent. The experience of refracted orange light inside the building creates a dramatic effect (fig 2.45). This shows that there is a change in language and expression from outside to inside. “It was also the first project where he used colour extensively with the sky-blue sheeting of the roofs, the pale rose of the stucco of the walls of the tombs, and the dark red of the cubic ossuary,” Lopes told Dezeen. “This could be seen as an early sign of a feature commonly associated with Postmodernism.” -Jassica Maers The boundary wall is plain and exposed brick faces a change which is continued in plastered wall. It has series of blue windows which creates a contrasting gesture with the light reddish colour of the wall.The lonf infinfite collonades are made up of stucco concrete that adds to the character of silence and sadness(fig. 2.46). The adoption of using muted blue and terracotta palette emphasizes the postmodern approach. The columbaria have similar corridors lined up with cubical shelves. These shelves contain belongings of the dead and the corridors are ventilated by square frameless glassless windows. Muggio cone is painted white while the cone at Modena was painted red. The purpose is, red is the tone of smokestack and smokestack dominates the central axis of his elementary school at Fagnano Olona. Being an architect who built from his memories and observation, colour of smoke stack reminds of chimneys of factories. The progression of rib like ossuaries from increasing heights to converging length contributed to the dramatic aspects of space through the shadow patterns which was absent in cube and cone. This shadow and light magnifies the play on the

bare concrete surfaces. Isolated, abandoned and empowering character of spaces in project suppresses one’s desire to speak while being in the cemetery (fig 2.47). Rossi wanted to express the feeling of missing beloved through this project but somehow the feeling of incompleteness was perceived more through his roughness in architecture. Hence, visual attraction of cemetery is orange colour for house of dead, sky-blue pitched roof, blue windows from outside and louvered entrance at the backdrop of “house for dead”. The earthy toned facade of the ossuary and steely blue roofs of the perimeter buildings acts as a clear break away from the stark grey concrete favored by Modernists in the preceding decades (fig 2.48).

2.6 Inference “Lying nearly immobile, I thought of the past but sometimes I did not think: I merely gazed at the trees and the sky. During the following summer, in my study for the project, perhaps only this image and pain in my bones remained with me: I saw the skeletal structure of the body as a series of fracture to be re-assembled.” -Rossi. A, 1981 (A scientific autobiography) “One can wear a Rossi wristwatch, sit in a Rossi chair sipping espresso from Rossi coffee pot, don clothes from a Rossi armoire, promenade through a Rossi mega shopping center near Parma, see an Opera in his Genoese theatre, and even reserve a plot in giant Rossi’s cemetery at Modena”[21] Rossi’s design reflects the emotions and poetics through his design. All the projects of Rossi were guided by past incidents, his experiences and memories implemented in fragments to create a monument. These monuments eventually acts as an urban artifact to the city. Rossi’s architecture insist itself in the power of forgotten events. According to his philosophy, time has escaped but the object remains as childhood memories. Rossi’s symbolism has deeper meaning because he never believed in literal interpretation or representation. Rossi was influenced by the painters like De Chirico and architects like Terragni and Piranese. Piranese map deals with funerary moments of Rome while Terragni constructed Danteum that helps one to experience the life after death. Hence, the architect from whom Rossi got influenced has direct relation with death. Even the painters like Mario Sironi and De Chirico’s paintings symbolizes silence and incompleteness which is reflected as a metaphor of death in the design of Rossi’s cemetery. According to Rossi, city of the dead is a place which consists of collective memories of people who once lived in the city and have contributed to the history of the place. Thus, for him, City of the dead is equally important as city of the living. San Cataldo cemetery was influenced by his personal memory of the accident which left him bedridden for a long time. This phase enforced him to think about life and death more closely and thus he could conceptualize his design intervention for the cemetery. The design strongly projects the influence from fragments of human ribs, animal skeleton, faceless people, distorted images of the buildings and scaffoldings which symbolizes life and death. Also, cube as form is derived out of the memorials constructed in Italy during 1960’s and cone signifies the chimney of 21 Kurt W., quoted from “Aldo Rossi’s Architecture of recollection”, a booklet published by Pritzker Prize in the year 1990

deserted factory that denotes burial. This implies that form and movement in San Cataldo cemetery is directly derived out of his personal experience. Considering death as the ultimate goal of life, the experience of death in the cemetery is concluded through the character of space and materials used with the combination of specific colours. Prison as a character depicts the maze of life and the experience of death as loaded. The long never-ending colonnades of monotonous shades reminds of columns in Danteum that reflect the infinite experience of life after death. Rossiâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s attempt through his design intervention was to build for permanence i.e. for times to come. Master plan of San Cataldo was designed in such a way to experience it through various times and is meant for the temporal life emphasizing a new beginning rather than the sad end. Thus, he was fascinated by the idea to design a building that symbolizes death. Rossi believed in linking the past and the present. Hence, he has created a bridge which connects old cemetery to the new one. Unlike other buildings that are occupied with life, the essence of this place is cold and chilly. This suggests the permanence of death which is more prevailing throughout the cemetery. The city of dead is designed to experience silence, emptiness, memory and monumentality. Though the idea of abandoned house deals with the lost attribute, the project doesnâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t turn out to give the feeling of ruins. The metaphor of death is possible only while dealing with the finished object or end of all the things. Rossi seems not to regret over the past but to recover it in order to establish continuity within the history of the city. He appears equating death to such things as beginning, hope and dreams rather than a brutal reality.

Figures

2.4 : Similarity between organisation in Piranesi’s map and San Cataldo cemetery

2.3 : “The imaginary prison” etched by Piranesi

2.5 : Silence and emptiness reflected in the paintings of De Chirico

2.1 : Rossi’s frequent sketches of daily used products like spoon, fork, kettle, mug, watch

2.2 : Sketch of kettle designed by Aldo Rossi with the monument that inspired him

2.7 : Danteum built by Terragni composed of basic geomtrical shapes

2.8 : Experience of spaces like hell, heaven and purgatory in the building designed by Terragni

2.6 : isometric view of Danteum which is made up of walls, columns and open spaces.

2.10 : A collage of Rossiâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s daily objects from his memories, paintings and buildings 2.11 : Image showing juxtaposition of daily used objects with buildings 2.12 : In this paintings, buildings refer to permanence while daily objects emphasizes temporality of life

2.9 : Fragments of Gallaratese blocks, incomplete shaft of city hall square and the cone of Muggio

2.15 : Bird eye view showing organisation of functions of cemetery 2.14 : schema of cemetery showing position of three primary forms

2.13 : Collage of plan of San Cataldo cemetery designed by Aldo Rossi

2.17 Plan of San Cataldo cemetery that continues the proportion of existing Jewish and Costa cemetery

2.19 : view showing the journey from cube to cone

2.16 : cluster of funerary monuments in Piranesi map

2.18 : Side elevation showing increasing and decreasing height of the central axis

2.21 : Similar relation in the form of building is seen between elevation of Meyerâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s cemetery and th eplan of Aldo Rossiâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s cemetery

2.20 : Cemetery designed by Hannes Mayer on the hills of Basel

2.22 : monument to the resistance in Segrate designed by Aldo Rossi

2.23 : Assembling of prism, cuboid and cylinder to emphsize the journey between two points

