early writing systems
Egyptian Vignette from the Papyrus of Ani 1420 BCE
Cuneifor m, developments Cuneifor in Mesopotamia: Cuneifor m tablet from Umma Cuneifo rm 2050 2050 BCE B CE..
During this time people began to settle which also lead to the beginnings of agriculture and a variety of tools being created. Religion was of great importance; a system of gods was created and large temples known as ziggurats were built. W riting first evolved because these people needed a way to keep records. So basically, the first writings were receipts with pictographs and numerals. In the beginning these were written vertically but then were changed to horizontal, left to right. Also, the tools changed, instead of a stylus now a wedge was being used. This change sped up writing and lead to what we know as cuneifor m.
The creation of these systems meant that there could be a written law with laws and punish ments. Around the same time that King Menes form ed the first Egyptian dynasty we have the first known hieroglyphs. The development of papyrus was a huge step forward since it is the first type of pape r. This development was possible since they were near the Nile where these plants grew in abundance. They were able to make black and red ink for the papyrus. Egyptians also created the first illuminated manuscripts which had writing and drawings on one page. Many of these had to do with mummies, their gods, and death.
alphabets
Greek Ti motheus, The Persians, papyrus manuscripts Fourth Century BCE
Etruscan Etruscan Bucchero vas e Sixth or Seventh Century BCE
Roma n Roman
Seri Seriff
The Greeks adopted the Phoenician alphabet and adapted a few of the letters. The Greeks also accomplished many things in all fields including the arts, science, philosophy and gove rn ment. There was a renaissance in Greece which meant that the alphabet was being used more than ever . As time went on the Greeks changed their writing style from very geometric to more round so that it could be written more quickly. The Golden Age was a time of great Grecian culture a democracy was fo rm ed and people were able to vote.
The Romans took much of this development from the Greeks because of the Etruscans. The Etrus cans had a civilization that reached its high point during the sixth century BCE. The Romans had many accomplishments and conquered many civilizations. The Roman alphabet was a sign that they had conquered a place. They also wrote on building as advertisements. Codices were also developed as an altern ative to scrolls so that it was easier to compare.
asian contribution
Woodblock printing and pape r The Diamond Sutr a 868 CE
The Chinese used a type of writing called callig raphy which was in ways similar to hieroglyphics. The beginning of Chinese writing was varied until Emperor Shi Huang Ti unified Chinese calligra phy. The Chinese were the first to develop paper which was a huge accomplishment and allowed them to leave writing on bamboo slats and silk behind. Printing was another huge development made by the Chinese. First developed was relief printing which was often used as a seal of identification. These wooden blocks evolved. They would write and draw on a thin sheet of paper then press it on a wooden block as a template for the block cutter to cut away.
This method allowed many copies to be made. During the 8th century Japan welcomed the Chinese culture. They printed many religious pieces to be placed in the pagodas. The oldest surviving manuscript was created the Diamond Sutra. Paper certificates were developed as an exchange for metal currency. The scroll was replaced with page fo rm ats which lead to books. Paper cards were also developed. Finally movable type was developed, organized by rhymes.
illuminated manuscripts
Capitularies of Charlemagne and Louis the Pious, c 873 CE
Celtic The book of Kells, Chi Rho page
Gothic The Multitude Worshipping God 1265 CE
An illuminated manuscript is written by scribes and has or nate decorations as well as text. These illuminated manuscripts were used to preserve classical literature including religious works. Gold paint was mixed into paint or hammered into a thin sheet and applied, hence the name illumi nated. The books were bound between wooden boards. These books were created in writing rooms and monasteries typically. The Egyptian Book of the Dead was an influence.
When Rome collapsed in the eighth century much of Europe was in upheaval however Ireland was not and they developed many manuscripts .They used guidelines such as leaving a space between words, ascenders, descenders, and a unifor m script. Charlemagne became emperor of the Holy Roman Empire and he advocated learning and the arts, this lead to a standard layout of writing as well as a lowercase letter . During the 1200 universities began which made the demand for books much higher .
rise of printing in europe
Early nineteenth-century engravings illustrate Gutenberg’s system for casting type.
The Master of the Playing Cards, The Three of Birds, c. 1450.
Lucas Cranach the Younger, broadside, 1551
Aldus Manitus, printer’s trademark, c. 1500.
Geoffroy T ory, capital from a series of crible initials, c. 1526 .
Anton Kober Koberger ger,, pages pa g e s from from Nurember gChronicle, Chronicle, the Nuremberg 1493. The city ofof Nuremberg. 1 493. The city Nuremberg.
