Shadow of Continent: The Prize That Lay to the West--1776 by Larry L. Meyer

SHADOW O FA (O V T IA IT f The Prize That Lay to the West— 1776 b y Larry L. M eyer

When the bells rang out in Philadelphia on July 4, 1776, the colonists who were huddled in their thirteen states along the Atlantic and the kings in London, Paris, and Madrid knew that the real prize lay in the vast, shadowed land stretching far beyond the Alleghenies. This obscured magnet had been pulling empires for more than two centuries; it was the “ pull” bom into the colonials. A full appreciation of those facts is vital to an understanding of the American Revolution, its reasons, its results. The importance of the West in 1776 has been underestimated or ignored by historians in their concentration upon the East Coast colonies. Now, at last, the Colonial history of the United States is put into perspective by the presentation of what the people and the powers in that fateful period did and did not know of the SHADOW OF A CONTINENT. By 1776, Spain had been probing the shadowland from the south and west for more than two centuries; France had been stabbing into the shadow from Canada and the Mississippi Valley through her explorers and coureurs de hois. England was timid and a little late, but by the time the tea was thrown into Boston harbor, she had learned enough to want her part of the shadowland. Because the powers in Europe were in constant conflict and continuous realignment, they did their best for two hundred years to hide their knowledge and discoveries as they learned, or thought they learned, the value of that shadowed hinterland. But most of it could not be kept secret. It was too exciting, too attractive to the many who had seen or heard. Long before 1776 much had leaked out to fire the imaginations and desires of everyone—Europeans and colonials—and to give added thrust to the Revolution.

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PABOW O FA F O A T IA IA T

S H A D O W

OFA C O A T IA IA T The Prize That Lay to the West-1776 LARRY L. MEYER

AM ERICAN WEST PUBLISHING COMPANY P A L O A L T O â&#x20AC;&#x201D;C A L I F O R N I A

BOARD OF CO N SU LTAN TS

R A Y A. B IL L IN G T O N Senior Research Associate The Huntington Library

G E O R G E P. H A M M O N D Director Emeritus, The Bancroft Library University o f California, Berkeley

JOHN C. E W E R S Senior Ethnologist Smithsonian Institution

A B R A H A M N A S A T IR Research Professor Emeritus o f History San Diego State University

D O Y C E B. N U N IS, JR. Professor o f History University o f Southern California

Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data Meyer, Larry L 1933Shadow of a continent. Bibliography: p. Includes index. 1. The West —Discovery and exploration. 2. The West —History —To 1848. 3. United States —Territorial expansion. I. Title. F592.M 49 978'.01 75-6324 ISBN 0 -9 1 0 1 1 8 -6 2 -0 ISBN 0 -9 1 0 1 1 8 -6 3 -9 deluxe

FIRST EDITION Copyright © 1975, AMERICAN WEST PUBLISHING COMPANY. Printed in the United States of America. All rights reserved. This book or parts thereof may not be reproduced in any form without written permission of the publisher.

Contents IN T R O D U C T IO N PART I

FANTASYLAND

The Metal Lovers

Jumping Geography

Grand Liars in a Grand Land

English Envy and Bardic Blather

P A R T II

A N IN D IA N SU M M E R

106

The Wild Bunch

113

Corn Farmers, Thieves, and Borrowers

124

Wakers from the Dream

135

Isolation Splendid and Otherwise

146

P A R T III 9.

T H E F A IL U R E OF FR A N C E

164

The River People

170

10.

The Farthest with the Fewest

189

11.

Loose Chip in the Imperial Game

212

P A R T IV

RESURGENT

SPAIN

226

12.

The Pacific Defense

231

13.

A State of Less Than Enchantment

256

14.

The Wonder Worker

276

PART V

T H E D IV IS IB L E E M P IR E

294

15.

Snatching Defeat from the Jaws of Victory

300

16.

Intimations of a Destiny

316

17.

The War and the West

333

E P IL O G U E

365

B IB L IO G R A P H Y

375

IN D E X

380

T o N a n cy

Acknowledgments Debts in other than specie can never be repaid, only acknowledged. Mine begin with those to my wife, Nancy, who worked so closely with me on this book as fellow re searcher, uncompromising editor, and constant encourager. For her, indispensable seems an inadequate word. As an amateur historian, I owe much to the countless pro fessionals, living and dead, who have invested their lives in sifting the past for fact and meaning. But I’m particularly grateful to those who gave me expert guidance and counsel in the preparation of this book: Ray A. Billington, Senior Research Associate of the Huntington Library; John C. Ewers, Senior Ethnologist of the Smithsonian Institution; George P. Hammond, Director Emeritus of the Bancroft Library; Abraham P. Nasatir, Research Professor of History at San Diego State University; and Doyce B. Nunis, Jr., Professor of History at the University of Southern California. Thanks also go to the staffs of all the libraries I consulted, with special gratitude to those at the Huntington, the Ban croft, the Denver Public, and, foremost, my alma mater, U C LA, where my old and good friend Everett T. Moore, Research Librarian, opened so many doors. Finally, I would like to thank my friend Tom Watkins for his phone call on a Denver winter’s night in 1972. It made all the difference.

Introduction W

hen

the

bells

rang

out

in P h ila d e lp h ia th a t J u ly 4, 17 7 6 ,

h e r a ld in g th e b irth o f a n e w n a tio n a n d p o rte n d in g a n e w a g e , th e N e w W o rld w a s no lo n g e r v e r y n e w . E u r o p e a n c o lo n iz e rs h a d b e e n b u s y fo r m o re th a n tw o h u n d r e d fifty y e a r s in C o lu m b u s ’s a c c id e n ta l fin d , first e x p lo rin g fo r a w a y a ro u n d th e o b s ta c le to In d ia , th e n e x p lo itin g it, r e d u c in g w h a t p a rts o f it th e y c o u ld into s u b s e r v ie n t e x te n s io n s o f th e n a tio n s th e y h a d c o m e from . C o r d ille ra s h a d b e e n c ro s s e d a n d riv e rs ru n a n d fo re sts a n d s a v a n n a h s n o rth a n d so u th c le a r e d to m a k e w a y fo r th e p lo w . J u st as th e la n d w a s a lte r e d , so to o w e r e its n a tiv e p e o p le s , m a n y o f w h o m w e re h u m b le d or se n t p a c k in g or e lim in a te d . T e n o c h titla n h a d b e e n r a z e d a n d lo o te d , a n d th e I n c a to p lo p p e d o ff b y S p a n is h steel; F r e n c h v o y a g eu rs h a d p u s h e d fa r n o rth , w e s t, a n d so u th from th e ir S a in t L a w r e n c e R iv e r stro n g h o ld in s e a rc h o f b e a v e r ; stolid E n g lis h m e n , lo n g tie d to A tla n tic tid e w a te r to p r o d u c e th e b a s ic stu ffs o f a tire d e c o n o m ic sy ste m , w e r e at la st w a n d e r in g w e s t w a rd in s ig n ific a n t n u m b e rs. A lr e a d y o ld w e re th e ru th le ss en -

com ien d as th a t w e r e th e fo u n d a tio n o f S p a n is h se ttle m e n t; so, to o , w a s th e c r u e l tr a d e o f E n g lis h m e n a n d F r e n c h m e n a n d D u tc h m e n in b la c k m e n w h o la b o r e d a n d d ie d o n p la n ta tio n s to p r o v id e w h a t C o n tin e n ta l fa sh io n a n d p a la te d e sire d . O n ly th e w e s te r n h a lf o f N o rth A m e r ic a — th e tra n s-M ississip p i W e s t a n d its C a n a d ia n c o u n te rp a rt — r e m a in e d terra incognita, or, m o re a c c u r a te ly , a little -k n o w n la n d . O n ly w e s t o f th e lo n g g ra s s p ra irie a n d n o rth o f N e w S p a in ’s fra g ile fro n tie r w a s th e re le ft a la n d to m a tc h th e w h ite m a n ’ s s e e m in g ly lim itle ss c a p a c ity to d r e a m d r e a m s a n d m a k e m y th s. S p a in h a d p r o b e d h e s ita n tly

S H A D O W O F A C O N T IN E N T

a n d s p o r a d ic a lly at it fro m th e so u th , o n ly to b a c k o ff tim e a n d a g a in

fo r la c k o f m e n a n d r e s o u rc e s . D a u n tle s s F r e n c h m e n ,

g o a d e d b y a p ro fita b le In d ia n tra d e , h a d c ris s c ro s s e d th e G r e a t P la in s fo r h a lf a c e n tu r y b e fo r e th e first m e e tin g o f th e C o n tin e n ta l C o n g r e s s . T h r o u g h th e d a rin g o f th e s e a ro v e rs D r a k e a n d C a v e n d ish , e v e n th e c a u tio u s E n g lis h w e r e a w a r e th a t th e la n d h a d a n e n d — a fa r w e s te r n fro n t w ith th e P a c ific . Y e t , o f all th e m e n , r e m e m b e r e d a n d fo rg o tte n , w h o h a d e n te r e d a n d s e e n th e A m e r i c a n W e st, n o n e h a d ta k e n th e m e a s u r e o f th is v a s t la n d still la r g e ly in sh a d o w . H isto ria n s g e n e r a lly a g r e e th a t th e e a r ly sto ry o f A m e r ic a — and

th e

tra n s-M is sissip p i W e s t — is m o stly

E u rop ean

one.

E u r o p e a n s w e r e its d o m in a n t c h a r a c te r s fro m th e first, a n d th e ir in flu e n c e w a s to s u r v iv e th e b r e a k a w a y o f th e ir c o lo n ie s . T h is O ld W o rld d o m in a n c e c a n b e tr a c e d b a c k to th e s ix te e n th c e n tu r y w h e n E u r o p e b u rst its b o rd e rs . T h e e p id e m ic o f th e R e n a is s a n c e h a d s p r e a d n o rth fro m Ita ly to in sp ire m e n ’ s m in d s, fr e e in g th e m fro m tra d itio n a l v ie w s o f th e g lo b e a n d th e ir sm a ll p la c e on it. T h is n e w k n o w le d g e w a s n o t m e r e ly th e o re tic a l, b u t a p p lie d a lso to th e p r a c tic a l s c ie n c e o f m a k in g n e w to o ls a n d m a c h in e s . P rin t in g p r e s s e s s p re a d th e w o rd . T e c h n o lo g ie s g a th e r e d s te a m b e fo re th e re w a s ste a m . N e w a d v a n c e s in n a v ig a tio n a n d sh ip b u ild in g , s u c h as m o re m a sts, la rg e r k e e ls , a n d d o u b le o a k p la n k in g th a t c o u ld su ffe r th e re co il o f h e a v y c a n n o n , v irtu a lly tu rn e d o v e r th e w a te r w a y s o f th e w o rld to E u r o p e . C h a n g e - r e s is ta n t Isla m , static C h in a , a n d le s s e r c iv iliz a tio n s w e r e to p r o v e n o m a tc h fo r th e stra n g e rs w h o h a d c o m e so fa r to tr a d e a n d , e v e n tu a lly , to c o n q u e r. T h e tr a v e le r s b r o u g h t b a c k to th e ir h o m e la n d s g o ld a n d silv er, silk a n d sp ic e s, a n d y e t m o re n e w k n o w le d g e . In re tu rn th e y e x p o rte d a m b itio u s m e n , re lig io u s b e lie fs d e e p ly h e ld , h a b its o f v io le n c e , a n d d is e a s e s le th a l to is o la te d p e o p le s w ith n o im m u n ity to th e m . C lo s e on th e h e e ls o f th e R e n a is s a n c e c a m e th e R e fo rm a tio n , a fin a l fra c tu rin g o f C h ris tia n u n ity , w h ic h h a d sh o w n w id e n in g c ra c k s fo r m o re th a n tw o h u n d re d y e a r s . N o r d id th e b r e a k stop w ith a sin g le split. T h e R e fo r m a tio n p r o d u c e d L u th e r a n s in r e b e llio n a g a in s t R o m e , th e n C a lv in is ts in d is a g re e m e n t w ith b o th , A n a b a p tis ts a g a in s t th e w o rld , a n d c o u n tle ss o th e r sc h ism a tic s

IN T R O D U C T IO N

c o n v in c e d th a t t h e y a lo n e p o s s e s s e d th e W o rd . M a n y w o u ld h a v e to cro ss th e A tla n tic to e s c a p e p e r s e c u tio n a n d to b e fr e e to p r a c tic e w h a t t h e y p r e a c h e d . T h e C o u n te r -R e fo r m a tio n h a d its o w n d iv is iv e e ffe c ts w ith in th e C h u r c h o f R o m e w h ic h c a rrie d e v e n to th e N o rth A m e r ic a n w ild e rn e s s , w h e re J e s u its w e re in sh a rp c o m p e titio n

w ith F r a n c is c a n s , S u lp ic ia n s , a n d C a p u c h in s in m is

s io n a ry w o rk . W ith th e R e n a is s a n c e a n d th e R e fo rm a tio n c a m e th e m a tu ra tio n o f m e rc a n tilism , a fo rm o f p rim itiv e sta te ca p ita lis m th a t w a s to s h a p e th e N e w W o rld a n d th e W e s t fro m th e ir c o lo n ia l b e g in n in g s . G o ld a n d silv e r m in e d in M e x ic o a n d P e r u a n d c h a n n e le d th r o u g h th e p o rts o f S p a in h a d a lte re d th e e c o n o m ie s o f all E u r o p e , m a k in g m e rc a n tilism a c re d o for th e C o n tin e n t, th o u g h w ith a s m a n y v a ria tio n s as th e re w e r e n a tio n s su b s c rib in g to th e s y ste m . A m o n g its te n e ts w a s th e e q u a tin g o f w e a lth w ith th e p o s s e s s io n o f p r e c io u s m e ta ls, w h ic h w e r e to b e h o a r d e d or p lo w e d b a c k in to h o m e in d u strie s . T o th a t e n d , e a c h n a tio n tried m ig h tily to e x p o rt m u c h a n d im p o rt little, th u s a ss u rin g a fa v o r a b le b a la n c e o f tra d e . T h is m e a n t h ig h im p o rt d u tie s , e c o n o m ic d iv e rsific a tio n , a n d th e c o d d lin g o f lo c a l m a n u fa c tu r e r s — all to b e rig id ly e n fo r c e d b y a n in c r e a s in g ly p o w e r fu l c e n tr a liz e d a u th o rity. W o rk in g a t its b e s t, th e s y s te m re q u ir e d a c o n c e n tra te d u rb a n la b o r fo r c e , g r e a tly im p ro v e d c o m m u n ic a tio n s a n d tra n sp o rta tio n (c h ie fly , m o re a n d b e tte r sa ilin g v e s s e ls ), a n d th e g ra n tin g o f lu c r a tiv e p r iv ile g e s a n d su b s id ie s to p riv a te c o m p a n ie s , w h ic h w e r e e x p e c t e d to in c r e a s e th e n a tio n a l h o n o r w h ile lin in g th e ir p o c k e ts .

P o s s e s s in g

c o lo n ie s — p r e fe r a b ly

b le s s e d

w ith

w hat

E u r o p e l a c k e d - w a s , o f c o u rse , c ru c ia l. N o t o n ly w o u ld th e s e d is ta n t h o ld in g s s u p p ly th e ra w m a te ria ls to b e fin ish e d in th e h o m e la n d ,

b u t th e y

m ade

c o n v e n ie n t d u m p in g

g ro u n d s for

s u rp lu s p r o d u c tio n — k e e p in g th e w e a lth in th e fa m ily , as it w e re . S o th a t th e a r r a n g e m e n t r e m a in e d c lo s e d a n d tid y , co lo n ists w e re fo r b id d e n to tr a d e w ith riv a l n a tio n s. E c o n o m ic p r a c tic e s h a d b e c o m e m e a n s to p u r e ly p o litic a l e n d s. It a ll m a d e g o o d s e n s e in L o n d o n , P a ris , a n d M a d rid . It m a d e s o m e w h a t le s s s e n s e in N e w E n g la n d , N e w F r a n c e , a n d N e w S p a in . In fa c t, th e s y s te m n e v e r w o r k e d a c c o r d in g to th e th e o ry . N e w W o rld c o lo n is ts in c r e a s in g ly tr a d e d w ith o n e a n o th e r w h e n

S H A D O W O F A C O N T IN E N T

th e y th o u g h t th e y c o u ld g e t a w a y w ith it, u n til th e e ig h te e n th c e n tu r y b e c a m e k n o w n a s th e g o ld e n a g e o f sm u g g lin g . It w a s b u t o n e in d ic a to r th a t m e rc a n tilism h a d ru n its c o u rs e as a v ia b le e c o n o m ic sy ste m . In th e w a te r s h e d y e a r o f 1 7 7 6 , A d a m S m ith p u b lis h e d his W ealth o f Nations, d e s c r ib in g a m a tu re c a p ita lis m th a t w o u ld — a g a in in th e o r y — b e no r e s p e c te r o f n a tio n a l b o u n d a r ie s . B u t E n g la n d h a d n o t h a d th e b e n e fit o f a p r e -p u b lic a tio n re a d in g ; o u td a te d p o lic ie s s u r v iv e d a n d a s s u r e d th e s e c e s s io n o f its th ir te e n N o rth A m e r ic a n c o lo n ie s a n d th e fo rm a tio n o f a n e w n a tio n th a t w o u ld , fro m its first im p e ria l b re a th , c o v e t th e w e s te rn n o -m a n ’s-lan d . M e rc a n tilis m h a d fo u n d r e a d y g ro u n d in th e six te e n th c e n tu ry , a tim e w h e n E n g lis h m e n in c r e a s in g ly th o u g h t o f th e m s e lv e s as E n g lis h m e n , F r e n c h m e n as F r e n c h , a n d S p a n ia r d s as D e fe n d e r s o f th e F a ith a n d s u b je c ts o f th e m o st p o w e r fu l m o n a rc h on e a rth . D e s tin ie s h a d a s s u m e d a n a tio n a l gesta lt; w a rfa re , a n e w d im e n sion. T h e im p o rta tio n a n d c u ltiv a tio n o f N e w W o rld fo o d s — p a rtic u la rly m a iz e a n d th e p o ta to — n o w su s ta in e d g r e a te r p o p u la tio n s th a n

E u rop e

had

e v e r k n o w n . A ll c o n s p ire d

to fu rth e r th e

c o n c e n tra tio n o f p o w e r in a fe w c itie s a n d in th e h a n d s o f a fe w m e n . E x p e n s iv e b u r e a u c r a c ie s d e v e lo p e d u n d e r m o n a rc h ie s w o rth th e ir salt, sta n d in g a rm ie s b e c a m e n e c e s s a r y to a n a tio n ’ s s u rv iv a l, a n d s u p p o rtiv e ta x a tio n fe ll h e a v y o n th e d ra b , sta b le , a n d c irc u m s c rib e d a g ric u ltu re o f th e h o m e la n d . T h e g la m o r w a s in th e n e w la n d s th a t u s u a lly d w a r fe d in siz e a n d re s o u r c e s th o s e o f th e ir tr a n s o c e a n ic o w n e rs. I f fu rth e r n e w la n d s c o u ld b e a c q u ire d , p r e fe r a b ly a t th e e x p e n s e o f th e e n e m y o f th e m o m e n t, so m u c h th e b e tte r. M o re w a s th e g o a l o f s tra te g y ; le s s w a s a n a tio n a l d is g ra c e . It h a d n o t sta rte d th a t w a y . T h e d is c o v e r y a n d e x p lo ra tio n o f A m e r ic a , a n d th e first c o m m e r c e w ith h e r, h a d b e e n a p a n E u r o p e a n effo rt. T h e n e w k n o w le d g e c a m e fro m n o o n e p e o p le . C o p e r n ic u s , G a lile o , B a c o n , a n d D e s c a r te s s p o k e th e c o m m o n la n g u a g e o f g e n iu s . C u rio s ity d id n o t sto p at a rb itra ry b o rd e rs , a n d th e c o u r a g e a n d e n te rp ris e o f in d iv id u a l m e n h a d n o th in g to d o w ith w h e re th e y w e r e b o rn . Ita lia n s h a d m a d e th e m a p s a n d c a p ta in e d m a n y o f th e g re a t

BANCROFT LIBRARY, UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA, BERKELEY

IN T R O D U C T IO N

T h e w orld’s oceans b e lo n g e d to E u r o p e by the early sixteenth century, its sea-lanes o p e n e d m ainly by the vessels o f Iberia.

v o y a g e s o f d is c o v e r y . G e r m a n m a th e m a tic ia n s a n d c a rto g ra p h e rs h a d c o n tr ib u te d th e ir sc h o la rs h ip , th o u g h th e tra g ic re lig io u s w a rs th a t r a g e d fo r m o re th a n a c e n tu r y in c e n tra l E u r o p e w o u ld r e m o v e th e fr a c tu r e d s ta te s o f G e r m a n y fro m p a rtic ip a tin g in th e N e w W o rld e x p e r ie n c e , s a v e fo r th e re lig io u s r e fu g e e s w h o le ft th e m to cro ss th e o c e a n . P o r t u g a l’ s P r in c e H e n r y th e N a v ig a to r a s s e m b le d a n in te r n a tio n a l c o m p a n y o f s a v a n ts a n d s e a m e n a t C a p e S a in t V in c e n t, th a t q u e s tio n in g th u m b o f la n d th ru st in to th e A tla n tic . B u t P o p e A le x a n d e r I V d id P o r tu g a l n o fa v o rs in 14 9 3 w h e n h e cu t th e n e w la n d s le n g th w is e into tw o g ro ssly u n e q u a l p a rts fo r th e Ib e r ia n p o w e r s . S p a in g o t a ll b u t th e b u lg e o f B ra z il, a n d th e P o r tu g u e s e lo o k e d e ls e w h e r e to e x te n d th e ir e m p ire — in th e E a s t In d ie s , A fr ic a , a n d A s ia . T h e U n ite d N e th e r la n d s , th e re m a rk a b le little q u a s i- r e p u b lic th a t h a d fr e e d its e lf fro m S p a in b y 160 9 a n d d re w phen om enal

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e s ta b lis h e d its e lf in G u ia n a a n d B r a z il, as w e ll as in N e w A m s te r d a m . Y e t its stre n g th w a s a lw a y s m o re c o m m e rc ia l th a n p o litica l,

S H A D O W O F A C O N T IN E N T

a n d in tim e th e D u tc h fo u n d th e ir p la c e a s th e b a n k ro lle rs o f E u r o p e , w h o fo r a p ric e w o u ld u n d e r w r ite th e w a rs a n d im p e ria l h o p e s o f la rg e r sta te s or c a r ry th e ir c a r g o e s a c ro s s th e o c e a n s . T h r o u g h o u t th e six te e n th a n d s e v e n te e n th c e n tu rie s a w e e d in g o u t p r o c e s s to o k p la c e in th e N e w W o rld . T h e a g e o f d is c o v e r y w a s p a st; th e a g e o f e a r n e s t c o lo n iz a tio n u n d e r w a y . P o w e r in E u r o p e to o k a w e s tw a r d b ia s th a t w o u ld n o t c e a s e fo r c e n tu rie s. S p a in , F r a n c e , a n d E n g la n d , e a c h p o p u lo u s a n d e a c h w ith a s e n s e o f n a tio n a l p u r p o s e a n d e a s y a c c e s s to th e c ritic a l o c e a n , b e c a m e th e c o n te n d e r s fo r th e N e w W o rld p riz e . T h e o th e r n a tio n s, d is q u a lifie d fo r re a s o n s o f g e o g r a p h y , in te rn a l ills, or w h a te v e r , fo u n d th e m s e lv e s o u t o f th e c o n te st, le s s e r fo r c e s in a n e v e r sh iftin g g a m e o f p o w e r e q u a liz a tio n in E u r o p e . A n d o n th e o th e r sid e o f th e A tla n tic O c e a n , th e im p e ria l s tru g g le w a s d o w n to th re e . It w a s S p a in , triu m p h a n t a fte r so m e six h u n d r e d y e a r s o f a lm o st c o n tin u o u s fig h tin g to c le a r th e Ib e r ia n p e n in s u la o f M o o rs, w h ic h first c o lo n iz e d th e N e w W o rld a c e n tu r y b e fo r e h e r fu tu re c o m p e tito rs. T h e tim in g is te llin g . S p a in w a s still v e r y m u c h a fe u d a l k in g d o m

th e n , a n d d e s p ite its m ilita ry p r e e m in e n c e a n d th e

v e n e e r o f m o d e rn ity , it r e m a in e d la r g e ly u n to u c h e d b y th e p ro fo u n d c h a n g e s ta k in g p la c e in th e re st o f E u r o p e . Y e t th e re is no g a in s a y in g th e e n o rm o u s e n e r g y o f th o s e fa d in g k n ig h ts, th e g ild e d m e n , th e conqu istadores w h o s e e a r ly p e n e tr a tio n o f th e tra n s-M is sissip p i d a rk n e s s re m a in s a m o n u m e n t to m a n ’s a u d a c ity, w ill, a n d g re e d . In M a y o f 15 3 9 , H e r n a n d o d e S o to , h e ro ic v e te r a n c a p ta in u n d e r P iz a rro in P e r u , b lo n d as th e su n , as c o u r a g e o u s a s h e w a s c r u e l a n d as a rro g a n t as h e w a s o b stin a te , le d a w e ll-p ro v is io n e d fo rc e o f six h u n d r e d m e n n o rth fro m C u b a in th e w a k e o f P o n c e d e L e o n a n d P a n filo d e N a r v a e z fo r y e t a n o th e r e x p lo ra tio n o f F lo rid a . H e w a s a fte r ric h e s h e w o u ld n o t fin d , a n d th e q u e s t to o k h im a n d h is s e c o n d -in -c o m m a n d , M o s c o s o , w e s tw a r d fro m th e ir s o u th e a s te r n la n d in g into th e fu tu re L o u is ia n a , A r k a n s a s , a n d T e x a s b e fo r e th e fo lly o f it a ll fin a lly b e c a m e p la in . W h e n it d id , th e b u rn t-o u t le a d e r o f th e e x p e d itio n , th e p rid e o f P e r u a n d E s tr e m a d u r a , w a s a lr e a d y d e a d a n d h is b o d y su rre p titio u s ly c o m m itte d to th e w a te rs o f th e M ississip p i. T h e s a d d e r a n d w ise r

The personification o f the gilded man, Hernando de Soto was bold and brutal â&#x20AC;&#x201D;and buried in the Mississippi he discovered.

M o s c o s o to o k a b o u t h a lf o f th e o n c e e le g a n t six h u n d re d to M e x ic o b y se a . A y e a r a fte r d e S o to â&#x20AC;&#x2122;s d e p a rtu r e fro m H a v a n a , th e p ro p e rly c r e d e n tia le d F r a n c is c o V a s q u e z C o ro n a d o , in c h a r g e o f m o re th a n tw o h u n d r e d m o u n te d m e n , six ty -o d d in fa n try , a n d s e v e r a l h u n d r e d In d ia n a llie s, m a r c h e d n o rth fro m in terio r M e x ic o in p u rs u it o f g o ld a n d g lo ry , b u t in s te a d fo u n d b u ffa lo a n d K a n s a s b e fo r e tu rn in g b a c k a g a in . W h ile C o r o n a d o w a s e m b a r k e d o n a m a g n ific e n t fa ilu re , H e r n a n d o d e A la r c o n , fo llo w in g in th e w a k e o f F r a n c is c o d e U llo a , w h o h a d sa ile d th e sa m e w a y th e y e a r b e fo r e , to o k th r e e v e s s e ls u p th e S e a o f C o r te z a n d tw o sm a lle r b o a ts u p th e C o lo r a d o R iv e r to its ju n c tio n w ith th e G ila , o n ly to b e d is a p p o in te d in n o t m a k in g c o n ta c t w ith C o r o n a d o b y la n d .

S H A D O W O F A C O N T IN E N T

T h e fin a l p r o b e n o rth in th is b r ie f b u t e x tra o rd in a ry flu rry o f S p a n is h a c tiv ity w a s a tw o - v e s s e l e x p e d itio n o u t o f N a v id a d on M e x ic o â&#x20AC;&#x2122;s w e s t c o a s t u n d e r th e c o m m a n d o f J u a n R o d r ig u e z C a b rillo . In J u ly o f 15 4 2 , th e v o y a g e r s w e r e s c ra p in g th e sh in o f B a ja C a lifo rn ia ; in S e p te m b e r t h e y d is c o v e r e d S a n D ie g o B a y . C a b rillo c o n tin u e d n o rth w e s t in th e te e th o f th e try in g w in d s, a n d s o m e w h e r e n o rth o f S a n F r a n c is c o B a y (w h ic h h e m isse d ), h e tu rn e d a b o u t. L a te r , d u rin g a S a n ta B a r b a r a C h a n n e l la n d in g , th e c a p ta in b r o k e a le g th a t d id n o t m e n d . W h e n C a b r illo d ie d , th e su rv iv o rs trie d n o rth a g a in , sa ilin g b e y o n d C a p e M e n d o c in o b e fo r e re tu rn in g to N a v id a d on A p ril 14, 15 4 3 . T h e y b ro u g h t b a c k n e w s o f a p o p u la te d a n d fe rtile co a st, b u t n o t th e m in e ra l ric h e s th a t S p a in w a s lo o k in g for. The

e x p e d itio n s into w h a t N e w

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M y s te r y h a d g iv e n h e r a d d itio n a l g e o g r a p h y , w h ic h s h e a lr e a d y h a d in u n h e a lth y a b u n d a n c e , w ith o u t th e in s ta n t w e a lth th a t w o u ld h a v e m a d e its o c c u p a tio n w o rth w h ile . S o in te re s t in th e n o rth , th e A m e r ic a n W e st, fa d e d . . . fo r a w h ile .

Sir Francis Drake put England in the contest with his 1579 voyage to the California coast.

IN T R O D U C T IO N

I n I 579 th e p r iv a te e r F r a n c is D r a k e , la te r to b e k n ig h te d b y Q u e e n E liz a b e t h fo r h is e x p lo its, w e n t on a sp re e o f p illa g in g S p a in ’s P a c ific p o rts fro m C h ile to M e x ic o , th e n h ie d fa r u p c o a s t to fin d a s a fe a n c h o r a g e u n til w in d s w e re righ t fo r a tra n s-P a c ific trip h o m e . T h e s e a d o g re p o rte d th a t h e p u t in so m e m ile s n o rth o f p r e s e n t S a n F r a n c is c o , tra ffic k e d w ith th e n a tiv e s, a n d c la im e d th e la n d h e c a lle d N e w A lb io n for E n g la n d . S in c e h e h a d b e e n c h a r g e d w ith fin d in g th e w e s te r n p o rta l o f th e S tra it o f A n ia n , th a t h a d -to -b e sh o rtc u t to In d ia , a n d sin c e his ro u te h o m e b y w a y o f th e C a p e o f G o o d H o p e h a d b e e n k e p t se c re t, it w a s fe a r e d b y th e S p a n is h th a t h e h a d u s e d th e m y th ic a l w a te rw a y . K in g P h ilip II w a s a la rm e d . A t th e le a s t h e h a d b e e n o u t fla n k e d , a n d th a t p r o v e d to b e th e first stim u lu s o f m a n y to fo llo w th a t w o u ld g o a d S p a in in to d e fe n s iv e a ctio n . A lr e a d y th e re h a d b e e n a r e w a k e n e d in te re s t in th e n o rth a m o n g th e C a th o lic c le r g y in M e x ic o , w h o w e r e p re s s in g fo r c o n v e rsio n s a m o n g th e P u e b lo In d ia n s ; silv e r strik e s a t Z a c a te c a s a n d D u ra n g o , u p th e sp in e o f M e x ic o , h a d

s h o r te n e d th e lo n g , arid in -b e tw e e n . W h e n th e

d ig g in g go t as fa r n o rth as C h ih u a h u a in 15 6 7 , C o r o n a d o ’ s la n d w a s n o t th a t u n r e a c h a b le a n y m o re . S e v e r a l p e titio n e d th e C r o w n to a s s u m e th e e x p e n s e s o f a c o n q u e r in g e x p e d itio n n orth. T h e c o m m a n d e v e n tu a lly w e n t to D o n J u a n d e O n a te , a m a n w ith y e a r s o f e x p e r ie n c e on th e n o rth e rn fro n tie rs o f N u e v a G a lic ia a n d N u e v a V iz c a y a , a m a n w ith a w ife w h o s e lin e a g e n a m e d C o r te s a n d M o n te z u m a — th e b e s t o f b o th b lo o d s. T h e y e a r w a s 159 8 ; th e ir stre n g th ra n to fo u r h u n d r e d , in c lu d in g e ig h t m issio n a rie s a n d e x c lu d in g s e v e n th o u s a n d d o m e s tic a te d b e a s ts — p e r h a p s th e b e s t e v id e n c e o f all th a t w h e re t h e y w e r e g o in g t h e y m e a n t to sta y. W h e r e th e y w e re g o in g w a s to b e c a lle d , in a flig h t o f o p tim ism , N e w M e x ic o . O n a te q u ic k ly r e d u c e d th e p la c id trib e s a lo n g th e R io G r a n d e d e l N o r te a n d e s ta b lis h e d a te m p o r a r y h e a d q u a r te r s a t S a n J u a n o n th e riv e r. T h e p rie sts w e r e im m e d ia te ly d is p e r s e d a m o n g th e m a iz e - g r o w in g P u e b lo p e o p le s , w h ile O n a te o c c u p ie d h im s e lf w ith e x p lo r a tio n . F irs t h e w e n t w e s t to th e H o p i m e s a s o f A riz o n a , th e n b a c k to th e riv e r v a lle y a n d n o rth e a s t fo r a p la c e c a lle d G ra n Q u iv ira ,

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ONATE ENTERS NEW MEXICO" BY CARL OSCAR BORG; WESTWAYS

S H A D O W O F A C O N T IN E N T

Spain was first to settle in the West. Conquistador Juan de Ohate brought Cross and Sword to N ew Mexico in the year 1598.

IN T R O D U C T IO N

R io G r a n d e , O n a te fo u n d th e co lo n ists d e s p e r a te fo r fo o d a n d in a n u g ly m o o d . In a m o v e to r e c o u p h is re p u ta tio n , h e w e n t w e s t a g a in in 160 4 to s e e th e C a lifo rn ia (w h ic h h e c o n c lu d e d to b e an isla n d ) th a t S e b a s tia n V iz c a in o h a d o n ly r e c e n tly v isite d b y se a . H e fo u n d n o g o ld th e re , n o silv er, n o n e o f th e ru m o re d p e a rls. N e w M e x ic o b e c a m e a ro y a l p ro v in c e a fte r O n a te ’s re m o v a l in 1608, b u t th a t d id n o t im p ro v e its sta tu s as a p o o r, s le e p y o u tp o st a th o u s a n d m ile s fro m a n y w h e r e im p o rta n t, k e p t h a lf-a liv e b y a s u b s is te n c e a g ric u ltu re a n d th e z e a l o f p riests. T h e s e v e n te e n th h a d b e e n a n u n k in d c e n tu r y fo r S p a in in n o rth e rn la titu d e s . S h e w a s jo in e d in c o lo n iz in g N o rth A m e r ic a b y h e r c o m p e titio n : P r o te s ta n t E n g la n d a n d C a th o lic -b u t-riv a l F r a n c e . T h e E n g lis h e s ta b lis h e d J a m e s to w n in 160 7; a y e a r la te r th e F r e n c h u n d e r S a m u e l d e C h a m p la in s e ttle d th e m s e lv e s in ch ill Q u e b e c . It w o u ld b e th e m o re d ista n t F r e n c h w h o p o s e d th e first th r e a t to N e w S p a in in th e A m e r ic a n W e st. A t first F r a n c e w a s to o e n fe e b le d b y in te rn a l re lig io u s co n flicts a n d h e r o ff-a g a in , o n -a g a in w a rs w ith E n g la n d to d o m o re th a n c lin g b y a th r e a d to C a n a d a , w ith its fish e rie s a n d tim b e r a n d furs a n d six -m o n th -fro z e n a c c e s s u p th e G r e a t R iv e r o f th e E a s t, th e S a in t L a w r e n c e . E a s te r n C a n a d a n e v e r d id b e c o m e tru ly a p a y in g p ro p o sitio n . It w a s too frig id a n d so il-p o o r fo r th a t. B u t it h a d ju s t e n o u g h o f w h a t F r a n c e c o u ld u s e , fo s te re d a m u c h - n e e d e d m a ritim e b o o m in th e p o rts o f B o r d e a u x a n d L a R o c h e lle , b u o y e d h o p e s o f a G a u lis h E l D o ra d o , a n d d e n ie d E n g la n d w h a t sh e w o u ld o th e rw is e h a v e . U n d e r F r e n c h c o lo n ia l p o lic y , fa ith a n d fla g h a d to c o e x ist w ith m e n w h o m e a n t to m a k e m o n e y , b y w h a te v e r m e a n s. A s w ith S p a in , th e m o d u s o p e r a n d i w a s e s s e n tia lly fe u d a l — g ra n ts o f s e ig n e u r ie s to a ris to cra tic scio n s w h o c ro s s e d th e A tla n tic to do w e ll fo r th e m s e lv e s . T h e le s s e r fo lk w h o w e n t a lo n g , th e habi

tants, w o u ld p r o v id e th e la b o r to firm u p e s ta te s a n d th e r e b y in c r e a s e th e r o y a l p o w e r o f F r a n c e . T h e in flu e n tia l J e s u its , w ith s p o n so rs d e e p ly e n tr e n c h e d in co u rt, w e r e a lso to b e g iv e n th e ir h e a d : le t th e m b rin g th e re d m a n in to th e T r u e C h u r c h if th a t m a d e th e m h a p p y . It c o u ld o n ly h a rm E n g la n d , n o t F r a n c e . O f th e p a rtie s to th e F r e n c h im p e ria l m issio n — th e n o b le m ilita ry c a s te , th e p io u s c le r g y w illin g to u n d e r g o m a rty rd o m

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Narvaez 1528 Cabeza de Vaca 1529-36 ...............De Soto/Moscoso 1539-42 <•• • >< Return by same route •-**■ Coronado 1540-42 •-*- Return by same route • -» Subsidiary explo rations of Coro nado Party •— Ulloa 1539 <■■ • • Alarcon 1540 Return by same route <111 ll> Melchior Diaz 1540 Return by same route » ■' Cabrillo/Ferrelo 1542-43 Return by same route Note: Cabrillo died in Channel Is lands; Ferrelo tried north again before return without Cabrillo. ----- Bazares 1568 << < < Espejo 1582 ■■ ■• Carabajal 1583 ------- Onate 1598-1605 (Conquest of New MexicoJ

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MAJOR SPANISH EXPLORATIONS OF THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY

VERACRUZ

S H A D O W O F A C O N T IN E N T

a m o n g th e sauvages (a n d so o fte n a c c o m m o d a te d ), a n d th e d e p e n d a b le habitant w h o w a s to d r u d g e it — th e la st m e n tio n e d w a s a t o n c e th e w e a k e s t a n d stro n g e s t lin k. T h o s e w h o v o lu n te e r e d to c o m e to N e w F r a n c e , a n d th o s e w h o d e c id e d to sta y , b e c a m e fr e e m e n b r e a th in g fr e e air. T h e ir re lig io n w a s o ld a n d so c o m fo r ta b le a s to b e stiflin g. T h e so c ia l stric tu re s o f Q u e b e c a n d M o n tr e a l w e r e p r e c is e ly w h a t t h e y h a d c r o s s e d a n o c e a n to e s c a p e . S o th e w e s t d r e w th e m — a T u r n e r ia n su c tio n o p e r a tiv e lo n g b e fo r e th e S c o tc h -Ir is h m a d e th e ir e n tr a n c e . T h e y w e r e cou reu rs d e bois: w o o d s m e n , fu r m e n , s q u a w m e n , n a tu ra l m e n . T h r o u g h o u t th e s e v e n te e n th c e n tu r y it lo o k e d a s i f F r a n c e w o u ld b e th e first to d iv in e th e m y s te r y o f th e W e st. S h e m o v e d in th a t d ire c tio n w ith a sto n ish in g s p e e d , h e r v e h ic le b e in g fu r tra d e w ith th e In d ia n s . It b e g a n w ith b a rte r fo r p e lts w ith th e H u ro n s a n d O tta w a s, th e n q u ic k ly fo llo w e d th e se ttin g su n to th e S a u k s , F o x e s , P o ta w a to m is , a n d M ia m is o f th e w e s te r n G r e a t L a k e s re g io n . A s e a r ly as 16 5 9 th e F r e n c h w e re e n tr e n c h e d in th e fa r w e s te r n fin g e r o f L a k e S u p e rio r — th a n k s to a g ifte d p a ir o f e x p lo re r-tra d e rs, M e d a r d C h o u a r t G ro se illie rs a n d P ie r r e E s p rit R a d is s o n . B u t it w a s n o t u n til 16 6 5 , w ith L o u is X I V ’ s a p p o in tm e n t o f J e a n T a lo n a s in te n d a n t, th e k in g ’s p e r s o n a l r e p r e s e n ta tiv e in le g a l m a tte rs, th a t N e w F r a n c e go t g o in g . E a c h y e a r T a lo n se n t tw e n ty - fiv e lic e n s e d tra d e rs w e s tw a rd ; a lso p r e s s in g w e s t w e re J e s u its w ith o u t th e le a s t in te re s t in b e a v e r . A n o t-su rp risin g c o o l n e s s d e v e lo p e d b e tw e e n p rie st a n d v oya g eu r. T h e u s e o f a lc o h o l in th e fu r tra d e , w ith its d e v a s ta tin g e ffe c ts on th e In d ia n , w id e n e d th e rift, a n d c h u r c h m e n s e e k in g its b a n m e t little s u c c e s s w ith a C r o w n sc ra tc h in g fo r livres to fin a n c e c o s tly w a rs o n th e C o n tin en t. In 16 7 3 , in a p e a c e - k e e p in g g e stu re , T a lo n s e n t F a th e r J a c q u e s M a r q u e tte a lo n g w ith la y m a n L o u is J o llie t in s e a r c h o f th e m ig h ty riv e r M essipi, o f w h ic h th e In d ia n s h a d sp o k e n . O n J u n e 17 th e y fo u n d it, a n d p r o s p e c ts lo o k e d b rig h t fo r th e n e w w o u ld -b e c la im a n t to th e w e s te r n la n d s. B u t th e h e a lth o f N e w F r a n c e w a s n e v e r ro b u st. A ch ro n ic v e n tr a l a fflictio n k e p t fla rin g u p in th e p e rs o n o f th e fiv e -trib e Iro q u o is n a tio n . T h o u g h th e F r e n c h tr e a te d th e n a tiv e p e o p le s m o re h u m a n e ly th a n o th e r c o lo n iz e rs, t h e y h a d m a d e th e in n o c e n t m ista k e o f b e fr ie n d in g th e H u ro n s a n d th e O tta w a s — sw o rn