2.24 : Vertical concrete flanges which creates narrow openings in the entrance

2.25 : Labyrinth of Crete that has similar character of prison and acts as a maze 2.26 : Building facing the old cemetery having long porticoes of 2 storey heights

2.28 : Palazzo Della Civilta Italiana which has similarity with the cube ossuary at Modena cemetery

2.27 : Square openings in the cube ossuary made up of terracota

2.31 : â&#x20AC;&#x153;Periferiaâ&#x20AC;? painting by Mario Sironi

2.30 : Cuneo cube (Plan & sectional elevation)

2.29 : Monument to the Victims of the Concentration Camps

2.33 : conical structure at town hall at Borgoricco by Aldo Rossi

2.32 : Conical structure at School at Fagnano (comparision with modena cemetery)

2.34 : Conical section of San Cataldo cemetery

2.38 : Conical form in Boullee’s project - “Newton’s Cenotaph”

2.35 : The art work - “Town hall of Muggio”

2.37/ 2.37a: “The Philosopher’s Conquest” and “The Anguish of Departure” painting by De Chirico

2.36 : Cone used at Assembly building at Chandigarh to depict secularism

2.39 : Collonades of Gallaratese housing having similar proportions as the Modena cemtery

2.40 : De Chirico’s painting “the mystery and melancholy of streets”

2.42 : “Renaissance city” by Leonardo Da Vinci

2.41 : sketch “codex atlanticus” by Leonardo Da Vinci

2.43 : The analogous city

2.44 : Interior of cube flooded with steel structures

2.48 : Image comprising of steely blue roof, terracota cube and concrete columbarium structure in surrounding

2.45 : experience of refracted orange light inside the building

2.47 : The plastered facade doesnâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t distract the thoughts and helps one to remeber their beloved ones

67 2.46 : view of the stucco plastered monotonous long corridors which emphasizes character of silence

Case Study 3

Igualada Cemetery by Enric Miralles 3.1 Influences on works of Enric Miralles 3.2 Formation of building 3.3 Circulation and form of movement 3.4 Form of elements 3.4.1 Burial Niches 3.4.2 Modular Repetition 3.5 Impact of materials on spatial qualities 3.6 Inference

3.1 Influences on work of Enric Miralles Biographical aspects Enric Miralles was born in 1955 in Barcelona, Spain. At the age of 15, Miralles entered the architecture university ETSAB from where he graduated in 1978. Carme Pinos and Enric Miralles set up their office from 1984 to 1991. He won many competition projects while working with his first wife Carme Pinos and hence started gaining international recognitions too. Miralles marriage and so did his partnership ended with Pinos after seven years. In 1993, he established office with his second wife Benedetta Tagliabue named as EMBT architects. Year 1975 marked as the ending phase of Spain Franco regime. Miralles took this opportunity and presented his own method of working which involves careful study of the context and incorporating the surrounding in his designs. He always attempts to attach meaning and harmony to the landscape which was appreciated since starting of his practice. The materials he used in his design were heavy and industrial while his designs were bold and complicated.

Inspirational aspects Like many other architects, Miralles and Pinos were highly influenced by certain orders in nature and some random patterns of things like bundle of twigs, croissant etc. Miralles being a professor, used to ask his students to measure draw the croissant (fig 3.1). The outcome of this exercise was reflected through clarity in various layers of drawings and precision in curve. Until 1974, Miralles studied at ETSAB where under the direction of Rafael Moneo he analyzed the works of Le Corbusier. In designing concrete sloping walls containing niches at the cemetery, Corbusierâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s information on concrete proved useful. The similarity between shape of Ronchampsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s lifted curved roof by Le Corbusier and the head of the inclined walls by Miralles cemetery is identical (fig 3.2, fig. 3.2a). The looping shapes and the interlacing lines suggest the influence of Le-Corbusierâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s work in the projects of Miralles. Although Miralles followed him, his approach towards composition is unique[1]. His plans and sections draw the influence from Le Corbusier. Le Corbusier is known for his dedication to modular methods and basic geometrical shapes. However, Miralles connection to works of Corbusier is emphasized by the use of curved lines with respect to rigid geometry. In carpenter center designed by Le Corbusier, the ramp cuts through the spaces of the building 1 Wilson, Sean. Infamous Lines - Unique Compositions. n.d. 2 May 2017.

(fig. 3.3). The similar concept is emphasized in Hostalets de Balenya and Igualada cemetery by Enric Miralles (fig. 3.4). Drawings of Miralles show a clear connection to strokes of Giacometti’s sketch termed as “Portrait de Diego” (fig. 3.5). The quality of line also seems identical to the sketches of Alvaro Siza (fig. 3.6). Figure 3.6a and 3.6b reflects the similarity in the strokes of line by Enric Miralles while designing the cemetery at Igualada. Antoni Gaudi was a Spanish architect whose free-flowing forms were mostly inspired by nature. He was a catalan architect who excelled with his nature based organic style. Gaudi in his project “Park Guell” at Barcelona, have used the inclined columns aesthetically which seems to be emerging from the landscape (fig 3.7). Miralles, in his project “Tiro con Arco” has used structural inclined columns of metal in such a way that structure and space doesn’t seems to be separate (fig 3.8). Miralles through his work has always aimed at choreographing the movement. For him, the building should be derived out of movement. To emphasize the vertical movement, Miralles built a meditation pavilion in Unazuki (fig. 3.9). Motion of the feet and eye creates the movement in landscape and meditation movement in mind. Parque Miralles designed by Enric Miralles at Barcelona, has the element running throughout the cemetery that emphasizes the horizontal choreography of the movement (fig. 3.10). Miralles project draws inspiration from Zaha Hadid. Hadid’s project represents dynamic qualities of curvy shape. For example, the Bratislava Culenova New British center by Zaha Hadid seems to emerge from the surrounding landscape (fig 3.11). Along with the attention to landscape and physical context, the influences are also witnessed through powerful lines of movement.

Theoretical aspects Enric Miralles and Carme Pinos are the architects who work with an idea of linking human activities with the history of the site and its cultural landscape. Throughout all the projects, there is an interest which is reflected in tilted planes, floating horizontals, stratified sections, inflected fragments and established relation between ground and human figure. The elements of building like platforms, decks, staircases, ramp, bridges etc directly relates to the use and movement of human beings[2]. Some of the institutional barriers are broken by designing overlapping levels at Hostalets, the cascading stairs at Badalona, the fractured terraces and platforms of the stadia etc. and also creating ease in communication due to interconnections. There is 2 Zabalbeascoa, Anatxu. Igualada Cemetery: Enric Miralles and Carme Pinós. London: Phaidon, 1996. Print

a certain idea of procession, ritual, interchanging and mingling in the projects of Miralles. The drawings submitted for the Modena cemetery contains plan, birds-eye view and an axonometric view, while for the Igualada cemetery competition, Enric Miralles presented numerous site sections[3]. This states the notion that cemetery cannot be expressed as a place without moving through it. Also, cemetery being a place to experience cannot be explained just with a single view. Miralles didnâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t draw human figure to express the relation between human beings and architecture. Rather he used to show the movement in space through line representation. Each drawing being hand drawn, displays slight variation in line weight. Hierarchy in drawing is achieved by accumulation and density of repeated elements[4] (fig. 3.12). Long meandering curves acts as anchors restraining a field of satellite elements which would otherwise drift out of harmony. Giacometti overlay lines to create moments of intense density. In drawings of Igualada cemetery by Enric Miralles, hierarchy is emphasized by the use of similar curves and repeating overlaid elements.