Design Centers.
In 1209 Cambridge University was founded which lead to the rise of Universities. This also led to a demand for books and a rise in literacy. Eventually the process of making paper made it to Europe from China. The “black death� plagued Europe and killed one fourth of the population which is the reason that death was a common subject matter in works from the time. With paper now available and relief printing in the mix, people in the design centers in France, Germ any, the Netherlands, and Italy began to come up with the idea of movable type.
Johann Gutenberg was the first to bring together a movable type system. As the printing press grew more and more wide spread, the use of trademarks became more popula r. Playing cards were being made for the illiterate and taught small lessons which were sometimes made by the new development, copperplate engraving. Books and manuscripts were now able to be made much quicker , however they were still being illuminated by hand. Garamond was designed in the early 1500’s .
typography in 18th century
Louis Simonneau, construction of the letters G and H for the Romain du Roi, c. 1700 .
WilliamCalson, William Calson,broadside broads ide type type specimen, 17344 specimen, 173
Pierre Simon Four nier le Jeune, title pages from Manuel Typographique, volume 1, 176 4
John Baskerville, Basker ville,title t itle page page for Vergil’s Bucol ica, Vergil’s Bucolica, G eorgica, et Aeneis, 1757. Georgica,
William Playfair , Chart no. 1 from A letter on Our Agricultural Distresses, 1822.
Giambattista Bodoni, page from Manuale tipografico, 1818.
Pierre Didot, title page for Vergil’s Bucolica, Georgica, et Aeneis, 1798.
There was a “drought” of creativity during the 1600’s that King Louis the XIV helped bring Europe out of. He had a strong interest in printing and hired scholars to develop a new typeface which was named the Romain du Roi and could only be used for royal printing. Rococo took place from 1720-1770. Rococo was very extravagant and mirrored the extravagance of King Louis. During this period there was great poverty that the wealthy and royals were completely oblivious to (“let them eat cake.”) Versailles was built around this time and is a prime example of Rococo.
Typefaces became more popular, some such as Baskerville being created that we still use today. Typefaces were becoming precise and measu ring units came into play, first the pouce and eventually the point. Printing evolved during this time from elaborate to solely typographic. The first pie chart and other charts were introduced by William Playfair which was a huge step for graphic design because it helped convey complex info rm ation simply .
industrial revolution & typographic explosion Robert Tho rn e, fat-face types, 1821 .
Robert Tho rn e, Egyptian type designs, 1821
Vincent Figgins, two lines pica, Antique, 1815 .
Slab Serif
Tuscan Robert Tho rn e, fat-face types, 1821 from New Specimen of Printing Types
Vincent Figgins, five lines pica, In Shade, 1815.
William Thorowgood, six-line Reversed Egyptian Italic, 1828 .
First Sans Seri f William Caslon I V, two-line English Egyptian, 1816.
The first steam-powered cylinder press, 1814
Mergenthaler’s Model 5 Linotype
Joseph Niepce, the first photograph from nature, 1826.
Aloys Senefelde r, pages from A Complete Course of Lithography, 1819.
In 1209 Cambridge University was founded which lead to the rise of Universities. This also led to a demand for books and a rise in literacy. Eventually the process of making paper made it to Europe from China. The “black death� plagued Europe and killed one fourth of the population which is the reason that death was a common subject matter in works from the time. With paper now available and relief printing in the mix, people in the design centers in France, Germ any, the Netherlands, and Italy began to come up with the idea of movable type.
Johann Gutenberg was the first to bring together a movable type system. As the printing press grew more and more wide spread, the use of trademarks became more popula r. Playing cards were being made for the illiterate and taught small lessons which were sometimes made by the new development, copperplate engraving. Books and manuscripts were now able to be made much quicker, however they were still being illuminated by hand. Garamond was designed in the early 1500’s.
victorian era
: L Prang and Company and others, 1890-early 1900s.
The Victorian Era is named after the queen of the time, Queen Victoria. It was her husband’s idea to have an exhibition of exhibitors from all over the world. There were over 13,000 exhibitors there. The discoveries of the Industrial Revolu tion were displayed here. This was a huge deal at the time as it was a way to spread the ideas of the time. During this era chromolithography took off, obviously. Some of the themes of this time were religion, sentimentality, nostalgia, patriotism, animals, and optimism .