IN T R O D U C T IO N

e n e m ie s o f th e Iro q u o is g ro u p e d s tr a te g ic a lly on th e so u th a n d e a s t sh o re s o f L a k e O n ta rio . B y a sso c ia tio n , th e n , N e w F r a n c e w a s in r e c e ip t o f a n e n m ity sh e c o u ld ill a ffo rd . I f th e Iro q u o is h a d b e e n ju s t a n o th e r b a n d o f P ea u x-rou ges it w o u ld n o t h a v e b e e n a g rie v o u s m a tte r. B u t th e Iro q u o is w e re a w a rrio r c o n fe d e r a c y w h o “ c a m e lik e fo x e s, a tta c k e d lik e lions, a n d fle d like b ir d s ,”

sc a tte rin g th e ir A lg o n k in -s p e a k in g fo e s lik e frig h te n e d

g e e s e . I n c ite d first b y th e D u tc h a n d s u b s e q u e n tly b y th e E n g lish , w h o c o r r e c tly fe a r e d F r e n c h e n c irc le m e n t, th e Iro q u o is la u n c h e d p e r io d ic , fe ro c io u s w a r o n th e fleur-d e-lys, b ro k e n o n ly b y b r ie f y e a r s o f u n e a s y p e a c e . W ith e a c h n e w a tta ck , th e w e s tw a rd re a c h o f th e F r e n c h c o n s tric te d in p a in fu l sp asm ; w h a t w a s in th eir g ra sp w a s lo st a n d h a d to b e s e iz e d a g a in . L o u is d e B a u d e , C o m te d e F r o n te n a c , d e a lt th e Iro q u o is c o n fe d e r a c y a s e v e r e b e a tin g a fte r h e b e c a m e g o v e rn o r in 16 72 . H e k n e w w h a t w a s a t s ta k e — k n e w a lm o st as w e ll as his fa v o rite c o u rtie r, R o b e r t C a v e lie r , S ie u r d e la S a lle . L a S a lle re m a in s la r g e ly a n e n ig m a , o n e o f h isto ry ’ s n o b le s t fa ilu re s. In te llig e n t, c o u r a g e o u s , r e le n tle s s ly d e te rm in e d , h e w a s p e r h a p s th e first w h ite m a n to u n d e r s ta n d w h a t p o ssib ilities la y in th e g re a t in te rio r riv e r v a lle y . A s h e sa w it, th e c o lo n ie s o f N o rth A m e ric a w o u ld fo rm a lo n g n o rth -to -so u th a x e s ra th e r th a n e a st-to -w e st as th e n a tio n s do n o w ; th e r e w a s an e m p ire to b e w o n a n d h e w o u ld b e its e m p e ro r. A fte r y e a r s o f s tre n g th e n in g h is p o sitio n a lo n g th e lo w e r G r e a t L a k e s , fo llo w in g u p on his fu r tra d e m o n o p o ly g ra n te d in P a ris b u t s e ld o m h o n o re d in Q u e b e c , h e s e t o u t in 1683 w ith h is r e s o u r c e fu l a n d lo y a l s e c o n d -in -c o m m a n d , H e n ri d e T o n ty , to ta k e th e M iss is sip p i fo r g o o d — a n d fo r F r a n c e . H e w e n t all th e w a y d o w n it, to th e F a th e r o f W a te r s ’ silty d e b o u c h m e n t into th e G u lf o f M e x ic o . T h e k e y to th e c o n tin e n t w a s, in d e e d , in th e m o u th o f th e g r e a t riv e r. W ith its p o s s e s s io n , th e F r e n c h w o u ld c o n ta in tra d itio n a l e n e m y E n g la n d o n th re e sid e s a n d w o u ld h a v e a fo r w a rd b a s e fro m w h ic h to s ta g e a ss a u lts o n N e w S p a in w ith its rich m in e s. S till d o g g e d b y b a d lu c k a n d h a r a s s e d b y je a lo u s c o u n try m e n , p a r tic u la r ly th e fa t m e rc h a n ts o f M o n tre a l, L a S a lle c a rrie d his d r e a m to P a r is a n d ra llie d su p p o rt. In 1684 h e r e tu rn e d w ith fo u r

The visionary La Salle took formal possession o f the Mississippi Valley for Louis X IV on April 9, 1682. France would hold Louisiana for nearly a century.

h u n d r e d m e n to p la n t F r a n c e firm ly o n th e s o u th e rn e n tr a n c e to th e W e st. B u t h e m iss e d th e riv e r. H e o v e rs h o t it (th e re is g o o d r e a s o n to b e lie v e h e d id so d e lib e r a te ly , th in k in g to s te a l a m a rc h o n S p a in ) a n d la n d e d w ith h is u n ru ly co lo n ists on th e in h o sp it a b le T e x a s sh o re s o f M a ta g o r d a B a y . T h e p a r ty w a s d isp irite d , fa c tio n -rid d e n , a n d frig h te n e d ; a n d a p e tty ro g u e p u t a b u lle t in th e h e a d o f its le a d e r to h id e a n o th e r crim e. L a S a lle — th e v is io n a ry, th e lo n e ly m a n m o re th a n a c e n tu r y a h e a d o f his tim e — w a s

g o n e . F r e n c h d e s ig n s o n th e W e s t h a d r e c e iv e d a se rio u s se tb a c k . E n g la n d h a d n o t e x a c tly b e e n sle e p in g . B u t n e ith e r h a d sh e m o v e d w e s t fro m h e r s e a b o a r d c o lo n ie s at m o re th a n a s n a ilâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s p a c e . T h e se ttle rs, w h e th e r in c o lo n ie s ro y a l, p ro p rie ta ry , or u n d e r w r itte n b y a jo in t-s to c k c o m p a n y , w e re a sto lid lot, w h o s e m issio n w a s to g ro w cro p s fo r E n g la n d , to p u r c h a s e th e S c e p t e r â&#x20AC;&#x2122;d I s l e â&#x20AC;&#x2122; s m a n u fa c tu r e d g o o d s, a n d to sta y c lo se to th e p o rts. B u t E n g la n d e n v ie d F r a n c e h e r fu r tra d e . S o m e e n te rp ris in g E n g lis h -

S H A D O W O F A C O N T IN E N T

m e n b e c a m e e n g a g e d in th e lu c r a tiv e b a rte r, c h ie fly in N e w Y o r k th ro u g h th e ir a llie s th e Iro q u o is. Still, th e y r e m a in e d a d ista n t s e c o n d to th e w e s tw a r d -p r e s s in g F r e n c h , e v e n a fte r th e d e fe c tio n o f R a d is s o n a n d G ro se illie rs , w h o w e n t to L o n d o n in 1668 a n d s h o w e d r e c e p tiv e E n g la n d th e w a y to th e g r e a t b e a v e r g ro u n d s o f H u d s o n B a y . “ T h e G o v e r n o r a n d C o m p a n y o f A d v e n tu r e r s o f E n g la n d T r a d in g in to H u d s o n ’s B a y , ” w ith its v a g u e c la im s to la n d s w e s t, g a v e E n g la n d n o t o n ly a h e a lth y p ie c e o f th e a c tio n b u t a stra te g ic n o rth e rn p o sitio n a n d a s tra d d le o f N e w F r a n c e . B u t if th e M iss is sip p i — th e a ll-im p o rta n t riv e r th a t d iv id e d th e c o n tin e n t — b e c a m e F r e n c h , th o s e a d v a n ta g e s w o u ld b e sm all c o n so la tio n in d e e d . O n ly E n g la n d ’s n a v y c o u ld b e r e lie d u p o n to p r e v e n t to ta l e n c irc le m e n t. E n g la n d w a s n o t a lo n e in its w o rry . S p a in a g a in h a d r e a s o n to stir fro m its to rp o r. In 1680 th e P u e b lo p e o p le s o f N e w M e x ic o u n ite d u n d e r D o m in g o N a r a n jo (a b la c k s la v e b r o u g h t fro m M e x ic o a n d fr e e d ) a n d a n In d ia n m e d ic in e m a n c a lle d P o p e in re v o lt a g a in s t th e ir o v e rlo rd s, s la u g h te r in g so m e fo u r h u n d r e d o f th e m a n d d riv in g th e re st so u th to E l P a s o . F o r th e n e x t tw e lv e y e a r s th e In d ia n s w o rk e d to p u rify th e ir c u ltu re o f e v e r y th in g th a t w a s S p a n is h a n d C h ris tia n . T h e la u n d e r in g e n d e d o n ly w h e n D o n D ie g o d e V a r g a s le d a n a rm y n o rth in 1692 o n a r e c o n q u e s t th a t w o u ld ta k e six y e a r s . E v e n b e fo r e th e re v o lt th e v ic e r o y s in M e x ic o C ity w e r e n e r v o u s ly a w a r e o f F r e n c h e x p a n s io n in th e n o rth — w h e r e v e r th a t w a s. B u t in 16 8 5 , re p o rts o f L a S a lle ’s p r e s e n c e in T e x a s , w h e re N e w S p a in h a d b e e n s e n d in g tra d in g , sla v in g , a n d m iss io n a ry p a rtie s sin c e th e 1630 s, w e r e so m e th in g e ls e . S p a n is h p a r a n o ia w a s p iq u e d a n e w . A t th e c lo se o f th e s e v e n te e n th c e n tu r y , th e im p e ria l a tte n tio n o f th re e n a tio n s w a s d ir e c te d to th e m o u th o f th e M ississip p i. C le a r ly , m a s te r y o f th e riv e r le d to m a s te r y o f th e c o n tin e n t. In O c to b e r 1698 a S p a n is h fo rc e le ft V e r a c r u z ; D r. D a n ie l C o x e se n t tw o s h ip lo a d s o f H u g u e n o t co lo n ists fro m E n g la n d ; a n d P ie r r e L e M o y n e d ’I b e r v ille sa ile d fro m F r a n c e w ith tw o h u n d r e d so l d ie rs a n d se ttle rs. T h e S p a n is h s e c u r e d P e n s a c o la B a y in s te a d o f th e M is s is s ip p i’s m o u th , C o x e ’ s p a r ty g o t s id e tr a c k e d in th e C a ro lin a s , a n d Ib e r v ille p r e v a ile d . H e e s ta b lis h e d h im s e lf first a t B ilo x i b e fo r e e x p lo rin g a n d th e n fo rtify in g th e M iss is sip p i

IN T R O D U C T IO N

p ro p e r. L o u is ia n a , so n a m e d b y L a S a lle in h o n o r o f L o u is X I V , n o w h a d a sm a ll p e r m a n e n t p o p u la tio n , a n d it sp o k e th e S u n K in g â&#x20AC;&#x2122; s la n g u a g e . B y 170 0 th e w h ite m a n â&#x20AC;&#x2122; s k n o w le d g e o f th e tra n s-M ississip p i W e s t w a s still p itifu lly sm all. A r e la tiv e h a n d fu l h a d w a n d e r e d in to its frin g e s , th e lu c k y o n e s to w a n d e r righ t b a c k o u t a g a in . N o E u r o p e a n p o w e r h a d h a d b u t th e re m o te s t b ru sh w ith a riva l w ith in its v a s t e x p a n s e . Y e t th e y w e r e all clo sin g in on th e g re a t e m p ty s p a c e o n th e ir m a p s. In th e e ig h te e n th c e n tu r y th e re w o u ld b e m a n y m o re in tru d ers in th e W e s t a n d e v e n d ire c t c o n ta c t a n d c o n flict a m o n g p e o p le w h o h a d at le a s t a n o m in a l a lle g ia n c e to d iffe re n t cro w n s. A g a in th e M iss is sip p i V a lle y w o u ld b e fo c a l. B u t th e c e n tu rie s-lo n g c o n te s t o f th e im p e ria l p o w e rs , w h ic h in c lu d e d a m o n g its p riz e s th e A m e r ic a n W e st, d id n o t ta k e p la c e in th e W e st. R a th e r , m o st o f th e

b lo o d

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b e sp ille d e ls e w h e re , at re m o te statio n s

g ird lin g m o re th a n h a lf th e g lo b e . S p a in a n d F r a n c e a n d E n g la n d k n e w th e sta k e s in th e c o n te x t o f th e ir tim es. T h e A m e r ic a n W e st w a s n o m o re th a n a p a w n o f u n k n o w n v a lu e on a m u lti-c o n tin e n ta l c h e s s b o a r d . T h e th r e e n a tio n -p la y e rs in v o lv e d in th e g a m e m ig h t v ie w it as e x p e n d a b le to w in a n a d v a n ta g e e ls e w h e re , b u t th e y w o u ld n o t s u rre n d e r it fo r n o th in g . In 1 7 7 6 t h e y w o u ld b e jo in e d in th e c o n te st b y a fo u rth n ation , th e first n a tio n o f th e N e w W o rld , c o n c e iv e d as m u c h in c u p id ity as in lib e rty , w h ic h w o u ld a s s u m e in its in fa n c y a n a g g r e s s iv e p o s tu r e r e g a r d in g a ll la n d s to its w e st.

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New World Myths

ovember 22, 1803. Thomas Jefferson had a problem. He had only recently concluded a secret treaty with Napoleon that would give his young republic a million square miles of additional real estate for a mere fifteen million dollars. Louisiana was a bargain any way one looked at it; the trouble was, Jefferson had consulted the United States Senate neither about the merits of the acquisition, nor about the Senate’s willingness to fund it. Moreover, Jefferson, a firm upholder of the Constitution, was not sure his action was legal. Something had to be done. So on this day the third president of the United States sent a message to an incensed Con gress extolling the vast lands which he had admittedly never seen, the boundaries of which were at best uncertain, and the title to which lay under a Spanish cloud. The soil bordering the Mississippi River was the most fertile in all the world, Jefferson assured Congress. And beyond, the earth of those western prairies was so rich that it would not support the growth of trees. Moreover, lead was available in such quantities as to satisfy the needs of all Europe, and was easily recovered because it lay only two or three feet below the surface of the ground. In the north there were caves of saltpeter and, so he had heard, many silver and copper mines. Also out there was a tribe of giant Indians and —wonder of won ders—a mountain of solid salt! This was no piddling pimple on the face of the land, but an enormous mountain 180 miles long and 45 miles wide, and located only one thousand miles up the Missouri River. “The exis tence of such a mountain might well be questioned,” Jefferson conceded, “were it not for the testimony of several respectable and enterprising traders, who have visited it and exhibited several bushels of the salt to the curiosity of the people of Saint Louis. . . . ” Not everyone —in or out of Congress —was impressed, though some were openly amused. The New York Evening Post of November 28 won dered whether there might not be salt birds sitting on salt trees atop that salt mountain and feared that the glare from the mountain on a sun shiny day must be dreadful. The Evening Post further speculated that “ it would have been no more than fair in the traveller who informed

Mr. Jefferson of this territory of solid salt, to have added, that some leagues to the westward of it there was an immense lake of molasses, and that between this lake and the mountain of salt, there was an extensive vale of hasty pudding, stretching as far as the eye could reach, and kept in a state of comfortable eatibility by the warmth of the sun’s rays, into which the natives, being all Patagonians, waded knee deep, whenever they were hungry, and helped themselves with salt on the one hand to season their pudding, and molasses with the other, to give it relish.” It seems incredible now, looking back, that Thomas Jefferson, son of the Enlightenment and product of the Age of Reason, practical farmer and amateur scientist, could have swallowed such nonsense. Perhaps he did not. Perhaps it was all a ploy to gain support for absorbing the western lands he had long wanted. At least he had the advantage of knowing as much about that distant territory as any of the senators, perhaps more, and it did not much matter that collectively they knew very little. When you buy a pig in a poke with someone else’s money, why not have them believe the hog’s hooves are of solid silver and its bristles of wire gold? Whatever Mr. Jefferson’s private state of mind, he was publicly follow ing an old and honorable tradition —that of investing the American West with the marvelous, the miraculous, and the monstrous. As Europeans established themselves in the New World and gradually extended their frontiers, digesting the wonders of novel flora and fauna, discovering exotic peoples and a topography that bore little resemblance to their home continent, expectations rose of what was yet to be found. Not sur prisingly, the best was saved for last, and what was last was the transMississippi West. Any yarn that Jefferson could spin about that faraway land had already been surpassed in fancy by Spaniards, Frenchmen, and Englishmen be fore him. The Spanish in the Southwest had heard early of a stream in which swam fish as large as horses; of a tribe of Indians with ears so large that they used them to shade themselves from the heat of the sun; of an other tribe who lived out their lives under water, and still another who never ate food but were sustained by merely sniffing it. The French had first been drawn into the New World contest partly on the testimony of a Canadian Indian brought back to the court of Francis I by explorer Jacques Cartier. The wily chief Donnaconna filled impressionable ears with tales of pygmies, people who could fly like birds, those who dressed in gold and copper, and unipeds who traveled in great bounds over a tropical landscape on a centrally situated foot. Englishmen avidly read fictitious accounts of voyages through the fabled Strait of Anian that led to Cathay. It was even said that griffins and leopards and unicorns had been seen “ out there,” as were Chinese and a race of baldheaded folks who may or may not have been one and the same.

Something there was about the West that set a man to lying. It might have been the sheer immensity of sky, the heightened visibility of a subhumid atmosphere (mirages were as common then as now), or the enorÂ mity of landforms on an often treeless expanse that either scrambled his sense of proportion or so humbled him that he had to exaggerate what he saw to regain his self-esteem. By having been among wonders, he himself had become more wonderful, and friends back home should know it. The world was also shrinking, and man perhaps needed at least one unknown corner of it to house his wildest hopes and fears. The real wonÂ der is not that the myths were concocted in the first place, but that belief in them persisted among so many for so long.

Chapter 1

'f lic Metal Lovers IT WAS THE EXPECTATION o f m in e ra l rich e s th a t first lu re d S p a n ia r d s n o rth o u t o f th e c iv iliz e d V a lle y o f M e x ic o . T h e y w e re lo o k in g fo r a n otro M ex ico , a n d th e q u e s t w o u ld ta k e th e m fa r a n d d e e p in to th e s h a d o w la n d s o f th e A m e r ic a n W e st. It a ll b e g a n w ith a tru e a d v e n tu r e ta le to b e g g a r th e im a g in a Â tio n o f a D a n ie l D e fo e . A lv a r N u n e z C a b e z a d e V a c a , o f S p a n is h y e o m a n sto ck , s a ile d in 1528 fro m C u b a as tre a s u re r to P a n filo d e N a r v a e z , a re d -h a ire d , o n e -e y e d b lu s te re r w h o h a d fa ile d to d is tin g u is h h im s e lf u n d e r C o rte s in th e c o n q u e s t o f M e x ic o . T h e ir v o y a g e h a d a s its e n d th e e x p lo ra tio n o f th e ill-d e fin e d la n d c a lle d F lo r id a , a n d th e e x p e d itio n w a s a d isa ste r. H o stile re d m e n a n d fe tid s w a m p la n d sa w to th a t. T h e b e le a g u e r e d N a r v a e z b u ilt b o a ts fro m th e h id e s a n d sin e w s o f his s la u g h te r e d h o rs e s to e ffe c t a re tre a t, b u t n a tu re w a s u n s y m p a th e tic a n d all th e cra ft w e re lo st to sto rm s o ff th e G u lf C o a s t. T h e m e n w h o m a n n e d th e m w e r e to u n d e r g o a n o r d e a l in s u rv iv a l th a t u ltim a te ly r e d u c e d th e ir n u m Â b e r s fro m tw o h u n d r e d s h ip w r e c k e d to a m e re fou r, w a n d e rin g in la n d fro m th e sh o re s o f T e x a s . C a b e z a d e V a c a w a s a m o n g th e m , a n a tu r a l le a d e r fro m all th a t w e re a d . F o r e ig h t y e a r s h e w a n d e r e d w e s tw a r d a m o n g th e In d ia n s a s a so m e tim e s la v e a n d revered

m e d ic in e

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M e x ic o , a n d a c o rn e r o f A r iz o n a b e fo re tu rn in g so u th to M e x ic o , r e c o r d in g w ith a c le a r m in d w h a t h e sa w a n d w h a t h e h e a rd . It is iro n ic th a t d e V a c a , b y m o st a c c o u n ts a n in te llig e n t, m o d e s t, a n d h u m a n e m a n , sh o u ld h a v e p a s s e d on to h is g u llib le M e x ic o C it y q u e s tio n e r s so m e h e a r s a y in fo rm a tio n o f c itie s th a t h a d tu r q u o is e , c o p p e r , a n d e m e ra ld s in a b u n d a n c e . G o ld c o u ld

WESTERN HISTORY DEPARTMENT, DENVER PUBLIC LIBRARY

FA N TA SY LA N D

Shipwrecked Cabeza de Vaca wandered with Indians before reaching Mexico with tales to tell (depicted b y Frederic Remington).

T H E M ETA L LOVERS

o n ly b e in fe r r e d b y a p e o p le w h o a lr e a d y h a d P e r u a n d M e x ic o a s p r e c e d e n ts . T h e hidalgo m in d w a s p r e d is p o s e d to th in k in te rm s o f trin ities. W h a t d e V a c a h a d to s a y s e e m e d to co n firm w h a t a n In d ia n s la v e h a d a lr e a d y sa id a b o u t s e v e n cities c a lle d C ib o la . G o ld e n th e y w e re . N o t u n lik e th o s e s e v e n c itie s on th e isla n d o f A n tilla th a t P o r tu g u e s e n a v ig a to rs h a d v a in ly s e a r c h e d fo r in th e A tla n tic in th e fo u r te e n th c e n tu ry . S o th e y h a d b e e n on th e n e w c o n tin e n t all a lo n g , th e n , in th e o b s c u r e n o rth w e st co u n try , th e h o u s e s w ith th e ir tu r q u o is e d o o rs a n d g o ld e n w a lls g le a m in g in th e sun, w a itin g to b e strip p e d . M e x ic o w a s in fe c te d w ith a fre s h c a s e o f th e g o ld itch . F ro m th e m e a n e s t s tre e t id le r to V ic e r o y A n to n io d e M e n d o z a h im self, fe w w e r e im m u n e . W h e n d e V a c a a n d A n d r e s D o ra n te s , a fe llo w (fwaind* Jr1

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G old and turquoise were to be found in the Seven Cities o f Cibola, placed in N ew Mexico b y Juan Martines on his map o f 1578.

FA N TA SY LA N D

su rv iv o r o f th e N a r v a e z e x p e d itio n , d e c lin e d to le a d th e w a y n o rth , th e g u id e ’ s ro le to a r e c o n n a is s a n c e p a r ty fe ll to o n e E s te v a n ic o — D o r a n t e s ’ g a rru lo u s N e g r o s la v e w h o h a d s u rv iv e d , e v e n th riv e d , in th e y e a r s o f su ffe rin g w ith h is m a ste r. H e w o u ld sh o w th e w a y to F r a y M a rc o s d e N iz a , w h o w a s w is e in th e m a t te rs o f c o n q u e s t b y v irtu e o f h a v in g b e e n in P e r u w ith P iz a rro . It m a d e m o re s e n s e to M e n d o z a th a n it sh o u ld h a v e w h e n h e se n t th e m o u t fro m C u lia c a n in 15 3 9 w ith a fe w In d ia n b e a r e r s . F o r all h is q u a litie s o f stre n g th , re s o u r c e fu ln e s s , a n d in flu e n c e a m o n g th e In d ia n s , E s te v a n ic o h a d a fa ta l fo n d n e s s fo r n a tiv e tu rq u o is e a n d n a tiv e w o m e n . It w a s n o t lo n g b e fo r e h e le a p e d a h e a d o f th e m a in b o d y w ith his h a r e m a n d h a n g e rs-o n , se n d in g b a c k to th e tre p id d e N iz a e n c o u r a g in g m e s s a g e s o f h is p r o g re s s — e v e n tu a lly c ro ssin g th e R io G r a n d e a n d re p o rtin g h is a p p r o a c h to th e s e v e n c itie s c a lle d C ib o la . W h e n E s te v a n ic o r e a c h e d th e Z u n i v illa g e o f H a w ik u h in th e o u tla n d ish g a rb o f a se lf-p ro c la im e d p rin c e a n d a n n o u n c e d th a t h e , a b la c k m a n , w a s an e m is s a ry fro m p o w e rfu l w h ite m e n to th e so u th w h o m e a n t to c o m e n orth, it w a s a fa ilu re in d ip lo m a c y . T h e Z u n is im m e d ia te ly im p riso n e d him . T h r e e d a y s la te r t h e y k ille d him . W o rd o f h is d e a th r e a c h e d F r a y M a rc o s th ro u g h E s t e v a n ic o ’s re ta in e rs. D e N iz a p r o b a b ly n e v e r go t c lo se r th a n o n e h u n d r e d fifty m ile s to H a w ik u h , th e m e sa -to p v illa g e in w h a t is n o w w e s te r n N e w M e x ic o . B u t th a t d id n o t sto p h im fro m g ild in g th e c h o lla . H is re p o rt to M e n d o z a b e c a m e o n e o f h is to r y ’s g re a t lie s b e lie v e d ., I n c lu d e d in th e e m b r o id e r y w a s th e fria r’ s c la im th a t h e h a d lo o k e d d o w n o n C ib o la fro m a n e m in e n c e : “J u d g in g b y w h a t I c o u ld s e e fro m th e h e ig h t w h e re I p la c e d m y s e lf to o b s e r v e it, th e se ttle m e n t is la rg e r th a n th e c ity o f M e x ic o . . . .

It a p p e a r s to m e

th a t th is la n d is th e b e s t a n d la r g e s t o f a ll th o s e th a t h a v e b e e n d is c o v e r e d .” F r a n c is c o V a s q u e z C o r o n a d o le d th e a rm y n o rth in 1540 . In J u ly h e a v e n g e d E s te v a n ic o b y ta k in g H a w ik u h . B u t w h a t h e to o k w a s c h ie fly m u d p ile d h ig h ; M a rc o s d e N iz a , a lo n g fo r th e rid e , d is c r e e tly e x c u s e d h im s e lf fo r a q u ic k re tu rn to M e x ic o . A le ss c re d u lo u s C o r o n a d o n o w s e n t e x p lo ra tio n p a rtie s o u t fro m his b a s e c a m p a t th e d is c r e d ite d C ib o la . O n e w e n t n o rth w e st to d is c o v e r th e G r a n d C a n y o n a n d to b e b e fu d d le d b y e a rth fo rm s

BY N. C. WYETH, JOHN MORRELL & COMPANY AND IOWA STATE UNIVERSITY

The fabled gold o f Gran Quivira became the common dust o f Kansas for Don Francisco Vasquez de Coronado in 1541.

th a t a b id e d b y n o k n o w n s ta n d a rd s o f p e r s p e c tiv e . A n o th e r e x p e d itio n p r o b e d e a s tw a r d fro m Z u n i to th e m e s a fo rtress o f A c o m a a n d w e r e w e ll r e c e iv e d a n d re p le n is h e d . T h e jo u r n e y c o n tin u e d o n to th e R io G r a n d e n o rth o f p r e s e n t- d a y A lb u q u e r q u e , w h e re th e m e n in a rm o r w in te r e d a m o n g th e P u e b lo p e o p le s , w h o soon fo u n d th e S p a n ia r d s ’ w e a p o n s m o re b e lie v a b le th a n th e ir w o rd . T h e r e , o n th e b a n k s o f th e G r e a t R iv e r o f th e N o rth , w a s h a tc h e d o n e o f th e first d e c e p tio n s o f m a n y th a t w o u ld b e c o m e c o m m o n p la c e in th e A m e r ic a n W e st. O u t o f s e lf-p re s e rv a tio n , n o d o u b t, w h e n w h ite m e n c a m e a s k in g th e w a y to g o ld a n d silv e r a n d su ch , th e a b o r ig in e in v a r ia b ly p o in te d “ th a t w a y ,” w h ic h m o re o fte n th a n n o t h a p p e n e d to b e in th e d ire c tio n o f h is e n e m ie s or so m e in h o s p ita b le w a s te la n d th a t m ig h t d o th e in te rlo p e rs in.

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A m a n c a lle d th e T u r k , a n In d ia n c a p tiv e o f th e S p a n ia r d s , fille d C o r o n a d o ’s h e a d w ith a d re a m to r e p la c e th e s h a tte r e d C ib o la . O ff to th e n o rth e a s t w a s a p la c e k n o w n as Q u iv ira , so rich its in h a b ita n ts d ra n k fro m ju g s a n d b o w ls o f g o ld . N e e d m o re b e sa id ? S p r in g sa w C o r o n a d o le a d in g h is s a n g u in e b a n d o n to th e sh o rt-g ra ss p la in s a n d in to th ic k h e rd s o f b u ffa lo — “ s h a g g y b ro w n c o w s ,” as th e S p a n ia r d s d e s c r ib e d th e m . T h e ir le a d e r so o n se n t m o st o f th e a r m y b a c k to th e R io G r a n d e , w h ile h e le d th e re st to w h a t is th o u g h t to h a v e b e e n s o u th e rn K a n s a s , w h e r e h e fo u n d a c h ie f w e a r in g a c o p p e r n e c k la c e . B u t th e r e w a s n o go ld . T h e T u r k g o t his, b y g a rro tin g . In 1542 a n a ilin g a n d d is illu sio n e d C o r o n a d o r e tu rn e d w ith h is le g io n s so u th to M e x ic o a n d a p e r so n a l d is g ra c e . C o r o n a d o ’ s fa ilu re d id n o t p u t a sto p to w is h fu l th in k in g a m o n g th e m e ta l lo v e rs. M e x ic o ’ s c o n q u e r e d A z t e c s h a d a m o n g th e ir le g e n d s o n e th a t d e s c r ib e d th e ir o rig in s in a la n d fa r to th e n o rth , w h e re th e re w e r e s e v e n c a v e s (th at m a g ic n u m b e r a g a in ) a n d a la k e a ro u n d w h ic h liv e d a p e o p le w ith p le n ty o f g o ld (th a t m a g ic w o rd a g a in ). T h is p la c e w a s c a lle d C o p a la . T h e S p a n is h d id n o t im m e d ia te ly se t o ff in la rg e n u m b e rs to fin d it; in th e m id six te e n th c e n tu r y th e lo c a tio n w a s still too o b s c u r e , th e d is ta n c e k n o w n to b e g re a t, a n d C o r o n a d o ’ s d is a p p o in tm e n t still fre s h in m a n y m in d s. Y e t , th e le g e n d p e r s is te d lik e a lo w -g ra d e fe v e r . It fla re d u p a g a in as S p a n ia r d s m o v e d n o rth u p M e x ic o ’s c e n tra l p la te a u to rich silv e r strik es a t Z a c a te c a s . F r a n c is c o d e Ib a rra , w h o w a s to b e c o m e th e first g o v e rn o r o f th e n o rth e rn m in in g p r o v in c e o f N u e v a V iz c a y a , w e n t h u n tin g for C o p a la in th e 15 6 0 s a n d m a y h a v e r e a c h e d th e G ila V a lle y o f A r iz o n a b e fo r e g iv in g u p . In 15 8 2 , w h ile le a d in g a b a n d o f so l d ie rs a n d p rie sts to th e p u e b lo s o f th e R io G r a n d e , A n to n io d e E s p e jo h e a r d fro m th e In d ia n s o f a la k e o f g o ld n o rth o f Z u n i. A p ro s p e c to r at h e a rt, h e to o k a sm all g ro u p to fin d it. T h e Laguna

d e O ro e lu d e d h im , b u t fo llo w in g o th e r le a d s h e w e n t w e s t b e y o n d th e H o p i m e s a s , d e e p into A r iz o n a , w h e re h e c la im e d to h a v e d is c o v e r e d o res “ sa id b y th o s e w h o k n o w to b e v e r y rich a n d c o n ta in m u c h s ilv e r .” (U p o n v ie w in g th e s a m e ro ck s, a c o m p a n io n on th e jo u r n e y d is m isse d th e m as “ w o r th le s s .” ) E s p e jo r e tu rn e d to th e R io G r a n d e a n d d a llie d a w h ile lo n g e r to e x p lo re a n d p ro s-

T H E M ETA L LOVERS

p e c t fa r a fie ld , c la im in g m o re fin d s b e fo re re tu rn in g h o m e to N u e v a V iz c a y a w ith th e in fla m m a to ry n e w s. C u r io u s ly e n o u g h , it w a s n e ith e r th e h a u g h ty conquistador n o r th e c o m m o n h u s tle r w h o g a v e th e C o p a la s o f th e W e st an a u r a o f a u th e n tic ity , b u t p riests, m e n o f G o d a n d th e clo th , w h o w is h e d to in te re s t th e C r o w n in fa r-o ff ric h e s to fu rth e r th e ir o w n C h ris tia n iz in g e ffo rts a m o n g s a v a g e s in n e e d o f sa lv a tio n . O v e r a n d o v e r, th e s a m e e c c le s ia s tic s , on w h a t fo r th e m w a s an in v itin g a n d fe rtile fro n tier, g a v e e a c h illu so ry d re a m o f w o rld ly r ic h e s th e h e lp o f th e ir p e n s a n d th e su p p o rt o f th eir le a rn in g . N o n e p u t h is m o tiv e s m o re c o n c is e ly a n d c a n d id ly th a n F a th e r A n to n io d e la A s c e n s io n , a C a r m e lite c h a p la in w h o a c c o m p a n ie d th e 1602 e x p e d itio n o f S e b a s tia n V iz c a in o u p th e C a lifo rn ia co ast. W h a t h e sa w o f th e P a c ific sh o re s w a s p le a sin g ; it c o m p le m e n te d p e r fe c t ly w h a t h e h a d h e a r d o f N e w M e x ic o : “ E a c h w ill stim u late th e o th e r to d is c o v e r n e w la n d s a n d rich e s, a n d all m a y e n jo y v e r y g o o d p e a r l fish e rie s a n d m in e ra l w e a lth , th o s e o f N e w M e x ic o e n jo y in g th e w e a lth fro m th e L a k e o f G o ld , a n d th o s e o f th e C a lifo rn ia s th a t fro m s u c h rich m o u n ta in s w h ic h a re on th a t b o rd e r or n e a r it a n d h a v e a n a b u n d a n c e o f rich silv er o re. B o th o f th e s e G o d c r e a te d fo r th e s e r v ic e o f m a n , as lu re s, I th in k , so th a t in th e in te r e s t o f th e s e te m p o ra l th in g s th e k in g , ou r lord , m ig h t se n d his v a s s a ls to d is c o v e r a n d e n jo y th e m , a n d in th e ir c o m p a n y , friars a n d m in iste rs o f th e G o s p e l to u n d e r ta k e th e c o n v e rs io n o f th o se n a t iv e s .” O n e b e lie v e r , F r a y G e ro n im o Z a r a te -S a lm e r o n , w ro te th a t th e c o n q u e r o r o f N e w M e x ic o , D o n J u a n d e O n a te , on h is 1604 jo u r n e y to th e C o lo r a d o R iv e r , w a s to ld b y In d ia n s o f o th e r In d ia n s “ w h o s p o k e th e M e x ic a n la n g u a g e ” a n d w o re g o ld b ra c e le ts o n th e ir a rm s a n d w rists. C o p a la a g a in , w h ic h Z a r a te lo c a te d “ m o re th a n 400 le a g u e s in a stra ig h t lin e ” fro m M e x ic o C ity . B e y o n d M o q u i (H o p i), h e c o lle c te d m o re s e c o n d h a n d e v id e n c e o f a n A z t e c p a s t in th e ru in s o f citie s, irrig a tio n c a n a ls , a n d o re ta ilin g s sim ila r to th o s e fo u n d in S in a lo a a n d C u lia c a n . B e fo r e th e e n d o f th e s e v e n te e n th c e n tu ry , C o p a la b e c a m e e n ta n g le d

w ith y e t a n o th e r m y th — th a t o f G ra n

T eguayo, a

k in g d o m a s im a g in a r y as G ra n Q u iv ira a n d w ith a s m u c h a lle g e d g o ld a s a ll th e rest. It d id n o t m a tte r th a t no S p a n ia r d h a d s e e n

FA N TA SY LA N D

C o p a la - T e g u a y o w ith h is o w n e y e s . It h a d to b e th e r e a n d it w o u ld b e fo u n d in tim e. C r e d it fo r c o in in g th e n a m e T e g u a y o s e e m s rig h tly to go to D o n D ie g o d e P e n a lo s a , a c o c k y P e r u v ia n - b o r n lia r -a d v e n tu r e r w h o b e c a m e g o v e rn o r o f N e w M e x ic o in 1 6 6 1 . P e n a lo s a ’s a d m in istra tio n w a s b rief. In 16 6 4 h e h a d a fin a l fa ll in g o u t w ith th e F r a n c is c a n s , a n d th e fo llo w in g y e a r h e w a s r e c a lle d to M e x ic o C ity to a n s w e r c h a r g e s b r o u g h t a g a in s t h im b y th e In q u isitio n . T h e r e , in 1668 , h e w a s a d ju d g e d g u ilty , fin ed , a n d b a n is h e d fo r e v e r fro m N e w S p a in . D o n D ie g o w a s h u m il ia te d b u t n o t d e fe a te d ; h e h a d a d r e a m to p e d d le , a n d if S p a in w o u ld n o t u n d e rw rite h is c o n q u e s t o f T e g u a y o , th e n m a y b e th e re w e r e o th e r b u y e r s . G a r b e d in th e d re s s o f a k n ig h t o f A lc a n ta r a , th e “ C o u n t o f S a n ta F e ” w a n d e r e d first to L o n d o n , th e n o n to P a ris , w h e re h e in fo rm e d L o u is X I V th a t h e h a d b e e n to b o th Q u iv ira a n d T e g u a y o , a n d w a s w illin g to le a d a fle e t to lib e ra te th e ir g o ld a n d silv er. L o u is p u t h im off, s a y in g th e p r e s e n t w a r w ith H o lla n d m a d e it im p o ss ib le fo r F r a n c e to c o n s id e r th a t p ro p o sition ju s t n o w . H e w o u ld h a v e to w a it. D o n D ie g o w a ite d , fe e d in g L o u is s c h e m e s fro m tim e to tim e — in 1682 o n e fo r e s ta b lis h in g a F r e n c h b a s e a t th e m o u th o f th e R io G r a n d e , a n d tw o y e a r s la te r a n o th e r p ro p o s in g th e c o n q u e s t o f T a m p ic o on th e G u lf o f M e x ic o as a s ta g in g a r e a fo r ta k in g th e lu c r a tiv e m in e s o f S a n ta B a r b a r a (in th e p r e s e n t sta te o f C h ih u a h u a ), w h ic h h a d b e e n o b je c ts o f F r e n c h a n d E n g lis h e n v y sin c e a b o u t 1580 . L o u is lis te n e d , p a s s in g th e in fo rm a tio n on to L a S a lle , w h o w a s p re p a r in g to g ra b fo r F r a n c e th e m o u th o f th e M iss is sip p i a n d all th e stra te g ic a d v a n ta g e s th a t w o u ld p ro v id e fo r co n tro llin g th e c o n tin e n t. In sh ort, P e n a lo s a w a s p u m p e d a n d th e n d u m p e d . S o it w a s th e F r e n c h m a n , n o t th e S p a n ia r d , w h o s a ile d o ff to th e c o a s t o f T e x a s in 168 5. S p a in m e a n w h ile h a d g o t w in d o f P e n a lo s a ’s tr e a c h e r y , a n d it b r o u g h t o n a c a s e o f th e jitte rs. T h e r e w e r e fo re ig n d e s ig n s on h e r te rrito ry — te rrito ry fro m w h ic h sh e h a d ju s t b e e n e je c t e d b y th e P u e b lo R e v o lt o f 1680. W h a t, th e C o u n c il o f th e In d ie s w a n te d to h e a r, d id a n y o n e in N e w S p a in k n o w o f th is n o rth e rn k in g d o m o f T e g u a y o ? T h e a n s w e r c a m e fro m A lo n s o d e P o s a d a s ,

custodio o f th e N e w M e x ic o m issio n s d u rin g P e n a lo s a ’s te n u re . F r a y P o s a d a s ’ re p o rt p la c e d “ th e la n d w h ic h th e In d ia n s o f th e

