Argument: Explained Created for the Class of 2017 by Krystal Watson Collegiate High School Corpus Christi, TX
argue verb from the Greek argos, [are-goes] literally: white or arguron, [are-goo-ron] literally: silver and meaning: to shine forth in contemporary usage, to present reasons for or against. to shed light upon
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This publication focuses on three styles of argument: 1. Aristotelian 2. Toulmin 3. Rogerian
I will begin with the oldest: Aristotelian.
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Aristotle: Aristotelian Argument Aristotle was a Greek philosopher and scientist born in Stagirus, northern Greece, in 384 BCE. At eighteen, he joined Plato's Academy in Athens and remained there until the age of thirty-seven (c. 347 BCE). His writings cover many subjects – including physics, biology, zoology, metaphysics, logic, ethics, aesthetics, poetry, theater, music, rhetoric, linguistics, politics and government – and constitute the first comprehensive system of Western philosophy. Shortly after Plato died, Aristotle left Athens and, at the request of Philip of Macedonia, tutored Alexander the Great between 356 and 323 BCE. The Aristotelian argument is the framework upon which most academic, thesis-driven writing is based. You can use this template any time you need to take a position on a topic. Before getting started, make sure that your thesis is argumentative and not obvious. When determining how to support your thesis, try to group all of your supporting evidence into distinct piles which have thematic similarities. Finally, develop each claim in its own section of text, making sure that each point is proportionate to the others. A basic, generic outline of the Aristotelian Argument follows:
• begin in an interesting way • provide background or context that is relevant to their specific audience • state their claims and evidence clearly and emphatically • take account of opposing viewpoints and anticipating objections • and conclude in a satisfying and effective way. Aristotelian Argument is a technique of persuasion wherein the writer uses his or her logic to persuade the audience that he or she is correct.
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Aristotle’s Rhetorical Triangle A strong argument will consider the following: the occasion, the audience, the message, and the speaker [which is not in any order of importance]. ETHOS / speaker / writer
Purpose kairos / decorum
LOGOS / message / reason
PATHOS / audience / appeal
For more information than what you probably want, go here: http://www.austincc.edu/buck/eng/1301/pubtexts/Argument.htm
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Stephen Toulmin: Toulmin Model of Argumentation The Toulmin Model seeks to refute or uphold an argument by paying attention to the assumptions behind or underlying said argument. Philosopher Stephen Toulmin taught that those arguments were the most logical which could be supported by assumptions consistent with the argument. The issue of the death penalty is a great example. Supports of a position overlook or refuse to see how supporting their position violates the very principle they are attempting to uphold. People who support the death penalty may claim that serving capital punishment to convicted murderers is justified because the convicted took a life. Using Toulmin reasoning, taking human life is wrong; therefore, taking life to punish someone for murder is wrong. If murder is wrong, then government sanctioned murder is wrong. There is very little difference between the purposes of Aristotelian and Toulmin logic. The writer is charged with engaging the audience’s interest and establishing the significance of the problem at hand. The writer states his or her claim and the reasons for the claim. Also, the writer must acknowledge counterclaims and the rebut them thus establishing his or her supremacy. Aristotle argues that the writer should support his or her claim with appeals to pathos, logos, ethos. Toulmin argues that the claim should be supported by data.
For more information than you probably want, go here: http://web.cn.edu/kwheeler/documents/toulmin.pdf
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Toulmin Model
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Carl Rogers: Rogerian Argument
It is only through the clash of adverse opinions that the remainder of the truth has any chance of being supplied." - John Stuart Mill, On Liberty, 1859 "The major barrier to mutual interpersonal communication is our very natural tendency to judge, to evaluate, to approve or disapprove, the statement of the other person or the other group." - Carl Rogers, "Communication: Its Blocking and Its Facilitation," 1951 Rogerian argument is often difficult for students to understand because it asks them to think about controversial topics in a different way: from the perspective of someone they disagree with. Because conflict is inevitable, we need to seek creative ways to solve complicated problems and to negotiate differences between opposing parties. Although there are no simple formulas for bringing opposing factions together, we do have a relatively new form of communication founded on Carl Rogers's client-centered therapeutic approach to one-on-one and group counselling. Essentially, the Rogerian problem-solving approach reconceptualises our goals when we argue. Instead of assuming that an author or speaker should hope to overcome an antagonistic audience with shrewd reasoning, the Rogerian approach would have the author or speaker attempt to reach some common ground with the audience. Thus, in a very real way, Rogerian "persuasion" is not a form of persuasion so much as it is a way of opening communication for negotiating common ground between divergent points of view. Your goal when you employ the tactics of Rogerian problem-solving is not for you to win and for your opponent to lose, a scenario that more often results in both parties losing. Instead, you explore ways that will allow both you and your audience to win. An essay modelled on Rogers's approach should include a few particular parts: •a discussion of the problem from both points of view that uses value-neutral language •a discussion of the writer's opponent's point of view and a selection of facts or assertions the writer might be willing to concede to his opponent
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•a discussion of the writer's point of view and a selection of facts or assertions the writer's opponent might be able to accept about his point of view •a thesis that establishes a compromise between these two points of view and represents concessions from both the writer and his opponent For more information than you want, go here: http://writingcommons.org/opentext/genres/academic-writing/arguments/318-rogerian-argument Two minute video illustrating Rogerian Argument: http://youtu.be/Z9knvRXU8zQ
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Juxtaposition of the Three Aristotelian Grover is the most important character on Sesame Street. The show was founded over fifty years ago, and Grover’s character has remained the most central throughout the years. In study after study, children report that Grover is their favorite character. As a favorite, the children are more likely to pay close attention to both his words and his actions. According to a study by the MFA department at the University of Alabama, children often emulate the behaviors of those they look up to or like. Grover models positive behavior, which he does constantly through healthy eating, physical activities, friendships, and confidence. Children are likely to internalize and copy Grover’s actions. Many people feel that Cookie Monster is a more important character because of his counting lessons and humor. While these are great traits, cookie eating does not model positive eating habits for our youth. In addition, though counting is one of the fundamental lessons, Cookie Monster often gets his numbers wrong while trying to be silly. Grover on the other hand is able to model correct counting and even talk about prepositions.
Toulmin Claim: Grover is the most important character on Sesame Street. In a preschool poll, 74% of children reported liking Grover more than other characters. Grounds / Data: Children laugh on average 33% more when Grover is on the screen. In addition, Grover is shown exercising twice as often as any other character on the show. Warrant: Grover has children’s attention more than other characters, and therefore has more potential to make positive changes in preschoolers’ lives. Backing: Children create many of their habits through mimicry. Rebuttal: Other characters on Sesame Street fulfill important roles and model positive behaviors as well. Qualifier: Grover is definitely the most important character.
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Rogerian There is a large split between opposing sides concerning the most important character on Sesame Street. Most people fall into two categories: those in favor of Cookie Monster and those in favor of Grover as the most important character. Cookie Monster is clearly a loveable puppet. He is funny, silly, and teaches children good counting skills with his snacks. However, I feel that Grover is overall a more important character since he demonstrates healthier behaviors, is statistically ranked a favorite among children, and exemplifies a confidence that many other puppets lack. I’m sure that those who support Cookie Monster are as invested in the welfare of the children as those who support Grover, and therefore, perhaps the Cookie Monster supporters could identify each feature that is in involved in determining the most important Sesame Street character and reconsider their choice in terms of what it is teaching their children.