Publications at this time were able to be more illustrative than ever before, letterpress houses and lithographers collaborated together. During this era advertising design really took off since there were more options than ever before. The Harper printing fir m began and was the largest printing and publishing fir m. They began Harper’s New Monthly Magazine which was a periodical that had illustrations, cartoons and reporting. The Victorian Era also led to persuasive selling.
arts & crafts movement
Arthur H. Mackmurdo, title page for W ren’s City Churches, 1883.
William Morris, trademark for the Kelmscott Press, 1892 .
Arthur Mackmurdo, trademark for the Century Guild, 1884.
Frederic W Goudy, The Caxton Book, 1911.
William Morris was one of the primary leaders of the Arts and Crafts movement. The Arts and Crafts movement was a reaction to the Indu strial Revolution. People now saw the goods made in the factories of the Industrial Revolution as cheap. So, people sought to bring back the art of the hand made goods. Many artists joined together to fo rm communities or guilds. There was a strong focus on book design during this time, many private presses formed.
Many joined intricate artwork with typography. The first time the ter m “graphic designer� was used was during this era by William Dwiggins. Many typefaces were made during this time, Frederic Goudy, was one of the best type designers, and his typefaces are still being used today. This movement was inspired not only by the past but also by the present. The allusions to the past are obvious in much of the art, particularly that from the Kelmscott Press.
art nouveau
Ando Hiroshige, Evening Squall at Great Bridge near Atake 1856-1859.
Alphonse Mucha, poster for Job cigarette papers, 1898.
Aubrey Beardsley, first cover for The Studio, 1893 .
Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec, poster for Jane A vril, 1983.
Henri van de V elde, poster for Tropon food concentrate, 1899 .
Peter Behrens, The Kiss, 1898
Hans Christansen, Jugend cove r, 1899 .
Japanese art had a huge influence on the art of this time because the world was getting smaller; this is obvious with the flat colors and shapes seen in many of the pieces. Europeans became obsessed with this style in the late nineteenth century which was called Japonisme. In 1881 a French censorship law was lifted which allowed posters to be placed almost anywhere. During this time the streets became galleries, posters and advertisements were now considered art. Art nouveau was not only posters but architecture, fashion, fur niture, packaging and just about all other design arts.
One of the main focuses of the movement was to make art a part of the every day. During this time Graphic Design had a huge impact. A majority of the designers were trained in traditional arts or architecture. The United States slowly began to adopt art nouveau through magazines. Most of the movement took place in Paris however it spread to the rest of Europe quickly.
mode rn ism
Margaret and Frances Macdonald with J Herbert McNair , poster for the Glasgow Institute of the Fine Arts, 1895.
Frank Lloyd Wright, first chapter opening spread for The House Beautiful, 1896,1897
Alfred Roller , poster for the sixteenth Vienna Secession exhibition, 1902.
Peter Behrens, cover for Dokumente des Mode rn en Kunstgewerbe s (Documents of Mode rn Applied Arts) 1901.
The Beggarstaffs, poster for Kassama cor n flou r, 1894 .
Piet Mondrian, oil on canvas, composition with Red, Y ellow, and Blue. 1927 .
Japanese art had a huge influence on the art of this time because the world was getting smaller; this is obvious with the flat colors and shapes seen in many of the pieces. Europeans became obsessed with this style in the late nineteenth century which was called Japonisme. In 1881 a French censorship law was lifted which allowed posters to be placed almost anywhere. During this time the streets became galleries, posters and advertisements were now considered art. Art nouveau was not only posters but architec ture, fashion, fur niture, packaging and just about all other design arts.
One of the main focuses of the movement was to make art a part of the every day. During this time Graphic Design had a huge impact. A majority of the designers were trained in traditional arts or architecture. The United States slowly began to adopt art nouveau through magazines. Most of the movement took place in Paris however it spread to the rest of Europe quickly.
bauhau s
Laszlo Moholy-Nagy, proposed title page for Broom, 1923 .
Herbert Bayer, cover for Bauhaus magazine, 1928 .
Bauhaus began April 12, 1919 in Ge rm any. Walter Gropius played a large role in starting the school. The country was in a time of conflict at this time since the First W orld W ar had recently ended. The school sought a unity of art and technology as well as to create a new world orde r. The school was geared towards objectivity rather than subjectivity. They saw beauty in simple, industrial like things and believed that or nament was a crime. Thought that art and mass production should complement each othe r. The government was not fond
of the Bauhaus school. The gover nment insisted that they have an exhibition which lead to the school being internationally acclaimed. The school moved to Dessau in 1924 because of tension with the gover nment. Later the Nazi party saw that Bauhaus was closed. They tried to run it from an empty factory in Berlin by the Nazi harassment made it impossible and the school came to an end. The majority of the faculty of the school fled, many of them landing in America.
the new typography
Jan T schichold, cover for “Elementare Typographie� insert, 1925 .