T H E M ETA L LOVERS

n o rth c a ll T e g u a y o a n d w h ic h th e M e x ic a n In d ia n s tra d itio n a lly c a ll C o p a la ” w e s t o f th e R o c k y M o u n ta in s, in th e v ic in ity o f w h a t w o u ld la te r b e c a lle d th e G r e a t S a lt L a k e . In th e M e x ic a n la n g u a g e , P o s a d a s e x p la in e d , C o p a la m e a n t a g a th e rin g p la c e o f m a n y n a tio n s. It w a s a ll in k e e p in g w ith A z te c a n p re -a n th ro p o lo g y , w h ic h w e n t e v e n fu rth e r: “ B y th e sa m e a n c ie n t tra d i tio n s it is sa id th a t fro m T e g u a y o c o m e s n o t o n ly th e M e x ic a n In d ia n s , w h ic h w e r e th e last, b u t a ll th e o th e r n a tio n s w h ic h in d iffe r e n t tim e s w e r e in h a b itin g th e s e la n d s a n d k in g d o m s o f N e w S p a in . T h e y s a y th a t G u a te m a la a n d all th e o th e r k in g d o m s a n d p r o v in c e s o f P e r u a n d th o s e c lo se b y h a v e th e ir b e g in n in g s h e r e .” T e g u a y o w a s p o p u la te d b y m a n y d iffe re n t p e o p le s a n d w ith th e w ild c o w s c a lle d cibolas, P o s a d a s w ro te, a n d w a s n o t fa r fro m Q u iv ira . “ T h is is n o t o n ly p r e s u m a b le b u t ce rta in , a n d a ll th e n a tio n s o f th e n o rth affirm it, e s p e c ia lly a n In d ia n n a m e d D o n J u a n illo fro m th e to w n o f J e m e z . W h e n I w a s m in iste r o f th a t fro n tie r h e to ld m e s e v e r a l tim es o f h a v in g b e e n p riso n e r in th e sa id p r o v in c e s o f T e g u a y o fo r tw o y e a r s , a n d th a t th e re a re m a n y p e o p le in th a t re g io n , s p e a k in g d iv e rs e la n g u a g e s , so m e o f w h ic h w e r e s p o k e n in N e w M e x ic o ; a n d a lso th e re is a la r g e la k e th e re . . . .” S p a in d id n o t d is p a tc h a n a rm y to fin d T e g u a y o , b u t it d id s e n d a n e x p e d itio n a r y fo rc e u n d e r A lo n z o d e L e o n to T e x a s to in te r c e p t L a S a lle ’s p a rty . B y th e tim e th e y a rriv e d , th e F r e n c h le a d e r h a d b e e n m u rd e re d , a n d his tu rb u le n t c o lo n y s c a tte re d to th e in sa lu b rio u s w in d s o f th e G u lf C o a s t. T h e im m e d ia te th r e a t h a d p a s s e d . N e v e r th e le s s , S p a in w a s m o v e d to r e c o n q u e r N e w M e x ic o . T h is w a s a c c o m p lis h e d b y D o n D ie g o d e V a r g a s Z a p a t a P o n c e d e L e o n in th e 1690 s. T e g u a y o th e n la p s e d for a tim e in to a lim b o o f cantina g o ssip . T h e r e w e re sim p ly n o t e n o u g h S p a n ia r d s in N e w M e x ic o to d o m o re th a n h o ld th e ir o w n a g a in s t th e d e p r e d a tio n s o f th e C o m a n c h e s , A p a c h e s , a n d U te s , le t a lo n e to go tra m p in g o ff into th e h o stile h in te rla n d s. It w a s p r e s s u r e fro m th e U te s w h o c a m e ra id in g o u t o f th e n o r th w e s t — th e d ire c tio n o f T e g u a y o — th a t fin a lly b r o u g h t so m e N a v a jo s

ask

th e ir

so m e tim e

e n e m ie s , th e

S p a n ia r d s , for

p ro te c tio n . T h e S p a n ia r d s o b lig e d . In th e 174 0 s th e y se n t F r a n c is c a n m iss io n a rie s w e s t fro m th e R io G r a n d e to m in iste r to

FA N TA SY LA N D

th o s e n o m a d s w illin g to le a v e th e ir c a n y o n h id e o u ts a n d se ttle in th e n e w p u e b lo s o f E n c in a l a n d C e b o lle ta . O n e o f th e s e w a s F r a y C a r lo s D e lg a d o , a p r e la te a d v a n c e d in y e a r s b u t b u rn in g still w ith

e v a n g e lic a l z e a l w h o

w is h e d

to p r o c e e d

n o rth w e st

tw o h u n d r e d le a g u e s to a w o n d e rfu l p la c e h e h a d h e a r d of. â&#x20AC;&#x153; S o m e o f th e n a tiv e s te ll h o w th is T e g u a y o , so r e n o w n e d , is m a d e u p o f v a rio u s n a tio n s, for in it a re fo u n d p e o p le fro m all o f th e m , b o th c iv iliz e d fro m a m o n g th o s e w h o m w e a r e g o v e rn in g as w e ll a s o th e rs w h o a re h e a th e n . O n e d iv isio n , or city , is so la rg e th a t, a fte r th e ir m a n n e r o f e x p r e s s in g th e m s e lv e s , th e y s a y th a t o n e c a n n o t w a lk a ro u n d it w ith in e ig h t d a y s . In it liv e s a k in g o f m u c h d ig n ity a n d o ste n ta tio n , w h o , a s t h e y sa y , n e ith e r lo o k s nor s p e a k s to a n y o n e , e x c e p t v e r y b rie fly , s u c h is his se v e rity . H e ru le s all th e n a tio n s in th o s e re g io n s, a n d I am su re th e y d e s ire to b e a c q u a in te d w ith o u r h o ly h a b it, fo r th e y s a y th a t in fo rm e r tim e s a re lig io u s w e n t th e r e a n d c o n tr a c te d a fa ta l illn e ss. A fte r his d e a th th e y k e p t h im in a b o x , w h ic h th e y g iv e o n e to u n d e rs ta n d is o f silv er. T h e sa id re lig io u s m e rite d th is h o n o r b e c a u s e o f h is h a v in g c a te c h iz e d th e k in g . A ll his s u c c e s s o rs re g a r d as re lic s a sh rin e o f g o ld , a n d th e a rtic le s u s e d in s a y in g m a s s .â&#x20AC;? It w a s a n a ttra c tiv e p ro p o sitio n D e lg a d o se n t to C o m m is s a r y G e n e r a l F r a y P e d r o N a v a r r e te , w ith so m e th in g fo r e v e r y b o d y â&#x20AC;&#x201D; th e m a n o f G o d , th e m a n o f go ld , a n d th e ju s t p la in in q u is itiv e . T o o c c u p y T e g u a y o w o u ld also p u t th e F r a n c is c a n s o n e u p on th e J e s u its in th e ir c o m p e titio n to p le a s e G o d w ith c o n v e rsio n s. T h e p rie sts in b la c k w e r e th e m s e lv e s on th e m o v e . In 174 4 , J e s u it J a c o b o S e d e lm a y r h a d in v o k e d th e m y s te r y o f T e g u a y o , w ith its c a v e s w h e n c e th e A z t e c s c a m e , to p ro m o te se ttle m e n t in th e G ila -C o lo r a d o riv e r a re a . S e d e lm a y r lo n g e d to fin d th e c ra d le o f A z t e c a n c iv iliz a tio n a n d p o s s ib ly le a rn th e roots o f th e ir r e m a r k a b le o rg a n iz a tio n a n d g o v e r n m e n ta l m e th o d s. B u t h e te m p e r e d his in te lle c tu a l c u rio s ity b y w o n d e rin g a lo u d w h e th e r th e F r e n c h m ig h t n o t a lr e a d y h a v e d is c o v e r e d T e g u a y o . T h e F r e n c h ! A trie d a n d tru e b u g a b o o to ra ise . Y e t n o th in g c a m e o f th e s e

c le ric a l sc h e m e s , J e s u it or F r a n c is c a n , e x c e p t m o re

e la b o ra tio n

o n th e le g e n d â&#x20AC;&#x201D; u n til 17 7 6 . T h e n , as m o m e n to u s

e v e n ts w e r e ta k in g p la c e on th e o th e r sid e o f th e c o n tin e n t th a t

T H E M ETA L LOVERS

w o u ld b e c r u c ia l to th e fa te o f th e A m e r ic a n W e st, F a th e r Silv e s tr e

V e le z d e E s c a la n te stru ck o u t fro m N e w M e x ic o for terra incognita, in to th e G r e a t B a s in , w h e re for m o re th a n tw o c e n tu r ie s C o p a la - T e g u a y o h a d b e e n sa id to exist. E s c a la n t e ’s p a r ty w e n t as fa r as U ta h L a k e a n d fo u n d In d ia n s liv in g a ro u n d its sh o re , b u t n o n e o f th e sp le n d o rs o f th e fa b le d T e g u a y o . “ It is n o th in g ,” w ro te E s c a la n te , “ b u t th e la n d b y w h ic h th e T ih u a s , T e h u a s a n d th e o th e r In d ia n s tra n sm ig ra te d to th is k in g d o m ; w h ic h is c le a r ly sh o w n b y th e ru in s o f th e p u e b lo s w h ic h I h a v e s e e n in it, w h o s e fo rm w a s th e sa m e th a t th e y a fte rw a rd s g a v e to th e irs in N e w M e x ic o .” A ls o in th e S p a n is h b a g o f m y th s w a s th a t o f a n in terio r trib e o f b e a r d e d In d ia n s w h o w o re arm o r ju s t as th e S p a n ia rd s d id — d e s c e n d a n ts , p e r h a p s , o f th e ir o w n s h ip w r e c k e d p e o p le . E s c a la n te to ld o f s e e in g In d ia n s w e a r in g ra b b it-sk in c lo a k s ( p r o b a b ly P a iu te s ) w h o h a d “ th ic k e r b e a r d s ” th a n th e L a g u n a s o f th e L a k e r e g io n . C a p t. D o n B e r n a r d o M ie ra y P a c h e c o , th e se c u la r c o m m a n d e r o f th e e x p e d itio n , c o u ld n o t re sist a d o rn in g h is fin e m a p s w ith d ra w in g s o f th e m . A s fo r T e g u a y o , h e m o v e d th a t mas alia —b e y o n d U ta h L a k e to th e n e a r b y G r e a t S a lt L a k e , w h ic h th e e x p lo re rs h a d n o t r e a c h e d . T h e r e , r e la te d M ie ra , w e r e la r g e trib e s w h o d w e lt in o r g a n iz e d co m m u n itie s a n d “ tip p e d th e ir a rro w s, la n c e s a n d M acanas [w ar clu b s] w ith a y e llo w m e ta l, as it w a s d o n e a n c ie n tly .” T h u s d id th e le g e n d lim p on, in to th e n in e te e n th c e n tu r y a n d th e c o m in g o f th e A m e r ic a n s .

HE MEN OF METAL had other legends to lead them into the n o rth e rn

w ild e rn e s s .

P ro m in e n t a m o n g th e s e w a s S ie rra

A z u l, th e b lu e m o u n ta in o f silv e r th a t b e m u s e d so m e S p a n ia rd s a lm o s t a s lo n g a s C o p a la - T e g u a y o a n d w a s in m a n y w a y s its m y th o lo g ic a l p a r a lle l — a lm o st a m irror im a g e in silv e r o f th e g o ld . E le m e n ts o f it c a n b e tr a c e d b a c k to th e first S p a n is h

entradas in to th e A m e r ic a n S o u th w e s t, w h e n S ie rra A z u l w a s b e lie v e d to lie n e a r Z u n i; la te r it w a s p la c e d fa rth e r w e s t, on th e s u n s e t s id e o f O ra ib i; fin a lly it r e tr e a te d in to th e h e a rt o f w h a t w o u ld o n e d a y b e th e sta te o f A riz o n a .

FA N TA SY LA N D

O n e o f th e first to g iv e th e le g e n d s u b s ta n c e w a s C a p t. M a rc o s F a r fa n , w h o , s e rv in g

u n d e r O n a te d u rin g th e N e w M e x ic a n

c o n q u e s t o f 1 5 9 8 -1 6 0 5 , w a s s e n t w e s t o f H o p i to c h e c k o n E sp e jo ’s o ld re p o rts o f m in e ra liz a tio n th e r e . O n w h a t is n o w th o u g h t to b e th e e a s t sid e o f e ith e r th e A q u a r iu s or H u a lp a i ra n g e s , In d ia n s s h o w e d F a r fa n m a n y v e in s o f b la c k , b ro w n , b lu e , a n d g r e e n o res, sa m p le s o f w h ic h w e r e r e tu r n e d to N e w M e x ic o fo r a s s a y in g . O n e

sh ow ed

silv e r in e le v e n o u n c e s p e r h u n d r e d

w e ig h t. F a r fa n r a v e d “ T h e sa id m o u n ta in s a re w ith o u t d o u b t th e ric h e s t in all N e w S p a in ,” a n d “ th e v e in s a re so lo n g a n d w id e th a t h a lf th e p e o p le o f N e w S p a in c a n h a v e m in e s th e r e .” B u t h a lf th e p e o p le in N e w S p a in n e v e r m a d e it to S ie rra A z u l. In fa c t, v irtu a lly e v e r y o n e in N e w S p a in p r o c e e d e d to fo r g e t th e v e r y a c c u r a te g e o g r a p h ic a l in fo rm a tio n th a t O n a te a n d h is o fficers h a d p r o v id e d o n th e n o rth e rn te rrito ries. W h a t w a s n o t fo rg o tte n w a s th e p a rt a b o u t th a t m o u n ta in o f silv er, th o u g h

its w h e r e a b o u ts h a d

b e c o m e lo st a n d

its p a rtic u la rs

so m e tim e s c o n fu s e d w ith T e g u a y o . In 16 2 6 , G e ro n im o Z a ra te S a lm e ro n , th e p a d r e w h o h a d “ lo c a te d ” th e L a k e o f C o p a la , m u d d ie d o th e r w a te rs s o m e w h a t b y re p o rtin g th a t “ in th e p ro v in c e o f Z u n i a re d e p o sits o f silv e r o f so fin e a b lu e th a t th e y u s e it fo r p a in t a n d c a r ry it to th e se ttle m e n ts o f N e w M e x ic o .” F r a y Z a r a te sa id th a t h e h a d b ro u g h t so m e “ s to n e s ” to M e x ic o C ity a n d w a s to ld b y p a in te rs th e r e th a t “ it w a s th e b e s t b lu e in th e w o r ld ” a n d th a t “ e a c h p o u n d o f it w a s w o rth tw e lv e p e s o s .” F ro m th is a n d fro m w h a t h a d b e e n sa id b e fo r e e v o lv e d th e le g e n d o f S ie rra A z u l, g iv e n th a t n a m e b y D o m in g u e z d e M e n d o z a , w h o c la im e d to h a v e a c c o m p a n ie d P e n a lo s a o n h is a p o c r y p h a l jo u r n e y to G r a n Q u iv ira in 1662 . T h e b lu e m o u n ta in n e v e r s u ffe re d fro m q u ite th e sa m e r e m o te n e s s a s T e g u a y o , b u t it too b e c a m e a ca rro t o f th e c le r g y to w h e t th e ro y a l a p p e tite for e x te n d in g N e w S p a in ’s b o u n d a rie s . F r a y A lo n s o d e P o s a d a s , w h o h a d s u c h e n c o u r a g in g th in g s to s a y a b o u t T e g u a y o in his 1 6 8 6 -8 7 re p o rt to th e k in g , a lso p u t in a g o o d w o rd fo r S ie rra A z u l, “ so fa m e d fo r its w e a lth b e c a u s e its o res h a v e b e e n a s s a y e d m a n y tim e s, b u t n e v e r p o s s e s s e d b e c a u s e o f o u r n e g lig e n c e a n d tim id ity .” P o s a d a s p la c e d th e silv e r m o u n ta in 100 le a g u e s so u th w e s t o f S a n ta F e

BOTH ILLUSTRATIONS: CULVER PICTURES

T H E M ETA L LOVERS

With but a toehold in the West, Carlos II feared France.

Louis XIV, his powerful rival, encouraged French expansion.

a n d 50 le a g u e s n o rth o f S o n o ra . A fe w y e a r s la te r a c h a rla ta n n a m e d T o r ib io d e H u e r ta m a d e a n a ttra c tiv e o ffe r to S p a in ’s K in g C a r lo s II. H e w a s p r e p a r e d to u n d e r ta k e th e r e c o n q u e s t o f N e w M e x ic o a t h is o w n e x p e n s e . A ll h e a s k e d in re tu rn w a s a m a r q u is a te s tre tc h in g fro m E l P a s o in th e so u th to T a o s in th e n o rth . T h a t h e w a s th e m a n fo r th e jo b h is re c o rd w o u ld a tte st: h e h a d s e r v e d his k in g fo r fo rty y e a r s as a c o n q u e ro r in N e w S p a in ; h e h a d “ d is c o v e r e d ” G ra n Q u iv ira ; a n d h e k n e w o f a “ p la c e c a lle d S ie rra A z u l m o re th a n 200 le a g u e s lo n g a n d fu ll o f s ilv e r .” H u e r ta m e n tio n e d so m e th in g e ls e th a t m u st h a v e stru c k a r e s p o n s iv e ch o rd : at S ie rra A z u l th e re w a s a lso q u ic k silv e r — lite ra lly p o n d s o f it. It ju s t h a p p e n e d th a t S p a in w a s th e n fa c in g a c ritic a l s h o rta g e o f m e rc u ry fo r th e re fin in g o f s ilv e r fro m its m in e s in M e x ic o . T h o u g h H u e rta p r o v e d to b e w ith o u t fu n d s , th e C r o w n w a s su ffic ie n tly im p re s s e d to a u th o riz e th e m a n to d ra w six h u n d r e d p e s o s a n d h e a d th e e x p e d itio n . S o m e h o w , fo r r e a s o n s u n k n o w n , th e p r o je c t n e v e r g o t o ff th e g ro u n d . H u e r ta w a s d e n ie d a p la c e o f h o n o r in th e p a n th e o n o f

con qu istad ores, a n d w a s r e le g a te d in s te a d to a p a ltry a n d p u z z lin g h is to ric a l fo o tn o te .

FRANS HALSMUSEUM, HAARLEM. THE NETHERLANDS

Coronado conquers Acoma, Flemish style. N ew M exico’s landscape might pass for Tuscany’s in this painting b y Jan Mostaert.

T h e la rg e r ro le w a s to go to D o n D ie g o d e V a r g a s Z a p a ta L u ja n P o n c e d e L e o n , a n a m b itio u s y o u n g m a n o f th e b lo o d w ith c o n q u e s t on h is m in d . F o r h im S ie rra A z u l h e ld n o p e rs o n a l attra ctio n , b u t th a t d id n o t k e e p him fro m p la y in g o n th e h o p e s o th e rs h a d fo r it in o rd er to a c h ie v e h is o w n o b je c tiv e — th a t o f b e in g th e m a n to r e c o n q u e r N e w M e x ic o . T e s tim o n y ta k e n fro m tw e lv e fo rm e r re s id e n ts o f th e te rrito ry a g r e e d

th a t w e s t o f

O ra ib i w a s a n e x tr e m e ly h e a v y re d (o n e sa id b lu e ) s u b s ta n c e , slig h tly liq u e s c e n t a n d o f a g r e a s y c o n s is te n c y , w h ic h th e In d ia n s

u s e d a s p a in t. It s o u n d e d lik e c in n a b a r, th e m o st im p o rta n t ore o f m e rc u ry . â&#x20AC;&#x153; I r e p e a t, y o u r E x c e lle n c y ,â&#x20AC;? d e V a r g a s w ro te to th e v ic e r o y , â&#x20AC;&#x153; th a t I sh a ll ta k e th e risk at a n y co st to find th e sa id m in e , a n d d is p o s e o f th e a p p r e h e n s io n a b o u t th e s e sto ries, a ll o f w h ic h a p p e a r so w o n d e r fu l.â&#x20AC;? D e V a r g a s w a s at th e tim e u n h a p p ily a n c h o r e d in E l P a s o , h a v in g b e e n o r d e r e d n o t to p r o c e e d n o rth b u t to sta n d b y a n d a ssist in p u ttin g d o w n In d ia n u p ris in g s in S o n o r a a n d S in a lo a . F in a lly , in 16 9 2 , th e re stle ss d e V a r g a s go t his lo n g -a w a ite d

FA N TA SY LA N D

o rd ers. T h e in v a sio n w a s g o . S a n ta F e w a s to b e r e ta k e n first; th e n a sm all p a rty w a s to visit th e m in e s a n d se n d b a c k to M e x ic o C ity tw e lv e lo a d s o f o re — six o f re d a n d six o f b lu e — fo r a n a ly s is . D e V a r g a s c a rrie d o u t th e p la n u n til h e m o v e d w e s t to w a rd th e p u ta tiv e m in e. A n In d ia n h e m e t to ld h im th a t th e re d e a r th pit w a s v e r y h a rd to g e t to, b e in g te n d a y s ’ tr a v e l fro m A w a to b i in th e H o p i c o u n try , in a w a te r le s s w a s te la n d fr e q u e n te d b y th e fie r c e C o s n in a s A p a c h e s (H a v a s u p a i), h ig h o n a m o u n ta in th a t w o u ld ta k e a t le a s t a d a y to clim b . D e V a r g a s d e c id e d n o t to go b u t in s te a d o b ta in e d so m e s a m p le s o f th e re d e a rth fro m th e n a tiv e s a t S h o n g o p o v i o n th e S e c o n d M e s a , w h ic h w e r e d u ly fo r w a r d e d to th e c a p ita l. A n a s s a y s h o w e d n o q u ic k s ilv e r. R o y a l in te re s t in th e b lu e m o u n ta in w ith th e re d e a rth d im m e d . B u t th e le g e n d n e v e r d ie d on N e w S p a in ’ s n o rth e rn fro n tier. W h e n it w a s n o t b a lly h o o e d in S a n ta F e , it w a s d is c u s s e d in P im e ria

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F a th e r E u s e b io K in o h e a rd o f S ie r r a A z u l a n d n a m e d a stre a m th e R io A z u l b e c a u s e h e h a d b e e n to ld th a t it flo w e d th ro u g h a m u ltic o lo re d m o u n ta in th a t w a s p a rtly b lu e . K in o , a m a n s c h o o le d in G e r m a n y a n d w e ll e d u c a te d in th e s c ie n c e s , n e v e r to o k se ri o u s ly sto ries o f a la k e o f q u ic k s ilv e r, a n d o th e r g e o lo g ic a l m o n stro sities. B u t m e n o f K in o ’ s b a c k g r o u n d w e r e ra re in th e w ild s. A

c o lle a g u e , L t. J u a n M a th e o M a n je , w a s le ss s k e p tic a l a n d

d e s c r ib e d a g a in th e h e a v y , re d , g r e a s y e a r th b e in g u s e d b y th e In d ia n s , w h o sa id its so u rc e w a s m o re th a n a fiv e - d a y jo u r n e y n o rth w e st o f C a s a G r a n d e . H e c o u ld p r o v id e no m o re in te llig e n c e th a n th a t “ y e a r s h a v in g p a s s e d , th e r e o n ly re m a in s th e sto ry o f S ie rra A z u l, rich in silv er, w ith o u t a n y o n e a t th e p r e s e n t tim e h a v in g a n y k n o w le d g e o f its w h e r e a b o u ts .” T o w a r d th e m id d le o f th e e ig h te e n th c e n tu r y , S ie rra A z u l m ade

com eback

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a c o m b in a tio n o f c irc u m s ta n c e s .

F irst, th e re w a s th e bolas d e plata silv e r strik e a t A r iz o n a c in 17 3 6 , w h ic h d re w a tte n tio n to m o d e rn -d a y A r iz o n a , w h e r e S ie rra A z u l sto o d in b le s s e d iso la tio n , s o m e w h e r e in th e h e a rt o f a tria n g le fo rm e d b y th e H o p i p u e b lo s on th e n o rth , th e C o lo r a d o R iv e r on th e w e st, a n d th e G ila R iv e r on th e so u th . T h e n , in 1740 ,

T H E M ETA L LOVERS

a sm a ll c o n tin g e n t o f F r e n c h - C a n a d ia n tra d e rs a rriv e d in N e w M e x ic o fro m th e n o rth e a s t b y w a y o f th e G r e a t P la in s. W h a t a n d w h e r e , t h e y w a n te d to k n o w , w a s th is S ie rra A z u l? W o rd h a d c e r ta in ly g o tte n a ro u n d . F a t h e r J u a n M ig u e l M a n c h e r o , on a fo rm a l visit to th e m issio n s a n d p r e s u m a b ly p r e s e n t w h e n th e F r e n c h m e n a rriv e d , s a v e d h is a n s w e r fo r fo u r y e a r s , a n d th e n it w a s n o t fo r F r e n c h e ars: “ It is c a lle d S ie rra A z u l b e c a u s e th e e a rth , ro ck s a n d th e w h o le r e g io n is b lu e , w ith g re e n , re d , y e llo w a n d s c a rle t v e in s . . . a n d a t th e to p th e r e is a ro c k tw o v a r a s lo n g a n d a v a r a a n d a h a lf w id e w h ic h sh in e s a n d lo o k s e x a c tly lik e g o ld . . . . S ie rra A z u l is fo u r d a y s ’ jo u r n e y fro m M o q u i, a n d th e ro a d is ro u g h a n d d ry. . . . T h e n a tio n w h ic h in h a b its th e S ie rra A z u l is c a lle d th a t o f th e C o s n in a s A p a c h e s .” S o m e th in g old, so m e th in g n e w , m u c h th a t w a s b o r r o w e d , a n d , as a lw a y s , b lu e . A t th e s a m e tim e, S ie rra A z u l go t g o o d n o tic e s fro m a n o th e r, n o t u n e x p e c te d , q u a rte r. T h e y c a m e fro m F r a n c is c a n fa th e rs s ta tio n e d

a m o n g th e N a v a jo s , in c lu d in g F r a y C a r lo s D e lg a d o

a g a in . A s w ith th e to u tin g o f T e g u a y o , th e fa th e r ’s m o tiv e w a s tra n s p a r e n t. T h e J e s u its w e r e m a k in g a la rm in g p ro g re s s n o rth fro m S o n o ra , a n d th e F r a n c is c a n s w a n te d to k e e p th e sp iritu a l h a r v e s t to

th e m s e lv e s .

S ig n ific a n tly ,

a fte r th e

H o p i m issio n

fie ld w a s w ith d ra w n fro m th e J e s u its in 17 4 5 , th e F r a n c is c a n s m a d e n o se rio u s e ffo rts to p r e a c h on th e ir w e s te r n m e s a s fo r a n o th e r th irty y e a r s . N o n e o f th e m e ta l lo v e r s e v e r fo u n d S ie rra A z u l, th o u g h th e m y th w a s still k ic k in g in th e n in e te e n th c e n tu r y w h e n th e A n g lo A m e r ic a n s a rriv e d a n d w e n t o ff c h a s in g th e b lu e m o u n ta in o f h e a r s a y . Ir o n ic a lly , it w a s t h e y w h o to o k w e a lth — g o ld , silv er, and

q u ic k s ilv e r — fro m

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c e n tr a l A r iz o n a ,

P r e s c o tt, w h e r e S ie rra A z u l m ig h t h a v e b e e n .

a ro u n d

Chapter 2

Jumping Geography No

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MORE a b u s e a t th e h a n d s o f g e o g

ra p h e rs th a n th e A m e r ic a n W e st. C o n tr a r y to w h a t o n e m ig h t e x p e c t, k n o w le d g e o f th e d a rk sid e o f th e N o rth A m e r ic a n c o n tin e n t d id n o t p ro g re s s w ith th e p a s s in g o f y e a r s . T h r o u g h o u t th e s e v e n te e n th c e n tu r y th e r e w a s a c tu a lly a n a lm o st s te a d y re g re s s io n in to error, a n d th e m is c o n c e p tio n s a b o u t th e la n d ’s s h a p e a n d siz e a n d w h a t w a s o n it w e r e n o t e n tir e ly c le a r e d u p u n til d e e p in to th e n in e te e n th c e n tu ry . T h e re a s o n s w e r e m a n y . B e fo r e th e A n g lo - A m e r ic a n in v a sio n o n ly a r e la tiv e h a n d fu l o f m e n h a d r e a c h e d th e s h a d o w la n d s at a n y o n e tim e, a n d th e o n e s th a t h a d w e r e o fte n u n e d u c a te d , u n tru stw o rth y , or b o th . M o r e o v e r , sin c e th e ir sp o n so rs b a c k h o m e w e r e w illin g to b e lie v e th e p re p o s te ro u s , th o s e w h o h a d b e e n w e s t, or p r e te n d e d to k n o w so m e th in g a b o u t it, o fte n c a te r e d to th a t w e a k n e s s fo r th e e n ric h m e n t o f th e ir p o c k e ts or re p u ta tio n s . N a tio n s w ith a c c u r a te in fo rm a tio n te n d e d to k e e p it a w a y from o th e rs w ith w h o m th e y w e r e in im p e ria l c o m p e titio n . T h is w a s e s p e c ia lly tru e o f th e o n e th a t k n e w m o s t— S p a in , a lr e a d y in d e c lin e in E u r o p e b y th e o p e n in g o f th e s e v e n te e n th c e n tu r y b u t still s e e m in g ly s e c u r e in th e N e w W o rld as th e e ig h te e n th c e n tu r y c a m e to a c lo se . A lid o f o fficial s e c r e c y w a s c la m p e d on N e w M e x ic o a n d la n d s a d ja c e n t. E u r o p e a n g e o g r a p h e r s , d ra w in g u p c h a rts in th e c o m fo rt o f th e ir stu d ie s, th o u s a n d s o f m ile s fro m th e la n d th e y w e r e d e p ic t in g , s u ffe re d u n d e r e m p iric a l h a n d ic a p s a n d a n in te lle c tu a l le g a c y th a t w a s p e r h a p s e v e n m o re c rip p lin g . T h e y h a d n o t o u t g ro w n m e d ie v a l c o n c e p ts o f g e o g r a p h ic a l sy m m e try : if th e re

JU M P IN G G E O G R A P H Y

w a s a s o u th e rn o c e a n , t h e y r e c k o n e d , th e re h a d to b e a n o rth e rn o c e a n . I f th e r e w a s a g re a t riv e r o f th e E a s t, th e n th e re h a d to b e o n e — a n d o n ly o n e — in th e W e st. T h e m e th o d o lo g y w a s d e d u c tiv e , a n a lo g u e s w e r e e a g e r ly so u g h t, a n d u n v e r ifie d sc ra p s o f in fo rm a tio n w e r e a c c e p te d so lo n g as th e y fit p re c o n c e p tio n s . T h e o ld h a b its d id n o t d ie e a s ily , a n d re m n a n ts s u r v iv e d into th e E n lig h te n m e n t, w h e n lo g ic d ic ta te d a b is y m m e try fo r e a rth form s a s it d id m o st n a tu ra l p h e n o m e n a . It m ig h t h a v e b e e n d iffe re n t, to o , if m a rin e rs u p o n w h o m th e m a p m a k e r s r e lie d h a d h a d b e tte r n a v ig a tio n a l aid s. It h a d lo n g b e e n p o s s ib le to m a k e fa ir a p p ro x im a tio n s o f la titu d e b y m e a s u r in g th e s u n ’ s a n g le a b o v e th e h o riz o n a t n o o n a n d th e n re fe rrin g to ta b le s sh o w in g th e s u n ’s d e c lin a tio n at k n o w n la titu d e s on a g iv e n d a y , b u t lo n g itu d e r e m a in e d a h e a d a c h e . A r e a s o n a b ly a c c u r a te m a rin e c h ro n o m e te r w a s n o t in u s e u n til 176 0 . C o n s e q u e n tly , th e b r e a d th o f th e u n c r o s s e d N o rth A m e r ic a n c o n tin e n t flu c tu a te d a c c o r d in g to th e w h im o f th e m a p m a k e r. E u r o p e ’s c a rto g ra p h e rs w e re g u ilty o f a n o th e r b a d h a b it: th e y c o u ld n o t a b id e a v a c u u m . S o w h e n th e y w e r e n ’t d o o d lin g or d r o p p in g a fa n c ifu l d ra w in g or a c a r to u c h e into th e e m p ty p la c e s o n th e ir m a p s , th e y b o rro w e d p la c e - n a m e s to p lu g th e h o le s. T h e 15 3 9 jo u r n e y o f th e p re v a r ic a to r M a rc o s d e N iz a a n d th e b o n a fid e re p o rt o f C o r o n a d o g a v e th e m a s e le c tio n o f n a m e s fro m w h ic h to d ra w . F ro m d e N iz a th e re w e r e C ib o la , T a b u r s a , a n d T o n to n te a n c h ; fro m C o r o n a d o , A x a , T ig u e x , C ic u ic , a n d Q u iv ira .

T h ese

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p la c e - n a m e s

v a r ia n t

sp e llin g s

w a n d e r e d b a c k a n d fo rth a c ro ss a W e s t o f flu c tu a tin g w id th , to b e d r o p p e d s u d d e n ly , th e n re s u r r e c te d to fill a vo id . G r a n Q u iv ira se t th e s ty le a n d p r e c e d e n t fo r fu tu re lo o se p la y w ith th e fa c ts. C o r o n a d o fo u n d h is d is a p p o in tm e n t in so u th c e n tr a l K a n s a s in 1 5 4 1 , b u t it d id n o t s ta y th e r e lo n g . T h e S p a n is h c h r o n ic le r F r a n c is c o L o p e z d e G o m a r a w a s p a rtly to b la m e fo r th e m ix -u p th a t fo llo w e d . T h o u g h h e h a d n o t b e e n w ith C o r o n a d o in Q u iv ira , h e n e v e r th e le s s h a d a lot to s a y a b o u t it in h is Historia

G e n e r a l d e las Indias, p u b lis h e d in 15 4 4 : “ Q u iv ira is in 40 d e g r e e s , a te m p e r a te c o u n try , w e ll-w a te r e d , w ith m a n y h e rb s, p lu m s, m u l b e r r ie s , n u ts, m e lo n s a n d g ra p e s w h ic h m a tu re w e ll. . . . T h e y [ C o r o n a d o ’s p a rty ] s a w o n th e c o a s t sh ip s w ith m e r c h a n d is e w h ic h

LIBRARY OF CONGRESS

FANTASYLAND

h a d o n th e ir p ro w s p e lic a n s m a d e o f g o ld a n d silv e r, a n d th e y th o u g h t th e y m u st b e fro m C a ta y o or C h in a , as t h e y m a d e sig n s th a t th e y h a d s a ile d th irty d a y s .” C o a s t? G o ld ? C h in a ? T h e m o st r e n o w n e d c a r to g r a p h e r s in E u r o p e p ic k e d u p on G o m a r a ’s d is p la c e m e n t o f Q u iv ira , b e in g v e r y sc ru p u lo u s w ith re g a r d to his la titu d e . T h e V e n e tia n m a p m a k e r G ia c o m o G a s ta ld i p la c e d Q u iv ira a t th e p ro p e r fo rty d e g r e e s on h is m a p o f 15 5 6 , o n ly th r e e h u n d r e d m ile s fro m th e P a c ific c o a s t, e a s t o f th e “ S ie rra N e v a d a ” — a n o th e r o f G o m a r a ’s in v e n tio n s. T h e F le m is h A b r a h a m O rteliu s a lso s h o w e d Q u iv ira n e a r th e c o a s t o n h is 15 6 4 m a p , a n d in 15 6 9 th e fa m e d G e r h a r d u s M e rc a to r m o v e d Q u iv ira all th e w a y to th e P a c ific ’s e d g e , p la c in g th e c ity at fo rty d e g r e e s la titu d e a n d th e S ie rra N e v a d a on a w e s tw a rd -s la n tin g litto ral at a b o u t fo rty -o n e d e g r e e s ; C ic u ic a n d T i g u e x — b o th C o r o n a d o p la c e - n a m e s — h a d fo llo w e d Q u iv ira w e st, p r o o f th a t G o m a ra w a s b e in g r e a d a n d im p r o v e d u p o n . T h is w id e s p r e a d b e li e f th a t Q u iv ira fro n te d th e P a c ific p e rs is te d

JU M P IN G G E O G R A P H Y

That problem o f longitude — Europe’s geographers gave to scarcely explored North America a girth that ranged from very thick to very thin. The unknown author o f this map f circa 1600) was o f the former persuasion.

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in E u r o p e th ro u g h th e e ig h te e n th c e n tu ry , lo n g a fte r S p a in h a d r e a liz e d its m ista k e a n d w a s a g a in se n d in g e x p e d itio n s n o rth e a st to th e G r e a t P la in s , d ra w n th e re b y m o re ta lk o f go ld . A s la te as 17 8 6 , “ A N e w M a p o f th e W h o le C o n tin e n t o f A m e r ic a ” w a s p u b lis h e d in L o n d o n sh o w in g th e n e w p o s t-R e v o lu tio n a r y W a r b o u n d a r ie s a n d Q u iv ira as a d istrict on th e P a c ific . Q u iv ira , th e n , w a s e v e n m o re in su b s ta n tia l th a n C ib o la — o n e p a r t e a r th to te n o f h o t air. L a c k in g a n y m a ss to s p e a k of, it b le w fr e e ly lik e th is tle d o w n o v e r a la n d th a t h a d a b o u t as m a n y c o n fig u ra tio n s as E u r o p e h a d g e o g r a p h e r s . B u t it w a s n o t th e o n ly c r e a tio n o f e rra n t in k.

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Som ehow California came unstuck from the mainland in the seventeenth century. Henricus Hondius was but one to show it as an island.

FA N TA SY LA N D

a d o p te d a fe w y e a r s la te r b y F r e n c h c a rto g ra p h e rs ; it w o u ld th e n m a k e its w a y to H o lla n d , fin a lly b e in g in c o r p o r a te d b y E n g lis h m a p m a k e rs , w h o w e re a lm o st a lw a y s th e la s t to g e t th e w o rd . N a tu r a lly , th e s e g e o g r a p h e r s , w h o o p e r a te d b y g u e s s a n d s y n th e s is , a n d w h o p la g ia r iz e d fre e ly , g o t th in g s m u d d le d fro m tim e to tim e. T h e r e fo r e , w h e n S p a in ’ s in fo rm a tio n w a s w ro n g , all E u r o p e ’ s m a p s p e r p e tu a te d th e error. C a lifo rn ia w a s s u c h a c a s e . B o th U llo a a n d A la r c o n (in 15 3 9 a n d 1540 , r e s p e c tiv e ly ) h a d s a ile d u p th e G u lf o f C a lifo r n ia to th e m o u th o f th e C o lo r a d o — A la r c o n so m e d is ta n c e in la n d — a n d h a d e s ta b lis h e d th a t C a lifo r n ia w a s a p e n in s u la , c o rre c tin g C o r te s , w h o h a d b e lie v e d it to b e a n isla n d . S o m e h o w th is w a s fo rg o tte n a fte r th e ir v o y a g e s e v e n in M e x ic o , w h e re r e a s o n s fo r r e m e m b e r in g it w o u ld s e e m to h a v e b e e n c o n s id e r a b le . N e v e r th e le s s , a n isla n d it h a d b e e n a n d a n isla n d it b e c a m e o n c e m o re. T h o s e w h o b e lie v e d it w a s a n y th in g b u t a n isla n d o b v io u s ly h a d n o t r e a d G a rc i O rd o n e z d e M o n ta lv o ’s Las S ergas d e Esplandian, th e c h iv a lric ro m a n c e in w h ic h th e isla n d o f C a lifo rn ia w a s first d e s c r ib e d , in a sto n ish in g d etail: K n o w y e th a t a t th e righ t h a n d o f th e In d ie s th e r e is a n isla n d n a m e d C a lifo rn ia , v e r y c lo s e to th a t p a rt o f th e T e r r e s tr ia l P a r a d is e , w h ic h w a s in h a b ite d b y b la c k w o m e n , w ith o u t a sin g le m a n a m o n g th e m , a n d th a t th e y liv e d in th e m a n n e r o f A m a z o n s . T h e y w e r e ro b u st o f b o d y , w ith stro n g a n d p a s sio n a te h e a rts a n d g r e a t v irtu e s. T h e isla n d its e lf is o n e o f th e w ild e st in th e w o rld on a c c o u n t o f th e b o ld a n d c r a g g y ro ck s. T h e ir w e a p o n s w e r e all m a d e o f go ld . . . . T h e isla n d e v e r y w h e re a b o u n d s w ith g o ld a n d p re c io u s sto n e s, a n d u p o n it no o th e r m e ta l w a s fo u n d . . . . T h e y h a d m a n y sh ip s w ith w h ic h th e y sa ile d to o th e r c o a s ts to m a k e fo ra y s, a n d th e m e n w h o m th e y to o k as p riso n e rs th e y k ille d . . . .