3 Cecilia, Fernando Marquez. Enric Miralles :1983 - 2000. Spain: Spain Cecilia Fernando Marquez and Richard Levene, 2005. 4 Wilson, Sean. Infamous Lines - Unique Compositions. n.d. 2 May 2017.

3.2 Formation of the building Igualada cemetery is designed by Enric Miralles and Carme Pinos as in the Catalonia province of Spain. This cemetery was designed for the city of Igualada which is an hour drive to north-west from the heart of Barcelona[5]. Igualada has approximately forty thousand inhabitants and it is considered to be an industrial manufacturing town. Igualada cemetery is located between industrial sector and the valley of river Riera de Odena (fig 3.13, fig 3.13a). Characteristics of both the typology are reflected in the design of cemetery. The industrial sector has an easy access to the main highway while the Igualada’s historic urban edge tucks along the river’s curve. Instead of: “what does it mean to design a cemetery?” they try: “what does it mean to design a cemetery here, in the valley of a former river, between existing industry and a potential quarry?” This cemetery exists on the site which was used as a quarry for extracting heavy stones. Hence both the functions involves cutting into the site. It acts as a place for removal of the earth while on other hand it becomes a place for returning back. The initial move to excavate and emphasize the cut in the land was derived from the geomorphological history of the site which is dried-up river valley. The messy edges and the monolithic construction is inspired form the topographical condition and eccentricities. “Architecture converges with the site to a point where it almost is a site” - Anatxu zabalbeascoa When seen from above, the land on which the cemetery is constructed appears untouched because it is sunk in the ground. In the case of Igualada cemetery, landscape stands more important than the building. The form of the building is generated by responding to the immediate context but it is not bound by the programmatic requirements that forces to attain a rectilinear shape or grid like subdivided plan (fig 3.14). The existing topographical order is framed by the trenches and angular lines. The site plan reflects the swirls of surrounding context path and contours. Movement and rituals form the space rather than geometric type and function. As a generator of form, the idea of spine is manifested (fig 3.15). The organic and amoeba like form of the design proposal marks the contrasting idea of functional and orthogonal production spaces of the Igualada city (fig 3.16). It is not only organic in the form but it has equal representation of natural and 5 Meyer, Elizabeth. Chronotopia on Igualada. University of Virginia, Fall 2014.

manmade materials[6]. In figure 3.17, red is the lowest part of the cemetery while black represents the depression. To mark the termination of street Carrer Paisos Baixos, which has industrial scale manufacturing buildings, the gravel paved entrance plaza is created for the cemetery. The entrance path was designed such that mourners can accompany their deceased beloved till the funeral cottage. The point of arrival of cemetery is marked by the curved platform on the top with the trees planted at several points (fig 3.18). The site is perceived as a street and the route is defined by burial vaults acting as walls (fig 3.19). Descending slowly, the visitor reaches the ground which is between the cliff of tombs, angled parapets and the frame that is cutting off all the distraction excluding sky and the mountain ridges. At bottom of the ramp, the angular lines are terminated into the curved outdoor chamber. The idea was to bring the visitors down and away from the street into the landscape which is analogous to the regional landform (fig 3.20). Here, the visitors get the view of tombs, sky and stony walls.

6 Zabalbeascoa, Anatxu. Igualada Cemetery: Enric Miralles and Carme PinoĚ s. London: Phaidon, 1996. Print

3.3 Circulation and form of the movement Design of cemetery includes main entrance, chapel, mortuary and stack of rows of burial niches which leads to mausoleum[7]. On approaching the entrance, a visitor is greeted by arrangement of the steel rods which is similar to the crosses at Calvary[8] (fig. 3.18). The cemetery emphasizes an idea about the Christian rituals to be followed at end of the life. This cross describes the crucifixion of Jesus. The composition of these three elements – chapel, burial spaces and morgue creates a fourth function which acts as a public park[9] (fig.3.21) This public park is defined by the movement between entry plaza and a reciprocal but it is bounded by the mausoleum plaza at the lowest level of the site. Primary circulation axis is formed by the cut in the site along the old river valley which is 5 meters lower than the plane of the city. Towards the west, the straight line of the design meets the new industrial sector of the city while it adjoins the contours of historic river bed on the other side. The wall on the south slopes towards the viewer while the northern wall counterpart pulls away (fig. 3.22). This allows the intermediate space to be framed as an eroded channel. The trees are slim and it height doesn’t exceed more than concrete canopies. This trees acts as a figures in a bounded space that stands straight against the sloping concrete walls (fig. 3.23). These tall standing trees emphasize the inclination. From distance, it is the tree which attracts one’s attention and not the man-made construction on the site. The design draws an inspiration for construction of system of niches from traditional Spanish cemetery. The burial vaults are “neither neglected nor monumentalized”[10]. The retaining of the earth is done through the burial spaces which have sloping concrete walls which is vertically stacked four or five on top of each other (fig 3.24). These concrete canopies are sloping towards each other across the spaces and hinting us as an enclosure (fig 3.25). The burial vaults occupy their place in landscape which is side by side along the path of movement. Thus, Miralles concept is to choreograph the movement in the space. Graves are stacked in stepping landscape into the earth and it features as a stacking element. Here, dead (corpse) also becomes part of the site along with the relatives. At various places, the tomb’s inclined cliff is fractured to give sense of the pressure of the earth behind. The top of these concrete bands which is slightly rounded reminds us of the Ron Champ (fig. 3.26). Contraction and compression of space along with light and shadow will appreciate the movement along the path which is descending down through the 7 Bradt, Tyler. Three Urban Cemeteries. ISSUU, 29 April, 2013. 8 Cecilia, Fernando Marques. Enric Miralles : 1983 – 2000. Spain: Cecilia Fernando Marquez and Richard Levene, 2005. 9 Meyer, Elizabeth. Chronotopia on Igualada. University of Virginia, Fall 2014. 10 Zabalbeascoa, Anatxu. Igualada Cemetery: Enric Miralles and Carme Pinós. London: Phaidon, 1996. Print

ramp into lower plaza. The movement on the same level is smooth, but the stairway or the flight is slightly elevated above the ground (fig. 3.27). This creates pause in the circulation and leads to obscure angles which redefines the path. The circulation is skewed in plan and the slanting wall in section decreases the comfortness and ease in movement in the cemetery (fig. 3.28). These mausoleums are buried in the retaining walls made up of stones (fig 3.29). The ground level is actually lowered in order to separate cemetery from the surrounding industrial context. The main burial area of the cemetery is level down than the surrounding context and puts the visitors at the same level of the dead. There also exists a secondary pathway above and to north of the primary cut which branches out just beyond the entry plaza. It wraps the mausoleum and mediates the chapel and morgue which are located higher up the hillside and burial path at lower level. The chapel is beyond the perforated wall towards the left on the entry. This perforated wall marks the boundary between the divine and the profane. The construction of chapel remained incomplete which was later taken up when he started office with his second wife in 1993. Miralles has written that he enjoyed cut-outs for giving â&#x20AC;&#x153;the work a certain sense of immediacyâ&#x20AC;Ś emphasizing certain momentsâ&#x20AC;? Miralles designs mostly contain geometrical cutouts, zigzag routes and inclined walls. Cut outs in the ground and the reciprocal fill in shape of curves allow places of flow as well as places for community and individual too. This excavated path creates communal spaces shared by trees, crypts, visitors, memories and objects. The design intends to have constant engagement with the site for a viewer. The moments created within the building are never isolated but it is related to history of the place: the position of a wall has a relation to nearby landform and the cut of the building outline focuses on how the building meets ground. The relationship between the architecture and the landscape is evidently powerful. At Modena cemetery by Aldo Rossi, there is an established relationship between part and whole while Igualada cemetery is irreducible to its part and is inseparable from its terrain. This project deals with the network of interlapping spaces that marks the project as the fragments of articulated time.