Eric Gill, the Gill Sans type family, 1928-30
Paul Renner, Futura typefaces, 1927-193 0
Rudolf Koch, Kabel light, 1928 .
Stanley Morrison, The London Times, 3 Octobe r, 1932.
Henry C Beck, map for the London Underground, 1933.
Influences of the Bauhaus can be seen in the New Typography. Jan Tschichold designed “Elementare Typograhie” which explained asymmetrical typography. The New Typography was known for sanserif letters, functionalism, and use of lines, lowercase and design by the most straight forward means. Many prominent typefaces were designed such as Futura and Ti mes New Roman.
The Nazis were still a dominating force in Germ any at this time and caused Tschichold and his family to flee to Switzerland due to him creating “un-Ge rm an” typography. The isotype movement also took place, another example of the sparse functionalism. The London Underground map was designed and inspired many other maps.
american modernism
Lester Beall, poster for the Rural Electrification Administration, c. 1937.
Alexey Brodovitch, photography by Herbert Matter , Harper’s Bazaar cover, June 1940.
A.M. Cassandre, advertisement for CCA, 1938 .
Herbert Matter, advertisement for CCA, 1943 .
Mode rn art did not immediately take hold in America, it caught on much later. It began when many European graphic designers migrated to America and brought with them modernism. Many of these designers designed for magazines such as Vogue and Harper’s Bazaar. Jan Tschichold’s “Elementare Typographie” began a revolution in America and new typefaces were introduced such as Futura and Kabel. Franklin D. Roosevelt began the New Deal to create work opportunities to boost the economy .
As a part of this there was a poster project that gave jobs to many artists and designers and created mode rn poster designs. The founder of the Container Corporation of America also had a great deal to do with the development of moder n design in America. He advocated design and believed that design could promote businesses while also remaining art. Some of the advertisements that were commissioned were mode rn and to the point. There were also many mode rn posters made supporting World Wa r II.
international typographic style Adrian Frutiger , schematic diagram of the twenty-one Univers fonts, 1954.
Miedinger and Hoffmann: Helvetica, typeface, 1961.
Her mann Zapf, typefaces. Palatino, 1950; Melior , 1952; and Optima, 1958.
Ar min Hofmann, poster for the Basel theater production of Giselle, 1959.
Josef Muller-Brockmann, American Books T oday catalog cover , 1953.
The Inte rn ational Typographic Style also known as the Swiss Style took place during the 1950’s. It began in Europe, specifically Basel and Zurich and moved to the United States. The style was simple, clear and revolved around order. During this time designers began designing on a grid. Once W orld W ar II ended the Swiss style became obvious in America .
Helvetica was designed and was soon everywhere since many designers admired its’ well-defined for ms. Objective photography was also very popular during this time. The organization of the International Style could be seen anywhere from magazine layouts to book covers and even on scientific posters.
new york school
Paul Rand, cover for Thoughts on Design, 1946.
Herb Lubalin, typogram from a Stettler typeface announcement poster, 1965.
Bob Gage, Bill Bern bach and Judy Protas, Ohrbach’s advertisement, 1958.
Saul Bass, logo for The Man with the Golden Arm , 1955.
People had been using logos for years but now the mode rn style was being applied to the logos, changing corporate identity. Designers were expanding and creating not only logos but also identities for companies such as CBS. After W orld W ar II America thrived and expanded. This meant that designers were needed to design identities.
Paul Rand was one of the most influential designers of the time. The art director and copywriter were now working as a team and “The Big Idea� was a theme in advertising. Rand also brought importance to branding and soft selling compared to the previously factual, soft sell.
postmodern
Jamie Reid, God Save the Queen, 1977.
Paula Scher , Swatch Watch Poster, 1985 .
April Greiman, China Club invitation, 1980 .
David Carson
Stefan Sagmeister, AIGA Poster, 1999.
Art Chantry, The Night Gallery, 1991.
Computers had changed the way designers worked for the most part. Howeve r, during the postmode rn movement people made things by hand and deconstructed things. Appropriation also became very popula r. They had no conce rn for the status quo. They had a strong disbelief in universal truths. Legibility was not a conce rn because each person’s own interpretation was correct .
post-postmoder n
it’s a work in progress.
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