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C a lifo rn ia , th e re a re m a n y griffins. . . . In no o th e r p a rt o f th e w o rld c a n th e y b e fo u n d . . . . [A n d ] th e re ru le d o v e r th a t isla n d o f C a lifo rn ia a q u e e n o f m a je s tic p ro p o rtio n s, m o re b e a u tifu l th a n all o th ers, a n d in th e v e r y v ig o r o f h e r w o m a n h o o d . T h e q u e e n ’s n a m e w a s C a la fia , a n d s h e h a d th is itch to tra v e l,

JU M P IN G G E O G R A P H Y

so s h e c o lle c te d so m e o f h e r sisters a n d a h e rd o f griffins a n d s a ile d to C o n s ta n tin o p le , w h e re a b a n d o f C r u s a d e r s w a s b e in g b e s ie g e d b y a h o st o f th e in fid e l. S h e k n e w n o th in g a b o u t p o litics or re lig io n , a n d th a t m a y a c c o u n t for h e r ta k in g th e p a rt o f th e T u r k s in th e o rig in a l v e rsio n . A n y w a y , sh e le d h e r A m a z o n s into th e fr a y a n d r e le a s e d h e r c ru e l griffins on th e h a p le s s C h ristia n s, w h o w e r e d e v o u r e d w h o le s a le in th e b e a s tly o rg y or c a rrie d s k y w a rd a n d th e n d r o p p e d to sp la tte r on th e earth . U n fo rtu n a te ly , th e griffins c o u ld n o t d is c rim in a te b e tw e e n th e fe a th e r le s s b ip e d s , a n d t h e y w e r e so o n d o in g th e sa m e th in g to th e T u r k s , w ith e q u a lly d e v a s ta tin g e ffe c t. In tim e th e v a lia n t C a la fia w a s c a p tu r e d a n d so o n fe ll in lo v e w ith E s p la n d ia n , th e h a n d s o m e h e ro o f th e p ie c e . T h is c h a s te k n ig h t, h o w e v e r , w a s a lr e a d y s p o k e n fo r b y a n e m p e r o r ’s d a u g h te r , so h e a r r a n g e d a m a tc h fo r th e b la c k q u e e n w ith h is c o u sin . C a la fia w a s so g ra te fu l th a t sh e b e c a m e a c o n v e r t a n d c e d e d C a lifo rn ia , w ith all its g o ld a n d g e m s, to th e C h ristia n s. M o n ta lv o ’ s sto ry a p p e a r e d e a r ly in th e six te e n th c e n tu r y a n d w a s k n o w n to C o r te s a n d his fo llo w e rs , w h o u n d o u b te d ly g a v e th e n a m e to th e la n d t h e y fo u n d n o rth w e st o f M e x ic o . It w a s ju s t th e k in d o f lo w b ro w lite ra tu re to b e c a rrie d in th e d u ffe l b a g s o f th e d a y . (C e r v a n te s g le e fu lly h a d D o n Q u ix o te ’ s c o p y th ro w n on a b o n fir e w ith th e re st o f th e k n ig h tly fo o lis h n e s s th a t h a d a d d le d th e p o o r d o n ’ s b ra in .) O f c o u rse , v e r y fe w o f th e fa n ta s tic a l f e a tu r e s o f M o n ta lv o ’s C a lifo rn ia c o u ld h a v e b e e n tra n s fe rre d to N e w S p a i n ’s C a lifo rn ia . T h e hispanos m a y h a v e b e e n im p re s s io n a b le b u t t h e y w e r e n o t m a d . O n th e o th e r h a n d , th e id e a th a t C a lifo rn ia p o s s e s s e d g o ld a n d ric h e s w a s a n a rtic le o f S p a n is h fa ith as lo n g as t h e y o w n e d th e la n d , a n d e v e n n o n -S p a n ia rd s a fte rw a rd s r e g a r d e d it a s a te rre s tria l p a r a d is e u n til th e p ro life ra tio n o f th e in te rn a l c o m b u s tio n e n g in e . T h e r e w a s a m o re p la u s ib le b u t e q u a lly e rro n e o u s re a s o n for th e s e v e n te e n th - c e n tu r y b e lie f th a t C a lifo rn ia w a s a n isla n d . It fit in n ic e ly w ith a n o th e r m y th o f g r e a te r w e ig h t a n d lo n g e v ity — th e S tra it o f A n ia n , w h ic h w a s th o u g h t to c u t th ro u g h th e N o rth A m e r ic a n la n d m a s s a n d e m e rg e s o m e w h e r e n o rth o f C a lifo rn ia . T h e v o y a g e o f S e b a s tia n V iz c a in o in 1602 s e e m e d to su p p o rt b o th n o tio n s. S a ilin g o u t o f A c a p u lc o w ith tw o sh ip s in o rd e r to lo c a te

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a rriv in g fro m th e O rie n t, th e v o y a g e r s r e a c h e d C a p e M e n d o c in o . O n e sh ip w a s th e n b lo w n o ff c o u rs e to a p o in t w h e re th e c r e w sa id th e y sa w a n o rth e a s tw a rd tu rn to th e la n d a n d a la r g e riv e r issu in g fro m it. H e r e w a s su p p o rt fo r o th e r s e a m e n w h o c la im e d to h a v e v is ite d th e S tra it o f A n ia n . T h e la rg e riv e r c o u ld n o t b e ju s t a river; it m u st b e th e strait, a n d C a lifo r n ia a n isla n d to u c h in g its so u th e rn w a te rs. A m o n g th e m e m b e rs o f V iz c a in o ’s “ a r m a d a ” w a s F a th e r A s c e n s io n , th e C a r m e lite w h o h a d s e e n G o d ’s p la n in p u ttin g g o ld a n d th e u n b a p tiz e d in th e sa m e p la c e s . A s c e n s io n h a d a k e e n in te re s t in th e u n k n o w n la n d s a n d so m e u n iv e rs ity tra in in g in c o s m o g ra p h y . It w a s h is d o u b ly in fo rm e d o p in io n th a t C a lifo rn ia w a s c le a r ly “ s e p a r a te a n d d istin ct fro m th e la n d s o f N e w M e x ic o . . . th e s e a b e tw e e n th e s e tw o re a lm s, w h ic h is th e o n e c a lle d th e M e d ite r r a n e a n S e a o f C a lifo r n ia . . . m u st b e a b o u t fifty le a g u e s w id e .” C a lifo r n ia ’ s in su la rity g o t fu rth e r c o n firm a tio n w h e n D o n J u a n d e O n a te m a r c h e d w e s t fro m N e w M e x ic o to th e C o lo r a d o a n d G ila riv e rs a n d c o n v e r s e d w ith th e In d ia n s th e re . A c c o r d in g to o n e a c c o u n t o f th e jo u r n e y , th e In d ia n s to ld th e S p a n ia r d s th a t th e G u lf o f C a lifo rn ia w a s n o t c lo s e d , b u t th a t w e s t o f a m o u n ta in r a n g e b e y o n d th e C o lo ra d o w a s a se a , a n d in th a t s e a a n isla n d ru le d b y a g ia n te s s — old, fa t, a n d w ith o u ts iz e d fe e t. T h e gulf, th e n , h a d to ru n fa rth e r n o rth , p r o b a b ly c o n n e c tin g w ith th e S tra it o f A n ia n . T h u s d id m e re ru m o r, ra is e d to r e s p e c ta b ility b y th e w ritte n w o rd , c u t C a lifo rn ia o ff fro m th e m a in la n d . It o n ly r e m a in e d fo r th e w o rd to g e t a ro u n d , a n d th a t w a s a id e d b y th e th e ft o f a S p a n is h m a p (p o ss ib ly o f A s c e n s io n ’s o w n a u th o r ship) b y th e D u tc h . T h e E n g lis h p ro fe s s o r H e n r y B r ig g s c la im e d to h a v e s e e n th e p u rlo in e d d o c u m e n t, a n d h is o w n m a p th a t a p p e a r s in th e 16 2 5 e d itio n o f P u r c h a s ’ His Pilgrim es b e a r s this le g e n d :

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Father Kino, drawing on his own explorations north from Sonora, put California and the mainland together again on his map o f 1701.

E u s e b io K in o . H e h a d b e e n ta u g h t in G e r m a n y th a t C a lifo rn ia w a s a p e n in s u la ; b u t w h e n h e a rriv e d in M e x ic o , h e fo u n d o p in io n s o v e r w h e lm in g ly o f th e o p p o s ite p e rs u a s io n , a n d fo r a tim e h e a c c e p t e d th e c o m m o n v ie w . B y 1700, h o w e v e r , h is o w n e x p lo ra tio n s in to A r iz o n a c o n v in c e d h im th a t th e o th e rs w e r e w ro n g a n d th a t C a lifo r n ia h a d to b e jo in e d to th e c o n tin e n t. M a p s h e se n t to R o m e w ith h is w ritin g s b e c a m e th e b a sis fo r a c h a n g e in th in k in g . T h e n o te d F r e n c h c a r to g r a p h e r G u illa u m e D e lis le re s to re d

FA N TA SY LA N D

C a lifo r n ia ’s p e n in s u la r ity as e a r ly as 1 7 0 1 . O th e r m a p m a k e r s s lo w ly fe ll in to lin e , b u t D e lis le ’ s fe llo w F r e n c h m a n , N ic o la s d e F e r , “ H is C a th o lic M a je s t y ’s G e o g r a p h e r ,” c o n tin u e d to sh o w its ill-d e fin e d s h a p e p o s itio n e d in th e P a c ific a s la te a s 172 0 , a n d a tla s e s o f th e tim e fr e q u e n tly c o n ta in e d o ld p la te s a lo n g w ith th e n e w , w h ic h le ft o n e a c h o ic e in th e m a tter. F a th e r F e r n a n d o C o n s a g fin a lly s e ttle d th e q u e s tio n fo r g o o d in 17 4 6 w h e n h e fo llo w e d th e c o a s t o f B a ja C a lifo rn ia a ll th e w a y to th e m o u th o f th e C o lo r a d o R iv e r . T h e A m a z o n q u e e n a n d h e r

HE MYTH OF A WATERWAY th ro u g h N o rth A m e r ic a w a s a l m o st a s o ld a s E u r o p e ’ s k n o w le d g e o f a stu b b o rn c o n tin e n t in te r p o s e d b e tw e e n h o m e a n d C h in a . It w a s a d u r a b le m y th , d e s tin e d to h a v e a d h e r e n ts fo r th r e e h u n d r e d y e a r s , a n d w o u ld sa p th e ta le n ts, e n e rg ie s , a n d tre a s u rie s o f m a n y n a tio n s as w e ll as in sp ire so m e m ig h ty f a n c y lies. T h e c o m m e rc ia l a n d m ilita ry v a lu e o f a w a te r ro u te to th e E a s t in n o rth e rn la titu d e s w a s as in c a lc u la b le a s it w a s o b v io u s. A n y n a tio n th a t c o u ld fin d it a n d c o n tro l it w o u ld p u t its riv a ls at a d e c id e d d is a d v a n ta g e , fo r th e g o o d s o f th e E a s t h a d b e c o m e n e c e s s a r y lu x u rie s. T h e r e sim p ly h a d to b e a w a y to a n d fro m th e E a s t w ith o u t c irc lin g th o s e tw o d ista n t c a p e s in th e w ro n g h e m is p h e r e . D u rin g

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w h e th e r A m e r ic a w a s a n e x te n s io n o f th e A s ia n m a in la n d or s e p a r a te . T h e Ita lia n s in itia lly fa v o r e d th e fo rm e r, a n d th e n a tio n s o f n o rth e rn E u r o p e th e la tte r, a s th e ir r e s p e c tiv e m a p s w o u ld sh o w . ( T h e S p a n is h a n d P o r tu g u e s e g e n e r a lly fo llo w e d a p o lic y o f n o t sh o w in g a n y th in g o n th e ir m a p s th a t th e y h a d n o t a c tu a lly s e e n .) B e t w e e n 15 30 a n d 15 4 0 th e id e a o f a N o r th w e s t P a s s a g e b e g a n to g a in in p o p u la rity . A 15 3 5 g lo b e b y G e m m a F ris iu s sh o w s a strait w ith a n o ta tio n th a t th e P o r tu g u e s e h a d trie d to n a v ig a te it. A 15 3 8 m a p b y B a ttis ta A g n e s e g o e s o n e b e tte r b y c la im in g th a t th e F r e n c h h a d a lr e a d y s a ile d th ro u g h it to C h in a . M o m e n tu m w a s p la in ly sh iftin g to th e p ro -stra it sc h o la rs, w h o c o u ld c ite a s a d d itio n a l e v id e n c e th e e x is te n c e o f A n ta r c tic a a n d th e S tra it o f M a g e lla n ; a c c o r d in g to th e ru le o f s y m m e try , th e

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Bolognino Zaltieri put Anian on the map in 1566. Thereafter, the “ Northwest Passage” roamed east from the Bering Strait.

n o rth e rn a n tip o d e s c o u ld b e e x p e c te d to sh o w sim ilar fe a tu re s . In a 15 6 2 p a m p h le t e n title d La U niversale D iscrittione d el

M u n d o, G a s ta ld i first c a lle d th e strait A n ia n , a n a m e a p p a r e n tly g le a n e d fro m th e w ritin g s o f M a rc o P o lo , w h ic h in a d iffe re n t s p e llin g d e s c r ib e d a p r o v in c e n e a r S ia m . F o u r y e a r s la te r, B o lo g n in o Z a ltie ri w a s th e first to p u t th e n a m e on a m a p , a n d it s u b s e q u e n tly b e c a m e a fixtu re o n w o rld m a p s w e ll into th e e ig h te e n th c e n tu r y . Z a ltie ri p la c e d it r o u g h ly w h e re th e B e r in g S tra it is to d a y , b u t lik e Q u iv ira , A n ia n w o u ld n o t s ta y p u t. It s tra y e d g e n e r a lly fro m w e s t to e a s t — so m e tim e s w id e , so m e tim e s n a rro w , s o m e tim e s

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FA N TA SY LA N D

th ro u g h th e sh o u ld e rs o f th e c o n tin e n t, so m e tim e s d a rtin g n o rth in to th e P o la r O c e a n b y w a y o f H u d s o n B a y . O f all th o s e w h o s o u g h t th e S tra it o f A n ia n , n o n e w a n te d it m o re th a n th e E n g lis h . B e in g o n e o f th e la st lin k s in th e m e d ie v a l c h a in o f tra d e w ith th e O rie n t, th e y h a d th e g r e a te s t n e e d to fin d a n e w ro u te w e s tw a rd ; th e y w e r e a lso th e first to m a k e a s y s te m a tic e ffo rt to fin d th e w a te r w a y a n d a m o n g th e la st to g iv e u p th e se a rc h . D u r in g th e r e ig n o f E liz a b e th I, w h e n E n g la n d g re w fro m a b u d d in g m a ritim e p o w e r to m istre ss o f th e se a s a n d a tra d in g n a tio n o f th e first ra n k , th e r e c lu s te r e d a ro u n d th e c o u rt a h a n d fu l o f in flu e n tia l m e n w h o w e r e c o n v in c e d a sh o rtcu t c o u ld b e fo u n d to e lim in a te th o s e e n d le s s u n fr ie n d ly m ile s th ro u g h Ib e ria n -c o n tro lle d s e a s . A m o n g th e m w e r e S ir W a lte r R a le ig h , th e in te lle c tu a l J o h n D e e , a L o n d o n m e r c h a n t n a m e d M ic h a e l L o k , th e m o n ie d E a r l o f W a rw ic k , R ic h a r d H a k lu y t, E n g la n d ’ s d e a n o f g e o g ra p h e rs , a n d S ir H u m p h r e y G ilb e rt, a so m e tim e so ld ie r a n d a n a ll-th e -tim e d ile tta n te . G ilb e rt p e titio n e d th e q u e e n in 15 6 5 fo r th e p r iv ile g e o f fin d in g th e N o r th w e s t P a s s a g e a t his o w n e x p e n s e , in e x c h a n g e fo r a m o n o p o ly on th e tr a d e th ro u g h it w h ile h e w a s a liv e a n d 25 p e r c e n t o f th e c u sto m s d u tie s le v ie d on w h a t w a s b ro u g h t b a c k to E n g la n d . G ilb e rt a lso w ro te , a n d la te r p u b lis h e d in 15 7 6 , A D iscou rse o f a D isco v erie fo r a n e w e passage

to Cataia, a c o m p ila tio n o f w h a t w a s k n o w n or th o u g h t to b e k n o w n a b o u t th e le g e n d a r y strait, fro m P la t o ’ s isla n d A tla n tis d o w n to th e te s tim o n y o f sa ilo rs a n d sc h o la rs o f h is o w n d a y w h o h a p p e n e d to a g r e e w ith him . M e n tio n w a s e v e n m a d e o f a p rie s t n a m e d A n to n io U r d a n e ta w h o h a d r e c e n tly s a ile d th e strait fro m w e s t to e a st. T h e D iscou rse w a s h o rta to ry a n d c h a u v in is tic , a n d a n y E n g lis h m a n , G ilb e rt p ro m ise d , “ th a t w ill g iv e th e a tte m p t, m a y w ith sm al d a n g e r p a s s e in C a ta ia . . . in m u c h sh o rte r tim e th a n e ith e r th e S p a n ia r d or P o r tin g a le d o th , or m a y d o, fro m th e n e e r e s t p a r te o f a n y o f th e ir c o u n tr e is .” G ilb e rt in c lu d e d a h ea rts h a p e d m a p o f th e w o rld sh o w in g a w id e p a s s a g e n o rth o f C a n a d a th a t g r a d u a lly n a rro w e d a s it ra n so u th w e st, e m p ty in g in to a g re a t o c e a n n e a r J a p a n . F ro m th e r e it w a s a sh o rt trip to th e go ld , silver, p re c io u s sto n e s, a n d s p ic e s o f th e E a s t, w h ic h c o u ld b e o b ta in e d in tra d e o f e x c lu s iv e ly E n g lis h g o o d s. A c o n v e n ie n t w a y statio n , s a y “ a b o u t th e S ie rra N e v a d a ,” m ig h t b e bu ilt; or b e tte r y e t, th e

JU M P IN G G E O G R A P H Y

stra it c o u ld b e c o lo n iz e d w ith “ s u c h e n e e d ie p e o p le o f ou r co u n trie, w h ic h n o w tr o u b le th e c o m m o n w e lth , a n d th ro u g h w a n t h e re a t h o m e , a re in fo r c e d to c o m m it o u tra g io u s o ffe n s e s , w h e r e b y th e y a r e d a y ly c o n s u m e d w ith th e G a llo w s .” H e r e w a s a fo rm u la th a t w o u ld b e p u t in to p r a c tic e la te r, e ls e w h e re . G ilb e r t’ s D iscou rse in flu e n c e d la te r E n g lis h m e n , b u t it s e r v e d th e im m e d ia te p u r p o s e o f p ro m o tin g th e tra d in g c o m p a n y th a t h e a n d h is c o lle a g u e s w e r e fo rm in g . T h e ir m a n , M a rtin F ro b is h e r, a n a b le s e a d o g w ith a p r iv a te e r ’ s p a st, w a s c o m m issio n e d in 15 7 6 to fin d th e N o r th w e s t P a s s a g e . H e fo u n d in s te a d B a ffin Is la n d a n d p r o c e e d e d u p F r o b is h e r S tra it, w h e re h e h a d a c o stly run -in w ith so m e E s k im o s . F r o b is h e r r e tu rn e d to L o n d o n w ith so m e h e a v y o re s a m p le s h e h a d p ic k e d u p , w h ic h c a u s e d a fiv e -y e a r-lo n g g o ld fe v e r u n til th e “ b la c k s to n e s ” w e re fo u n d to b e o f no v a lu e . F r o b is h e r trie d a g a in in 1 5 7 7 a n d a fin a l tim e in 15 7 8 , b u t w ith o u t s u c c e s s . H e h a d to s w a llo w h is c la im m a d e b e fo re h is m a id e n v o y a g e th a t th e trip “ w a s n o t o n e ly p o s s ib le b y th e N o r th w e s t” b u t a lso , a s h e c o u ld p r o v e , “ e a s ie to b e p e r fo r m e d .” F r o b is h e r ’ s fa ilu re d id n o t d e te r E n g la n d ’s E liz a b e th a n m a ste r m a rin e rs fro m fu tu re a tte m p ts to d is c o v e r th e p a s s a g e , for w h ic h tw e n ty th o u s a n d p o u n d s in p riz e m o n e y h a d b e e n ra is e d , w ith Q u e e n E liz a b e t h h e r s e lf a c o n trib u to r. T h e r e s p e c te d H a k lu y t e n c o u r a g e d h is c o u n try m e n : “ O n th e b a c k s id e or w e s t o f A m e r ic a , fro m 24 d e g r e e s o f N o rth e rly la titu d e to 43 d e g r e e s . . . , [th e S p a n ia r d s ] h a v e n o t o n e fo o t o f a c tu a l p o ss e ssio n , m u c h le ss m o re n o rth e rly . A n d th e r e fo r e in tim e to c o m e th e y sh a ll h a v e no p r e te n s e o f c a v illa tio n a g a in s t a n o rth -w e s t p a s s a g e , if it sh a ll p le a s e G o d to la y o p e n th e s a m e .” J o h n D a v is m a d e th re e m o re v o y a g e s a c ro s s th e N o rth A tla n tic in th e m id -i5 8 o s , b u t it d id n o t p le a s e G o d to la y o p e n th e strait to him . T h e p ic tu r e a lw a y s lo o k e d ro sie r in L o n d o n . It lo o k e d ro sier, to o , in V e n ic e in 15 9 6 . T h a t y e a r th e L o n d o n m e rc h a n t M ic h a e l L o k , p a r tn e r o f G ilb e rt in sp o n so rin g F r o b is h e r ’s p a s s a g e , w a s in th e c ity o f c a n a ls to s e ttle a la w su it. T h e r e , b y his o w n a c c o u n t, h e m e t a m a n k n o w n as J u a n d e F u c a — a G r e e k , a c tu a lly , w h o se r e a l n a m e w a s A p o s to lo s V a le r ia n o s — w h o h a d sa ile d u n d e r th e fla g o f S p a in fo r fo rty y e a r s a s a m a rin e r a n d s h ip ’ s pilot. J u a n h a d sto rie s to tell. O n e r e c o u n te d h o w h e h a d b e e n c a p tu r e d b y th e

FANTASYLAND

E n g lis h r o v e r C a v e n d is h o ff th e c o a s t o f B a ja C a lifo r n ia a n d r o b b e d o f sixty th o u s a n d d u c a ts . A n o th e r , b y fa r th e m o re in trig u in g , c o n c e r n e d a v o y a g e h e h a d ta k e n in 15 9 2 a t th e d ire c tio n o f th e v ic e r o y to fin d th e S tra it o f A n ia n . F in d it h e d id , b y sa ilin g u p th e C a lifo r n ia c o a s t w ith h is c a r a v e l a n d a tin y p in n a c e to a la titu d e o f b e tw e e n fo r ty - s e v e n a n d fo rty -e ig h t d e g r e e s . T h e r e th e c o a s t b e n t n o rth e a s t in to a n in le t o f th e s e a th ro u g h w h ic h h e sa ile d fo r m o re th a n tw e n ty d a y s u n til, a fte r p a s s in g m a n y isla n d s a n d h e a d in g in a lm o st e v e r y d ire c tio n o f th e c o m p a s s , h e r e a c h e d a v e r y m u c h b r o a d e r se a . D e F u c a h a d g o n e a s h o r e in s e v e r a l p la c e s a n d o b s e r v e d “ so m e p e o p le o n L a n d , c la d in B e a s t skins; a n d th a t th e L a n d is v e r y fru itfu ll, a n d ric h o f g o ld , S ilv e r , P e a r le , a n d o th e r th in g s, lik e N ova Spania.” D e F u c a r e a s o n e d th a t h e h a d r e a c h e d th e N o rth S e a , b u t la c k in g a rm s to c o p e w ith th e s a v a g e s , h e tu rn e d a ro u n d a n d s a ile d to A c a p u lc o th a t sa m e y e a r. T h is h u m b le s e r v a n t o f th e C r o w n e x p e c te d to b e c o m p e n s a te d fo r h is fe a t; in ste a d , th e v ic e r o y p u t h im o ff fo r tw o y e a r s , th e n s u g g e s te d h e go to S p a in a n d g e t h is r e w a r d fro m th e k in g . W h e n d e F u c a p r e s e n te d h im s e lf a t c o u rt in M a d rid , h e g o t so m e flo w e ry w o rd s b u t n o th in g fo r h is p u rs e . A s s h a b b ily a s h e h a d b e e n tre a te d , d e F u c a w a s still w illin g to p u t w h a t h e k n e w to so m e g o o d u s e . H e h a d a lw a y s th o u g h t w e ll o f th e n o b le Q u e e n E liz a b e th , a n d if h e r m a je s t y m ig h t b e w illin g to m a k e g o o d h is lo s s e s to C a v e n d is h , h e w o u ld g la d ly go to E n g la n d a n d r e d is c o v e r th e N o rth w e s t P a s s a g e . A ll h e n e e d e d w a s a sh ip o f fo rty to n s a n d a p in n a c e , a n d h e w o u ld d o it “ in th irtie d a y s tim e , fro m o n e e n d to th e o th e r o f th e S tr e ig h ts .” J u a n m u st h a v e b e e n a c h a rm in g fib b e r, a n d L o k e ith e r o n e o f th e m o re g u llib le m e n o f h is tim e or h im s e lf a sk ille d c o n artist. L o k se n t le tte rs to n o ta b le s in E n g la n d a s k in g th a t o n e h u n d re d p o u n d s b e r a is e d to b rin g h is “ G r e e k e P ilo t” to E n g la n d . T h e y th o u g h t it a sp le n d id id e a , b u t th e m o n e y w a s “ n o t r e a d ie .” T w o y e a r s la te r L o k trie d to o r g a n iz e a n e x p e d itio n w ith d e F u c a a s its p ilot. H e w a s u n s u c c e s s fu l a n d la te r le a r n e d th a t J u a n h a d a p p a r e n tly d ie d in h is n a tiv e G r e e c e . T h e J u a n d e F u c a sto ry e n te r e d p rin t in 16 2 5 w h e n S a m u e l P u r c h a s in c lu d e d it in His Pilgrim es, a lo n g w ith tw o tr e a tis e s b y H e n r y B r ig g s on th e p r o b a b ility o f a N o rth w e s t P a s s a g e . Its a p

JU M P IN G G E O G R A P H Y

p e a r a n c e a r o u s e d little in te re s t. B y th e n , H e n r y H u d s o n h a d trie d fo u r tim e s to fin d th e strait, a n d W illia m B a ffin tw ic e . A ll w e r e fa ilu r e s . P e r h a p s E n g la n d ’ s in v e sto rs a n d m e rc h a n ts, w h o h a d b o r n e m u c h o f th e e x p e n s e to fin d th e S tra it o f A n ia n , w e re o u t o f p a tie n c e — n o t to m e n tio n g a m b lin g sta k e s. S o E n g lis h e n th u s ia s m fo r a N o r th w e s t P a s s a g e c o o le d fo r a tim e. T h o u g h sa ilo rs h a d k n o w n w a te rs a b o v e e ig h ty d e g r e e s in la titu d e , th e tu r b u le n t w e a th e r , c o n tra ry w in d s, h a z a r d o u s ic e , a n d c la s h e s w ith h o s tile n a tiv e s m a d e life m is e ra b le , to s a y th e le a st. A n d w h ile E n g la n d ’ s k n o w le d g e o f a rc tic g e o g r a p h y w a s b e in g e x p a n d e d , its tr a d e w ith C a t h a y w a s not. T h e S p a n ia r d s n o w k e p t th e le g e n d a liv e . P e a r l fish e rm e n a fte r c o n c e s s io n s in th e G u lf o f C a lifo r n ia u s e d it as b a it. O n e o f th e m , P e d r o P o r te r C a s a n a te , p ro m is e d th e C r o w n h e w o u ld fin d th e S tra it o f A n ia n i f h is p e titio n w a s a p p r o v e d . It w a s, in 1640, b u t th e r e is n o e v id e n c e h e k e p t h is w o rd . F r a n c is c o d e S e y x a s y L o v e r a , in h is T h ea tro N aval H yd rog ra p h ico p u b lis h e d in M a d r id in 1688, in c lu d e d a sto ry o f a n E n g lis h c a p ta in , T h o m a s P e c h e , w h o in o rd e r to s a v e tim e on a P h ilip p in e s -to -L o n d o n run, s a ile d 120 le a g u e s u p th e S tra it o f A n ia n b e fo r e a d v e r s e c u rre n ts a n d th e c o m in g w in te r tu rn e d h im b a c k . W h e n h e fin a lly r e a c h e d E n g la n d b y w a y o f M a g e lla n ’ s strait, so th e a c c o u n t w e n t, h e h a d le ft b e h in d 15 0 c r e w m e n in w a te r y g ra v e s. T h e c h o ic e o f a n E n g lis h m a n a s p ro ta g o n is t d id n o t h u rt th e s to r y ’ s c re d ib ility . T h e e x is te n c e o f th e strait w a s a lw a y s p rim a rily a n E n g lis h o b s e s s io n , a n d in th e e ig h te e n th c e n tu ry , w h e n c o m p e titio n b e t w e e n E n g la n d , F r a n c e , a n d S p a in fo r p o s s e s s io n o f N o rth A m e r ic a s h a r p e n e d , A n ia n w ith a ll its p ro m ise a g a in se n t m o s tly E n g lis h m e n d o w n to th e s e a in sh ip s. It a ll sta rte d , or w a s r e s ta r te d , w ith a b r a z e n fra u d p e r p e tr a te d in L o n d o n in 170 8 b y (o n e h a s e v e r y r e a s o n to su s p e c t) a m a g a z in e e d ito r n a m e d J a m e s P e tiv e r . H is M o n th ly M iscella n y o r M em oirs fo r th e Curious c a r rie d th a t y e a r a tw o -p a rt a c c o u n t o f y e t a n o th e r v o y a g e th ro u g h th e S tra it o f A n ia n , w h ic h w a s to h a v e a d ra m a tic , i f d e la y e d , e ffe c t. T h is tim e th e d a rin g sa ilo r w a s B a rth o lo m e w d e F o n te , w ith th e g ra n d title o f A d m ir a l o f N e w S p a in a n d P e r u . A c c o r d in g to th e M o n th ly M iscella n y, d e F o n te d e p a r te d P e r u in 1640 c o m m a n d in g fo u r sh ip s o n o rd e rs o f th e k in g a n d v ic e r o y to fin d th e

FA N TA SY LA N D

N o r th w e s t P a s s a g e th e E n g lis h w e r e so d ilig e n tly s e e k in g . T h e a d m ira l to o k h is fle e t n o rth w e s t to C a lifo rn ia , w h e r e h e d is p a tc h e d h is v ic e -a d m ir a l — n o n e o th e r th a n th e fu tu r e in trig u e r a n d selfp r o c la im e d d is c o v e r e r o f T e g u a y o , D o n D ie g o d e P e n a lo s a — to d e te r m in e w h e th e r it w a s a n isla n d or not. T h e a d m ir a l’s m a in fo r c e p r o c e e d e d n o rth , fin d in g a t fifty -th re e d e g r e e s a riv e r h e n a m e d L o s R e y e s , u p w h ic h h e e v e n tu a lly sa ile d , a fte r first s e n d in g o n e o f his c a p ta in s into th e A rc tic O c e a n to d is c o v e r w h e th e r it c o n n e c te d w ith th e A tla n tic . (It d id not, th e c a p ta in re p o rte d .) T h e n o rth e a s t-flo w in g L o s R e y e s to o k d e F o n te to a L a k e B e lle , w h ic h h a d a n In d ia n to w n , C o n o s s e t, on its so u th sid e . H e r e th e a d m ira l r e s te d b e fo r e sa ilin g o n u p a n o th e r riv e r h e c a lle d P a rm e n tie rs (a fte r h is in te rp re te r w h o w a s m ira c u lo u s ly a b le to c o m m u n ic a te w ith th e In d ia n s ) to a la k e h e im m o d e s tly n a m e d d e F o n te . O n h e w e n t, u p a n o th e r c o n n e c tin g riv e r a n d a n o th e r la k e , th e c o u n tr y s id e b e c o m in g m o re a n d m o re b le a k . T h e n it h a p p e n e d . H e e n c o u n te r e d a sh ip “ o f N e w E n g la n d , fro m a T o w n c a lle d B o s to n ,” th a t h a d a rriv e d th e re fro m th e o th e r d ire c tio n . D e F o n te w a s g ra cio u s to its sk ip p e r, C a p t a in S h a p le y : “ I r e c e iv e d h im lik e a G e n tle m a n , a n d to ld h im , m y C o m m is s io n w a s to m a k e P r iz e o f a n y P e o p le s e e k in g a N o rth W e s t or W e s t P a s s a g e into th e S o u th S e a , b u t I w o u ld lo o k u p o n th e m a s M e r c h a n ts tra d in g w ith th e N a tiv e s fo r B e v e r s , O tte rs, a n d o th e r F u r s a n d S k in s .”

D e F o n te w a s a lso g e n e ro u s . H e p r e s e n te d C a p ta in

S h a p le y w ith his d ia m o n d rin g, w h ic h h a d c o st h im tw e lv e h u n d re d p ie c e s o f e ig h t, a n d se n t a lo n g fo r th e s h ip ’s o w n e r, S c im o r G ib b o n s o f B o sto n , “ a q u a rte r C a s k o f g o o d P e r u a n W in e .” In la te su m m e r o f 1640 , d e F o n te b a d e th e n o rth c o u n try fa r e w e ll a n d sa ile d b a c k to P e r u , h is m issio n a c c o m p lis h e d . T h e r e n e v e r w a s a n y B a rth o lo m e w d e F o n te . T h e r e n e v e r w a s a n y A d m ira l o f N e w S p a in a n d P e r u . ( I f th e re h a d b e e n , th e S p a n is h w o u ld p r o b a b ly h a v e k n o w n a b o u t it.) A n d fo r all th e a c c o u n t’s d e ta ile d a tte n tio n to tid a l flu c tu a tio n s, s h ip s ’ p ro v isio n s, a n d flo ra a n d fa u n a o b s e r v e d , it is h o p e le s s ly u n in te llig ib le a n d w r e tc h e d ly w ritte n . C u rio u s ly , r e s e a r c h d id r e v e a l th a t a C a p ta in S h a p e ly a n d a S e y m o u r G ib b o n s liv e d in M a s s a c h u s e tts at a p p ro x im a te ly

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v e n ie n tly d e a d P e n a lo s a , c o n v in c e d m a n y fu tu re b e lie v e r s , in c lu d in g a n A m e r ic a n n a m e d B e n ja m in F ra n k lin . T h e im a g in a r y a d m ira l m ig h t h a v e sa ile d o ff into th e su n s e t o f m e m o r y h a d it n o t b e e n fo r a n Irish e n g in e e r n a m e d A rth u r D o b b s , w h o m o re th a n tw o d e c a d e s la te r re s u r r e c te d th e d e F o n te fa n ta s y a n d d e te r m in e d it h a d “ th ro u g h o u t th e air o f tru th .” T h o u g h its g e o g r a p h y b o r e no r e s e m b la n c e to J u a n d e F u c a ’s, th e tw o w e r e p a ir e d as m u tu a lly s u p p o rtiv e . D o b b s k n e w th e re w a s a N o r th w e s t P a s s a g e . W h a t is m o re , h e k n e w th a t H u d s o n ’ s B a y C o m p a n y k n e w th e r e w a s a N o r th w e s t P a s s a g e , a n d th a t th e m o n o p o lists w e r e d e lib e r a te ly s u p p re s s in g k n o w le d g e o f it o u t o f s e lfis h n e s s . D is g r a c e fu l c o n d u c t! It d e p r iv e d th e v e r y n a tio n th a t h a d g r a n te d its c h a rte r — a c h a rte r th a t stip u la te d th e c o m p a n y w a s to s e a r c h fo r th e p a s s a g e — o f tra d in g o p p o rtu n itie s th a t w e re beyond

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w r a n g le w ith th e c o m p a n y tra d in g in H u d s o n ’s B a y , a n d in 1 7 4 1 h e s u c c e e d e d in h a v in g C a p t. C h r is to p h e r M id d le to n s e n t o n a n in d e p e n d e n t v o y a g e o f d is c o v e r y . M id d le to n p r o b e d th e w e s te rn sh o re s o f H u d s o n B a y fo r a n o p e n in g , b u t in v a in . A fte r M id d le to n r e tu rn e d , D o b b s b e c a m e fu rio u s. O b v io u s ly th e m a n h a d b e e n b r ib e d b y th e m o n o p o lists. A ll E n g la n d h a d b e e n d u p e d ! E v e r y th in g p o in te d to a p a s s a g e . T h e r e w a s th e n e w s fro m R u s s ia (an o c c a s io n a l d a rk h o rs e in th e r a c e fo r th e A m e r ic a n W e s t a n d e m p lo y e d b y so m e e x p a n sio n is ts a s a sta lk in g -h o rse ) th a t V itu s B e r in g a n d A le x i C h ir ik o v h a d d e p a r te d K a m c h a tk a in 1 7 4 1 a n d fro m th e ir s e p a r a te sh ip s h a d s ig h te d th e A la s k a n m a in la n d . T h e r e w a s, in d e e d , a strait b e t w e e n A s ia a n d A m e r ic a . F u r th e r c o rro b o ra tio n h a d ju s t a rriv e d fro m F r a n c e . It w a s a g a r b le d re p o rt fro m a h a lf-b r e e d n a m e d J o s e p h L a F r a n c e , w h o h a d s p e n t th e y e a r s 17 3 9 to 174 2 in th e H u d s o n B a y a r e a , th a t a n In d ia n w a r p a r ty h a d r e a c h e d th e w e s te r n s e a a n d h a d fo u n d th e re a strait ru n n in g e a s t to w e st, w h ic h th e y fo llo w e d b y c a n o e a n d on fo o t fo r th re e m o n th s. D o b b s w e n t p u b lic w ith his c a u s e a n d P a r lia m e n t r a is e d a n o th e r tw e n ty th o u s a n d p o u n d s in p riz e m o n e y in 17 4 5 . B e c a u s e A n ia n h a d to e x ist a n d w a s n o t fo u n d w h e re m e n h a d lo o k e d , it th e r e fo re h a d to b e w h e re th e y h a d n o t lo o k e d , or h a d n o t lo o k e d v e r y c lo se ly . S h a r e s w e re so ld to fin a n c e a n e x p e d itio n a n d th e p u r c h a s e o f tw o v e s s e ls , o n e o f w h ic h b o r e th e s a n g u in e n a m e ,

California. T w o re lia b le c a p ta in s w e r e c h o s e n , a n d o n M a y 3 1, 174 6 , th e g re a t a d v e n tu r e go t u n d e r w a y . T h e sh ip s w e r e g o n e m o re th a n a y e a r , th e tim e s p e n t m o stly in e x p lo rin g th e w e s te rn in d e n ta tio n s in H u d s o n B a y fo r a lin k a g e w ith d e F o n t e ’ s d is c o v e r ie s . N o n e w a s fo u n d , a n d in 17 5 0 e v e n D o b b s c a lle d it qu its. B y th e n th e w ill-o ’-th e -w isp w a s g lo w in g in F r a n c e , w h e re a p a ir o f g e o g r a p h e r s , J o s e p h N ic h o la s D e lis le (th e y o u n g e r b ro th e r o f G u illa u m e ) a n d P h ilip p e B u a c h e , s e r v e d u p a c a rto g ra p h ic a l ste w w ith fe w e q u a ls . It w a s a m a p , b a s e d o n ly in p a rt o n th e d is c o v e r ie s o f B e r in g a n d C h irik o v , p u b lis h e d in 17 5 2 w ith th e lo n gw in d e d title o f C arte G e n era te d es D e sc o u v e r te s d e VAmiral d e F o n te e t autres N avigateurs E spagnols, Anglais e t R usses, p o u r la rec h erc h du P assage a la M e r du Sud. It d re w h o o ts fro m so m e E n g lis h a n d S p a n is h sch o la rs, b u t b y th e n th e w h o le le g e n d h a d

JU M P IN G G E O G R A P H Y

g o tte n so o u t o f h a n d th a t it w o u ld n o t fa d e a w a y . In 1 7 7 6 th e P a r lia m e n t o f E n g la n d p u t u p a n o th e r tw e n ty th o u s a n d p o u n d s . T h a t s a m e y e a r , w h ile re b e llio n w a s b e c o m in g re v o lu tio n o n th e e a s t c o a s t o f N o rth A m e r ic a , C a p t. J a m e s C o o k s e t o ff o n h is th ird a n d fin a l v o y a g e o f d is c o v e r y to s e e if fro m th e w e s t c o a s t th e r e w a s n o t a w a te r c o n n e c tio n to H u d s o n B a y or B a ffin B a y . W h e th e r o u t o f c o n fid e n c e in th e n a v ig a to r or m e r e ly to c o v e r a ll b e ts , th e A d m ir a lty a c tu a lly d is p a tc h e d tw o sh ip s to B a ffin B a y to m e e t C o o k , sh o u ld h e b e s u c c e s s fu l. N e ith e r C o o k n o r h is s u c c e s s o r s fo u n d th e p a s s a g e , th e s e a rc h fo r w h ic h h is to ria n N e llis C r o u s e h a s d e s c r ib e d as no lo n g e r h a v in g a n y p r a c tic a l c o m m e r c ia l v a lu e , b u t o n e th a t “ lin g e re d

as a sort o f

s c ie n tific sp o rtin g e v e n t .” It a lso lin g e re d , w ith a p r o g r e s s iv e ly fe w e r n u m b e r o f d ie -h a rd s a n d a c a d e m ic ia n s , a s still th e sh o rte st w a y to C h in a . In 1 7 7 5 , a F r e n c h a b b e g a v e a S p a n is h d u k e a n a c c o u n t w ritte n in a b o u t 160 9 o f a 1588 v o y a g e b y a S p a n is h a d v e n tu r e r n a m e d L o re n z o F e r r e r M a ld o n a d o . Y e s in d e e d , M a ld o n a d o h a d b e e n th ro u g h th e S tra it o f A n ia n , th o u g h e a s t to w e s t th is tim e. M a ld o n a d o , a s e x p e c t e d , h a d m u c h to sa y . T h e strait w a s in six ty d e g r e e s o f la ti tu d e , o n ly 1 ,7 1 0 le a g u e s fro m S p a in , a n d a m e re 15 le a g u e s lo n g . E a s ily n e g o tia te d in six h o u rs w ith th e rig h t tid e , it h a d a n c h o r a g e s p a c e fo r fiv e h u n d r e d sh ip s a t its so u th e rn m o u th . T h o u g h th e w a te r s c o u ld b e ro u g h , th e w e a th e r w a s s u rp ris in g ly m ild , g iv e n th e la titu d e , a n d th e la n d a b o u n d e d in p a rtrid g e s a n d in w ild p ig s w h o s e u m b ilic a l co rd s w e r e a tta c h e d to th e ir b a c k s . W h ile th e r e , M a ld o n a d o s a w

a sh ip o f e ig h t h u n d r e d to n s p u ll in,

m a n n e d , h e g u e s s e d , b y G e r m a n L u th e r a n s re tu rn in g fro m C h in a w ith a s h ip lo a d o f b r o c a d e s , p o rc e la in s , silks, a n d (n a tu ra lly ) gold . B u t S p a in h a d no r e a s o n to fe a r s u c h fr e e u s e o f th e w a te r w a y in th e fu tu re . T h e stra it’ s to p o g r a p h y w a s s u c h th a t it c o u ld e a s ily b e d e fe n d e d . D e t a ile d d ra w in g s w e r e p r o v id e d , sh o w in g w h e re lo o k o u ts a n d g u n b a tte rie s sh o u ld b e p la c e d . T h e r e r e a lly w a s a L o r e n z o F e r r e r M a ld o n a d o a liv e in S p a in in 160 9. H e w a s a n o p p o rtu n ist o f th e m o re u n s a v o r y ty p e , a n d h is a lle g e d a d v e n tu r e , s u rfa c in g fro m th e a r c h iv e s so lo n g a fte r th e fa c t, m u s t h a v e s e n t m a n y in E u r o p e in to fits o f m irth, b u t n o t all. S p a in s to p p e d la u g h in g w h e n P h ilip p e B u a c h e d e la N e u v ille

FA N TA SY LA N D

(son o f th e g e o g r a p h e r P h ilip p e B u a c h e o f th e in fa m o u s 17 5 2 m a p ) e m b r a c e d th e sto ry e n th u s ia s tic a lly b e fo r e a n a s s e m b ly o f th e A c a d e m y o f S c ie n c e s . B u a c h e w a s a m a n o f c o n s id e r a b le r e p u ta tio n , a n d i f h e g a v e it h is im p rim a tu r, w e ll th e n , h a d s o m e Â th in g b e e n m iss e d ? A le ja n d r o M a la s p in a , on a ro u n d -th e -w o rld sc ie n tific v o y a g e , w a s s e n t fro m A c a p u lc o in 1 7 9 1 to fin d out. H e s e a r c h e d th e w e s t c o a s t a t six ty d e g r e e s a n d fo u n d n o th in g . A n ia n h a d fin a lly lo st its h o ld on m e n â&#x20AC;&#x2122; s im a g in a tio n s. O f c o u rse , th e re h a d b e e n a N o rth w e s t P a s s a g e a ll a lo n g , n o t w h e re m o st e x p lo re rs h a d lo o k e d fo r it, b u t fa rth e r to th e n o rth , a b o v e s e v e n ty fiv e d e g r e e s , th ro u g h th e ic e - c lo g g e d A r c tic O c e a n . T h e N o rÂ w e g ia n R o a ld A m u n d s e n p r o v e d th a t fa c t in 190 5, lo n g a fte r th e c o n te s t fo r N o rth A m e r ic a h a d b e e n se ttle d .