3.4 Repetition of elements Igualada cemetery is composed of various composite type of elements like arrangement of burial niches, the natural variations within the steel cage of the retaining wall, the collection of freeform undulating and curvy ground patterns. This becomes a part of regulating the overlapping of multiple repetitive elements. The drawings of Enric Miralles cemetery deals with density, repetition and organization of compound curves. These curves define the movement along the path as well as provides softness to the architectural expression of cemetery.

3.4.1 Burial niches Traditional cemeteries have burial niches which creates a physical boundary and an object out in space between the spaces of dead and living. In the design of Igualada, the passage passes through the burial walls, while collapsing these burial spaces into the communal street. The excavation and filling within the topography of the site diminishes the hard edge between the ground and the building. This excavation also creates a threshold between newly created and the pre-existing landscape. The formation of the modular vaults are shown in fig. 3.30. The scale and placement of the vaults along the typology of the site is shown in the diagram (fig 3.31). These small modular vaults are placed together in such a way that it works with the site and doesnâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t get emphasized. Each vault when zoomed in symbolizes a drawer (box) of information, stories and memory related to that individual person. As a whole, the geometry is created where individual vaults encourages the direction of movement (fig 3.32). This faĂ§ade is repeated and scattered but the inclination is inward and outward at alternate phases. In case of Miralles, one can say that symbolism is at structural and accommodation level. Miralles idea behind designing this cemetery was to embody the body. Thus it becomes necessary to give recognition to individual body going back to earth. Here, each burial niche acts as an individual particles combining to form a unit (whole body). Thus, Miralles has also thought of these graves at a particle level.

3.4.2 Modular Repetition To create the connection between all the three structures built at the different times, the module is repeated in different forms at various places.

The chapel which is towards the left besides the mortuary, have the wall articulated with perforated openings. These perforations are one of the motifs which are found in many of the projects by Miralles (fig 3.33). These tiny openings visually link the burial niches and chapel. The elevation of the wall is similar to certain artwork including the block screen by Ellen Gray, Robert Smithson’s Alogon no1and The Eliminator’s work from sixties[11] (fig 3.34). This same motif is used in chapel that acts as a slanting slab in the cutouts in ceiling of chapel (fig 3.35). On entrance, the same module is randomly used to create a fake façade with repetition of modules (fig. 3.18)

11 Zabalbeascoa, Anatxu. Igualada Cemetery: Enric Miralles and Carme Pinós. London: Phaidon, 1996. Print

3.5 Materials that creates an impact on spatial qualities The material selected for Igualada cemetery is harsh and rough. The idea of passing time depicting the journey of life is seen in patina of stone and concrete, cracks on railway wooden sleepers and rusted cor-ten[12] (fig. 3.20). Also, the temporality of life is depicted through material selection like rusting steel to weathering concrete[13]. Rough and harsh materials create a very unpleasant feeling but the landscape creates an atmosphere of calm and quiet that helps a visitor to remember their beloved without being disturbed. Rather than creating the boundary surrounding the site with the wall, vegetation is used. The selected materials intend to recall a living place by using vegetation and rusted materials which is encroaching over a period of time. Also, “Critical regionalist” works employ vernacular materials like wood, stucco and stone. As an ornamentation purpose, tiles and mosaic are also used. Equal amount of emphasize was laid on light, structure and topographical aspects of site[14]. “Spaces can become full of time when they permit certain properties of narratives to operate in everyday life”[15] Miralles creates a narrative space that challenges the traditional type of cemetery by creating thresholds between different functions and edge conditions for shaping new urban spaces[16]. A narrative is noticed mostly as a hybrid program where Igualada becomes a park for gathering along with the cemetery. User can personally relate to the site; one can either choose to mourn in static harmony or can choose to cross the site as a simple landscape. Through the use of materials that lead to dynamic form, Miralles creates an architecture that allows different experience. Traditional Spanish cemeteries have white wall at the periphery enclosing the site and the trees planted within. The processional path is more about the trees that occupy it and the retaining wall that bounds it. Contrasting to that, in Igualada project it is natural growth of the tress which defines the character of the cemetery and not the enclosure. Along with the undulating curvy form of the surrounding, trees provides softness to the architecture which is necessary for the cemetery. The eventual natural growth and 12 Landezine. Igualada cemetery by Enric Miralles and Carme Pinos <<Landscape Architecture Works. 17 August 2009. 12 March 2017. 13 Igualada Cemetery [Enric Miralles and Carme Pinos] | the Biologist. 5 October 2015. 15 March 2017. 14 Zabalbeascoa, Anatxu. Igualada Cemetery: Enric Miralles and Carme Pinós. London: Phaidon, 1996. Print 15 Richard Sennett, The conscience of eye. The Conscience of Eye. The Design & Social Life of Cities, 1st ed. (NY,1990), pg 190. 16 Meyer, Elizabeth. Chronotopia on Igualada. University of Virginia, Fall 2014.

shadow of these trees makes the architectural intervention in the landscape more powerful. The walls of terraces are built of stone and it is surrounded by rusting rebar screen[17] (fig 3.20). Perimeter fence of the site is made up of mild steel rebar where the rawness of materials is inspired from the surrounding culture of industry. The gabion retaining wall encircling the lower plaza contains various sizes of stones. The layers in the wall directly relates to that of burial niches. Miralles has intentionally created these areas which appears incomplete to reflect the quality of irregularity or unevenness. The massive slab of pre-cast concrete contains burial niches that create an impression of harsh imposition on the landscape. To reduce massiveness of the pre-cast concrete, the niches were arranged in the curved shape to soften the path on the site. Small overhangs of precast concrete turns upwards so that it appears light visually (fig 3.26). The terminal plaza flooring has juxtaposition of wooden boards casted in coarse aggregate concrete[18]. This wooden railway sleepers leaves an impression of logs floating down the stream of water, capturing the arrested motion (fig 3.36). The beton brut slabs in the plaza imply the contrasting expression against the gabion wall. Miralles has tried to establish a relationship between constructed forms and spaces to site’s context. The aggregate of concrete used in flooring is rougher than the concrete used in walls. Cemetery is such a place that has an absolute connection to the past. Miralles has created traces of the past by articulating the fragments and the path that one follows. The experience of walking down to the mausoleum plaza which is at the lowermost point on the site is through the rough aggregate ground surface which is covered with the blurred edges between the gabion walls and precast concrete.