Chapter 3

Grand Liars in a Grand Land F

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w anted

SHORTCUT to th e O rie n t e v e r y bit a s m u c h as

h e r riv a ls d id . W h ile E n g la n d a n d S p a in w e r e s e a r c h in g fo r a N o r th w e s t P a s s a g e b y w a te r, th e F r e n c h so u g h t th e w e s te rn se a , th e P a c ific , b y la n d . A s fu r tra d e rs a n d m iss io n a rie s m o v e d in la n d u p th e S a in t L a w r e n c e to w a rd th e G r e a t L a k e s , th e y m e t In d ia n s w h o sa id th a t to th e w e s t — o n e m o o n , th re e m o o n s, six m o o n s a w a y — w e re b o th a g r e a t riv e r a n d a la r g e se a . T h e F r e n c h le a r n e d so o n e n o u g h th a t th e riv e r fo u n d b y M a r q u e tte a n d J o llie t w a s n o t th e o n e ; th e M is s is s ip p i flo w e d so u th in to th e G u lf o f M e x ic o . S o th e n th e R iv e r o f th e W e s t h a d to b e b e y o n d , to w a rd th e y e llo w h o ri z o n , w h e r e th e tre e s s to p p e d a n d th e e n d le s s s e a o f g ra ss b e g a n . In tim e th e F r e n c h w o u ld a d d a n o th e r g e o g r a p h ic a l in v e n tio n o f th e ir o w n , a la r g e , la n d lo c k e d b o d y o f w a te r th a t, m o re o fte n th a n n o t, h a d a riv e r o u tle t to th e d is ta n t o c e a n . L a S a lle ’ s e x p lo ra tio n a n d th e fo llo w -u p F r e n c h o c c u p a tio n o f th e

M is s is s ip p i g a v e

to e ig h te e n th -c e n tu r y E u r o p e ’ s g r e a te s t

la n d p o w e r th e p o s s e s s io n o f th e h e a r tla n d o f A m e r ic a . U n d e r s ta n d a b ly , in te re s t in th e w e s te r n s e a a n d th e R iv e r o f th e W e st w a s g r e a te r th a n e v e r . Y e t F r a n c e w a s ill-p re p a re d to fin d w h a t e v e r w a s o u t th e r e . S h e h a d a lr e a d y o v e r e x te n d e d h e rse lf. A s b r a v e a n d h a r d y a s th o s e F r e n c h v oya g eu rs w e re , th e ir n u m b e rs in th e v a s t riv e r v a lle y w e r e w o e fu lly fe w . T h e b ir c h b a rk c a n o e so p e r fe c t ly s u ite d to C a n a d a ’s d e e p riv e rs a n d th e u s u a lly p la c id G r e a t L a k e s w a s u s e le s s in th e W e st. T h e M iss o u ri a n d th e P la tte a n d th e A r k a n s a s a n d th e o th e r stre a m s b r a n c h in g w e s t fro m th e M is s is s ip p i d id n o t b e h a v e lik e a n y k n o w n riv e rs; t h e y w e re

BANCROFT.LIBRARY, UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA. BERKELEY

FA N TA SY LA N D

The bison (depicted here by Johan de Laet, 1630 ) shared the Great Plains with the less plentiful tiger, leopard, and griffin. s e a s o n a lly a n g r y b ro w n to rren ts or sh a llo w , sn a g -fille d trick le s; a lw a y s th e c u rre n ts w e r e c o n tra ry . A n d y e t, th e id e a s o f a la r g e riv e r a n d la k e in th e u n c h a r te d W e s t w e r e so b e g u ilin g th a t fo r tw o c e n tu rie s th e F r e n c h w o u ld m o v e th e m fr e e ly o v e r a p la s tic la n d m a s s . A t tim e s th e la k e w a s sa id to b e o n th e c e n tra l p la in s n e a r th e P a w n e e s , or fa r th e r w e s t a n d n o rth in w h a t w e c a ll W y o m in g . S o m e tim e s it w o u ld b e fre sh w a te r, so m e tim e s salt. It jo in e d w ith a n e a s t-flo w in g riv e r, w ith a w e s t-flo w in g river, w ith b o th . A t o th e r tim e s th e la k e e v a p o r a te d , le a v in g o n ly a sin g le riv e r or a p a ir o f c o n n e c tin g riv e rs th a t e m p tie d into th e w e s te r n se a . I f th e n a tiv e s t h e y m e t h a d n o t fo s te r e d a w id e s p r e a d b e lie f in a R iv e r o f th e W e st, it w o u ld h a v e b e e n a d v is a b le fo r th e F r e n c h fro n tie rs m a n to h a v e in v e n te d o n e . H e w a s d e p e n d e n t o n M o n tre a l fo r p ro v isio n s a n d a m a rk e t fo r h is fu rs, a n d th e la s t th in g h e w a n te d w a s to b e a b a n d o n e d in th e m id d le o f a h o stile n o w h e re . M o n tre a l w a s e q u a lly d e p e n d e n t o n th e g o o d o p in io n o f P a ris for su rv iv a l, a n d g la d tid in g s s e n t h o m e w e r e a lw a y s p r e fe r a b le . F o r its p a rt, P a r is e v e n tu a lly c a m e to g r e e t th e g o o d n e w s w ith p e r fu n c to ry p le a s u r e a n d a firm n o to w h o m e v e r it w a s th a t w a n te d m o n e y to fin d “ it” th is tim e.

G R A N D L IA R S IN A G R A N D L A N D

“ T h e r e is n o c o u n try in th e w o rld w h e r e m o re ly in g is d o n e th a n in C a n a d a ,” c o n c lu d e d o n e F a th e r N a u a fte r a p a rtic u la rly e n c o u r a g in g re p o rt c a m e fro m th e W e st. H e w e n t on to e c h o a n o th e r o b s e r v a tio n th a t o fficia ls in N e w F r a n c e w e r e n o t lo o k in g fo r th e w e s te r n s e a “ b u t fo r th e s e a o f b e a v e r .” N e w F r a n c e h a d a g o o d ly n u m b e r o f liars, a s F a th e r N a u b e lie v e d . O n e m ig h t a lso a d d th a t m o st o f th e m , or a t le a s t th e b e s t o f th e m , w e r e in th e W e st. I f L o u is X I V w a s so ig n o ra n t o f his d is ta n t a n d n e g le c t e d h o ld in g s, th e n w h y n o t d re s s th e p la c e u p a little, p a r tic u la r ly if it sto o d to b o o st o n e in e s ta te or re p u ta tio n ? F r a n c e w o u ld s u p p ly th e w e s te r n m y s te r y h e r o w n fa ir s h a re o f tr u th -b e n d e rs .

(Tm

i i .

MAN

CALLING

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a t h ie u

Sagean

tu rn e d u p in

F r a n c e in 16 9 9 w ith a sto ry th a t w a s b e y o n d b e lie v in g ,

th o u g h a fe w in flu e n tia l F r e n c h m e n tried . H e w a s a C r e o le b o rn in M o n tr e a l a n d sa id h e h a d a c c o m p a n ie d L a S a lle d o w n th e M iss is sip p i. L a te r , w ith th e b le s s in g o f H e n ri d e T o n ty , L a S a lle ’s s e c o n d -in -c o m m a n d , h e c la im e d h e h a d g o n e u p s tre a m w ith e le v e n c o u n tr y m e n a n d tw o In d ia n s to fo rty le a g u e s a b o v e a c a ta r a c t, w h e r e h e s a w a riv e r as la r g e as th e M iss is sip p i th a t ran s o u th w e s te r ly . It lo o k e d so p ro m isin g th a t h e m a d e a p o rta g e , th in k in g it m ig h t le a d to th e so u th se a . T h r o u g h a c o u n try a liv e w ith tig e rs a n d le o p a r d s , h e c o a s te d tw o h u n d r e d fifty le a g u e s to th e k in g d o m o f th e A c a a n ib a s , a p o p u lo u s p e o p le w h o s e s p le n d ife r o u s K in g H a g a a z e n tr a c e d h is d e s c e n t fro m M o n te z u m a , th e A z t e c m a n -g o d . T h e la n d o f th e A c a a n ib a s w a s u n lik e a n y p r e v io u s ly re p o rte d . T h e c lim a te w a s m ild a ll th e y e a r ro u n d , a n d th e g ro u n d w a s so fe rtile it y ie ld e d a n e n c y c lo p e d ic v a r ie ty o f fo o d s in a b u n d a n c e . D is e a s e w a s u n k n o w n , d e a th th e c o n s e q u e n c e o f rip e old a g e . T h is , o f c o u r s e , p r o d u c e d a la r g e p o p u la tio n o f A c a a n ib a s , a n d , in d e e d , K in g H a g a a z e n w a s a b le to k e e p n e a r ly a h u n d r e d th o u s a n d m e n u n d e r a rm s in c a s e th e h a te d S p a n ia r d s sh o u ld c o m e . In th e ir p a s t th e s e g e n tle p e o p le h a d s u ffe r e d c r u e lly at th e h a n d s o f th e con qu istad ores, th o s e u n p le a s a n t m e m o rie s b e in g k e p t a liv e in th e s o n g s s u n g b y th e c h ild re n . A c a a n ib a s a te c o n tin u

FA N TA SY LA N D

a lly , d ra n k p a lm w in e in m o d e ra tio n , a n d w o rs h ip e d h u g e b la c k a p e s , w h ic h w e re b e lie v e d to h o u s e th e so u ls o f th e ir a n c e s to rs. T h e m e n w e r e lu c k y fe llo w s . T h e y to o k a s m a n y w iv e s as th e y w is h e d , a n d as fo r A c a a n ib a n w o m e n — a h , m o n s ie u r !— n o t o n ly w e r e th e y m a n y a n d w illin g , b u t t h e y w e r e w h ite a n d b e a u tifu l, ju s t a s w h ite a n d b e a u tifu l as E u r o p e a n w o m e n ! S a g e a n c o u ld o n ly fa u lt th e m fo r th e ir e a rs, w h ic h w e r e e n o rm o u s. T h is d is fig u re m e n t re s u lte d fro m th e ir c u sto m o f p ie rc in g th e ir e a rs a n d w e ig h in g th e m d o w n w ith g o ld o rn a m e n ts. Y e s , go ld . T h e A c a a n ib a s h a d m u c h go ld . It c a m e fro m th e n e a r b y m in e s, w h ic h w e r e r e a lly n o t m in e s a t all, b u t d ry s tre a m b e d s w h e r e n u g g e ts c o u ld b e g a th e r e d lik e e g g s in a h e n h o u s e . M o n te z u m a c o u ld n o t h a v e liv e d in m o re o p u le n t su rro u n d in g s th a n K in g H a g a a z e n . H is p a la c e w a s o f go ld , w ith w a lls e ig h te e n fe e t h ig h . T h e y w e r e n o t g o ld -p la te d e ith e r, b u t o f so lid g o ld b rick s h e ld to g e th e r b y a m o rta r o f th e s a m e e le m e n t. G o ld b e in g a su rp lu s co m m o d ity , th e A c a a n ib a s n o t o n ly m a d e th e ir to o ls fro m it, b u t u s e d it in tra d e w ith a d is ta n t p e o p le — p o s s ib ly th e J a p a n e s e , b e c a u s e it to o k th e ir c a r a v a n s six m o n th s to m a k e th e jo u r n e y to th e A c a a n ib a s . A fte r a fiv e -m o n th s ta y a m o n g th is h o s p ita b le p e o p le , S a g e a n d e c id e d h e o u g h t to b e g e ttin g b a c k h o m e . B u t b e fo r e h e le ft, K in g H a g a a z e n u r g e d h im a n d h is m e n to ta k e all th e g o ld th e y c o u ld c a rry a n d m a d e th e m p ro m ise to re tu rn a n d tr a d e fo r m o re . ( T h e A c a a n ib a s h a p p e n e d to h a v e a c ritica l s h o rta g e o f b e a d s a n d trin k ets.) U n fo rtu n a te ly , m u c h o f th e g o ld h a d to b e d is c a r d e d o n th e re tu rn trip u p th e “ R iv e r M illy ” le s t it sin k S a g e a n ’ s th re e sm a ll c a n o e s . A n d th e n , b a c k in C a n a d a , at th e m o u th o f th e S a in t L a w r e n c e R iv e r , a n E n g lis h p ira te r o b b e d th e m o f th e re st a n d b u tc h e r e d six o f S a g e a n ’s c o m p a n io n s. A s fo r o th e r su r v iv o rs o f h is p a rty , S a g e a n th o u g h t tw o m ig h t still b e a liv e in a N e w Y o r k ja il, fro m w h ic h h e h a d e s c a p e d b e fo r e w a n d e r in g h a lf th e w o rld o n his w a y b a c k to F r a n c e . U p o n th e in stru ctio n s o f M in iste r o f M a rin e J e r o m e P h e ly p e a u x P o n tc h a rtra in , S a g e a n w a s s e q u e s te r e d in a B r e s t ja il a n d q u e s tio n e d c lo se ly . H e r e a lly h a d n o th in g to a d d to w h a t h e h a d a l r e a d y said , a n d h e c o u ld o n ly r e m e m b e r th e In d ia n n a m e s o f th o s e F r e n c h m e n w h o h a d b e e n w ith him . N e v e r th e le s s , th e sto ry

BY GEORGE\PETER ALEXANDER HEALY; CHICAGO HISTORICAL SOCIETY

G R A N D L IA R S IN A G R A N D L A N D

The great La Salle, once dead, becam e the “ friend” o f such worthy truth-benders as Mathieu Sagean and Louis Hennepin.

FA N TA SY LA N D

w a s n o t ta k e n lig h tly . A F r e n c h s e a c a p ta in h o m e fro m th e W e s t In d ie s h a d w h ile th e r e m e t a C a n a d ia n g e n tle m a n w h o h a d a lso to ld o f th is trib e liv in g a p p r o x im a te ly w h e re S a g e a n sa id , w ith a k in g d w e llin g in a p a la c e o f g o ld . T h is C a n a d ia n g e n tle m a n , too, sa id h e h a d b e e n w ith L a S a lle . T h e m in iste r o f m a rin e p u t o n e a n d o n e to g e th e r a n d go t tw o , w h e n it p r o b a b ly a d d e d u p to o n e . S a g e a n h a d b e e n in th e W e s t In d ie s a t a b o u t th e tim e o f th e se a c a p ta in ’s v isit th e re . T h e S a g e a n sto ry b e c a m e h u s h -h u s h a m o n g a sm all c irc le o f o fficia ls th a t in c lu d e d P o n tc h a rtra in a n d a fe w h ig h ly r e g a r d e d sc h o la rs, w h o fo u n d

so m e

in trig u in g p a r a lle ls b e tw e e n w h a t

S a g e a n re p o rte d a n d w h a t o ld a c c o u n ts o f S p a n is h e x p lo re rs h a d to sa y . M a y b e it w a s all tru e . M a y b e F r a n c e w a s a t la st to g e t so m e o f th e N e w W o rld g o ld th a t h a d b e e n d e n ie d h e r — th a t is, i f sh e c o u ld g e t th e re b e fo r e th e E n g lis h , w h o , ru m o r h a d it, w e r e a l r e a d y o u t th e r e tra d in g in A c a a n ib a la n d . P o n tc h a r tr a in o r d e r e d th a t th is o th e r C a n a d ia n sh o u ld b e w a tc h e d fo r a n d , if s e e n , h e ld a n d in te rro g a te d . In N e w F r a n c e , S a g e a n ’ s fa b le c a u s e d n o t a stir. T h e e x p lo re r P ie r r e L e S u e u r sa id h e k n e w th e m a n b y a n o th e r n a m e a n d th a t h e h a d n o t b e e n w ith L a S a lle . W h a t is m o re , th e m a n c o u ld n o t h a v e fo u n d th e riv e r h e c la im e d b e c a u s e h e , L e S u e u r , h a d e x p lo re d th a t se c tio n o f th e M iss is sip p i a n d h a d s e e n n o s u c h stre a m . W h e n S a g e a n a rriv e d in B ilo x i in 1 7 0 1 , s e n t th e r e b y P o n tc h a r tra in to le a d a n e x p e d itio n to th e la n d o f go ld , h e w a s g r e e te d w ith je e r s a n d in d iffe r e n c e , a n d w a s v e r y so o n s w a llo w e d u p in th e g re a t riv e r v a lle y , fo rg o tte n , n o t e v e n im m o rta liz e d w ith a p la c e -n a m e . S a g e a n h a d r e a c h e d to o far. H e h a d a lso b e e n p r e e m p te d b y a fa r a b le r liar w h o h a d b e e n e x p lo rin g in th e U p p e r M iss is sip p i b e fo r e h im , a n d w h o fo rso o k th e w e ll-w o rn w a y to E l D o r a d o fo r a fr e s h e r p a th to g lo ry. F a th e r L o u is H e n n e p in a lso c la im e d in tim a c y w ith L a S a lle . H e a c tu a lly w a s w ith th e g re a t e x p lo re r fo r a sh o rt tim e o n a jo u r n e y th ro u g h th e Illin o is c o u n try to w a rd th e M ississip p i, w h e r e th e tw o w o u ld p a rt a n d ta k e d iffe re n t d ire c tio n s o n th e river. T h e B e lg ia n b o rn R e c o lle c t friar h a d a k n a c k fo r e x a g g e r a tin g his o w n first h a n d e x p e r ie n c e s a n d s te a lin g th e u n p u b lic iz e d e x p e r ie n c e s o f

G R A N D L I A R S IN A G R A N D L A N D

MINNESOTA HISTORICAL SOCIETY

Father Hennepin’s lively potboilers kept E urope’s armchair travelers “informed” about North America’s Wild West.

o th e rs. T o ju d g e fro m th e re m a rk s o f c o n te m p o ra rie s (co n firm e d b y a r e a d in g o f th e fria r’ s p o m p o u s p ro se ), H e n n e p in w a s a fra u d , a p la g ia ris t, a b ra g g a r t, a n d a to a d y . T h e r e w a s n o e n d to h is p o s tu rin g s, w h ic h e a r n e d h im m o re e n e m ie s th a n a n o rd in a ry m a n c o u ld a ffo rd in th r e e life tim e s. Y e t it is a trib u te to h is sto ry te ll in g sk ills th a t h is th r e e b o o k s o n th e N o rth A m e r ic a n w ild e rn e s s w ere

m u s t-r e a d in g fo r E u r o p e ’ s a rm c h a ir tr a v e le r s fo r th re e

g e n e r a tio n s . L a S a lle w a s

ab o ard

th e

sa m e

v e s s e l th a t b ro u g h t L o u is

H e n n e p in to N e w F r a n c e in 1 6 7 5 , a n d th e tw o h a d a n im m e d ia te fa llin g -o u t. T h e g r a y - g o w n e d friar, e v e r a p ru d e , o b je c te d to th e r o w d in e s s o f so m e w o m e n co lo n ists a b o a rd . L a S a lle o b je c te d to H e n n e p in a n d to ld h im so. W h e n th e p a ir r e a c h e d C a n a d a , H e n n e p in w e n t a b o u t h is p r ie s tly d u tie s in th e Q u e b e c a r e a for fo u r y e a r s w h ile L a S a lle w a s p re p a r in g to e s ta b lis h h is w e s te rn fie f. W h e n L a S a lle w a s a t la st r e a d y to m o v e , H e n n e p in w a s s e le c t e d to a c c o m p a n y a n a d v a n c e p a r ty w e st. T h e c h o ic e m a y

FANTASYLAND

s e e m s tra n g e . B u t L a S a lle w a s fe u d in g w ith th e J e s u its , w h o m h e s a w a s a th re a t to h is d e s ig n s , a n d p r e fe r r e d so m e h a rm le s s R e c o l le c t fo r th e p r o form a fu lfillm e n t o f th e re lig io u s sid e o f th e e x p e d itio n . L a S a lle w a s h a r d ly im p r e s s e d w ith th e m a n . “ It is n e c e s s a r y to k n o w h im s o m e w h a t,” L a S a lle c a u tio n e d h is m e n , . . . a n d h e s p e a k s m o re in k e e p in g w ith w h a t h e w is h e s th a n w ith w h a t h e k n o w s .” In th e la te w in te r o f 1680, L a S a lle d is p a tc h e d H e n n e p in a n d tw o voya geu rs, M ic h a e l A c c a u a n d P ic a r d d u G a y , d o w n th e Illin o is R iv e r fro m F o r t C r e v e c o e u r to ta k e a lo o k a t th e U p p e r M iss is sip p i a n d le a r n w h e th e r sa ilin g v e s s e ls c o u ld b e u s e d o n it. In m id -M a rc h th e trio p a d d le d u p th e b ig riv e r a n d stra ig h t into a w a te r b o r n e fle e t o f S io u x o n th e w a rp a th . T h e y w e r e ta k e n p riso n e r b y th e s e Iss a tis ( H e n n e p in ’s n a m e fo r th e p a rtic u la r trib e) a n d r e m o v e d fa rth e r u p r iv e r to m o d e rn M in n e s o ta . T h e r e th e y w e r e sh ifte d fro m p la c e to p la c e as cu rio sitie s b y a p e o p le w h o h a d h a d v e r y little c o n ta c t w ith w h ite m e n . T h e liv e s o f th e c a p tiv e F r e n c h m e n w e r e p r o b a b ly a lm o st as h a rro w in g a s H e n n e p in d e s c r ib e d . T h e S io u x w e r e a fie rc e a n d r u g g e d p e o p le su rv iv in g in a h a rs h la n d , a n d th e th ir ty -s e v e n -y e a r -o ld g r a y -g o w n m a y h a v e s u ffe r e d a s m u c h a s h e c la im e d . T h e ir d e liv e r a n c e c a m e in J u ly o f th e s a m e y e a r w h e n S ie u r G r e y s o lo n D u lh u t a n d a c o n tin g e n t o f so ld ie rs a rriv e d a n d to o k th e m a w a y — n o t w ith o u t th e th a n k s, it h a s b e e n s u g g e s te d , o f th e S io u x , w h o s e p a tie n c e w ith th e c o m p la in in g p rie s t m u st h a v e w o rn thin . In 1682, H e n n e p in w a s b a c k in F r a n c e , c lo is te re d a n d b u s ily w ritin g. T h e n e x t y e a r A D escrip tion o f Louisiana, n e w ly dis

c o v e r e d to th e S outh -W est o f N ew F ra n ce, w ith a fa w n in g d e d i ca tio n to L o u is X I V , a p p e a r e d as a n in sta n t p o p u la r s u c c e s s , w ith e q u a lly p o p u la r tra n sla tio n s to fo llo w . N o m a tte r th a t th e w o rk w a s r o u n d ly c ritic iz e d , b y th e k n o w le d g e a b le in N e w F r a n c e a n d b y h is fe llo w c le r g y m e n , as a h a s h o f h a lf-tru th a n d in v e n tio n . T h e b o o k w a s p r e c is e ly w h a t his r e a d e r s w a n te d : a rip -ro a rin g a d v e n tu r e sto ry in a se ttin g th a t w a s m a d e to o rd e r fo r e s c a p e r e a d e r s e v e r y w h e r e . H e n n e p in w a s a t h is b e s t in d e s c r ib in g w h a t h e sa w a m o n g th e w ild S io u x . H e to ld o f th e ir g a m e s a n d h o w th e y g a m b le d , o f h o w t h e y w e n t n a k e d a n d ro lle d in th e sn o w , o f th e ir

BIENECKE RARE BOOK AND MANUSCRIPT LIBRARY. YALE UNIVERSITY

“ fo r h e w ill n o t fa il to e x a g g e r a te e v e r y th in g ; it is h is c h a r a c te r

An after-the-fact drawing o f Hennepin (the heroic bearer o f the light) being captured by the Sioux on the Upper Mississippi in 1680 .

d e p lo r a b le to ile t h a b its, th e ir s h a m e le s s b e lc h in g , a n d h o w th e y “ m a te d

g r o s s ly .” T h e s e

stra n g e p e o p le s e e m e d n o t to v a lu e

r ic h e s a n d w e r e b ru tish in e v e r y o th e r re s p e c t. H e n n e p in k n e w h is a u d ie n c e , a n d E u r o p e a n civ ility go t a h e a lth y lift at th e e x p e n s e o f th e s a v a g e s , w h o n e v e r th e le s s m a d e in te re s tin g s u b je c ts fo r stu d y . D is to rtio n s a n d all, A D escrip tion o f Louisiana w o u ld h a v e b e e n a v a lu a b le c o n trib u tio n to g e o g r a p h y a n d e th n o lo g y if H e n n e p in h a d ju s t s to p p e d th e r e . H e d id not. C ritic ism w ith in a n d w ith o u t h is o w n R e c o lle c t o rd e r h a d d a m a g e d h is a lr e a d y s h a k y r e p u ta tio n in F r a n c e , a n d h e w a s fin a n c ia lly h a rd p u t to s u rv iv e . F ro m U tr e c h t th e S p a n is h s u b je c t w h o s e r v e d F r a n c e n o w th re w his fo r tu n e s to E n g la n d — a n d a n y c la im h e h a d to r e s p e c ta b ility to th e w in d s. In 16 9 7 h e p u b lis h e d A N e w D isc o v ery o f a Vast

FANTASYLAND

C ou n try in A m erica , exten d in g a b o v e fo u r thousand m iles b e tw een N ew F ra n ce and N e w M ex ico , a n d th e fo llo w in g y e a r A N ew V o y a g e in a C o u n try L a rg er than E u ro p e. E a c h c o n ta in e d a g ro v e lin g d e d ic a tio n to W illia m I I I o f O r a n g e th a t w a s e x c e s s iv e e v e n fo r th o s e d a y s o f a b je c t fla tte ry . T h e g o o d fa th e r w a s e a g e r to le a d th e E n g lis h a c ro s s th e N o rth A m e r ic a n c o n tin e n t to fin d th e p a s s a g e to C h in a th a t t h e y h a d u n s u c c e s s fu lly s o u g h t in th e fr o z e n w a te rs o f th e N o rth . A s fo r th o s e w h o c ritic iz e d a C a th o lic p rie s t fo r h is w illin g n e ss to s e r v e a P r o te s ta n t m o n a rc h , h e p le a d e d a lo fty , e c u m e n ic a l C h r is tia n ity th a t m a d e little o f rifts w ith in th e tru e re lig io n . W illia m a n d th e E n g lis h s e e m to h a v e h u m o re d H e n n e p in , p o s s ib ly ju s t fo r th e n u is a n c e v a lu e it h a d w ith th e S u n K in g . H e n n e p in , h o w e v e r , w a s se rio u s. H e w a n te d to re tu rn to th e N e w W o rld , a n d i f h is o w n o rd e r w o u ld n o t se n d h im , th e n m a y b e th e k in g so r e n o w n e d fo r h is m a g n a n im ity , v a lo r, ju s tic e , e q u ity , sin c e rity , a n d p ie ty w o u ld . T h e r e c o u ld b e no d o u b t th a t th e w ild e rn e s s -w is e friar w a s th e rig h t m a n , “ h a v in g liv ’d E le v e n Y e a r s in N o rth e rn A m e r ic a .” In fa c t, H e n n e p in h a d o n ly s p e n t six y e a r s th e re — le ss th a n six m o n th s w e s t o f th e M iss is sip p i — b u t th a t w a s th e le a s t o f th e lie s h e to ld . A fe w y e a r s a fte r L a S a lle h a d m e t h is ig n o m in io u s d e a th in T e x a s , a F r e n c h m a n n a m e d C h r e tie n L e C le r c q h a d p u b lis h e d a w o rk e n title d E tablissem en t d e la F oi, w h ic h c o n ta in e d a n a c c o u n t b y F a th e r Z e n o b e M e m b r e , w h o h a d a c c o m p a n ie d L a S a lle o n h is fa m o u s e x p e d itio n d o w n th e M iss is sip p i to its m o u th . T h e b o o k w a s a lm o st im m e d ia te ly s u p p r e s s e d fo r p o litic a l re a s o n s , a n d fe w k n e w o f it. H e n n e p in w a s o n e w h o d id . A p p e a r in g in his s e c o n d b o o k , A N ew D isco v ery , w a s th e sta rtlin g r e v e la tio n th a t h e a n d A c c a u a n d d u G a y h a d in th a t c h illy M a r c h o f 1680 d is o b e y e d o rd e rs a n d h a d n o t g o n e u p th e M iss is sip p i u n til t h e y h a d first g o n e d o w n it — all th e w a y to its m o u th ! T h e ir jo u r n e y h a d u p s ta g e d L a S a lle b y tw o y e a r s . A s p ro o f, th e m iss io n a ry sa id h e h a d e r e c te d a cro ss a n d le ft a le tte r in fo rm in g th e w a y fa r e r o f w h at th e y h ad done. H e n n e p in , o f c o u rse , h a d sto le n M e m b r e ’ s a c c o u n t o f L a S a lle ’s trip a n d r e w o r d e d it to d e s c r ib e his o w n a p o c r y p h a l v o y a g e . T h e r e w a s no w a y h e c o u ld h a v e c o v e r e d th e 3,260 riv e r m ile s a n d still b e e n ta k e n p riso n e r b y th e S io u x w ith in a m o n th . S k e p tic s a lso

THE BETTMANN ARCHIVE

Looking slightly m ore pious than in his portrait on page 77, Father Hennepin “poses” for Europe’s readers at the Falls o f Saint Anthony.

w a n te d to k n o w w h y h e h a d w a ite d u n til L a S a lle w a s d e a d te n y e a r s b e fo r e m a k in g p u b lic this r e m a r k a b le a c h ie v e m e n t. W h y in d e e d ? B e c a u s e h e fe a r e d L a S a lle a n d his m e n w o u ld e x a c t v e n g e a n c e o n th e h u m b le fa th e r, w h o d e s e r v e d th e re a l h o n o r for h a v in g b e e n first to ru n th e F a th e r o f W a te rs. H e k n e w , to o , o f L a S a lle ’s s e c r e t p la n to w re s t a w a y b y fo rc e th e S p a n is h m in e s d o w n M e x ic o w a y . It w a s a s b ig a n d as b a ld a lie a s H e n n e p in c o u ld h a v e told. W h ile th o s e w h o k n e w b e tte r r e v ile d it fo r w h a t it w a s, A N ew

D isc o v ery , a n d th e n A N e w V o y a g e, b e c a m e b ig s e lle rs a n d in c r e a s e d h is p u b lic r e p u ta tio n a s th e r e ig n in g a u th o rity o n N o rth A m e r ic a ’s w ild W e st. T h e la te r b o o k s w e r e r e a lly o n ly m a g n ific a tio n s o f th e first, e v e n m o re b o a s tfu l a n d se lf-p ro m o tin g . W ith L a S a lle d e a d , H e n n e p in e le v a t e d h im s e lf to th e sta tu s o f p a rtn e r to th e g r e a t e x p lo re r. H e b e c a m e L a S a lle ’s c o n fid a n t. H e e n c o u r a g e d th e m o o d y m a n in his m o m e n ts o f se lf-d o u b t. T o g e t h e r

COLORADO ROOM OF THE COLORADO COLLEGE LIBRARY

FA N TA SY LA N D

Hennepin’s map o f North America had a case o f the splits: Hudson Bay came east, the Mississippi went west—toward nearby Japan. th e y p la n n e d th e ir g ra n d s tra te g y fo r th e M iss is sip p i V a lle y . T h e s e lf-p ro fe s s e d d is c o v e r e r o f “ tw o h u n d r e d n a tio n s ” also in c lu d e d le a r n e d o p in io n s on a w id e r a n g e o f s u b je c ts th a t e n g a g e d E u r o p e ’ s s p e c u la tiv e th in k e rs. H e n n e p in d id n o t fa v o r A s ia as th e o rig in a l h o m e la n d o f th e A m e r ic a n In d ia n s b u t th o u g h t th e y m ig h t b e d e s c e n d e d fro m a lo st trib e o f J e w s b e c a u s e th e y d w e lt in te n ts, a n o in te d th e m s e lv e s w ith oils, a n d w e r e g iv e n to g re a t la m e n ta tio n s o v e r th e d e a d . A s fo r th e S tra it o f A n ia n , h e d o u b te d its e x is te n c e as su c h , b e c a u s e w h ile h e w a s a m o n g th e S io u x , “ an E m b a s s y o f S a v a g e s fro m a v e r y re m o te N a tio n to th e W e s tw a r d ” tr a v e le d th r e e m o n th s o v e r la n d w ith o u t h a v in g s e e n a n y lik e ly se a s. T h e th o u g h tfu l friar w a s c o n fid e n t, h o w e v e r , th a t a g re a t riv e r d id exist th a t ra n to th e P a c ific , a n d th e r e fo r e to J a p a n , w h ic h , b o th h e a n d th e w ise G e r m a n g e o g r a p h e r J o a n n e s

G R A N D L I A R S IN A G R A N D L A N D

G . G r a e f w e r e in a c c o rd , w a s c o n tig u o u s w ith N o rth A m e r ic a a n d n o t a n isla n d a s th o u g h t. In s e r te d in th e la st tw o b o o k s w e r e also m o re h o rro rs a n d m a y h e m for th e canaille: s a v a g e b e a s ts , c r o c o d ile s, a b u m p e r cro p o f p o iso n o u s se rp e n ts , d e ta ils o f In d ia n to r tu re s a n d ritu a l c a n n ib a lis m . A s a k in d o f a fte rth o u g h t th a t m u st h a v e s e e m e d o d d to so m e , h e e x p r e s s e d th e v ie w th a t th e A m e r i c a n In d ia n w a s so ru d e a n d b a r b a ric th a t h e m ig h t v e r y w e ll re sist fo r e v e r all C h ris tia n iz in g a n d c iv iliz in g effo rts — a stra n g e a d m is sio n fo r o n e w h o p r o fe s s e d a lo n g in g to re tu rn to N o rth A m e r ic a a n d a c c o m p lis h th a t v e r y th in g . H e n n e p in is la st k n o w n as h a v in g g o n e to R o m e in 17 0 1 to g ain su p p o rt fo r a fin a l flin g o f p r o s e ly tiz in g in N o rth A m e ric a . T h e r e is n o e v id e n c e h e w a s s u c c e s s fu l. In sp ite o f h is m a n y lo y a l r e a d e r s , w h o m h e e n te r ta in e d s u p e r b ly w ith h is liv e ly p ro se a n d th e lib e rtie s h e to o k w ith th e truth , this fa stid io u s m a n , a p riso n e r o f his o w n v a n ity , c o u ld n o t im p re ss e ith e r th o s e w h o k n e w h im or th o s e w h o c o u ld d o h im so m e g o o d .

~uis H e n n e p in fooled th e m a n y b u t n o t th e fe w . L o u isA r m a n d , th e th ird B a r o n d e L a h o n ta n e t H e s le c h e , fo o le d th e m all. L o u is ’s fa th e r w a s a d is tin g u is h e d c iv il e n g in e e r w h o d ie d w h e n th e b o y w a s e ig h t, le a v in g h im a title a n d a n e s ta te h o p e le s s ly e n ta n g le d in la w s u its a n d c h ic a n e r y . L o u is -A rm a n d , a lr e a d y b rig h t, w a s so o n b ro k e a n d b itter, so h e d id w h a t m a n y a n o th e r n o b le m a n sh o rt o f m e a n s did: h e jo in e d th e a rm y as an o ffice r a n d w e n t o ff in 1683 to N e w F r a n c e . T h is L a h o n ta n w a s a c o m p le x m a n — a c y n ic , a n a c id w it, a f r e e th in k e r w h o h a d n o u s e fo r th e C h u r c h a n d w h o d e p lo r e d b o th th e re lig io u s w a rs th a t h a d lo n g e m b r o ile d E u r o p e a n d th e frip p e rie s o f M o n tr e a l a n d P a ris life. H e p r e fe r re d th e w ild e rn e s s , h u n tin g p a rtie s , a n d In d ia n s a n d ro u g h cou reu rs d e bois fo r c o m p a n io n s. H is m ilita ry c a r e e r in C a n a d a w a s sp o tty. A t tim es h e p e rfo rm e d w e ll e n o u g h a g a in s t th e E n g lis h or th e Iro q u o is; at o th e rs his c o n d u c t s e e m s to h a v e b o r d e r e d on c o w a r d ic e . In itia lly h e w a s a fa v o r ite o f L o u is d e B a u d e , C o m te d e F r o n te n a c , b u t a fte r a m a tc h h a d b e e n a r r a n g e d fo r h im w ith a b e a u tifu l y o u n g girl o f N e w F r a n c e a n d h e b e la te d ly b a c k e d ou t, e v e n th e p o w e r fu l

J J V a p d r a im u p o n S tn y s k in s b y y GixAciitJkres u d to m ito Itn o w y Z n OtUudo j o f a lly p L ito j m a rk, A tn .tr . b y p o m tx n y to y rt/ p tctiy* p l o w o f j f h a a y cn j th a t on* o r t ’o tk o r co r re fp o n d e d to. fa r b y th u m ea n t I co u ld a d ju s t y 'L o t to h a lf a T >eyree o r Ixttle, m ore, h a y m y fr / l r e c e y d fro m 'em a c o m p u ta tio n c f V d lfla ru a j in 'J 'a x o u t ea ch o f u ftch I com p u te to b e jL o n p jfre n cn I rca y u a t .

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g o v e rn o r o f th e F r e n c h c o lo n y s e e m s to h a v e c o o le d to w a rd h im . In 1688, L a h o n ta n w ro te to a frie n d th a t h e in te n d e d to go w e st. In O c to b e r o f th a t s a m e y e a r h e r e a c h e d th e M iss is sip p i (or so h e cla im e d ), w e n t u p r iv e r to th e in te rs e c tin g R iv iere L o n g u e w ith so m e o f h is o w n m e n a n d s e v e r a l F o x In d ia n g u id e s , a n d se t ou t b y c a n o e (w h ic h h e c e rta in ly d id n o t do). T h e a c c o u n t o f w h a t L a h o n ta n sa w b e tw e e n N o v e m b e r 2, 1688, a n d M a r c h 2, 1689, on h is L o n g R iv e r , w h ic h ra n n e a r ly d u e w e s t a t fo r ty - s e v e n d e g re e s o f la titu d e , w a s to p le a s e so p h is tic a te d r e a d e r s in E u r o p e a n d d e lig h t g e o g r a p h e r s w ith e m p ty s p a c e o n th e ir h a n d s. L a h o n ta n m a d e q u ic k tim e u p th e L o n g , “ n o tw ith sta n d in g th e g re a t c a lm th a t a lw a y s p re v a ils u p o n th is . . . le a s t ra p id R iv e r in th e W o rld .” H e m e t th e E o k o ro s trib e a n d th e ir “ G r e a t G o v e r-

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n o u r ,” a n o b lig in g o ld g e n tle m a n . W h e n L a h o n ta n d is trib u te d gifts, th e g o v e r n o r r e c ip r o c a te d w ith six E s s a n a p e s s la v e s to a ssist h im in h is jo u r n e y w e s t to th e c o u n try o f E s s e n a p e s , w ith w h o m t h e y w e r e in c o n tin u a l w a r. T h e E o k o ro s w e re “ v e r y civil, a n d so fa r fro m a w ild S a v a g e te m p e r, th e y h a v e an A ir o f H u m a n ity a n d S w e e t n e s s .” T h e ir w o m e n , th o u g h , w e r e n o t as h a n d s o m e as th o s e in C a n a d a , o b s e r v e d L a h o n ta n , a F r e n c h m a n to th e co re . F a r th e r w e s t h e w e n t on th e L o n g R iv e r th ro u g h d a n g e r o u s d riftw o o d to th e E s s a n a p e s , w h o p ro stra te d th e m s e lv e s b e fo re th e s tra n g e rs w ith th e ir h a n d s on th e ir fo r e h e a d s , so h a p p y w e r e t h e y to s e e th e m . T h e ir c h ie f, or “ g e n e r a lis s im o ,” in fo rm e d th e b a r o n th a t h e w o u ld g iv e h im a c o u p le o f h u n d r e d m e n as e s c o rt o n h is v is it to th e G n a c s ita r e s , th e n e x t trib e u p s tre a m , w h o w e re

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th e ir a llie s a g a in s t th e M o z e e m le k s , “ a tu r b u le n t a n d w a rlik e N a tio n ” b e y o n d . L a h o n ta n im m e d ia te ly o r d e r e d h is m e n to im p r o v e o n so m e b o r r o w e d p iro g u e s , a n d th e so n g o f a x e s so o n ra n g o u t in th e v irg in la n d . E v e r y stro k e c a u s e d th e In d ia n s to c ry ou t, “ as if t h e y h a d s e e n so m e P ro d ig y ; n a y th e firin g o f p isto ls c o u ld n o t d iv e rt ’e m fro m th a t A m a z e m e n t, th o u g h t h e y w e re e q u a lly stra n g e rs to b o th th e P isto l a n d th e A x e .” L a h o n ta n c o n c lu d e d th a t th e s e p e o p le m u s t b e P y th a g o r e a n s w h e n h e sa w som e, w o m e n ru sh in g “ to r e c e iv e th e s o u l” o f a d y in g o ld m a n . B u t w h e n h e a s k e d th e m w h y t h e y a te a n im a ls into w h ic h d e p a r te d so u ls m ig h t h a v e m ig ra te d , a fin e p o in t o f m e ta p h y s ic s w a s e x p la in e d :

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m ig ra tio n o f S o u ls is a lw a y s c o n fin ’d to th e r e s p e c tiv e S p e c ie s , so th a t th e S o u l o f M a n c a n n o t e n te r a F o w l, as th a t o f a F o w l c a n n o t b e lo d g ’d in a q u a d r a p e d , a n d so o n .” N o fo o ls, th e s e E ssen ap es. T h e b a ro n p r e s s e d o n fa rth e r u p th e stre a m , s u rv iv in g th e co ld o f D e c e m b e r a n d h u n g e r in w h a t w a s b e c o m in g a b a r r e n a n d u n fru itfu l la n d . A t la st h e r e a c h e d a n isla n d a n d th e G n a c s ita r e s . T h e n a tiv e s w e r e a la rm e d , m ista k in g th e visito rs fo r S p a n ia rd s . L a h o n ta n p r o te s te d th a t h e a n d h is m e n w e r e e n e m ie s o f th e S p a n is h , b u t e m is sa rie s w e r e se n t so u th to b rin g b a c k so m e In d ia n s w h o w o u ld b e a b le to ju d g e . T h e v e r d ic t w a s th a t L a h o n ta n ’s p a r ty w e r e n o t th e h a te d S p a n is h , w h o w e r e 80 tazons (240 le a g u e s ) so u th in N e w M e x ic o . H is fe a rs a lla y e d , th e c h ie f o f th e G n a c s ita r e s w a s h o s p ita b le . “ H e r e q u e s te d m e to a c c e p t a g re a t H o u s e th a t w a s p r e p a r ’d fo r m e: a n d h is first p ie c e o f C iv ility c o n s is te d in c a llin g in a g r e a t m a n y G irls, a n d p re s s in g m e a n d m y R e tin u e to s e r v e o u r s e lv e s . H a d th is T e m p ta tio n b e e n th ro w n in ou r w a y at a m o re s e a s o n a b le tim e, it h a d p r o v ’d irre sistib le : b u t ’tw a s n o t a n a g r e e a b le M e s s fo r P a s s e n g e r s th a t w e re in fe e b le d b y L a b o u r a n d W a n t.’ L a h o n ta n w rite s th a t h e d id n o t a c tu a lly go fa rth e r u p th e L o n g R iv e r , b u t b y in te r v ie w in g fo u r c a p tiv e M o z e e m le k s h e w a s a b le to le a rn m o re o f th e la n d b e y o n d . T h e M o z e e m le k n a tio n w a s so m e 150 le a g u e s w e s t, o n th e o th e r sid e o f a m o u n ta in r a n g e (“ so h ig h th a t o n e m u st c a s t a n in fin ity o f W in d in g s a n d T u r n in g s b e fo re h e c a n cro ss ’e m ” ) a n d o n a w e s tw a rd -w in d in g riv e r th a t

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d r a in e d in to a “ S a lt L a k e o f th re e h u n d re d L e a g u e s in C ir c u m f e r e n c e .” Y e t a n o th e r trib e, th e n u m e ro u s T a h u g la u k s , liv e d a ro u n d th is la k e . T h e T a h u g la u k s w e r e a p o w e rfu l p e o p le w h o liv e d in six c itie s a n d m o re th a n a h u n d re d to w n s u n d e r a d e s p o tic g o v e rn m e n t. T h e y w e r e e x c e lle n t a rtisa n s a n d w o rk e d in le a th e r a n d a r e d d is h m e ta l re s e m b lin g c o p p e r th a t b e c a m e h e a v ie r u p o n m e ltin g . A ll th is w a s e lic ite d fro m th e M o z e e m le k s la v e s , fo r w h o m L a h o n ta n h a d ta k e n a s p e c ia l likin g. H e fo u n d th e m q u ite d if fe r e n t fro m

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R e a s o n ” a n d so c o u rte o u s th a t h e h a d th o u g h t a t first th e y m ig h t b e E u r o p e a n s . O h y e s , th e y a lso h a d th ic k b u s h y b e a rd s . W h e n L a h o n ta n d e c id e d it p r u d e n t to th r e a d b a c k d o w n th e L o n g R iv e r , h e tried to e n tic e th e M o z e e m le k s to retu rn w ith h im to C a n a d a , b u t th e y w o u ld h a v e n o n e o f it: “ T h e lo v e th e y h a d fo r th e ir C o u n tr y stifle d all P e rs w a s io n ; so tru e it is, th a t N a tu re r e d u c ’d to its ju s t L im its c a re s b u t little for R ic h e s .” B e fo r e se ttin g o u t on J a n u a r y 26, 1689, th e b a ro n p la n te d a p o le a n d a ffix e d a le a d p la te b e a r in g th e a rm s o f F r a n c e , th u s e x te n d in g F r e n c h in flu e n c e in to a w o n d ro u s la n d e a s ily r e a c h e d b y a riv e r th a t w o u ld ta k e b a r q u e s o f u p to fifty to n s. O n e w o n d e rs in w h a t frig id h u t L a h o n ta n w h ile d a w a y a lo n g w in te r c o n triv in g it all, or w h e th e r it h a d n o t p e r h a p s b e e n c o n c o c te d m a n y y e a r s la te r in so m e E u r o p e a n c a p ita l w h e n h e w a s fa c in g sta rv a tio n . T h o u g h th e a c c o u n t o f his trip u p th e L o n g R iv e r w a s c o n ta in e d in o n e le tte r o f th e m o re th a n tw e n ty fin a lly p u b lis h e d in H o lla n d in 170 3 d e s c r ib in g h is a d v e n tu r e s in N o rth A m e r ic a , it w a s u n d e r s ta n d a b ly th e

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la r ly w ith th e d e ta ile d , illu s tra te d m a p e x e c u te d in th e b a r o n ’ s o w n h a n d . N e w V o y a g es to N orth A m erica a p p e a r e d in F r e n c h a n d E n g lis h e d itio n s in 170 3 , w ith n u m e ro u s F r e n c h e d itio n s to fo llo w . In 170 9 it w a s tr a n s la te d into G e r m a n a n d th e y e a r a fte r w a rd s in to D u tc h . T h e b o o k so ld q u ite w e ll, tre a d in g a m id d le g ro u n d b e t w e e n H e n n e p in ’s p e r fo r m a n c e fo r th e g a lle r y a n d th e p io u s

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w ritte n , iro n ic, a rc h , it h a d s p e c ia l a p p e a l to c o u rt-w e a ry e ffe te s a n d a n tic le r ic a l lib e ra ls; it e x to lle d th e In d ia n -a s -in n o c e n t liv in g a n a tu ra l life in a b o u n tifu l w ild e rn e s s , fr e e o f c iv iliz a tio n w ith its c o rru p t o ffic ia ld o m , p le a s u r e - d a s h in g p riests, a n d g ra sp in g

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m e rc h a n ts . R o u s s e a u a n d V o lta ir e w o u ld c o m e to so m e o f th e sa m e c o n c lu s io n s m a n y y e a r s la te r w ith o u t m a k in g a n y o n -th esp o t c o m p a riso n s. B y th e tim e V oya g es a p p e a r e d , L a h o n t a n ’s fo rtu n e s h a d lo n g sin c e s u ffe r e d to o d ra stic a p lu n g e . In 1692 h e h a d a fa llin g -o u t w ith th e g o v e rn o r o f N e w fo u n d la n d , to w h o m h e h a d b e e n p ro m o te d to se c o n d -in -c o m m a n d a n d w h o m h e lo a th e d w ith a p a s sion. H is w itty lib e ls o f th e g o v e rn o r b r o u g h t a v io le n t re a c tio n , a n d th e b a ro n d e c id e d to m a k e a ru n fo r it, a b a n d o n in g h is p o st in a n u n s o ld ie r ly fa sh io n . H e s e c r e tly s h ip p e d o u t o f C a n a d a to P o r tu g a l, tr a v e lin g la te r to H o lla n d , H a m b u r g , a n d D e n m a r k , a n d w ritin g a fo r g e r y a b o u t th e su rv iv o rs o f L a S a lle ’s T e x a s e x p e d itio n to c u rry F r e n c h fa v o r. W h e n h e d id re tu rn to F r a n c e , h e w a s e x ile d to his n a tiv e p r o v in c e , h is b a r o n y a lr e a d y c o n fis c a te d . S o o n h e w a s fle e in g a rre s t a g a in , to S p a in . F in a lly , h e s e ttle d a t th e c o u rt o f th e E le c to r o f H a n o v e r , w h e re h e b e c a m e a frie n d o f th e p h ilo s o p h e r L e ib n itz a n d is b e lie v e d to h a v e d ie d about 1715. L a h o n t a n ’s fa m e liv e d a w h ile a fte r h im . H is im a g in a r y L o n g R iv e r a n d th e S a lt L a k e b e c a m e fa m ilia r to th o s e in te r e s te d e n o u g h to c o n su lt a n a tla s. D o u b t w a s c a s t o n th e b a r o n ’s re li a b ility b y

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F r a n c e to in q u ire o ffic ia lly a b o u t ro u te s to th e w e s te r n s e a , in h is 1 7 2 1 J ou rn a l H istorique, b u t m a n y c o n tin u e d to b e lie v e in M o z e e m le k s a n d G n a c s ita r e s . O n ly la te r in th e e ig h te e n th c e n tu ry d id L a h o n ta n ’s re p u ta tio n sin k to th e le v e l o f h is lu c k , a n d th e n h e s lip p e d into s u c h d is re p u te th a t all th e fin e re p o rtin g h e d id on life in N e w F r a n c e w a s n e g le c te d b e c a u s e o f th e o n e in fa m o u s le tte r, N u m b e r X V I .

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tan . B o rn a D u tc h m a n b u t a v e te r a n o f th e F r e n c h a rm y , d u P r a tz w e n t to L o u is ia n a in 1 7 1 8 as a F r e n c h co lo n ist, s p e n d in g six te e n y e a r s th e re as a p la n te r. H e w a s a c o n tin e n t, p ra c tic a l sort, g iv e n to th e c lo se stu d y o f L o u is ia n a ’s p la n ts a n d a n im a ls a n d n a tiv e p e o p le s . T h o u g h h e to o k p a rt in so m e p u n itiv e c a m p a ig n s a g a in s t th e m , h e h a d a h u m a n ita r ia n ’ s c o n c e rn o v e r th e

Typical winter attire for an Indian, according to du Pratz. Europeans found the damp chill along the Mississippi called for something more substantial.

tr e a tm e n t o f th e In d ia n s , w h o m h e sa w b e in g c o rru p te d b y lo o se F r e n c h m o ra ls a n d sh a rp p r a c tic e . D u P r a tz d id n o t go in to ra p tu re as d id h is fe llo w co lo n ists w h e n it c a m e to th e m e ta llic w e a lth w id e ly s u p p o s e d to b e w e s t o f th e m a w a itin g d is c o v e r y . A g o o d silv e r m in e d id e x ist o n th e R e d R iv e r , h e a s s e r te d , a n d h e h a d h e a r d th a t m a n y o th e r, ric h e r m in e s w e r e lo c a te d n o rth w e s t o f th e M iss is sip p i-M iss o u ri riv e r ju n c tio n . B u t g o ld fo r h im h a d n o a llu re : â&#x20AC;&#x153; T o w h a t p u r p o s e s e r v e s th is b e a u tifu l m e ta l, b u t to m a k e p e o p le v a in a n d id le a m o n g w h o m it is so c o m m o n , a n d to m a k e th e m n e g le c t th e c u ltu r e o f th e e a rth , w h ic h c o n stitu te s tru e ric h e s . . . ? â&#x20AC;? S u c h s e n tim e n ts w e r e ty p ic a l o f th is ra tio n a l, s te a d y , h o n e s t m a n , w h o e v e n t u a lly r e tu r n e d to P a r is a n d p u b lis h e d H istoire

FA N TA SY LA N D

d e la L ouisiane in 17 5 8 , a p e r s o n a l m e m o ir o f h is y e a r s in th e L o u is ia n a territo ry. D u P r a tz m e a n t to te ll it lik e it w a s a n d r e g r e tte d “ th a t th e first tr a v e le r s h a d th e im p u d e n c e to p u b lis h to th e w o rld a th o u s a n d fa ls e sto ries, w h ic h w e r e e a s ily b e lie v e d b e c a u s e t h e y w e re n e w .” H e p r o b a b ly h a d L a h o n ta n , a m o n g o th e rs, in m in d . U n w ittin g ly , d u P r a tz w o u ld a d d to th e w o r ld ’ s lo re a fa ls e sto ry o f h is o w n . H e h a d c o lle c te d it w h ile a m o n g th e Y a z o o In d ia n s in th e N a tc h e z a r e a fro m a w ise o ld m a n w h o m th e F r e n c h h a d re lie d u p o n a s a n in te rp re te r. T h e I n d ia n ’ s n a m e w a s M o n c a c h t- A p e , w h ic h tr a n s la te d as “ th e k ille r o f p a in a n d fa t ig u e ” (to w h ic h m ig h t a lso b e a d d e d , truth). T h e u s u a lly w a r y d u P r a tz w a s d a z z le d b y th is In d ia n so “ r e m a r k a b le fo r his so lid u n d e r s ta n d in g a n d e le v a tio n o f s e n tim e n ts .” H is a c c o m p lis h m e n t w a s th e m o re re m a r k a b le . M o n c a c h t- A p e , w e ll a d v a n c e d in a g e , h a d ta k e n s e v e r a l y e a r s o ff to do th e c o n tin e n t, o c e a n to o c e a n , on fo o t w ith no o th e r p u r p o s e th a n to sa tisfy h is o w n c u rio sity . W h a t h e h a d o b s e r v e d , h e fr e e ly a n d m o d e s tly p a s s e d on to d u P ra tz , w h o lik e n e d th e o ld m a n to th e g re a t G r e e k s o f th e G o ld e n A g e w h o tr a v e le d d e e p into th e E a s t p u r e ly fo r th e s a k e o f k n o w le d g e . M o n c a c h t- A p e first w a lk e d to th e G r e a t W a te r in th e d ir e c tio n o f “ th e su n -risin g ,” visitin g N ia g a r a F a lls e n ro u te , m a k in g frie n d s o f o th e r n a tio n s h e p a s s e d a m o n g . It o n ly t e a s e d his c u rio sity a b o u t th e o th e r w a y : th e d ire c tio n o f th e su n -se ttin g , fro m w h e n c e th e a n c ie n ts h a d sa id th e re d m a n h a d first c o m e . S o h e fo llo w e d th e n o rth e rn b a n k o f th e M isso u ri R iv e r b e y o n d th e K a n s a trib e , w h e re h e m e t a h u n tin g p a r ty o f O tters, a n a tio n th a t m o re or le ss a d o p te d h im a n d to o k h im h o m e . H o m e w a s r e a c h e d b y tr a v e lin g a d is ta n c e u p th e M iss o u ri a fte r it a s s u m e d a n o rth e rn c o u rs e to th e F in e R iv e r , w h ic h flo w e d w e st; a d a y ’ s jo u r n e y on th e F in e b r o u g h t th e o ld m a n to th e O tte r v illa g e , w h e re h e w in te re d . T h e fo llo w in g sp rin g , M o n c a c h t- A p e g re w re stle ss to s e e th e G r e a t W a te r a n d a c c o r d in g ly tr a v e le d d o w n th e F in e th ro u g h m a n y n a tio n s to th e co a st. T h e In d ia n s h e fo u n d th e re liv e d in g re a t fe a r o f w h ite m e n w h o c a m e fro m th e w e s t in flo a tin g v illa g e s to m a k e s la v e s o f th e ir ch ild re n . T h e y a lso c a m e s e a r c h in g fo r “ a y e llo w stin k in g w o o d , w h ic h d y e s a fin e y e llo w c o lo u r,” w h ic h t h e y h a r v e s te d a n d to o k w ith th e m .

G R A N D L I A R S IN A G R A N D L A N D

M o n c a c h t- A p e la te r h a d th e o p p o rtu n ity to s e e th e m fo r h im s e lf w h e n h e jo in e d in a n a m b u s h o f a la n d in g p a rty , in w h ic h e le v e n o f th e h a te d ra id e rs w e r e slain . “ U p o n e x a m in in g th o s e w h o m w e h a d k ille d , w e fo u n d th e m m u c h sm a lle r th a n o u r s e lv e s a n d v e r y w h ite ; th e y h a d a la rg e h e a d , a n d in th e m id d le o f th e c ro w n th e h a ir w a s v e r y lo n g , th e ir h e a d w a s w ra p t in a g r e a t m a n y fo ld s o f stu ff; a n d th e ir c lo a th s s e e m e d to b e m a d e n e ith e r o f w o o l n o r silk; t h e y w e r e v e r y soft, a n d o f d iffe re n t c o lo u r s .” T h e a g e d p ilg rim r e s u m e d his jo u r n e y , tr a v e lin g n o rth w e s t w a rd a lo n g th e c o a s t o f th e G r e a t W a te r u n til th e d a y s g re w sh o rt a n d th e n ig h ts lo n g a n d co ld . H e w a s a d v is e d b y his c o m p a n io n s to go b a c k , fo r g a m e g re w s c a r c e r a n d th e la n d o n ly c o n tin u e d fa r th e r to th e n o rth w e s t b e fo r e tu rn in g d u e w e s t w h e r e it w a s c u t n o rth to so u th b y th e G r e a t W a te r; in d e e d , th e re w a s a v e r y o ld m a n still a liv e w h o h a d b e e n th e r e b e fo r e th e la n d w a s e a te n u p b y th e w a te r. W h e r e u p o n th e w a n d e r e r d id th e s e n s ib le th in g a n d r e tu r n e d to th e N a t c h e z c o u n try . E x c e p tin g th e s tr a n g e ly -g a r b e d p a le d w a rfs, M o n c a c h t- A p e ’s accou n t

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fo r g iv e n fo r le ttin g h is g u a rd d ro p . A c h e c k o f th e a c tu a l d is ta n c e s in v o lv e d , h o w e v e r , a n d th e tim e M o n c a c h t- A p e re p o rts it to o k h im to tr a v e l fro m p o in t to p o in t sim p ly d o n o t m e sh . W e c a n p ic tu r e a w is e o ld m a n , p r o b a b ly a r e v e r e d sto ry te lle r a m o n g h is p e o p le , m e n ta lly c o lle c tin g o th e r s ’ ta le s o f w h e re th e y h a d b e e n a n d w h a t t h e y h a d s e e n , a n d b le n d in g th e m in w ith his o w n c ir c u m s c r ib e d k n o w le d g e o f th e w o rld . H e th e n p a s s e d th e m a lo n g to h is ra p t in te rlo c u to r a ro u n d , sa y , a d y in g lo d g e -fire w h ile th e c a lu m e t m a d e th e ro u n d s. H e m ig h t h a v e b e e n a m u s e d , a n d e v e n fla tte re d , to k n o w h is sto ry a c h ie v e d a sm a ll b u t p e r m a n e n t p la c e in th e lite ra tu re o f tw o co n tin e n ts . T h e n a tio n o f th e O tte rs a n d th e F in e R iv e r e v e n m a d e it o n to so m e o f E u r o p e ’s m a p s .

Chapter 4

English Envy and Bardic Blather M

ore

less c an be m a d e

o f th e k in d o f p h a n to m tru th lu rk in g

in th e m a n y le g e n d s a n d fa b le s a b o u t th e W e st. M a n y , n o t all, w e r e la te r fo u n d to h a v e h a d a t le a s t a k e r n e l o f s u b s ta n c e . T h e B e r in g S tra it a n d th e A rc tic O c e a n d id c o n stitu te a s e a s o n a l N o rth w e s t

P assage,

a lb e it u s e le s s

for

c o m m e rc ia l p u rp o s e s .

T h e r e w a s th e G r e a t S a lt L a k e o f p r e s e n t d a y U ta h , w h ic h p a rtly fitted S p a n is h a n d F r e n c h n o tio n s o f a n in la n d la k e o f salt. T h e r e w a s a lso a G r e a t R iv e r o f th e W e s t in th e C o lu m b ia S n a k e sy ste m , w h ic h , if it d id n ’t c o n n e c t w ith th a t la k e o f salt, a t le a s t r e a c h e d th e “ sh in in g m o u n ta in s ” th a t L a h o n ta n a n d o th e r F r e n c h m e n h a d b e e n to ld a b o u t or h a d s e e n fro m afar; th e R o c k ie s ju s t h a p p e n e d to b e a lo t h ig h e r a n d a lo t w id e r th a n a n y o n e c o u ld h a v e g u e s s e d . T h e g o ld a n d silv er th a t S p a in w a s s e e k in g (a n d th a t F r a n c e a n d E n g la n d b e lie v e d h a d b e e n fo u n d ) h a d b e e n th e r e in a b u n d a n c e a ll a lo n g , a w a itin g a d is c o v e r e r w ith th e te c h n o lo g y to e x tra c t it. T h e so u th e rn P a iu te s o f U ta h a n d N e v a d a e v e n h a d ru d im e n ta ry b e a rd s . The

In d ia n

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c r u c ia l a g e n t in th e d is se m in a tio n o f

k n o w le d g e a b o u t th e W e st. H e , a fte r all, liv e d th e r e — fo r h o w lo n g th e E u r o p e a n c o u ld o n ly w o n d e r, b u t it h a d b e e n a lo n g tim e. W h e n h e w a s u n h a p p y w ith th e w h ite in v a d e r a n d h a d h a d his fill o f sh a rin g his c o rn fie ld s a n d stre a m s w ith th o s e w h o d is h o n o re d his re lig io n a n d a ll b u t e n s la v e d h is c h ild re n , h e n a tu ra lly sp o k e o f th e sp o ils to b e h a d e ls e w h e r e — a n y w h e r e — ju s t to g e t th e w h ite m a n o ff his b a c k . B u t th e r e w e r e o th e r tim es w h e n h e w a n te d to p le a s e , w h e n re la tio n s w e r e c o rd ia l a n d th e tra d e ite m s th e w h ite m a n b r o u g h t w e r e a p p r e c ia te d . Q u e stio n s

E N G L I S H E N V Y A N D B A R D IC B L A T H E R

o f w h a t la y b e y o n d m ig h t b e a n s w e re d h o n e s tly w ith all h e k n e w , b u t w h a t h e k n e w w a s c h ie fly w h a t h a d b e e n p a s s e d fro m m o u th to m o u th , th ro u g h tra n sla tio n a fte r tra n sla tio n , o v e r g re a t d is ta n c e s . D isto rtio n s w e r e in e v ita b le . T h e E u r o p e a n fro n tie r m u st h a v e h a d its g a in s a y e rs , th o s e w h o w in k e d at e a c h o th e r w h e n e v e r ru m o r o f a n o th e r m o u n ta in o f g o ld sta rte d m a k in g th e ro u n d s. Plus ca ch a n ge, la plus d e la

m e m e ch ose. T h e r e w e r e a lso s k e p tic s in P a ris a n d M a d rid w h o is s u e d th e o fte n c o n s e r v a tiv e c o lo n ia l p o lic ie s r e g a rd in g ste p p e d u p e x p lo ra tio n s o f th e tra n s-M ississip p i W e st. A n y a d v e n tu r e r w h o c a m e to c o u rt w ith a n o th e r s c h e m e h a d b e tte r m a k e it go o d ; th o s e q u ic k re tu rn s th a t w e r e p ro m ise d h a d a w a y o f sh o w in g u p in re d ink. O f c o u rs e , it w a s fin e if th e p e titio n e r w a s w illin g to fin a n c e th e v e n tu r e h im se lf, b u t if ro y a l fu n d s w e r e n e e d e d — w e ll, t h e y h a d a lr e a d y b e e n e a r m a r k e d fo r th e w a r. ( T h e C o n tin e n t n e v e r la c k e d fo r w a rs.) E n g la n d w a s th e e x c e p tio n . T h e E n g lis h h a d no fro n tier in th e tra n s-M is sissip p i W e s t u n til th e 176 0 s. It is p o s s ib le th a t a fe w d rifte rs a n d tra d e rs m a y h a v e w a n d e r e d o u t th a t w a y , b u t i f t h e y h a d t h e y h a d n o t p r o v id e d m u c h in th e w a y o f first h a n d in fo rm a tio n . S o E n g la n d b o rro w e d . S p a n is h d o c u m e n ts w e r e tra n s la te d , as w e r e th e w o rk s o f H e n n e p in , L a h o n ta n , d u P r a tz , a n d J e a n - B e r n a r d B o s s u . O fte n , th e s e tra n sla tio n s m ig h t b e g in w ith a p r e fa c e th a t d e m e a n e d th e a c h ie v e m e n ts o f F r a n c e or S p a in a n d s p e c u la te d th a t if E n g la n d h a d th o s e w e s te rn la n d s (th e re c o m m e n d a tio n to ta k e th e m b y fo rc e w a s im p lie d i f n o t sta te d ), sh e w o u ld m a n a g e th e m a lot b e tte r. B e t w e e n th e lin e s sh o w s a p e c u lia r ra c ia l p rid e th a t a fflic te d th e E n g lis h — n o t ju s t d u rin g th e ir e ig h te e n th -c e n tu r y rise to im p e ria l e m in e n c e , b u t w ith o rig in s a t le a s t as fa r b a c k as E liz a b e th a n tim es. T h e S p a n is h w e r e a b e n ig h te d p e o p le a n d th e F r e n c h le w d a n d friv o lo u s. It w a s th e E n g lis h w h o w e r e d e s tin y ’s c h o s e n . B u t th e E n g lis h a lso h a d a n a g g in g o b s e s s io n w ith la w a n d rig h ts. T h e r e h a d to b e a le g a l fo u n d a tio n fo r th e ir c la im s o n th e W e st. D r a k e ’ s 1 5 7 9 v o y a g e to th e C a lifo rn ia c o a s t w a s th e r e fo r e c ite d p e r io d ic a lly ; N e w A lb io n p r e d a te d a n y S p a n is h p r e s e n c e th e r e — w h e r e v e r “ t h e r e ” w a s. P rio r d is c o v e r y to o k p r e c e d e n c e o v e r o c c u p a tio n .

Drake’s 1579 landing on the California coast had given England vague claims on the unknown West —and a justification for aggression.

B y 1698, D a n ie l C o x e , a L o n d o n p h y s ic ia n , h a d b o u g h t w h a t h e th o u g h t w a s th e p ro p rie to rs h ip o f C a r o la n a , a p ro v in c e -o n p a p e r th a t e x te n d e d w e s tw a rd fro m c e n tra l V irg in ia on th e n o rth a n d F lo rid a o n th e so u th to th e M iss is sip p i R iv e r v a lle y . C o x e a c tu a lly o u tfitte d a n e x p e d itio n to ta k e p o s s e s s io n o f h is C a r o la n a , b u t it w a s d riv e n o ff b y th e F r e n c h a t th e m o u th o f th e M ississip p i. D o c to r C o x e , w h o n e v e r sa w th e N e w W o rld , h a d a son , also n a m e d D a n ie l, w h o d id — s p e n d in g fo u r te e n y e a r s in N e w J e r s e y b e fo r e g e ttin g in h o t w a te r w ith th e c o lo n ia l g o v e r n m e n t a n d h u rry in g b a c k to E n g la n d . C o x e J u n io r trie d to m a k e g o o d his fa th e r ’ s title. H e p u b lis h e d in 172 2 A D escription o f the English

P ro v in ce o f C arolana, w h ic h n o t o n ly v e r ifie d his ju s t c la im on

E N G L I S H E N V Y A N D B A R D IC B L A T H E R

th e te rrito ry a s h is fa t h e r ’s h e ir b u t m a d e a n a p p e a l to th e p a trio tism o f th e E n g lis h to ta k e w h a t w a s rig h tfu lly th e irs, or, m o re a c c u r a te ly , his. H e h a d it o n g o o d a u th o rity th a t E n g lis h m a r in e rs h a d b e a t e n th e F r e n c h to th e W e st. O n e o f tw o u n n a m e d v e s s e ls “ d is c o v e r e d th e m o u th s o f th e g re a t a n d fa m o u s riv e r M e s c h a c e b e , or, as te r m ’d b y th e F r e n c h , M ississip p i, e n t e r e ’d a n d a s c e n d e d a t a b o v e o n e h u n d r e d m ile s, a n d h a d p e r fe c te d a s e ttle m e n t th e re in , if th e c a p ta in o f th e o th e r sh ip h a d d o n e h is d u ty a n d n o t d e s e r te d th e m .” B u t at le a s t th a t c re w o f riverru n n e rs h a d ta k e n p o s s e s s io n in th e k in g ’s n a m e , “ a n d left, in s e v e r a l p la c e s , th e a rm s o f G r e a t-B r ita in a ffix ’d o n B o a r d s a n d tr e e s fo r a m e m o ria l th e r e o f.” It w a s th e first sh ip to e n te r th e M is s is s ip p i fro m th e s e a , C o x e in siste d , a n d th e “ b o a s ts a n d fa l sities o f th e F r e n c h ” w e r e a t la st e x p o s e d . D a n ie l C o x e th e Y o u n g e r h a d a lo t m o re to s a y a b o u t his c o u n tr y ’s u n o c c u p ie d te rrito ry, m o st o f it c r ib b e d fro m L a h o n ta n a n d o th e r F r e n c h m e n , b u t so m e o f it fre sh fro m th e o b s c u re jo u r n a ls o f E n g lis h s e a c a p ta in s . T h e r e w a s a n e a s y a c c e s s fro m th e G u lf C o a s t to n o rth e rn N e w M e x ic o u p th e M e s c h a c e b e a n d th e s o u th e rn b r a n c h o f th e Y e llo w R iv e r , w h ic h ro se in th e hills d iv id in g N e w M e x ic o fro m C a r o la n a a n d m a d e th e E n g lis h a n d S p a n is h n e ig h b o rs . T h e w is e p o lic y m ig h t ju s t b e to u n ite w ith th e d e s p is e d

S p a n is h fo r th e m o m e n t a n d th ro w th e b lo o d y

F r e n c h out! T h e n o r th w e s te r n b r a n c h o f th e Y e llo w w a s c a lle d th e M a sso rites (M isso u ri) a n d flo w e d fro m a g re a t fre s h or s a ltw a te r la k e or s e a m a n y th o u s a n d s o f m ile s in c ir c u m fe r e n c e . T h e r e w a s a n o th e r, e a s ie r w a y to th is g re a t in la n d se a : u p a riv e r th a t sp ille d fro m th e s e a ’ s s o u th w e s t sh o re a n d flo w e d in to th e P a c ific a t fo rty -fo u r d e g r e e s

n o rth la titu d e . T h is

w a s k n o w n to th e

“ p r o p r ie to r ” a n d E n g la n d ’s o w n P r iv y C o u n c il. A fte r all, th e E n g lis h h a d “ d is c o v e r ’d th e sa id L a k e fro m th e S o u t h - S e a ” a n d s a ile d th e re to . A s fo r g o ld , C o x e k n e w fro m a n E n g lis h “ g e n tle m a n a d m ir a b ly w e ll s k ill’d in g e o g r a p h y ” o f th e G o ld Is la n d s , w h ic h la y b e t w e e n J a p a n a n d C a lifo r n ia a t a p p r o x im a te ly fo rty d e g r e e s la titu d e , w h o s e in h a b ita n ts p a id g o ld b y th e p o u n d for E u r o p e ’s c o m m o d itie s w h e n th e g r e e d y N ip p o n e s e , th e ir s te a d y c u s to m e r s , w e r e n o t lo o k in g .

FA N TA SY LA N D

W h e n E n g la n d , th e b o rro w e r, s to o p e d to h e r o w n sto ry te llin g , th e re su lts in p u re o ld h u m b u g w e r e th e e q u a l o f a n y fa b le s o f A z t e c c a v e s a n d la k e s o f gold .

N THE YEAR 1 1 7 0 OR 1 1 7 1 , th e W e ls h P r in c e M a d o c , o n e o f K in g O w a in G w y n e d d ’s e ig h te e n or n in e te e n c h ild re n , w e a r y

o f a b lo o d y c iv il w a r th a t w o u ld d e c id e h is fa th e r ’s s u c c e s s o r, sa ile d in o n e , tw o , s e v e n , te n , or e le v e n v e s s e ls fro m th e p o rt o f A b e r w li or A b e r g e le or L u n d y e ith e r n o rth or so u th o f Ir e la n d a n d la n d e d in N e w fo u n d la n d or M e x ic o or R h o d e Is la n d or th e A n tille s or M a s s a c h u s e tts or V ir g in ia or N o v a S c o tia or Y u c a t a n or F lo r id a or P a n a m a or A la b a m a . T h is M a d o c , p o s s ib ly le g itim a te b u t m o re lik e ly b a s e b o r n , n o t o n ly s a ile d a c ro s s th e A tla n tic to th e N e w W o rld m o re th a n th re e h u n d r e d y e a r s b e fo r e th e Ita lia n C o lu m b u s d id th e sa m e , b u t d e p o s ite d 120 c o u n tr y m e n th e re . H e th e n w e n t b a c k to W a le s a n d p ic k e d u p a n o th e r sh ip lo a d o f d is sa tisfie d W e ls h m e n (a n d W e ls h w o m e n , w e m u st a ss u m e ). It w a s a lu c k y th in g h e d id re tu rn , too, or o th e rw is e n o b o d y w o u ld h a v e k n o w n th a t h e h a d m a d e th e first cro ssin g . M a d o c m a y or m a y n o t h a v e g o n e to M e x ic o first a s Q u e tz a lco atl, th e p lu m e d s e r p e n t g o d -in c a rn a te w h o c a m e fro m th e d ire c tio n o f th e risin g su n a n d ta u g h t th e T o lte c s a n d A z t e c s all th e y k n e w

th a t w a s w o rth k n o w in g , a n d w h o w a s u n k in d ly

r e p a id fo r h is g e n e r o s ity b y th e A z t e c ’ s fo rg e ttin g e v e r y w o rd o f W e ls h th a t M a d o c e v e r ta u g h t th e m . M o re lik e ly M a d o c first la n d e d in A la b a m a . W e h a v e as a n a u th o rity o n th is no le ss th a n th e D a u g h te r s o f th e A m e r ic a n R e v o lu tio n , w h o h a v e e r e c te d in M o b ile B a y a m a rk e r th a t r e a d s “ In M e m o r y o f P r in c e M a d o c , a W e ls h e x p lo re r, w h o la n d e d on th e sh o re s o f M o b ile B a y in 1 1 7 0 a n d le ft b e h in d , w ith th e In d ia n s , th e W e ls h la n g u a g e .” O th e rs h a v e g o n e fu rth e r in a c k n o w le d g in g M a d o c ’s gifts to th e N e w W o rld . T h e y s a y h e b r o u g h t g o o d o ld -fa s h io n e d W e lsh k n o w -h o w to th e s a v a g e s a n d p rin te d W e ls h B ib le s th a t his d e s c e n d a n ts p r e s e r v e d a n d r e v e r e d c e n tu rie s a fte r t h e y h a d fo rg o tte n h o w to r e a d th e m . E v id e n c e o f a W e ls h p r e s e n c e h a s b e e n fo u n d in th e re m n a n ts o f fo rtific a tio n s in T e n n e s s e e , w h ic h s h o w e d s u c h a so p h is tica tio n o f m ilita ry s c ie n c e th a t t h e y c o u ld

E N G L I S H E N V Y A N D B A R D IC B L A T H E R

n o t p o s s ib ly h a v e b e e n e r e c te d b y th e lo w ly In d ia n . T h e y w e re b u ilt stric tly fo r d e fe n s e , w e c a n b e su re, for M a d o c ’s p e o p le w e re p e a c e - lo v in g , a lb e it b u ffe te d a b o u t b y w a rlik e trib e s w h o r e s e n te d th e ir p r e s e n c e a n d th e ir airs. In tim e th e ir fie rc e n e ig h b o rs d r o v e th e m w e s t, u p th e w id e M isso u ri, w h e re th e liv in g w a s, if n o t e a s y , at le a s t a little le ss c ro w d e d . T h is is a b r ie f c o m p o site o f th e M a d o c sto ries, w h ic h h a d as m a n y v a ria n ts a s th e r e w e r e W e ls h b a rd s w ith e m b e llis h m e n ts to a d d . O v e r th e c e n tu rie s , as th e E n g lis h slo w ly m o v e d w e st, th e W e ls h In d ia n s lik e w is e fe ll b a c k in th a t d ire ctio n . S e v e r a l w it n e s s e s , th o u g h , c la im e d to h a v e s p o k e n W e ls h w ith th e s e In d ia n s o f lo rd ly b e a r in g in th e e a s t. A c o u p le h a d e v e n s e e n th e B ib le s . O f c o u r s e , th is te s tim o n y w a s o fte n g iv e n in ta v e rn s , w h e re W e ls h m e n g a th e r e d to fo rtify th e m s e lv e s a g a in s t th e w in te r co ld a n d sin g th e p r a is e s o f th e ir a n c ie n t ra c e . O p in io n s d iffe re d , a n d d iffe r still, o n w h e th e r th e W e ls h r e ta in e d th e ir ra c ia l p u rity a n d u ltim a te ly d ie d out, or w h e th e r th ro u g h m is c e g e n a tio n t h e y g r a d u a lly b e c a m e W e ls h In d ia n s. T h e la tte r v ie w g a in e d m o re su p p o rt as w e s tw a rd -m o v in g fro n tie r s m e n fa ile d to fin d th e b lu e e y e s a n d b lo n d h a ir a ttrib u te d to th a t p e r ip a te tic c o lo n y . A m o n g th e trib e s v a r io u s ly sa id to b e W e ls h

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b a c k e r s , in c lu d in g o n e w h o p o in te d o u t th a t “ P a d o u c a s w a s a c o rru p tio n o f th e ir o rig in a l n a m e o f M a d a w g w y s .” (S o m e co r ru p tio n !) A n o th e r g e n tle m a n , w h o h a d s e e n a C o m a n c h e w ith h is o w n e y e s , in e x p lic a b ly c o m m e n te d o n th e ir fa ir c o m p le x io n , a ll-a ro u n d n o b ility , c o u r te s y , a n d h o n e s ty — n o t th e b e s t d e s c r ip tio n o f a sh o rt, d a rk S h o s h o n e a n p e o p le w h o , o n c e t h e y go t th e h o rs e , d e s c e n d e d fro m th e R o c k ie s a n d b y th e ir fe r o c ity b e c a m e k n o w n as th e T a r ta r s o f th e s o u th e rn P la in s. T h e n it h a d to b e th e M a n d a n s . F r e n c h tra d e rs w h o v isite d th e trib e a t th e ir D a k o ta h o m e s on th e b a n k s o f th e M isso u ri R iv e r w e r e im p r e s s e d b y th e ir d issim ila ritie s w ith o th e r re d m e n . T h e y h a d fa ir skin . S o m e h a d b lu e e y e s . T h e y w e r e o n th e tall s id e , ro b u st, a n d m u s c u la r. In th e ir la n g u a g e w e r e w o rd s th a t

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E u r o p e a n , p o s s ib ly W e lsh . T h e ir fo o d w a s s u p e r b ly

p r e p a r e d a n d w o u ld h a v e d o n e c re d it to a F r e n c h ta b le ; th e ir v illa g e s w e r e la id o u t in stre e ts a n d s q u a r e s , a n d w e r e s p o tle s s ly c le a n . C le a n lin e s s , o f c o u rse , w a s n e x t to g o d lin e s s; n o n e w s o f W e lsh B ib le s , th o u g h . F ro m th e 17 3 0 s on, th e s e F r e n c h re p o rts e x c ite d W e ls h m e n back

h o m e , a n d a t la st a L o n d o n lite ra ry s o c ie ty s e n t J o h n

E v a n s , a p io u s y o u n g M e th o d ist, a c ro s s th e o c e a n to le a d th e M a n d a n s b a c k to th e ir o ld -tim e re lig io n . Y o u n g E v a n s h a d his p ro b le m s . T h e fin a n c ia l a s s is ta n c e h e c o u n te d o n fro m in te r e s te d W e ls h m e n in th e “ c o lo n ie s ” w a s n o t fo rth c o m in g . U n d a u n te d , h e p r o c e e d e d in 17 9 3 to th e M iss is sip p i V a lle y , w h ic h at th e tim e w a s S p a n is h

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s u b je c ts .