In the chapel, ground is manifested for various light wells to acquire certain gestural qualities (fig 3.37). The lighting at the top around the chapel expresses the sense of being released. The columns of the chapel are hollowed out and given a secondary rhythm (fig 3.38)[19]. The metaphor of the overall scheme of the whole cemetery can be summarized into the construction of chapel. The construction remained unfinished till date. Because of the budgetary reasons, initial stage of construction was frozen for about 4 years when the chapel almost turned into ruins. One can say that chapel itself has always been “under construction”. Due to further delay, the wooden columns were left on the construction site giving the view of subterranean 17 Igualada Cemetery [ Enric Miralles and Carme Pinos] | The Biologist. 5 October 2015. 15 March 2017. 18 Meyer, Elizabeth. Chronotopia on Igualada. University of Virginia, Fall 2014. 19 Zabalbeascoa, Anatxu. Igualada Cemetery: Enric Miralles and Carme Pinós. London: Phaidon, 1996. Print

forest of thin wooden columns. This is a remarkable example to emphasize the passing time; time taken up due to delay in construction process. Construction elements such as deck, ramp,lamps and concrete benches repeating throughout the site directly relates to the movement of human beings, keeping the feeling of site alive (fig. 3.39). The overall rawness of the entire site is reflected in fig. 3.40.

3.6 Inference According to Litchenburg, “There are two ways of prolonging life[20]. ” One of the methods is by increasing the distance between two points of birth and death. While the second way discovered by the philosophers is to walk slowly in a zig-zag way. Catalan architect Enric Miralles choose to explore zig-zag way in his architecture to depicts the journey of life. Responding to the site, the building itself becomes the contours. Language of the cemetery is derived out of the movement. Along with the cemetery, it acts as a park where a visitor is forced to move similar to the movement that has to be followed in garden/park. As the building seems to be a part of the landscape, the construction and the structure respect the contours. “Miralles creates social landscape where his designs are placed.” - William Curtis Miralles attitude towards the experience of space is emotional and poetic. He designs building in its totality starting from the landscape to the details of the furniture. In this case, the execution of the details becomes as important as the expression of the overall form. Miralles cemetery draws influences from Le Corbusier in terms of use of materials and the way building merge with the landscape follows influence from Zaha Hadid. His conceptual design starts as collage which is formed by cinematography of photographs. The architecture deals with appreciating human action, to promote the pleasure of light, space and view and to emphasis the physical sense of the movement. Behind these excavated and rustic walls, the hint of “world beyond” is hinted by the secretive doors of mausoleum and shadows. This creates a notion of approaching the layers but not being able to reach the space; a theme that shows similarity in Brion’s tomb. After Second World War, people started moving more far leaving behind and getting detached from the graves of their loved one. Due to this isolation, there was a need to create an interaction between dead and the living. This inspired Miralles to create a cemetery within a landscape, which functions as a park too. The idea of “necropolis” (a city of dead) has been converted to park where the living beings can walk along the path which is exactly besides the resting place of their deceased beloved. The architectural language of the cemetery adopts form of the street. Corridors and pathways create a processional route which slopes downward towards the burial areas. The idea was to bring the visitor down the visitor where they are at the same level of the dead and cut off from the outer world. 20 Luis Diego Quiros, Stefanie MaKenzie, Derek McMurray. Enric Miralles: Architecture of Time. n.d. 15 March 2017.

Form of the cemetery is directly associated with the human body and materials defines the history, tradition and essence of the place in which the cemetery is built. The term death is associated with finality and to avoid this notion Miralles created a living cemetery by turning to nature. To add to liveliness of the cemetery, the elements like benches and floor lamps are introduced along with trees. This design by Miralles sorts an issue of cemetery being constructed both as a destination and a passage. The direction which the visitor follows passes through the entrance with continuously changing features of planting, textures and materials which emphasizes an idea of transition. He realized the optimistic approach towards death like continual transformation of nature and matter. Transition over the period of time is clearly visible through rusting of metal and weathering of concrete. The site provides calmness and it becomes a place where a visitor can contemplate and pay respect to deceased. At the same time it doesnâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t neglects the surrounding context and rather make the use of local materials in the construction. The form itself is derived from the unused materials which are generally left during construction. This left over highlights traces of the site which symbolizes evidences of events marked (left behind) as footprints after death. Hence, the cemetery by Miralles serves the purpose of relating it with the time. Igualada cemetery focuses on life-death and transformations over a period of time by creating a space which is demarcated by the movement rather than architecture of the place. Miralles died in 2000 at the age an early age of 45 due to brain tumor. He has been buried in this Igualada cemetery so that he could become part of the history, place and most importantly role of the changing times.

Figures

3.2/ 3.2a : Lifted curved roof in Le Corbusierâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Rhonchamp and Miralles Igualada cemetery

3.1 : Measure drawing of croissant

3.3 : ramp cutting through spaces in carpenter center designed by Le Corbusier

3.4 : ramp designed by enric miralles in Hostalets de Balenya

3.5 : Portrait de Diego by Giacometti 3.6 : sketch by Alvaro Siza 3.6a/ 3.6b : sketches by Enric Miralles

3.8 : Tiro-con Arco project by Enric Miralles having similar inclined structure like columns in Park Guell

3.7 : a structure in Park Guell by Antonio Gaudi

3.9 : coreographing the vertical movement in the meditation pavilion at Unazaki 3.10 : coreographing the horizontal movement at Parque Miralles in Barcelona

3.11 : Bratislava Culenova New British center by Zaha Hadid

3.13 : google image showing orthogonal grid like plan of the context of the cemetery

3.13a : position of cemetery along the valley of river Riera de Odena

3.14 : plan of Igualada cemetery which acts as a continuation of the site contours

3.15 : idea of spine is manifested in the schematic plan 3.16 : the red depicts the organic lines in the plan while black shows the orthogonal lines 3.17 : red shows the areas of higher level while black depicts the level down

3.18 : arrival of the cemetery at higher level

3.19: burial walls on both the sides creates the character of moving into the street 3.20 : angular lines are getting terminated into the circular chambers

3.21 :site section showing the organisation of burial wals, chapel and mortuary

3.22 : the inclined burial walls creating the feeling of enclosure on the site

3.23/ 3.25 : sketch where the inclination of the burial walls is emphasized with the tall trees

3.24 : sloping concrete walls which is vertically stacked four or five on top of each other

3.26 : rounded top of the concrete bands

3.27 : slightly elevated flight from the ground level 3.28 : skewed circulation in plan and the slanted walls in elevation decrease the ease in movement

3.29 : mausoleums which are buried in retaining wall

3.30 : formation of burial niches in retaining wall

3.31 : scale and placement of the vaults along the typology of the site

3.32 : placement of burial vaults emphsizing the direction of movement

3.33 : perforations of this modular patterns are widely used in Miralles project

3.34 : artwork including the block screen by Ellen Gray, Robert Smithsonâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Alogon no1and The Eliminatorâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s work from sixties

3.35 : the modular motif used as facade as well as the opening in the ceiling of the chapel

3.35a : modular repition in the facade

3.37 : chapel is manifested through light wells

3.38 : hollowed columns of the chapel

3.39 : lamps are made up of rustel metal and is kept on ground

3.36 : wooden logs casted during the construction

3.40 : bird-eye view showing the rough character of the site and the material used