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q u ic k ly ja ile d in S a in t L o u is , e v e n tu a lly r e le a s e d , a n d s u b s e q u e n tly e m p lo y e d b y a S p a n is h -c o n tro lle d c o m p a n y ru n b y a fr e e w h e e lin g S c o ts m a n n a m e d J a m e s M a c k a y , w h o s e n t th e y o u n g m a n to th e M a n d a n s on a tra d in g m issio n . In 1 7 9 7 E v a n s re p o rte d h is c o n c lu sio n s in a le tte r to D r. S a m u e l J o n e s o f P h ila d e lp h ia : “ In r e s p e c t to th e W e ls h In d ia n s , I h a v e o n ly to in fo rm y o u th a t I c o u ld n o t m e e t su c h a p e o p le , a n d fro m in te rc o u rs e I h a v e h a d w ith In d ia n s fro m la titu d e s 35 to 49, I th in k y o u m a y s a fe ly in fo rm ou r frie n d s th e y h a v e no e x is te n c e .” E v a n s ’ r e v e la tio n s

sh o u ld

h a v e p u t a n e n d to th e M a d o c

m y th , b u t th e y d id not. It w a s so o ld , a n d so m a n y W e ls h p o e ts h a d w ritte n a b o u t it th a t it c o u ld n o t b e d r o p p e d o n o n e m a n ’s w o rd — p a rtic u la rly o n e w h o w a s la te r sa id to h a v e b e c o m e a c o m m o n d ru n k . B e s id e s , it h a s b e e n p o in te d ou t, E v a n s w a s in S p a n is h te rrito ry in th e e m p lo y o f th e S p a n is h . H e h a d p r o b a b ly b e c o m e a tu rn c o a t a n d a sp y , lik e M a c k a y . T h e S p a n ia r d s w o u ld n a tu ra lly s u p p re ss th e tru th to k e e p th e E n g lis h fro m sn o o p in g a ro u n d th e ir la n d s, w h ic h , sin c e M a d o c h a d b e e n th e r e first, w e r e n o t rig h tly th e ir la n d s a t all. T h e M a d o c le g e n d s u r v iv e d E v a n s a n d la te r d a m a g in g s c h o l a rsh ip , a n d su rv iv e s to d a y . E v e r y so o fte n a n e w b o o k a p p e a r s in su p p o rt o f o n e or m o re o f th e m a n y v e rs io n s o f th e W e lsh p r in c e ’s c a r e e r in th e N e w W o rld a n d th e le g a c y h e left. It d o e s n o t se e m to m a tte r th a t lin g u istic sc h o la rs h a v e fo u n d n o th in g in A m e r ic a n In d ia n la n g u a g e s to s u g g e s t a W e ls h in flu e n c e , or

E N G L I S H E N V Y A N D B A R D IC B L A T H E R

th a t th e o c c a s io n a l in c id e n c e o f lig h t p ig m e n ta tio n a n d b lo n d n e s s in th e In d ia n h a s b e e n e x p la in e d b y a n th ro p o lo g ists as re su ltin g fro m p r e v io u s c o n ta c ts , d ire c t or in d ire c t, w ith w h ite s (F r e n c h

co u reu rs d e bois, n o t k n o w n fo r th e ir c h a stity , h a d r e a c h e d th e M a n d a n s w e ll in a d v a n c e o f a n y W e lsh m a n ). T h e p a rt a b o u t th e p rin te d W e ls h B ib le s d o e s s e e m to h a v e b e e n a b a n d o n e d b y M a d o c b o o ste rs. B e r n a r d D e V o to , a m o n g o th e rs, h a s r e m a r k e d th a t G u te n b e r g d id n o t c o m e a lo n g until th e fifte e n th c e n tu r y a n d th a t th e B ib le w a s n o t tra n s la te d into W e ls h u n til th r e e c e n tu rie s a fte r M a d o c s h ip p e d o u t o f W a le s a s e c o n d tim e. It is a lso cu rio u s th a t th e sto ry o f M a d o c w a s not g e n e r a lly k n o w n in E n g la n d u n til th e six te e n th c e n tu ry , w h e n th e T u d o r s (w h o ju s t h a p p e n e d to b e W e lsh ) h a d a n u n c e rta in h o ld o n th e E n g lis h th ro n e , a n d E n g lis h e n v y o f o th e r n a tio n s w a s p e a k in g . O f c o u r s e , all th in g s a re p o s s ib le , b u t th a t a sm all b a n d o f p e a c e - lo v in g W e ls h m e n u n d e r a P r in c e M a d o c c o u ld h a v e c r o s s e d th e A tla n tic in sm a ll b o a ts a n d th a t th e ir d e s c e n d a n ts c o u ld s u r v iv e as a n id e n tifia b le p e o p le for fiv e -h u n d re d -o d d y e a r s in so th r e a te n in g a n e n v iro n m e n t is h ig h ly im p ro b a b le . T h e first S p a n is h , F r e n c h , a n d E n g lis h c o lo n iz in g a tte m p ts in N o rth A m e r ic a se ld o m la s te d lo n g , a n d th o s e co lo n ists c a m e m o re th a n fo u r c e n tu r ie s a fte r M a d o c , in g re a te r n u m b e rs a n d w ith m o re a m e n itie s o b ta in e d in th e y e a r s th a t b r id g e d th e h ig h M id d le A g e s a n d th e p o s t-R e n a is s a n c e . T h a t M a d o c d id w h a t h e is sa id to h a v e d o n e is a b o u t a s p la u s ib le as M o n c a c h t- A p e h a v in g p lu n k e d a c a n o e d o w n in th e w a te rs o f th e G u lf S tre a m a n d s a ile d to L o n d o n w h e re h e e s ta b lis h e d th e p re m ie r g ra n d lo d g e o f F r e e m a s o n r y .

rench

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c a m e to a n e n d in 17 6 3 , w ith

E n g la n d v ic to rio u s a n d F r a n c e d iv e s te d o f h e r N o rth A m e r iÂ c a n p ro p e rtie s . F r e n c h m e n in C a n a d a a n d e a s te r n L o u is ia n a a n d th e u p p e r M is s is s ip p i r e g io n n o w h a d th e ir tra d itio n a l e n e m y , E n g la n d , fo r a m a ste r. It m u st h a v e b e e n b o th sh o c k in g a n d g a llÂ in g to a n y s e lf-r e s p e c tin g F r e n c h fro n tie rs m a n to s u d d e n ly h a v e to a n s w e r to a n E n g lis h m a n fo r his a c tio n s; h e c o u ld o n ly ta k e

FA N TA SY LA N D

Captain Carver o f Connecticut had dreams o f empire not unlike La Salleâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s. They would come to even less.

h e a r t th a t th in g s w o u ld p r o b a b ly g e t b a c k to n o rm a l w ith a F r e n c h triu m p h in th e n e x t w a r, w h ic h c o u ld n o t b e fa r off. The

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w e s te r n la n d s. T h e y b a r e ly tric k le d in. T h is b o th e r e d J o n a th a n C a r v e r , a w e ll-to -d o r e s id e n t o f C o n n e c tic u t a n d a v e te r a n o f th e r e c e n t w a r w h o w a s m u s te re d o u t o f th e m ilitia w ith th e ra n k o f c a p ta in . W h ile in th e c o n flic t C a r v e r h a d d e v e lo p e d a ta s te fo r a d v e n tu r e , a n d n o w h e fe lt th e p a trio tic u rg e to in s p e c t th e n e w te rrito ry fo r its c o m m e rc ia l p o ssib ilitie s a n d its fu tu re p la c e in E n g la n d â&#x20AC;&#x2122; s e v e r -e x p a n d in g e m p ire . H e fe lt stro n g ly th a t it h a d to b e s e c u r e d a g a in s t th re a ts fro m b o th th e F r e n c h a n d th e S p a n is h , a n d h e to o k it u p o n h im s e lf to re p o rt tru th fu lly for o n c e o n th e la n d s th a t th e F r e n c h , as w a s c o m m o n ly k n o w n b y E n g lis h m e n e v e r y w h e r e , h a d d e lib e r a te ly k e p t s e c r e t or lie d a b o u t to s e r v e th e ir o w n w ic k e d e n d s. P o o r C a r v e r ! B e fo r e all w a s sa id a n d d o n e , h e w o u ld b e a n a c c e s s o r y to e v e n m o re ly in g a n d o b fu sc a tio n . T h e c a p ta in le ft B o s to n in J u n e o f 17 6 6 to jo in a n o ld a rm y

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b u d d y a t fa r a w a y F o rt M ic h ilim a c k in a c , s tr a te g ic a lly p la c e d at th e strait c o n n e c tin g L a k e H u ro n a n d L a k e M ic h ig a n , th e n o rth Â w e s te r n lim it o f B ritish o c c u p a tio n . T h is frie n d w a s n o n e o th e r th a n R o b e r t R o g e r s , th e c o m m a n d e r th e re , a h e ro o f th e ju s t-o v e r F r e n c h a n d In d ia n W a r, a n d th e h it-a n d -ru n le a d e r o f R o g e r s â&#x20AC;&#x2122; R a n g e r s . T h e p a ir h a d p r e v io u s ly d is c u s s e d e x p lo rin g th e W e st. C a r v e r w a s n o w r e a d y to d o ju s t th a t. R o g e r s , h o w e v e r , w a s h a v in g h is d iffic u ltie s. B ritish a u th o ritie s h a d re a s o n to s u s p e c t th e m a n o f fin a n c ia l irre g u la ritie s a n d , w o rs e , tr e a s o n a b le a c tiv itie s . S o th e d e te r m in e d C a r v e r , w h o h a d c o m e th is fa r on his o w n fu n d s, w a s o b lig e d to p a y o u t o f his p o c k e t th e a d d itio n a l e x p e n s e s n e c e s s a r y to ta k e h im to th e M iss is sip p i a n d th e W e s t h e fe lt c o m p e lle d to s e e . R o g e r s p ro m ise d h im cred its; s u p p lie s w o u ld also b e se n t on to h im la te r a t th e F a lls o f S a in t A n th o n y . The Falls o f Saint Anthony, where Carverâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s promised supplies did not arrive. Later he went to London, there to die o f malnutrition.

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BANCROFT LIBRARY, UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA, BERKELEY

FA N TA SY LA N D

A family o f Carver’s beloved Sioux, as pictured in his “expanded” Travels Through the Interior Parts of North America.

F irst, C a r v e r w a n d e r e d th e c o u n try e a s t o f th e M iss is sip p i to fa m ilia riz e h im s e lf w ith its g e o g r a p h y a n d p e o p le ; th e n h e tr a v e le d w e s t to L a k e P e p in , w h e re H e n n e p in h a d b e e n n e a r ly a c e n tu r y b e fo re him a n d h a d w ritte n w h a t w a s fo r C a r v e r a lm o st a B a e d e k e r g u id e to th e re g io n . F ro m th e re h e p r o c e e d e d n o rth w e s t to th e F a lls o f S a in t A n th o n y a n d th e n a n o th e r tw o h u n d r e d m iles w e s t to w h e re th e D a k o ta S io u x w e r e e n c a m p e d o n th e p la in s. H e r e C a r v e r w a s in his g lo ry, w in te rin g six m o n th s w ith th is n o b le w a rrio r p e o p le still n o t c o rru p te d (as th e m o re e a s te r n trib e s w e re ) b y c o n ta c t w ith th e F r e n c h . H e k e p t a jo u r n a l o f his a d v e n tu r e s a m o n g h is ho sts. T h e y tr e a te d h im w ith c o rd ia lity , a n d h e re c ip ro c a te d , on th e sp o t a n d la te r in print. In th e sp rin g o f 17 6 7 h e le ft th e s e n e w e s t E n g lis h s u b je c ts w ith a s s u r a n c e s o f a q u ic k re tu rn w ith tra d in g g o o d s. B u t th e re w a s n o n e a w a itin g h im at th e F a lls o f S a in t A n th o n y , n o r d id h e g e t a n y w h e n h e r e tu rn e d to F o rt M ic h ilim a c k in a c . T h e o rig in a l sh ip m e n t h a d b e e n s o m e h o w m is d ire c te d , a n d R o g e r s w a s n o t in a n y p o sitio n n o w to m a k e g o o d h is e a rlie r p ro m ise s. It w a s a h e a v y b lo w to C a r v e r . H e c o u ld n o t v e r y w e ll re tu rn to th e S io u x e m p ty -h a n d e d , so his h o p e s o f tra v e lin g fa rth e r w e s t b e -

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y o n d th e ir c o u n tr y w e r e sh a tte re d . H e to o k w h a t c o n so la tio n h e c o u ld in th e fa c t th a t a t le a s t h e h a d a sto ry to tell, a n d w h e n h e r e tu r n e d to B o s to n in 176 8 , h e tried to ra ise fu n d s for its p u b li c a tio n , h is o w n re s o u r c e s h a v in g b e e n d e p le te d b y h is lo n g jo u r n e y . H e fa ile d . T h e la st th in g th e co lo n ists w a n te d to r e a d w a s a b o o k a b o u t th o s e m a n g y re d s k in s, w h o h a d lo n g p r o v e d u n c o o p e r a tiv e in v a c a tin g th e ir la n d s fo r E n g lis h se ttle m e n t. C a p t. J o n a th a n C a r v e r th e n d id th e lo g ic a l n e x t th in g fo r a m a n w ith a d re a m n o t u n lik e L a S a lle ’s. H e w o u ld go to g ra te fu l E n g la n d a n d te ll all o f w h a t h e sa w a n d h o w a rich e m p ire co u ld b e m a d e o f th e la n d s ta k e n fro m th e F r e n c h . J o h n C o a k le y L e tts o m , in a b io g r a p h ic a l fo re w o rd to th e th ird e d itio n o f T ravels

T hrou gh th e In terio r Parts o f N orth A m erica (1 7 8 1 ), d e s c r ib e s C a r v e r as w e llb o rn , c o u r a g e o u s , a n d e n te rp risin g . B u t h e also m a k e s m u c h o f th e c a p ta in ’ s d iffid e n c e a n d m o d e sty , w h ic h “ k e p t h im in g e n e r a l r e s e r v e d in c o m p a n y .” L e tts o m m ig h t h a v e b e e n b lu n te r a n d sa id th a t th is a g r e e a b le m a n fro m th e b o o n d o c k s fe ll in to th e “ c o m p a n y ” o f c o n n iv e rs a n d h ig h b in d e rs — a m a c k e r e l in a s c h o o l o f sh arks. B a c k in L o n d o n a n d v ir tu a lly p e n n ile s s , C a r v e r p e titio n e d th e lo rd s c o m m issio n e rs o f tra d e a n d p la n ta tio n s for re im b u r s e m e n t fo r th e m o n e y h e h a d s p e n t in th e in te re s t o f his co u n try . H e w o u ld , o f c o u rs e , p r e p a r e a d o c u m e n t on w h a t h e h a d se e n . B u t “ in a la rg e , fr e e , a n d w id e ly e x te n d e d g o v e rn m e n t, w h e re e v e r y m o tio n d e p e n d s u p o n a v a r ie ty o f sp rin g s, th e le s s e r a n d s u b o r d in a te m o v e m e n ts m u s t b e a c te d u p o n b y th e g re a te r, a n d c o n s e q u e n tly th e m o re in ferio r o p e ra tio n s o f sta te w ill b e so d ista n t, a s n o t to b e p e r c e iv e d in th e g ra n d m a c h in e .” T h e w o rd s a r e L e tts o m ’ s a n d , b o ile d d o w n , r e a d “ b u r e a u c r a tic re d t a p e .” C a r v e r w a s d e s titu te a n d c o u ld sta n d no d e la y , so h e to o k a c o p y to a p u b lis h e r . W h e n th e g o v e r n m e n t go t a ro u n d to p a y in g him e le v e n h u n d r e d p o u n d s fo r his a c c o u n t, C a r v e r h a d to r e n e g e a n d b u y th e c o p y b a c k fro m h is p u b lis h e r. H e s ta y e d on in L o n d o n to e n c o u r a g e p e o p le ’s in te re s t in jo in in g a n e x p e d itio n a c ro s s N o rth A m e r ic a . H e s u c c e e d e d in m u s te rin g su p p o rt, b u t o n ly a fte r th e im p e n d in g w a r w ith th e c o lo n ie s r e n d e r e d th e p la n o u t o f th e q u e s tio n . M e a n w h ile , h e h a d g o n e d e e p ly into d e b t to th e m o n e y le n d e r s . In 17 7 8 h e a g a in to o k h is c o p y to a

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FA N TA SY LA N D

p u b lis h e r, w h e re s tra n g e th in g s w e r e d o n e to it in c lu d in g q u a d ru p lin g its le n g th w ith m a te ria l a p p r o p r ia te d fro m H e n n e p in , L a h o n ta n , a n d o th e r n a m e le s s liars. T h e b o o k so ld o u t q u ic k ly a n d w e n t in to a s e c o n d p rin tin g . It is p la in th a t C a r v e r , w h o h a d ta k e n a lo w ly p o sitio n o f c le rk to try to f e e d h im se lf, s h a r e d in n o n e o f th e pro fits. W h e n th e th ird e d itio n a p p e a r e d in 1 7 8 1 , J o n a th a n C a r v e r , E s q u ir e , w h o h a d p e r fo r m e d “ m a n y im p o rta n t s e r v ic e s to his c o u n tr y ,” \yas a lr e a d y d e a d a y e a r , th e v ic tim o f d y s e n te r y a n d m a ln u tritio n .

T ravels T hrough the In terio r Parts o f N orth A m erica w e n t on to s e e m o re th a n fo rty e d itio n s a n d s e v e r a l tra n sla tio n s, w h ic h for th e first tim e r e v e r s e d th e p a tte rn : a n E n g lis h m a n h a d fin a lly g o n e w e s t a n d w ritte n so m e th in g th a t c o u ld b e e x p o rte d to th e C o n tin e n t. T h e b o o k b e c a m e a sta n d a rd , u n til la te r sc h o la rs h ip e x p o s e d its fa b ric a tio n s, at w h ic h tim e C a r v e r w a s w id e ly c o n d e m n e d as ju s t o n e m o re d a m n e d liar w h o h a d p r o b a b ly n e v e r g o tte n w e s t o f th e A p p a la c h ia n s . C a r v e r r e a lly d id go a s fa r a s h e sa id h e d id , a n d a r e a d in g o f th e T ra vels n o w e v o k e s s y m p a th y . H is d e sc rip tio n s o f his b e lo v e d S io u x a re p e r c e p tiv e , so u n d , a n d h ig h ly r e a d a b le . H is ju d g m e n ts o f th e m — th a t th e y w e re n e ith e r o d io u s b a rb a ria n s n o r p e r fe c t m o d e ls o f th e “ n a tu ra l m a n ” — r e v e a l a d e e p u n d e r sta n d in g n o t s h a re d b y his c o n te m p o ra rie s. E v e n so m e o f th e se c tio n s th a t his g ra sp in g p u b lis h e rs a d d e d (a n d to w h ic h th e d e s p e r a te m a n m u st h a v e a g r e e d ) a re in fo rm a tiv e . Y e t th e d e e d w a s d o n e , a n d C a r v e r h a d h is o w n m is c o n c e p tio n s a b o u t th e d a rk sid e o f th e c o n tin e n t th a t, w h e n a d d e d to th o s e o f h is ed ito rs, o n ly c o n fo u n d e d th e w o rld m o re. H e b e lie v e d in th e S tra it o f A n ia n ,

“ w h ic h

h a v in g

been

first d is c o v e r e d

S ir F r a n c is

D r a k e , o f c o u rse , b e lo n g ts] to th e E n g lis h .” M o r e o v e r , h e k n e w w h e re it w a s a n d h o w to r e a c h it w ith o u t g e ttin g lo st in so m e fro sty a rctic b ig h t. F o u r g re a t riv e rs ro se in th e S io u x c o u n try ; o n e o f th e m , th e “ R iv e r O re g o n , or th e R iv e r o f th e W e s t,” c o n n e c te d w ith b o th th e P a c ific O c e a n a n d th e e lu s iv e strait. H e p la c e d th e R o c k y M o u n ta in s ju s t w e s t o f h is S io u x frie n d s . F o r w h a te v e r re a s o n , h e la u d e d th e c lim a te o f th e n o rth e rn p la in s as m o re te m p e r a te th a n th a t o f th e e a s t c o a st. H e w a s a lso g u ilty o f p a s s in g a lo n g to h is re a d e r s w ith o u t c o m m e n t so m e In d ia n c la im s

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E N G L I S H E N V Y A N D B A R D IC B L A T H E R

th a t w e r e at th e le a s t fa n ta stic , in c lu d in g o n e fro m th e W in n e b a g o In d ia n s o f W isc o n sin o f h o w th e y w e n t w e s t a cro ss th e p la in s a n d m a s s a c r e d so m e “ b la c k p e o p le ” (S p a n ia rd s ) w h o h a d h o rs e s la d e n w ith “ w h ite s to n e ” (silver). C a r v e r h im s e lf c la im e d to h a v e d is c o v e r e d “ s e v e r a l m in e s o f v irg in c o p p e r .” T h e g re a t m ista k e m a d e b y th e C o n n e c tic u t c a p ta in w a s to g e n e r a liz e a b o u t th e W e s t fro m th e little c o rn e r o f M in n e s o ta th a t h e h a d s e e n . T h o u g h h e lo c a te s In d ia n origin s n o rth o f C h in a , h e b r e a k s all th e ir la n g u a g e s d o w n into fo u r g ro u p s a n d , la c k in g a n y r e a l k n o w le d g e , h a s all trib e s w e s t o f th e M iss is sip p i s p e a k in g th e S io u a n sto ck . T h e r e is n o d o u b t th a t th e E n g lis h c o u ld h a v e c le a r e d u p so m e o f th e c o n fu sio n p r o d u c e d b y th e p u b lis h e d v e r s io n

o f C a r v e r ’ s tra v e ls

sim p ly b y

c o n su ltin g his o rig in a l

m a n u s c rip t, w h ic h w a s su b m itte d to th e lo rd s co m m issio n e rs a n d n o w r e p o s e s in th e B ritish M u s e u m . B u t th e y d id not. P r o b a b ly it w a s file d in th e w ro n g p ig e o n h o le . In 176 8 , th e s a m e y e a r C a r v e r tr e k k e d b a c k to B o s to n , T h o m a s J e ffr e y , g e o g r a p h e r to th e k in g , p u b lis h e d in L o n d o n a g e n e ra l m a p fo r th e e d ific a tio n o f th e re a lm . It fe a tu r e d N e w A lb io n , a “ R iv e r o f th e W e s t a c c o r d in g to R u s s ia n m a p s ,” a “ R iv e r o f th e W e s t a c c o r d in g to th e F r e n c h ,” Q u iv ira m o v e d b a c k in la n d fro m th e P a c ific , d e F o n t e ’s m y th ic a l w a te r w a y s , a n d la r g e isla n d s in th e “ T a r ta r ia n S e a ” w h e re liv e d th e “ Y e - Q u e or th e N a tio n o f th e D w a r fs .” O n th e e v e o f r e b e llio n th e in te llig e n c e a v a ila b le to G e o r g e I I I w a s n o t th e b e s t, e ith e r in th e E a s t or o u t W e st.

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|||g 'r:' S p a r s e ly W m P o p u la te d (because of w h ite settlem en t)

rhe Indian Presenceâ&#x20AC;&#x201D;1776 ( A p p r o x im a te )

AM IMMAN §U: uly 4, 1776. The stranger squatted alone and fearful in the morning sun as the Hopitu-shinumu in great numbers gathered about him. Drums and flutes mixed rhythm with wail as the People of Peace stopped at the street corner where the man in gray had slept the night. Then there was silence, and a tense expectation among those who had left their storied houses to see what the Castillo would do. He did nothing. At last, four honored men stepped toward him. The tallest frowned and spoke. “ iPor que has venido aqui? Begone without delay—back to thy land.” The visitor made a sign for all to sit and talk. But the Hopis did not sit and they did not wish to talk. Everything had been said before —by the old one who came only the summer last from the east, and by those many who had come and were sent away for more than a hundred summers before this one. It would only be more talk of the sky god, and the stranger would then ask leave to splash water on the heads of the children. The Peaceful Ones had their own gods to please for the gift of corn, worshiped since the war gods first led the ancients up from the underground world. Could he not see he was unwelcome? Had not the white shells he brought as gifts been returned to him? Had not lodging for two nights and the food he desired been denied him? Had he not seen that some men had painted their bodies the color of blood? The stranger rose to his feet with the image of Christ in his hand and told in a mixed tongue of the nations he had seen in the west and how he loved the Hopis. He wanted the People of Peace to press their lips to the figure of El Cristo. “No! No!” cried an old man with a scornful grin. The man in gray with the wild look in his eyes hesitated, then called for his mule. The beast was brought and the stranger smiled, then briskly he led his animal down the rocky path from the Third Mesa and the place of the rock called Oraibi toward the resting place of the sun, where the Yumas and other enemies of the Hopitu-shinumu lived. The People of Peace watched the padre become small on the dry earth below them. They were pleased.

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Father Francisco Garces, as dedicated a man as ever served his God and a veteran of the sage-and-sand circuit, was admittedly disappointed on that long-ago Arizona morning. He could not have been surprised, how ever. The apostate Hopis had resisted all Spanish missionaries who came to them after the Revolt of 1680. The zeal, courage, and kindness of the padre made no difference. Furthermore, what was true of the Hopis was also true of other natives who rejected the True Faith; even the tribes who received it did not revere it as they should, and could be expected to practice the old pagan worship in secret. Souls were hard to come by in the West, as hard as gold itself. But even gold is where you find it only if you find it, and islands of dwarfs are yet to be found off the Pacific coast. For all the white man’s fantasizing about the West, when he did arrive, he was confronted with one hard and often painful reality: the land was already spoken for. Those who spoke did so in strange and varied tongues that might or might not bear similarities to one another, but actions, then as now, spoke louder than words. The Indian was simply there, in situ, occupying space that in time the white man had to have. Exactly how long he had been there could only be guessed, but rights of prior discovery could not be ex tended to him anyway because he was barbaric, a worshiper of false gods, and therefore not a party to any gentlemen’s compact. If the European newcomer was Renaissance man on his way to be coming modern existential man, the American Indian was in virtually every way his opposite. He needed no abstruse logic to prove his exis tence. He was not given to worrisome reflection on the state of his soul. He did not believe himself an alien on earth, marking time until the Day of Judgment, when he would be consigned to some other-worldly realm of pain or pleasure. Rather, when he thought about it at all, he saw him self as one with the deer and the wind and the buffalo —just another breath in the scheme of things. Usually his prayers to the Great Spirit were about such simple matters as providing rain for his maize or courage for himself against his enemies. He was tradition-directed, one of a family, band, or tribe with taboos and prescriptions for conduct that were seldom questioned. Nothing separated the thinking of the Indian and the white man more than their contrary attitudes toward the land and its ownership. With a few exceptions, Indian land was not something that could be bought— won from another tribe in war and occupied by a kind of earthly care taker, yes, but not passed like a commodity from hand to hand for a payment in specie or a promise of the same. Said the great Shawnee chief Tecumseh when informed that his people had welshed on a purchase agreement: “ Sell a country! Why not sell the air, the clouds, and the great sea . . . ? Did not the Great Spirit make them all for the use of his children?”

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The Indian’s limited notion of private property especially confounded the Anglo-Saxon, who either owned or rented his land or was indentured to it. A man’s home was his castle and the land around it his fief; by a set of mind, his thoughts were also his own, and all fostered a self-centeredness and belief in abstract rights that were beyond the red man’s ken. Other pulls of culture divided the peoples to a greater or lesser degree. Indians tended to be seminomadic, while the majority of Europeans were static, rooted in soil. Indian economies rested on hunting and gathering and seldom more than a marginal agriculture; barter was for necessities and a few luxuries. Europeans were in the act of industrializing; they were mature in the art of trade and were importers and consumers of luxuries. War for most Indians was ritualized —an occasion to pilfer a horse or two, to prove a man’s worth and acquire esteem within his na tion. War for the white was a down-to-earth business, often total and almost always territorial, fought for economic advantage or national honor. Lacking a written language, the Indian’s knowledge was trans mitted orally from generation to generation, and his arts were wedded to what was functional in domestic and ceremonial life. The European had literatures and schools, arts and sciences that were already academic, and a sense of the purely aesthetic. All this may have created a gulf between white man and red. It did not, however, mean all red men were brothers, or even distant cousins. “In dian” is a white man’s misnomer that has the effect of lumping together diverse peoples who probably came not as a group across the Asian land bridge before rising waters created the strait called Bering, but in distinct waves that may have been thousands of years apart. The Amerind was not one man but many, and his lives were as plural as his adjustments to the varied circumstances in which he found himself. He spoke Algonkin or Siouan or Athapascan or another of sixty linguistic stocks with hundreds of different dialects. He could be a woodland hunter or a plains stalker of the bison. Some tribes planted maize and squash and beans. Some fished. Others gathered acorns or grubs. Some, like the Dakotas and Apaches, were committed to warfare as a way of life, while at the opposite end were the Pimas and Papagos who considered violence abhorrent and made a man who killed, even in self-defense, undergo a decontamination rite to restore his “sanity.” Some were culturally impoverished like the Gosiutes of northwestern Utah, near-naked eaters of insects; others were rich in art and artifact, like the Pawnees of the central plains —a Caddoan people thought by some to have descended from the prehistoric moundbuilders of the Southeast. A tribe would adapt to the fickleness of a geography that might provide rain and cold aplenty on the northwest side of a mountain and arid mild ness a few leeward miles away. As nature bequeathed, so a man and his clan or tribe dwelt, unless drought or the pressure of a more powerful

110

people sent them searching for a more congenial elsewhere. If there were buffalo, the people wore the hides and had dogs to drag their belongings in the wake of the migrating herd. If corn was the crop and the sun dom inant, the people stayed put, built sturdy ceremonial lodges in which to worship fertility gods, and, in the Southwest, wore cotton. The Chey ennes of the northern plains lived in movable tipis; the Salish of the Oregon coast, in rectangular communal houses of planks; the Chumash of the mild California coast, in conical brush huts; the Tewas of New Mexico, in sunbaked apartments. There was no end to the differences. The Amerind knew change before the coming of the European, but he had not until then known it in its most jarring form. A tribe need never have seen a white man to be affected by him: his influence preceded him in the items of material culture that found their way over the beaten paths that hugged watercourses and crossed mountain passes to reach peoples far removed from the advancing edge of an alien civilization. An elaborate trading system long predated the white man in North America. Trading habits and decorum, established routes, and perhaps the most compre hensive sign language in the world went back to prehistory, and the itinerant Indian trader, a skilled and valued man, was welcome wherever he went. He brought grain from the river valleys to the drier plains, and the best dyes and pigments from the Pacific Coast and the Southwest; he brought red pipestone from Minnesota and obsidian from present-day Wyoming; he took eagle feathers from the Rockies to the pueblos, carried dentalium from the far Northwest, and wampum from the shore of the eastern ocean. But when the white man’s goods reached the trade veins, they did not flow so freely. Acquiring native pottery that made daily life easier, or earthen cosmetics to cut a fancy figure at an upcoming ceremonial, was all very well. But as things started circulating that when possessed made one strong or when lacked made one vulnerable, barter took on a new quality of competition and urgency. Perhaps the old men who gathered round the council fires reflected on these changes and how the old ways were vanishing and how the lives of their children would never be the same. We can only guess. Had there been an Indian blessed with supra-consciousness in 1776 — say a wise chief miraculously endowed with the vision to see the transMississippi West in overview—he might very well have judged it an excellent year for his people. For most it was a kind of Indian summer, with the greater tragedies either past or on time’s horizon. The best of what the white man had to offer—the horse, the gun, metal knives and hatchets and cooking pots —had arrived. His worst bequests —insatiable land hunger, spirits in ruinous quantities, and the further spread of deadly poxes —were yet to come. The fateful year fell almost midway between the two greatest-seeming

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victories the red man won on the western battlefield against the white. The Pueblo uprising of 1680 had swept the entire Spanish population out of New Mexico all the way south to El Paso (though twelve years later the foreigners would return in force to stay). In the summer of 1876, Lt. Col. George A. Custer and more than 260 bluecoats engaged a superior force of Sioux and Cheyennes on the Little Bighorn, and half did not survive the June day. Again, the victory was but a defeat in disguise, coming as it did at the height of a proud nation’s centennial festivities. Retribution was swift and crushing; Custer’s debacle in reality a starburst of red man’s America. In 1776 there was no such Pyrrhic victory. History had paused to look elsewhere. In the East the white men were busy fighting each other for reasons of their own. To the south others had long been stalled, but the tide seemed at last to have turned against them. True, in the far South west, new white men had recently come to change the ways of the red men; but they were few in number, and perhaps the high mountains with the crowns of snow would keep them there. Besides, in the dry basin of the West’s core, and the highlands above, and along the salmon waters of the Northwest, the whites were not.

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Chapter 5

The \Yi Id Bunch T

ollywood

stereotype

o f th e In d ia n is a P la in s In d ia n ,

a n d th e im a g e is fa m ilia r: flo w in g b o n n e ts o f e a g le fe a th e rs , la th e r e d p o n ie s , su n d a n c e s , tip is, p a in te d w a r p a rtie s th u n d e rin g o v e r a tr e e le s s a n d lim itle ss r a n g e . T h e c h o ic e is a n a tu ra l o n e . N o t o n ly w a s h e e x citin g , a c tiv e , fa s c in a tin g in h is g a u d y c o n tr a rie ty to th e w h ite m a n , b u t th e P la in s In d ia n w a s in la rg e p a r t a w h ite m a n ’ s c re a tio n . S o m e s c h o la rs h a v e sa id th e c u ltu re o f th e P la in s w a s th e o n ly o n e to rise a fte r th e E u r o p e a n r e a c h e d th e N e w W o rld . T h e y h a v e fu rth e r m a r k e d th e b e g in n in g o f th a t c u ltu re a b o u t th e y e a r 1 7 7 5 a n d h a v e a s s ig n e d it a fu ll c e n tu r y o f v ita lity . T h e id e a a n d th e tim e h a v e b e e n h o tly d is p u te d b y o th e rs w h o s a y th e c u ltu r e w a s n o t n e w b u t h a d its o rig in s lo n g b e fo r e th e n o m a d ic p e o p le s g o t th e h o rs e or th e g u n or a n y th in g e ls e th e E u r o p e a n h a d to g iv e or to h a v e sto le n fro m h im . B u t w h e th e r it w a s a flo w e r in g o f th e n e w or w h e th e r it sp ra n g fro m d o rm a n t s e e d s lo n g o f th e soil is tru ly a c a d e m ic . W h a t c a n b e s a fe ly sa id is th a t th e th irty trib e s w h o liv e d on th e g ra ssla n d w e s t o f th e M is s is s ip p i a n d e a s t o f th e R o c k ie s w e r e liv in g fa r ric h e r a n d m o re c o m p le x liv e s th a n th e ir a n c e s to rs, th a n k s to th e E u r o p e a n . A n d w h ile th e “ w h ite e y e s ” d e s tr o y e d o n e a n o th e r fo r p o s s e s sio n o f th e e a s te r n w o o d la n d s , th e P la in s In d ia n r u le d th e w h ite m a n ’ s W e s t — n o t in a n y u n ite d fro n t, b u t trib a lly , c o n tro llin g g r e a te r or le s s e r p ie c e s o f it. It w a s th e d a w n o f h is b r ie f b u t g lo rio u s s e a s o n . T h e P la in s In d ia n h a d th e a d v a n ta g e o f k n o w in g th e w h ite m a n b y r e p u ta tio n b e fo r e h e m e t h im fa c e to fa c e . T h e S p a n is h ,

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"CATCHING WILD HORSES" BY GEORGE CATLIN; THOMAS GILCREASE INSTITUTE OF AMERICAN HISTORY AND ART. TULSA

th e “ b e a r d e d o n e s ,” h a d b e e n in th e so u th fo r n e a r ly tw o h u n d re d y e a r s . T h e F r e n c h , th e “ h e a v y e y e b r o w s ,” h a d b e e n a m o n g th e m in sm a ll n u m b e rs fo r a lm o st a c e n tu ry , tra d in g fo r fu rs th e y se n t e a s t or so u th b y th e rive rs. B e y o n d th e m w e r e th e E n g lis h , th e “ b lo n d o n e s ,” r a r e ly s e e n w e s t o f th e M iss is sip p i b u t w ith th e b e s t g o o d s o f all to e x c h a n g e . M a y b e th e lo t o f th e m w e r e n o t to b e tru ste d , b u t th e y h a d to b e to le r a te d fo r w h a t t h e y c o u ld b rin g . B y 1 7 7 6 th e P la in s In d ia n h a d lo o k e d o v e r w h a t th e w h ite m a n c o u ld b rin g a n d h a d sh o w n a p r e fe r e n c e fo r th e h o rs e o v e r th e d o g , fo r m e ta l o v e r p o tte r y a n d flint, a n d fo r V e n e t ia n g la ss b e a d s o v e r q u ills. A lr e a d y , b e fo r e th e visito rs b e c a m e in tru d e rs, b e fo r e th e y m o v e d in to h is d o m a in in la rg e n u m b e rs w ith th e ir w a g o n s a n d c a ttle a n d p lo w s, h e h a d b e c o m e d e p e n d e n t on th e m . B u t th ro u g h his d e p e n d e n c e , h e h a d b e c o m e th e stro n g e r, n o t th e w e a k e r , fo r it — a t le a s t in th e sh o rt run. H is o ld w a rrin g in stin cts w e re in te n s ifie d b y a n im p o rte d w e a p o n r y , to th e p o in t w h e re h e c o n stitu te d a fo rm id a b le , if fra c tu re d , b a rrie r to a n y im m e d ia te id e a s o f w e s tw a r d e x p a n s io n b y th e o u tsid ers.

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It was the horse, captured in the wild, won in a raid, or stolen from the Spaniards, that made the Plains Indians so formidable a force.