Observation The compartive analysis chart is attached after the observation. The vertical columns contains five aspects analyzed to understand the architecture of the cemetery designed by architects - Carlo Scarpa, Aldo Rossi and Enric Miralles. Three horizontal row is categorized on basis on three cemeteries designed by architects metioned above. The image number mentioned in observation is with reference to the comparative chart. So far based on the analysis, architecture of the cemetery is formulated based on architectâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s ideology regarding life and death. Depending on the influential aspects of an architect, the specific working and presentation techniques is developed. Carlo Scarpa draws an inspiration from modern architects like Le Corbusier, Louis Kahn and Frank Lloyd Wright. As the influences are recognized in terms of light(a1), ornamentation(a2)and details(a3), the architecture of Carlo Scarpa is derived in form of details. Aldo Rossi draws inspiration from the metaphysical painter like De Chrico(b1) and architect like Terragni(b2) and Piranesi(b3) who has designed funerary monuments. The drawing that Aldo Rossi has submitted for San Cataldo cemetery was a bird eye of his design represented as collage in form of painting. Hence, his architecture directly deals with exaggerating the metaphor of death through silence. Enric Miralles was also interested in being a film artist and hence his architecture is more fluid and poetic(c1). Inspired from the films, he has choreographed the movement in the cemetery which eventually shapes the form of the building. Considering the case of all the three discussed cemeteries, formation of the building at schematic level is directly or indirectly related to the human life. Aldo Rossiâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s cemetery at Modena and Enric Mirallesâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; cemetery at Igualada has directly implemented fractured human skeleton(b4) and spine of human body(c2) in the organization of plan respectively. On the other hand, Carlo Scarpa has indirectly incorporated the transition in phases of human life, through experiences of character of individual spaces(a4). Cemetery being a place to experience, the design has to emphasize the movement into the space. All the three architects have organized the function in a specific way in plan, such that the movement is choreographed. Figure 4.1 shows the placement of function at schematic level and the sequence of movement between them. At Brion-Vega cemetery, the movement is choreographed in orthogonal direction, as the functions are places at the vertex of the square(a5). In the cemetery at Modena, Aldo Rossi has defined the start and the end position, 97

leading to the straight axis of the movement. The movement at Igualada cemetery is zig-zag which forms â&#x20AC;&#x153;Zâ&#x20AC;? in the plan.

As discussed earlier, form of the elements play an equally important role in choreographing the movement of the cemeteries. Individual architect has implemented the symbolism in elements in their design at various scales. This symbolism at times, become their medium to convey individual principles of life and death. This symbolism can be included in architectural aspects of designs or as an add-ons like painting, sculpture etc. In Brion-Vega cemetery, the symbolism in elements is noticed at the pause points as well as movement(a6-a10). The functions are scattered and hence the symbolism at detail level helps in creating harmony and fluidity in the design. Aldo Rossi has used basic shapes like cube(b5) and cone(b6) from his memories to symbolize death. This structure itself houses the activity of burial, and hence symbolism is established at the two pause points. By using symbolism at this level, the metaphor of death is exaggerated by membering the re-membrance. Enric Miralles was an architect, who believes that it is necessary to give recognition to an individual body going back to sand. Thus his symbolism deals with combining smaller modules to form a larger unit(c3,c4). Thus, the symbolism is formed at storage level which is designed on both sides of the path of movement. Implementation of the materials directly deals with experience of the space. The way the materials are used in the cemetery adds to the atmosphere of cemetery, necessary for someone to memorize their beloved ones. In Brion-Vega cemetery, Scarpa has used water, colour mosaic tiles, bronze and concrete for the construction(a11, a12). These contrasting materials are used in a heterogeneous way, such that the fine line between life and death is defined. Major materials used in cemetery at Modena are terracotta, stucco concrete and metal. Here, the harsh materials are used symbolically to project death as a brutal reality of life. Miralles believed that past is dead and we must celebrate the past(b7,b8). 98

To reflect the rawness and traces of the site, Enric Miralles has used materials like stone, rusted cor-ten steel bars, wooden logs and coarse concrete(a5,a6). The use of these materials clearly emphasizes transition that has taken place over a period of time. The life after death is assumed to be in Paradise. Paradise is a Persian word which means boundary of the enclosed space. In all the three cemeteries, the focus of architects has been laid upon designing an enclosed garden space amongst the boundary wall. Scarpa has named his cemetery as the concrete garden from the amount of concrete used during the construction. Due to the solid (un-punctured) boundary wall, connection with the outer world is cut off. The visitor is focused to interact with the world of natural elements like water and lawn created by an architect. Aldo Rossi has defined the boundary of San Cataldo cemetery as the colonnade structure amidst which, the architect has designed the courtyards for dead. Similarly, Enric Miralles has designed the place where the movement into the cemeteries is comparable to movement in the park. The overall expression of the architecture of cemetery designed by all the three architects is derived by studying the above described aspects. The architecture of the Brion-Vega cemetery is poetic and fluid while the architecture of San Cataldo cemetery is static, frozen and dead. Enric Mirallesâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; design of the cemetery can be considered as a conversation or dialogue with the things that already exist. Thus, one can say that say that architecture of the Igualada cemetery is choreographed. Carlo Scarpa and Enric Mirallles are buried in cemeteries designed by them ,which holds sentimental value to it.

Comparative analysis chart

101

102

103

A11

A10 A12

104

Bibliography Books : Co, Fracesco Dal. “Carlo Scarpa: the complete works.” London : Eleta architectural press, 1986. McCarter, Robert. “Carlo Scarpa”. London : Phaidon press, 2013. Rossi, Aldo. “Aldo Rossi - A scientific autobiography”. Cambridge: The MIT press, 1981. Rossi, Aldo. “Architecture of the city”. Cambridge, Massachusetts: The MIT press, 1982. Canniffe, Peter Jones & Eamonn. “Modern architecture through case studies 1945-1990”. New York: Routledge, 2007, pg 196. Rafael, Moneo. “Theoretical anxiety and design strategies in the work of eight contemporary architects Book”. London :MIT press,2004. Braghieri, Gianni. “Aldo Rossi”. Zurich : Artemis, 1993. Moneo, Rafael. “Aldo Rossi : The idea of architecture and the Modena Cemetery”. pg 119 Zabalbeascoa, Anatxu. “Igualada Cemetery: Enric Miralles and Carme Pinós”. London: Phaidon, 1996. Cecilia, Fernando Marquez. “Enric Miralles :1983 - 2000. Spain: Spain Cecilia Fernando Marquez and Richard Levene”, 2005.

Unpublished works: Mehta, Sapan, & (guide), N. Chayya (1994). Approach to unity in architecture: a study of carlo Sacrpa’s work. Cept Uni., School of Architecture Bhatt, Parantapp, & (guide), K. Patel (2000). Works of carlo scarpa : an investigation into the phenomenon of insert. Cept Uni., School of Architecture Hanchate, Vinayak, & (guide), K. Jain (2011). Detailing : A Carlo Scarpa retrospective. Cept Uni., School of architecture

Published Works : Patil, Vrushali. Symbolism in the works of Aldo Rossi : an inquiry into the process of conceptualizing an idea to adding metaphorical symbolism in architecture through case studies of the works of Aldo Rossi. Ahmedabad : Cept Uni, 2012. Bell, Berry. ” The Brion Cemetery and the Narrative of Redemption.“ Rome (Carleton University) – ACSA International Conference, 1999. Noever, Peter. “The other City.” Ernst & Sohn – UK, 1989. Salazar, Dunia. The function of form: Meaning in works of carlo scarpa. Texas Tech. University, Dec’17 Maers, Jassica. “post modern architecture : San Cataldo cemetery.” Dezeen magazines 30 july 2015 105

Ghirado, Diane. “The blue’s of Aldo Rossi’s sky.” Architectural Associations no. 70 2015: 160. Johnson, EugeneJ. “What remains of man - aldo Rossi’s modena cemetery.” Journal of the society of architectural historians (Mrch 1982): 3-5. Bradt, Tyler. Three Urban cemeteries. ISSUU, 29 April, 2013. Landezine. Igualada Cemetery by Enric Mirrales and Carme Pinos « Landscape Architecture Works . 17 august 2009. 12 March 2017. Igualada Cemetery [Enric Miralles and Carmen Pinos] | The Biologist. 5 october 2012. 15 march 2017. Meyer, Elizabeth. Chronotopia on Igualada. University of Virginia, Fall 2014.

Websites: http://www.italianways.com/the-brion-cemetery-in-altivole/ http://www.uncubemagazine.com/blog/16305459 http://venice2014.org/exhibits/show/carlo-scarpa-brion-tomb/carlo-scarpa-conclusion http://www.nytimes.com/1989/08/27/travel/in-a-corner-of-italy-a-rare-lonelytomb.html?pagewanted=all http://www.urbanarchnow.com/2012/09/carlo-scarpas-brion-vega-cemetery. html http://architecture.yale.edu/gallery/carlo-scarpa-mediating-classical-and-modern-ornamentation http://uk.phaidon.com/agenda/architecture/articles/2013/december/23/carlo-scarpas-cemetery-for-brionvega-boss/ http://www.archdaily.com/95400/ad-classics-san-cataldo-cemetery-aldo-rossi http://www.failedarchitecture.com/graveyard-of-postmodern-architecture/ http://www.uncubemagazine.com/blog/16269531 http://tombliska.com/Chronotopia-on-Igualada

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Image Credits Fig 1.1 https://st.hzcdn.com/simgs/dcf1e1260fdf9921_4-8691/asian-bedroom.jpg fig 1.1a https://s-media-cache-ak0.pinimg.com/736x/7b/04/ fb/7b04fbf1c1e78346b534156727f953bb.jpg fig 1.2 http://archeyes.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/04/la-tourette-le-corbusierarcheyes-4.jpg fig 1.2a/1.40 https://c2.staticflickr.com/2/1078/1071871117_63056939d7_z.jpg?zz=1 fig 1.3a https://s-media-cache-ak0.pinimg.com/originals/d3/5f/54/ d35f54a9e63557943a3fb77322e4f29b.jpg fig 1.3 https://s-media-cache-ak0.pinimg.com/originals/b1/65/ea/ b165ea473f2e28e7d2a688f116503261.jpg fig 1.4 https://s-media-cache-ak0.pinimg.com/ originals/18/12/6f/18126f5f63b731c50bbd77de4af5b428.jpg fig 1.4a http://images.adsttc.com/media/images/58cc/0be3/e58e/cee2/f600/02a5/ large_jpg/32846540636_c3f96fdc2f_o.jpg?1489767362 fig 1.5 https://s-media-cache-ak0.pinimg.com/736x/0f/ b9/43/0fb943e4ddaba09360b6264b1fa13d59.jpg fig 1.5a https://s-media-cache-ak0.pinimg. com/736x/1f/7f/90/1f7f90ac00680e0db3da92449d7f94cb.jpg fig 1.6 https://www.detroityes.com/webisodes/2012/rc-detroit/German-IMG_10022-1200. jpg fig 1.7 https://s-media-cache-ak0.pinimg.com/originals/8f/8c/ e7/8f8ce7c3ca707f97ef2663777ced00d9.jpg. fig 1.7a https://s-media-cache-ak0.pinimg.com/236x/f9/9f/86/ f99f8637182f0299246a6640634f1b20.jpg fig 1.8 http://media.architecturaldigest.com/photos/55e763c8302ba71f30163f64/ master/pass/dam-images-architecture-2013-02-salk-institute-salk-institute-la-jollacalifornia-h670.jpg fig 1.8a https://s-media-cache-ak0.pinimg.com/736x/d7/67/34/ d76734d783126387a5fce62176f892e7.jpg 107

fig 1.9 https://s-media-cache-ak0.pinimg.com/736x/fb/72/21/ fb7221284427e9d8165b795891565ccb.jpg fig 1.9a https://s-media-cache-ak0.pinimg. com/236x/79/50/46/7950463f8b68b266da99cec285d2fb63.jpg fig 1.10 http://www.worldheritagesite.org/pics/w1298s1.JPG fig 1.11 http://68.media.tumblr.com/571c681e0eb8e2f40a530dc1d9db03a3/tumblr_ mfzpglsdLV1qb8342o4_1280.jpg fig 1.12 https://www.bibliotecaltivole.it/images/CarloScarpa/CarloScarpa_-_Tomba_-_ pianta.jpg fig 1.15 http://c1038.r38.cf3.rackcdn.com/group1/building2658/media/media_63095.jpg fig 1.20 http://www.phaidon.com/resource/carlos-scarpa-brion-2.jpg fig 1.22 http://thesaurus.kosawese.net/uploads/bv11.jpg fig 1.24 https://s-media-cache-ak0.pinimg.com/originals/01/ de/9b/01de9b973894a0b6b28d39f1b9b4c2d6.jpg fig 1.25 / 1.31 https://s-media-cache-ak0.pinimg.com/564x/77/6d/ ef/776def52b21ad2505e39693e1af6922a.jpg fig 1.26 https://s-media-cache-ak0.pinimg.com/originals/e6/69/2d/ e6692d4cc6dc1a7918b35f927363efa2.jpg fig 1.28 http://2.bp.blogspot.com/vnzExU2rqlo/TaMdN3tEPGI/AAAAAAAACAk/ JsB9ruHmufQ/s1600/MandorlaChartres+Vesica+Piscis.jpg fig 1.29 https://s-media-cache-ak0.pinimg.com/236x/16/ a0/91/16a0910d719514823a79372de40de6a9.jpg fig 1.30 https://ksamedia.osu.edu/sites/default/files/originals/07_0004245_0.jpg fig 1.34 https://s-media-cache-ak0.pinimg. com/736x/16/98/4a/16984a627816d6eb4b88561fe3023646.jpg fig 1.35 http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-ktptCTICGtU/TjFGisT_3NI/AAAAAAAAAHU/ a8GhHRHE0xI/s1600/Tomba_Brion_1.jpg fig 1.36 https://i3.ytimg.com/vi/Nl8JM8p8gBQ/mqdefault.jpg 108

fig 1.37 https://s-media-cache-ak0.pinimg.com/736x/cd/c8/1c/ cdc81c5703b624005e356ae103973137.jpg fig 1.38 http://www.o2landscapes.com/media/Brion%20tombs.jpg fig 1.39 http://1.bp.blogspot.com/qQN5W3Dqp1M/UKIjMFEo5_I/AAAAAAAAruM/ wK8mrxEvN3I/s1600/P1060662.JPG fig 1.42 http://mycornerofitaly.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/07/PadiglioneMeditazione.jpg fig 1.43 http://3.bp.blogspot.com/_D9x5NqUYyFk/SPD0j1adkkI/ AAAAAAAAAnY/9JrAZfFQHh8/s320/brion+009.jpg fig 1.44 http://funkystockphotos.com/pictures-photos-images-info/wp-content/ uploads/2014/05/88626-62-RM-alhambra-granada-myrtles-court.jpg fig 1.45 http://68.media.tumblr.com/tumblr_mdesv0YUp41r25easo2_1280.jpg fig 1.47 https://s-media-cache-ak0.pinimg.com/originals/5c/14/ e9/5c14e9c85a709f0571690fbcbdd2148a.jpg fig 2.3 http://www.italianways.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/12/IW_Piranesi_Tav-XIII_ IlPozzo.jpg fig 2.4 https://s-media-cache-ak0.pinimg.com/originals/21/ e9/44/21e944b0e3a0ad585a46441ebc1f19ac.jpg fig 2.5 https://s-media-cache-ak0.pinimg.com/736x/5b/dd/ e2/5bdde2ad5226ada2684be5c213ffc114.jpg fig 2.6/2.8 http://archeyes.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/07/The-Danteum-GiuseppeTerragni-ArchEyes-2.jpg fig 2.7 http://archeyes.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/07/The-Danteum-GiuseppeTerragni-ArchEyes-4.jpg fig 2.13 http://www.anthonysilviodaulerio.com/images/rossi%20-%20modena.jpg fig 2,16 https://s-media-cache-ak0.pinimg.com/ originals/01/76/84/0176848bdc0769bc8396102d5a888727.jpg fig 2.17 http://3.bp.blogspot.com/_71NtZU857AI/SvsKeQIAF9I/AAAAAAAAACs/ a2vdTXMv2lo/w1200-h630-p-k-no-nu/2.jpg

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fig 2.21 https://s-media-cache-ak0.pinimg.com/originals/b6/2d/ce/ b62dce96b4bbb5c182121fcf1ebf43a2.jpg fig 2.22 https://s-media-cache-ak0.pinimg.com/originals/41/78/ fa/4178fab741479851427aa1021f94d345.jpg fig 2.23 https://68.media.tumblr.com/8ed83ffe9978a15720a54128e47d3fe8/tumblr_ o0umya6vMr1uotgxio2_1280.jpg fig 2.27 https://www.failedarchitecture.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/2CNV00028830x554.jpg fig 2.28 http://freemaninrealworld.altervista.org/wpcontent/uploads/2013/01/20110307_ Roma_Palazzo_della_Civilt%C3%A0_Italiana_fronte_-_lato_sx.jpg fig 2.29 http://socks-studio.com/img/blog/BBPR-Monument-03.jpg fig 2.30 https://integrated4x.files.wordpress.com/2012/10/rossi-monument-cuneo.jpg fig 2.31 https://s-media-cache-ak0.pinimg.com/originals/72/b2/ fe/72b2fee5f4065d5352169fa616062bba.jpg fig 2.32 https://cameronmcewan.files.wordpress.com/2013/06/c-mcewan-2013-schoolcemetery-montage.jpg fig 2.35 http://www.artic.edu/aic/collections/citi/images/standard/WebMedium/ WebImg_000264/199178_3157374.jpg fig 2.36 https://s-media-cache-ak0.pinimg.com/ originals/08/64/9b/08649b57987a3a90bceec70e23bc182e.jpg fig 2.37 http://jamanetwork.com/data/Journals/JAMA/4725/jcs00002f1.jpeg fig 2.38 http://www.artwort.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/05/btv1b7701016r.jpeg fig 2.39 https://classconnection.s3.amazonaws.com/912/flashcards/2386912/jpg/housing1426C993BE40D409C1C.jpg fig 2.40 https://972static-rsvpteamltd1.netdna-ssl.com/wp-content/uploads//2011/06/ giorgio-de-chirico-mystery-and-melancholy-of-a-street.jpg fig 2.43 https://cameronmcewan.files.wordpress.com/2012/03/rossi-a-1976-analogicalcity-panel-and-montage-diagram.jpg

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fig 2.44 https://c1.staticflickr.com/7/6195/6151932848_695676c086_b.jpg fig 2.45 https://s-media-cache-ak0.pinimg.com/originals/84/dc/ b5/84dcb5cfb4a8ec54627fcdb02a919024.jpg fig 2.46 http://farm4.static.flickr.com/3520/3731881080_bfcd9a6460.jpg fig 2.47 https://static.dezeen.com/uploads/2015/07/San-Cataldo-Cemetery_Aldo-Rossi_ Diego-Terna_dezeen_468_5.jpg fig 2.48 http://archeyes.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/04/San-Cataldo-Cemetery-AldoRossi-15.jpg fig 3.1 https://s-media-cache-ak0.pinimg.com/736x/65/e0/ a5/65e0a5e6d43bdd0bb8457dfca6f4b189.jpg fig 3.2 https://cdn.european-traveler.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/05/Le-CorbusierChapel-Ronchamp-010.jpg fig 3.2a https://s-media-cache-ak0.pinimg.com/236x/3e/ae/83/3eae839364ab3a25465c6 a6247334c01--enric-miralles-sustainable-design.jpg fig 3.3 http://images.adsttc.com/media/images/5038/05ab/28ba/0d59/9b00/0989/ medium_jpg/stringio.jpg?1414197797 fig 3.4 https://s-media-cache-ak0.pinimg.com/ originals/3b/61/00/3b6100301211214ae86190499265f0ad.jpg fig 3.5 http://brooklynrail.org/article_image/image/5370/giacometti-web.jpg fig 3.6 http://www.arcspace.com/CropUp/259x380/media/304945/alvaro_siza_ sketch_12.jpg fig 3.7 http://2.bp.blogspot.com/vBlZjHxEZyU/U7SJa1g7mYI/AAAAAAAAA4c/ foYo00dtz5c/s1600/Parc_G%C3%BCell_viaduct.jpg fig 3.8 https://s-media-cache-ak0.pinimg.com/originals/0d/39/ fb/0d39fbdc69d53b86c3748e0b80d4f37c.jpg fig 3.9 https://pbs.twimg.com/media/CjQS8YHWkAEaGPn.jpg fig 3.10 http://www.arcspace.com/CropUp/-/media/79060/1diagonal.jpg fig 3.11 https://img.mediacentrum.sk/gallery/nwo/maxwidth/990/1880117.jpg 111

fig 3.18 http://2.bp.blogspot.com/I5dumRINRIU/U2A7bhfs1JI/AAAAAAAACGE/ XMPRYtI1Y1E/s1600/igualadaee.jpg fig 3.19 http://jbdowse.com/eur/pix/igualada-3/0181.JPG fig 3.20 https://morrismd.files.wordpress.com/2012/10/igualadaimages.jpg fig 3.22 http://payload97.cargocollective.com/1/9/291963/4241930/WilsonSean_ Igualada3.jpg fig 3.29 http://images.adsttc.com/media/images/5195/98ef/b3fc/4be3/da00/007f/ slideshow/16_Igualada_Cemetery__Barcelona_ESP.jpg?1426086157 fig 3.35 https://s-media-cache-ak0.pinimg.com/originals/25/ e2/4d/25e24d2b85d7c4f5ebc48c5a8bfbeabf.jpg fig 3.35a http://images.adsttc.com/media/images/5195/98b2/b3fc/4be3/da00/007b/ slideshow/03_Igualada_Cemetery__Barcelona_ESP.jpg?1426086130 fig 3.40 https://s-media-cache-ak0.pinimg.com/originals/32/ e5/82/32e582f104f400ecb48e5c6170356fdf.jpg

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