B y te m p e r a m e n t th e P la in s In d ia n w a s ill-su ite d to b e c o m e a m e n ia l or a ju n io r p a r tn e r to th e w h ite m a n in h e w in g o u t a n e m p ir e in th e W e st, a s w a s th e n a iv e d r e a m o f J o n a th a n C a r v e r a n d o th e rs. H e w a s as r u g g e d a n in d iv id u a lis t as th e W e s t w o u ld e v e r k n o w , la c k in g a n y sm a ll ru lin g c la ss th a t c o u ld b e e a s ily o v e r th r o w n a n d r e p la c e d b y a n e w m a ste r, as h a d h a p p e n e d w ith th e A z t e c s in c iv iliz e d M e x ic o . H e w a s , in sh ort, a v o la tile , u n r u ly fo r c e w h o m th e w h ite m a n w a s o b lig e d to c o u rt a n d p la c a te a n d s e t a g a in s t In d ia n n e ig h b o rs a n d h is o w n E u r o p e a n e n e m ie s w h e n e v e r h e co u ld . T h e n e w life sta rte d w ith th e h o rse : th e g o d -d o g o f th e C o m a n c h e s , th e e lk -d o g o f th e B la c k fe e t, th e m e d ic in e -d o g o f th e S io u x . T h e m ira c u lo u s b e a s t m a d e it b y h o o k or b y c ro o k o u t o f N e w M e x ic o a n d S p a n is h h u s b a n d r y w ith th e ra p id ity o f a p ra irie fire. F ir s t it a p p e a r e d o n th e so u th e rn p la in s, to s p r e a d n o rth . T h e A p a c h e s h a d it b y 1650 ; th e P a w n e e s o f N e b r a s k a , b e fo r e 1700. M e a n w h ile , a lo n g th e s e c o n d m a jo r a v e n u e o f d istrib u tio n , th e h o r s e w a s tr a d e d a m o n g th e S h o s h o n e a n p e o p le s o f th e R o c k ie s

115

"THE LAST OF THE BUFFALO' BY ALBERT BIERSTADT; CORCORAN GALLERY OF ART. WASHINGTON. D.C

, . L .........

S te

•

■V&fs Buffalo, an estimated thirty million o f them, provided food, clothing, and lodging for the tribes living on the short-grass flatlands.

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u n til it e m e r g e d o n th e n o rth e rn p la in s in th e e a r ly 170 0 s. B y 175 ° it h a d b e e n m a s te r e d b y M o n ta n a ’s B la c k fe e t , a n d b y 177 ° e v e n th e S a u k s a n d F o x e s o f th e w e s te r n G r e a t L a k e s w e r e rid in g . F o r b u ffa lo h u n te rs a n d fig h tin g m e n e v e r y w h e r e , it w a s h e a v e n - s e n t. T h e g u n c a m e la te r a n d fro m th e o p p o s ite d ire c tio n : fro m th e n o rth b y w a y o f th e F r e n c h a n d th e E n g lis h (ra re ly fro m th e so u th a n d th e S p a n is h , w h o e a r ly fo r b a d e a ll tra ffic in fire a rm s a n d w is e ly b o u g h t th e m s e lv e s so m e m u c h - n e e d e d tim e). T h o u g h o f m o re u s e on th e o p e n r a n g e th a n in th e e a s te r n fo re s ts, w h e r e a n e n e m y w ith a to m a h a w k b e h in d a tr e e n e u tr a liz e d its e ffe c tiv e n e s s , th e g u n w a s n e v e r q u ite th e ta lism a n th a t th e h o rs e w a s . E v e n w ith th e b e s t p ie c e a v a ila b le in th e e ig h te e n th c e n tu r y , d is c h a rg in g a n d r e lo a d in g fo r a sin g le sh o t to o k th irty s e c o n d s to a m in u te tim e e n o u g h to la u n c h m o re th a n a d o z e n a rro w s. It w a s e a g e r ly tr a d e d fo r a n d k ille d for, n o n e th e le s s . Its v e r y n o isin e s s w a s m u sic to a y o u n g b r a v e ’s e a r — b r a v u r a th a t h e ig h te n e d a n a lr e a d y e x a lte d im a g e o f self. T h e r e w e re tim e s w h e n th e h o rs e a n d th e g u n m e t in c la ss ic fa c e -o ff. In th e 17 3 0 s, so o n e sto ry g o e s, th e n o rth e rn S h o s h o n is a c q u ir e d th e h o rs e fro m th e U te s a b o u t th e s a m e tim e th e B la c k fe e t go t th e g u n fro m th e C r e e s . S a g g in g B la c k fo o t fo rtu n e s w e r e r e v e r s e d w h e n th e re p o rts o f w e a p o n s s p a c e d a lo n g th e b a ttle lin e th re w th e S h o s h o n is in to u tte r p a n ic . T h e B la c k fe e t so o n b e c a m e fu ll-fle d g e d m e m b e rs o f th e h o rs e -a n d -g u n c lu b , th e n d id th e ir d a m n e d e s t to s e e th a t n o fire a rm s w e r e tr a d e d to th e ir e n e m ie s , w h o , g iv e n th e ill te m p e r o f th e B la c k fe e t, n u m b e r e d m a n y in d e e d . T h e h o rs e a n d th e g u n a n d th e e x p a n s iv e p r e s s u r e s o f th e w h ite m a n in th e E a s t all w o r k e d to m a k e th e P la in s a m o re c r o w d e d p la c e in th e e ig h te e n th c e n tu ry . F o r o rig in a l o c c u p a n ts a n d im m i g ra n ts a lik e , it w a s th e p la c e to b e , a p la tte r o f p le n ty w h o s e e n tr e e w a s b u ffa lo . T o m o u n te d h u n te rs , th e s h a g g y b e a s ts w e r e e a s y m a rk s. O n e w e e k ’s h u n t c o u ld s u p p ly a b a n d w ith e n o u g h fo o d for a s e a s o n a n d w ith sk in s fo r m a n y w in te r s ’ c lo th in g a n d tip is (w h ic h th e w o m e n c o u ld s e t u p in fifte e n m in u te s a n d strike in e v e n le ss tim e). In a d d itio n , th e e a s e o f it a ll m e a n t m o re tim e fo r th e d e a d lie st sport: ra id in g o ld e n e m ie s , c o u n tin g c o u p s, g a rn e rin g g lo ry. T h e h o rs e b r o u g h t th e C o m a n c h e s o u t o f th e R o c k ie s a b o u t

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170 0 , o n to th e P la in s in a s te a d y s o u th e rly d ire c tio n , a w a y fro m th e trib e s w ith th e g u n s th e C o m a n c h e s d id n o t h a v e . C om a n ch e w a s a S p a n is h c o rru p tio n o f a U te te rm m e a n in g “ h e w h o w a n ts to fig h t m e all th e tim e ,” a n d b e tw e e n 1 7 2 7 a n d 178 6 C o m a n c h e b e llig e r e n c e w a s a lm o st c o n sta n t. T h e U te s w e r e n o t a lo n e in th e ir a p p r a is a l o f th is S h o s h o n e a n p e o p le , w h o lo v e d fig h tin g a n d p lu n d e r a n d , a b o v e all, th e ir h o rse s. T h e P a w n e e s o f th e c e n tra l P la in s k n e w th e ir e n m ity , a s d id th e p o o r T o n k a w a s o f c e n tra l T e x a s a n d th e S p a n ia r d s w h e n th e y s h o w e d th e m s e lv e s . B u t th e b ig lo se rs w e r e th e A p a c h e trib e s o f e a s te r n N e w M e x ic o a n d T e x a s w h o m th e C o m a n c h e s d ro v e w e s t a n d so u th in th e e ig h te e n th c e n tu r y in to th e la p o f th e S p a n ia rd s . T h e C o m a n c h e s , th e lo rd s o f th e so u th e rn P la in s , ro a m e d in s e v e r a l b a n d s a n d in th e ir h e y d a y p r o b a b ly n u m b e r e d tw e n ty th o u s a n d . T h e n o te d a rtist G e o r g e C a tlin la te r g a v e th is e y e w itn e s s d e s c rip tio n o f th e m : “ In th e ir m o v e m e n ts th e y a re h e a v y a n d u n g r a c e fu l; a n d on th e ir fe e t o n e o f th e m o st u n a ttr a c tiv e a n d s lo v e n ly lo o k in g r a c e s o f In d ia n s I h a v e e v e r s e e n ; b u t th e m o m e n t t h e y m o u n t th e ir h o rs e s , t h e y s e e m a t o n c e m e ta m o r p h o s e d , a n d su rp rise th e s p e c ta to r w ith th e e a s e a n d g r a c e o f th e ir m o v e m e n ts .” T h e h o rs e d id fo r th e C o m a n c h e s w h a t it d id , m o re or le ss, for th e K io w a s a n d th e A r a p a h o s a n d th e o th e r In d ia n s o f th e P la in s: it lifte d th e m u p o ff th e e a rth , e x p a n d e d th e ir v isio n , g a v e th e m th e s p e e d o f th e w in d a n d th e p o w e r o f d e m ig o d s. T h e n o rth e rn P la in s w e r e lik e w is e in flu x. T h e B la c k fe e t — fie r c e , su lk y , w ith a d e s e r v e d re p u ta tio n a s o n e o f th e fe w sp o ile rs o f tr a d e — m o v e d so u th fro m C a n a d a in to n o rth e rn M o n ta n a a n d s e n t th e S h o s h o n is , F la th e a d s , a n d K u te n a is in to th e m o u n ta in s fo r c o v e r . T h e C r o w s w e r e b e in g p u s h e d to th e so u th . B u t th e g r e a te s t a g e n ts o f c h a n g e w e r e th e D a k o ta S io u x , trib e s w ith a w o o d la n d h a b ita t e a s t o f th e M iss is sip p i th a t h a d b e e n d is p la c e d b y th e w h ite m a n a n d g u n -to tin g C h ip p e w a s . W h e n th e D a k o ta S io u x r e a c h e d th e b u ffa lo la n d s , t h e y lik e d w h a t t h e y sa w , p u t h o r s e a n d g u n to g e th e r, a n d to o k w h a t t h e y w a n te d , b e c o m in g a s d o m in a n t in th e n o rth a s th e C o m a n c h e s w e r e in th e so u th . A Y a n k e e tr a d e r n a m e d P e t e r P o n d le ft th is v in ta g e d e s c rip tio n o f a D a k o ta b a n d h e d e a lt w ith w e s t o f th e u p p e r M is s is s ip p i in

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th e 17 7 0 s: â&#x20AC;&#x153; Y e Y a n t o n e s e [Y a n k to n s ] a re fa r o s h a s a n d R u d e in th a r M a n e r s P e r h a p O a e in g in S u m m a s h e r to th a r e L e a d i[n ]g a n O b s q u e r life in th e P la n e s . T h a y a re n o t C o n v a r s a n t w ith E v r e y o th e r trib e. T h [ e y se ld o m ] S e a th a re N ig h b e r s . T h a y L e a d e a w a n d e r in g L ife in th a t E x s te n s iv e P la n e B e t w e n e th e M is e u r a & M is s ic ip p e y . . . . T h a y H a v e a G r a te N u m b e r o f H o r s e s a n d D o g s w h ic h C a r r e s th a re B a g e a g w h e n t h a y M o v e fro m P la s e to P la s e . . . . T h a y a re c o n tin u e ly o n th e W a tc h fo r fe a r e o f B e a in g S a rp ris e d B y th a re E n e m is e w h o a re all R o u n d th e m . T h a r e w a r Im p le m e n ts a r e S u m fire a rm e s â&#x20AC;&#x201D; B o s e s a n d a rro e s & S p e a r w h ic h th e y h a v e C o n tin u e ly in th a re h a n d s . . . .

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h a v e th a re H o rse is L o n g W in d e d th e y slit th a ir N o s e s u p th e G ris s e l o f th a re h e a d w h ic h M a k e th e m B r e a th V e r e y f r e e ly .â&#x20AC;? A b o u t 1 7 7 5 th e D a k o ta s r e a c h e d th e B la c k H ills, ru n n in g th e K io w a s

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s p e a k in g W ic h ita s. T h e y th e n jo in e d th e C o m a n c h e s in a c o m m o n e ffo rt th a t p u s h e d th e L ip a n a n d M e s c a le r o A p a c h e s d e e p d o w n in to T e x a s . T h e P la in s h a d b e c o m e a b illia rd ta b le w ith a ll b a lls The Mandans o f the Upper Missouri were an exception to Plains life. They planted crops and dwelt in semipermanent earth lodges.

BY CARL BODMER;

in m o tio n . D e s p ite th e n e v e r - e n d in g h o stilities, th e re w e r e c o m p e n s a tio n s , n o t th e le a s t o f th e m b e in g a n e s tim a te d th irty m illion b u ffa lo . F r e e d fro m th e o ld d r u d g e r y o f th e h u n t, th e re w a s tim e fo r w o rk in g h id e s in to tip is a n d c irc u la r sh ie ld s, tim e fo r d e c o r a t in g th e m w ith a n art th a t w a s b o th g e o m e tric a n d sy m b o lic , a n d tim e fo r fo rm in g m a le m ilita ry so c ie tie s, g o in g to th e s w e a th o u s e , a n d p e r fe c tin g th e su n d a n c e a n d th e sc a lp d a n c e . N o t a ll P la in s trib e s s h a re d all th e a ttrib u te s o f th e P la in s c u l tu re . T h e g ifte d M a n d a n s a n d th e H id a ts a s a n d th e m o re s o u th e r ly A r ik a r a s c h o s e to c o n tin u e liv in g in s e m ip e rm a n e n t v illa g e s a lo n g th e u p p e r M isso u ri, c o n te n tin g th e m s e lv e s a s tra d e rs o f h o r s e s ra th e r th a n ra id e rs. T h e y g re w co rn a n d b e a n s , w h ic h th e y tr a d e d to th e n o m a d s w h o c a m e fro m all p o in ts o f th e c o m p a s s for s u p p lie s . U n fo r tu n a te ly , th e S io u x a lso carrte w ith m o re th a n tr a d e o n th e ir m in d s, a n d th e M a n d a n s e v e n tu a lly fo u n d th e m s e lv e s b e s ie g e d in th e ir e a r th - c o v e r e d lo d g e s . T h e n , in a so rry iro n y , w h e n th e w h ite m a n ’s p o x e s c a m e , it w a s th e s e d e n ta r y p e o p le in th e c lo s e n e s s o f a v illa g e w h o s u ffe r e d th e fu ll r a v a g e s o f th e d is e a s e — n o t th e c e n ta u rs g a llo p in g o v e r th e g ra ssla n d s. A r m e d c o n flic t w a s e v e r a c o n d itio n o f life o n th e P la in s. It w a s b e fo r e th e e ig h te e n th c e n tu r y a n d it w a s in th e c e n tu r y a fte r th e e ig h te e n th , w h e n th e in te r n e c in e w a r o f th e P la in s In d ia n w a s to b e b o th a b o th e r a n d a b e n e fit to th e w h ite m a n . D u rin g th e la st h a lf o f th e e ig h te e n th c e n tu ry , th e situ a tio n w a s r e v e r s e d s o m e w h a t; th e w h ite m a n ’ s w a rs in th e E a s t w e r e b o th a b e n e fit a n d a b o th e r to th e P la in s In d ia n . H e c o u ld n o t h a v e g u e s s e d th a t th e n o is y b a ttle s b e t w e e n fo rm a lly u n ifo rm e d m e n m a rc h in g in ra n k a n d file w e r e fo r th e m a s te r y o f a c o n tin e n t th a t in c lu d e d h is b u f fa lo g ro u n d s. B u t h e w a s a w a r e o f so m e sh o rt-term in c o n v e n ie n c e s th e y cau sed . P rio r to 174 0 , fo r e x a m p le , th e F r e n c h h a d b u ilt u p a m u tu a lly RARE BOOK DIVISION, NEW YORK PUBLIC LIBRARY

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p r o fita b le a n d o rd e rly tr a d e w ith th e O s a g e a n d K a n s a In d ia n s on th e L o w e r M isso u ri: g u n s a n d k n iv e s a n d trin k e ts fo r p e lts a n d b u ffa lo w o o l. T h e n K in g G e o r g e ’s w a r in te r v e n e d ; F r e n c h b o a ts o n th e M is s is s ip p i b o u n d fo r N e w O rle a n s w e r e p r e y to E n g lis h p ir a te s , a n d th o s e th a t m a d e it fo u n d th e p ric e s fo r tr a d e g o o d s in th e p o rt c ity r a is e d — a n in c r e a s e th a t h a d to b e p a s s e d o n to th e O s a g e s a n d th e K a n s a s . A b r ie f p e a c e in te r v e n e d , th e n h o stilities

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for a E u r o p e a n n a tio n th a t w a s n e v e r c o m fo rta b le on th e P la in s.

e y e b r o w s ” c a m e a m o n g th e trib e s a n d w e r e th e ir o w n m e n . A s F r e n c h stre n g th e b b e d , th e E n g lis h trie d to fill th e vo id , u sin g F r e n c h m id d le m e n or th e ir o w n tra d e rs to o b ta in fu rs fro m th e In d ia n in e x c h a n g e fo r su p e rio r w a re s a t c h e a p e r p ric e s . B u t th e traffic w a s h it-a n d -m iss, e s p e c ia lly a fte r w e s te r n L o u is ia n a b e c a m e S p a n is h a n d th e E n g lis h h a d to cro ss th e M iss is sip p i fu r tiv e ly

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C a r le to n , e n c o u r a g e d F r e n c h cou reu rs d e bois to d o w h a t th e S p a n is h w e r e d o in g so p o o rly . T h a t w a s fin e, if th e S p a n is h d id n o t c a tc h on. B u t th e y d id , a n d in th e w in te r o f 1 7 7 2 - 7 3 t h e y c o n fis c a te d b o a tlo a d s o f fu rs th a t J e a n - M a r ie D u c h a r m e , a c tin g fo r E n g la n d , h a d a c q u ir e d a m o n g th e O s a g e s . T h e o u tb r e a k o f th e R e v o lu tio n a r y W a r p u t a s q u e e z e o n th e In d ia n s u p p ly o f p o w d e r a n d sh o t a n d m e ta l to o ls, w h ic h w a s all b u t sh u t o ff w h e n G o v e r n o r C a r le to n in 1 7 7 7 c lo s e d th e G r e a t L a k e s to all c ra ft e x c e p t th o s e in ro y a l s e r v ic e . C o m m e r c e w ith th e P la in s h a d c o m e to a te m p o ra ry stan d still. W h e n th e w a r e n d e d , th e v ic to rs w e r e n o t th e E n g lis h , w h o s e p rim a ry in te r e s t in th e W e s t w a s its p o te n tia l a s a fu r s u p p lie r a n d a m a rk e t, a n d w h o w e r e th e r e fo r e p r e fe r re d b y th e In d ia n , b u t th e r e s id e n t sp lin te r g ro u p — th e “ dirt e a t e r s ,” so c a lle d fo r th e ir la n d -h u n g ry w a y s (m a n y a m u tila te d c o rp s e o f a s e ttle r h a d b e e n fo u n d w ith d irt p a c k e d in its m o u th ). The

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d e s tru c tiv e . B e fo r e th e A m e r ic a n s e v e r c a m e , so m e trib es, in c lu d in g th e P a lo m a a n d C a r la n a A p a c h e s , h a d b e e n e x te rm in a te d — b y re d m en . O th e r trib es, a m o n g th e m th e T o n k a w a s o f c e n tra l

122

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T H O M A S G IL C R E A S E

p r o v e d d isa stro u s fo r th e F r e n c h a n d d is ru p tiv e to th e In d ia n . A lm o s t o v e rn ig h t th e F r e n c h m e n b e c a m e s u b je c ts o f S p a in , in

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An Indian camp on the great grassland. T epees o f buffalo hides could be struck quickly in order to follow the migrating herds.

T e x a s , th e C a d d o a n c o n fe d e r a c y o f n o rth e a s t T e x a s , a n d e v e n th e o n c e -m ig h ty K a n s a s o f th e lo w e r M isso u ri, h a d b e e n r e d u c e d to a p itifu l fe w â&#x20AC;&#x201D; b y re d m e n . T h e d o o m o f th e P la in s In d ia n c a m e fro m w ith in as w e ll as fro m w ith o u t. E c o n o m ic a lly , h e w a s a lw a y s m o re a c o n s u m e r th a n a p r o d u c e r , a n d his o v e r -re lia n c e o n th e b u ffa lo (his h a r v e s t o f w h ic h c o u ld b e w a s te fu l) m a d e h is fu tu re p re c a rio u s to s a y th e le a s t. P o litic a lly , h is o rg a n iz a tio n w a s so w e a k as to b o r d e r on a n a r c h y . W h a t h e d id , a n d w h a t h e h a d , d e riv e d fro m w h a t h e w a s : th e e m b o d im e n t o f a ll th a t w a s m a s c u lin e a n d p r e d a to ry , a D io n y s ia n v o ta r y c o m m itte d to e x c e s s , w h ic h le d n o t to B la k e â&#x20AC;&#x2122; s p a la c e o f w isd o m b u t, in tim e, to his o w n d e stru c tio n .

123

Chapter 6

( orq Farmer§, Thieves, and Borrowers T

P u e b l o I n d i a n s liv in g a lo n g th e life -s u sta in in g flo o d p la in

o f w h a t th e S p a n is h c a lle d th e R io G r a n d e d e l N o rte a re c o n s id e r e d e x c e p tio n s a m o n g th e a b o rig in a l p e o p le s o f N o rth A m e r ic a . E v e n in 1 7 7 6 t h e y w e r e e x c e p tio n s , in m a tte rs o f c irc u m s ta n c e as w e ll as c u ltu re . F a r fro m e n jo y in g a n y In d ia n su m m e r, th e ir m e ta p h o r m ig h t h a v e d e s c r ib e d a n u n u s u a lly h a rsh a n d e a r ly w in te r sp illin g d o w n u p o n th e m fro m th e w h ite h e ig h ts o f th e S a n g r e d e C risto M o u n ta in s. U s h e rin g in th a t w in te r o f th e spirit w e r e fie rc e C o m a n c h e s , m o re o f th e m th a n h a d c o m e b e fo r e , w ith p illa g e on th e ir m in d s. Still, th e re h a d b e e n w o rs e tim es: th e y e a r s b e fo re th e re v o lt o f th e ir a n c e s to rs in 1680, w h e n th e en com ien d a s w e r e in fu ll fo rc e , a n d th e g ra sp in g a n d a rro g a n t g en tes d e razon (a d e s c r ip tio n o f th o s e w h o w e re b le s s e d w ith a t le a s t so m e S p a n is h b lo o d ) v io la te d v e n e r a b le ta b o o s a n d d e s e c r a te d th e g o d s w h o h a d c o m e fro m Shipapu to te a c h th e p e o p le th e m e th o d s a n d th e c e r e m o n ie s fo r p la n tin g co rn . T h e r e w e re also , for th a t m a tte r, th e tw e lv e y e a r s w h e n th e y w e r e fr e e o f th e S p a n is h y o k e b u t w h e n th e T e w a m e d ic in e m a n , P o p e , m y stic co -in stig a to r o f th e r e b e l lion , h a d h im s e lf b e c o m e a ty ra n t. T h e p u e b lo s q u a r r e le d w ith o n e a n o th e r, a n d th e p e o p le , d is p la y in g a n u n c h a ra c te ris tic fu ry to b e rid o f a lie n w a y s , h a d a llo w e d w h e a tfie ld s a n d fru it o rc h a rd s a n d v in e y a r d s to go to ruin. T h e R e v o lt w a s a tim e r e m e m b e r e d , a to u c h s to n e fo r r e c k o n in g c h a n g e s , g o o d , b a d , a n d n e u tra l. T h e p e o p le s o f th e p u e b lo s d w e lt n o t o n ly a lo n g th e R io G r a n d e . T h e r e w a s a w e s te rn sp u r th a t ra n to th e sk y c ity o f A c o m a , th ro u g h th e m o u n ta in o f Z u n i, a n d fa r w e s t o n to th e b a ld

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C O R N F A R M E R S , T H IE V E S , A N D B O R R O W E R S

m e s a s o f th e H o p is. O n a m a p it s h o w e d lik e a b e n t cro ss w ith th e le ft tr a n s v e r s e b e a m

sh o rn a w a y . T h e p e o p le s e a s t a n d w e s t

w e r e n o t u n ite d b y la n g u a g e ; if a n y th in g , th e y w e r e d iv id e d b y it. T h o s e o f th e riv e r v a lle y s p o k e v a rio u s d ia le c ts o f K e r e s a n a n d T a n o a n to n g u e s , th e Z u n is a la n g u a g e u n iq u e u n to th e m s e lv e s , a n d th e H o p is a S h o s h o n e a n d ia le c t. W h a t u n ite d th e m w a s a c o m m o n v ie w o f th e w o rld — a n d co rn , th e c u ltiv a tio n o f w h ic h in a r e m o te p a s t h a d k e p t h u n te rs h o m e a n d m a d e fa rm e rs o f th e m . T h e r e w a s a h a rm o n y in th is h o riz o n ta l w o rld o f m e s a s a n d m o u n ta in s a n d v o lc a n ic b a d la n d s a n d th e d e e p - b lu e c lo s e n e s s o f th e sk y , if o n e b u t lo o k e d . T h e P u e b lo s d id lo o k a n d sa w p ro p o r tion , a c o m m a n d fo r m o d e ra tio n in all th in g s. R e lig io n w a s life itse lf, a n d

ritu a l o w n e d e a c h m u n d a n e a c t o f e v e r y d a y life.

E a r th e n h o m e s w e r e o f e a rth co lo rs a n d a lik e , as th e p e o p le w e re s u p p o s e d to b e a lik e — s e r e n e , fo rb e a rin g , a n d v a g u e ly u p tig h t. G r i e f a n d j o y w e r e p r iv a te a n d sh o u ld re m a in th a t w a y in th e c o m m u n a l in te re s t. G ro w in g co rn w a s p r e fe r a b le to w a g in g w a r, fo r it k e p t o n e c lo s e to h o m e a n d to th e w o m e n a ro u n d w h o m life fo c u s e d . T h e c o rn p la n te r liv e d w ith th e fa m ily o f h is w ife ; c h il d r e n o f th e u n io n b e lo n g e d to th e c la n o f th e w ife — s q u a s h p e o p le o f su m m e r, or tu r q u o is e p e o p le o f w in te r, or w h a te v e r d iv isio n s th e p u e b lo h a d . W o m e n ’ s w o rk m ig h t n e v e r b e d o n e , b u t it w a s th e im p o rta n t w o rk , k e e p in g h o u s e a n d h e a rth a n d a c o n tin u ity th r o u g h th e rh y th m s o f d a y s a n d s e a s o n s a n d g e n e ra tio n s. G o in g a w a y to w a r m ig h t b e n e c e s s a r y . It w a s, h o w e v e r , a p p r a is e d as s a d ly n e c e s s a r y . In th e la tte r p a rt o f th e e ig h te e n th c e n tu ry , it w a s n e c e s s a r y for th e R io G r a n d e P u e b lo s to go to w a r a g a in . W h e n t h e y d id , th e y a c q u itte d th e m s e lv e s w e ll, n o t o n ly a g a in s t C o m a n c h e s fro m th e n o rth b u t a lso a g a in s t A p a c h e s fro m th e e a s t a n d w e s t a n d sou th . F r o m a n y d ire c tio n , th e r e m ig h t re s o u n d w ith o u t w a rn in g sp in ec h illin g sh rie k s o f ra id e rs, w h o s e h o rs e s k ic k e d u p sw irlin g d u st d e v ils o n a d u n la n d s c a p e b o th c o m in g a n d g o in g . W ith th e m w e re o n ly th e S p a n ia r d s . T h e S p a n ia rd s ! T h o s e w e r e stra n g e b e d fe llo w s fo r th e P u e b lo s , a n d n o lo n g e r th e b e s t o f a llie s e ith e r. T h r o u g h th e ir g r e e d y tra d e rs , th e H is p a n o s h a d h e lp e d to arm th e

enem y, who

now

h a d m o re a n d b e tte r h o rs e s th a n th e

P u e b lo s , w h o in th e ir tu rn h a d c e rta in ly m o re h o rs e s th a n th e

125

■■mi

Acoma, the “Sky City,” was typical o f the defensible high ground settled b y the maize-growers o f N ew Mexico’s mesa tops.

S p a n ia rd s . M o re o v e r, th e S p a n is h so ld ie rs w e r e n e ith e r as n u m e r ou s nor as v a lia n t as th e y o n c e h a d b e e n . It w a s a n o d d a llia n c e , in d e e d . Y e t to g e th e r th e y sto o d fo r th e n e b u lo u s id e a o f c iv ili z a tio n a g a in s t w h a t th e S p a n ia r d s c a lle d th e Indios barbaros. C iv iliz a tio n — y e s , th e re w a s so m e th in g in th a t. B u t w h o s e c iv ili z a tio n w a s it? In 1 7 7 6 th e r e w e re a n e s tim a te d 6,000 S p a n ia r d s c o m p a r e d to so m e 11,0 0 0 In d ia n s ; in 1680 th e re h a d b e e n 2,500 S p a n ia rd s a n d 25,000 P u e b lo s . A fte r th e R e v o lt a n d th e r e c o n q u e s t b y th e m a n -o f-h is-w o rd , D o n D ie g o d e V a r g a s , co n d itio n s h a d g r a d u a lly w o r s e n e d . T h e old a rr o g a n c e o f th e E spa h oles s h o w e d its e lf in d iffe r e n t g u ise s. T r u e , th e p riests c o u ld no lo n g e r fo r c e th e ir re lig io n o n th e re d m e n as th e y o n c e h a d , w ith w h ip p in g s fo r fa ilu re to a tte n d M a ss; n o r d id th e p rie sts h a v e e a s y a c c e s s to th e ir h o m e s. N o w th e p a d r e s w e r e th e ir frie n d s — d e fe n d in g th e m a g a in s t th e s e c u la r o fficials w h o c o rru p te d th e ir y o u n g w o m e n , m a d e fie ld h a n d s o f th e ir m e n , a n d c h e a te d th e m a ll a t th e m a r k e tp la c e . Y e t th e

126

"THE LOOKOUT" BY WILLIAM R. LEIGH; WOOLAROC MUSEUM. BARTLESVILLE, OKLAHOMA

O o <

Long before the Spaniards came to conquer, the peaceful corn-planters had to be watchful for the approach o f fierce nomadic raiders.

p e o p le c o u ld n o w re tire b e h in d th e ir o w n a d o b e w a lls a n d , in th e s e c r e c y o f th e ir d im c h a m b e rs , p r a c tic e a n c ie n t rites to p ro p itia te fe rtility g o d s a n d th w a rt so rc e re rs w h o b ro u g h t d is e a s e . W h a t th e fa th e r s p r e a c h e d n e e d o n ly b e p a id lip s e r v ic e a n d m a d e a le s s e r p a rt o f w h a t t h e y b e lie v e d â&#x20AC;&#x201D; or p r e te n d e d to b e lie v e . B u t w h ile p a s s iv e r e s is ta n c e m ig h t w o rk in c o p in g w ith th e S p a n ia r d s , it w a s no w a y to c o m b a t th e n o m a d s w h o h a d h o u n d e d th e P u e b lo s sin c e lo n g b e fo re th e S p a n ia rd s a rriv e d . T h o s e w ith th e r e v e r e n c e a n d p a tie n c e to g ro w c o rn in su rp lu s h a d a lw a y s h a d to b e o n g u a rd a g a in s t th e w a n d e r e rs w h o w o u ld n o t g ro w it b u t w o u ld kill fo r it. H a d n o t th e ir a n c e s to rs, th e A n a s a z is o f th e ru m p le d re d c a n y o n c o u n try to th e n o rth a n d w e st, le a r n e d th a t? W h y e ls e h a d t h e y liv e d h ig h u p in th e r e c e s s e s o f s h e e r c a n y o n w a lls ? Y e t it c o u ld n o t b e d e n ie d th a t at this tim e th e r e w e r e m o re o f th e m a ra u d e rs , a n d t h e y w e r e c lo se r. F ro m th e m id Â e ig h te e n th c e n tu r y o n , P u e b lo a n d S p a n ia r d sto o d sid e b y sid e a g a in s t th e d is ru p tiv e fo r c e s o f th e o u ts id e w o rld . E v e n th o u g h

127

A N IN D IA N S U M M E R

th e th in g r e e n lin e o f r iv e rs id e fa rm s p o s s e s s e d m o re sp iritu a l th a n m a te ria l ric h e s , w e a lth w a s r e la tiv e , a n d th e re s tle s s h o r s e m e n h a d c o m e to g e t w h a t th e y c o u ld . In A u g u s t o f 176 0 , th e C o m a n c h e s in fo rc e a tta c k e d T a o s , th e n o rth e rn m o s t o f th e R io G r a n d e p u e b lo s a n d th e p la c e o f th e a n n u a l tr a d e fair. B e fo r e th e a tta c k a n d a fte r it, th e su m m e r fa ir w a s th e c o m m e rc ia l h ig h lig h t o f th e y e a r , w h e r e C o m a n c h e , U te , N a v a jo , A p a c h e , S p a n ia r d , a n d P u e b lo c o u ld m e e t in m o m e n ta ry p e a c e to s w a p h o rs e s , s la v e s , g u n s, co rn , h id e s , b la n k e ts , je w e lr y , fe a th e r s , a n d d y e s . T h e ra id w a s a n o u tra g e , b u t o n ly a fo r e ta s te o f w h a t w a s to co m e . In th e 1 770 s th e C o m a n c h e c h ie f C u e r n o V e r d e a n d h is h o rd e ro d e in fro m th e n o rth e a s t to te rro riz e th e R io G r a n d e V a lle y . T o th e n o rth w e st, th e U te s w e r e le a v in g th e ir m o u n ta in h o m e s to g e t th e ir s h a re o f p lu n d e r, a n d in 1 7 7 8 th e S p a n ia r d s w o u ld issu e a n e m p ty re ta lia to ry d e c r e e fo rb id d in g tr a d e w ith th e m . T h e n th e r e w e r e th e A p a c h e s , m o re b o ld a n d fa r-ra n g in g th a n e v e r , u n itin g th e co rn p e o p le w ith th e S p a n ia r d a n d a n y b o d y e ls e w h o w o u ld jo in th e c o m m o n c a u s e o f d e fe n s e .

HE WESTERN PUEBLOS o f th e Z u n is a n d H o p is k n e w m u c h le ss o f th e S p a n ia r d s th a n th e ir e a s te r n c o u n te rp a rts . T h e r e , too, liv e d

s e d e n ta r y a g ric u ltu ra l p e o p le s , w o rs h ip e rs o f th e C o r n

M o th e r, a n d e v e n m o re p e a c e - lo v in g th a n th o s e in th e riv e r v a lle y . A fte r th e 1680 R e v o lt, w h e n t h e y k ille d th e C h ris tia n p rie sts se n t a m o n g th e m , S p a n is h visits w e r e in fr e q u e n t. B o th Z u n is a n d H o p is w e r e e x e m p te d fro m S p a n is h ta x e s ; b o th w e re S p a n is h s u b je c ts o n ly in S p a n is h m in d s. T h e Z u n is , tw o h u n d r e d m ile s w e s t o f th e R io G r a n d e , d id r e c e iv e o c c a s io n a l m issio n Â a rie s, w h o m t h e y tr e a te d k in d ly . T h e H o p is, a b o u t o n e h u n d r e d m iles n o rth w e st o f Z u n i, r e c e iv e d th e m a n d th e n g e n tly b u t firm ly se n t th e m a w a y . Y e t n e ith e r o f th e s e sta id , in d e p e n d e n t trib e s w a s im m u n e to th e n e w tro u b le s. N a v a jo ra id s on Z u n i w e r e s te p p e d u p fro m th e w e st, a n d in th e 1 7 7 0 s t h e y fa c e d a n e w th re a t fro m A p a c h e s . A s fo r th e p ro u d H o p is, a lso fa m ilia r w ith A p a c h e a n d N a v a jo ra id e rs b u t w ith s u p e r b d e fe n s iv e p o sitio n s a to p th e ir th r e e m e s a s , 1 7 7 7 w a s th e c u lm in a tin g y e a r o f a p e rio d

128

C O R N F A R M E R S , T H IE V E S , A ND B O R R O W E R S

o f d r o u g h t th a t fo r c e d m a n y to c o m e d o w n fro m th e ir d e s ic c a te h ig h g ro u n d . S o m e a g r e e d to b e r e lo c a te d on th e R io G r a n d e b y th e S p a n is h , so m e w e n t w e s t to liv e on th e floor o f th e G ra n d C a n y o n w ith th e H a v a s u p a is , a n d o th e rs s ta y e d to s e e th e d ry y e a r s th ro u g h . In 1 7 8 1 th e ra in s c a m e , a n d so d id th e sm allp o x. S o m e th r e e h u n d r e d d ry m ile s so u th o f H o p i, in a la n d o f th ic k s a g u a r o sta n d s a n d o th e r S o n o ra n D e s e r t flo ra, th e tip o f a fe e b le S p a n is h

fin g e r

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fro m

M e x ic o

into

p r e s e n t-d a y

A r iz o n a . It w a s p a rt o f w h a t N e w S p a in c a lle d P im e ria A lta , so n a m e d a fte r th e P im a In d ia n b a n d s liv in g th e re , w h o w e r e u n ite d b y s p e a k in g d ia le c ts o f a sin g le la n g u a g e . T h e c o u n try s id e so u th o f th e fu tu re b o r d e r lo o k e d e x a c tly as it d id to th e n orth: sa b le h u e d a n d b r o k e n b y ja g g e d u p th ru sts o f a d a rk is h color, w ith s u c c u le n ts g ro w in g w h e r e ra in fa ll a llo w e d , a n d c u t th ro u g h b y a fe w life -s u s ta in in g riv e rs. T w o o f th e s e w e re th e S a n ta C r u z a n d th e S a n P e d r o , w h ic h ra n n o rth w e s t in to th e G ila . B o r d e r in g th e S a n ta C r u z a n d th e S a n P e d r o th e r e w a s v e g e ta tio n — n o t all o f it p u t th e r e r a n d o m ly b y n a tu re . S o m e o f it h a d b e e n p la n te d a n d s o m e o f it w a s m a iz e , te n d e d b y th e S o b a ip u ris , th e n o rth e a ste rn b r a n c h o f th e P im a s . L ik e m o st c o rn p e o p le , th e y w e r e p e a c e fu l, a n d lik e m o st c o rn p e o p le , t h e y d re w S p a n is h p a d re s . T h e s e e d o f fa ith a lw a y s d id b e tte r w h e re m a iz e a lso grew . F a t h e r E u s e b io K in o w a s th e first to e n v isio n a C a th o lic h a rv e s t in P im e r ia A lta b a c k in th e 1690 s. In h is u s u a l fe a rle s s fa sh io n h e w e n t a m o n g th e rancherias o f th e S o b a ip u ris a n d th e ir w e s te rn n e ig h b o r s a n d fe llo w P im a s, th e P a p a g o s (w h o liv e d b y re a p in g s e a s o n a l h a r v e s ts fro m th e ir irrig a te d g a rd e n s a n d b y g a th e rin g w h a t t h e y c o u ld fro m th e d e se rt), as w e ll a s th e P im a s so u th o f th e fu tu re b o rd e r. K in o b r o u g h t w ith h im c a ttle a n d p r a c tic a l a d v ic e o n im p ro v in g life in th e h e r e a n d n o w , as w e ll as sp iritu a l u p lift. S k illfu lly a n d s u c c e s s fu lly , h e p r o te c te d h is n e w flo c k fro m th e g r e e d o f S o n o r a ’ s m in e o w n e rs a n d hacen dad os, w h o w e r e in n e e d o f fo r c e d la b o r fo r th e ir pits a n d th e ir fa rm s a n d d id w h a t t h e y c o u ld to p o is o n th e J e s u it’ s re p u ta tio n in N e w S p a in . H e e v e n m e d ia te d m is u n d e r s ta n d in g -b e c o m e -a tr o c ity to th e p o in t w h e re h e w a s tru ste d b y th e P im a s , if n o t b y th e e n tr e p r e n e u r s o f S o n o ra . T h e P im a s a c tu a lly w a n te d m issio n s a n d w a n te d S p a n ia rd s to liv e w ith th e m . B u t K in o w a s, a la s, m o rtal, a n d a fte r h e

129

"COMING OF THE CATTLE" BY CARL OSCAR BORG; WESTWAYS

Early in the eighteenth century, Father Eusebio Kino brought both cattle and the Word o f God to the Indians o f Pimeria Alta.

d ie d in 1 7 1 1 th e rim o f C h ris te n d o m slid so u th w a rd a g a in . In 173 2 th e J e s u its d id se n d m o re m issio n a rie s n o rth to r e c o u p w h a t, if e v e r w o n , h a d b e e n lost. T h e m issio n s o f S a n X a v ie r d e l B a c a n d S a n M ig u e l d e G u e v a v i w e r e m a n n e d , a m o d e s t a c h ie v e m e n t u n d o n e in 1 7 5 1 b y a P im a n u p risin g . T h e fo llo w in g y e a r th e m issio n s w e r e re o c c u p ie d , b u t th e J e s u its n e v e r r e c o v e r e d th e ir stre n g th b e fo re th e y w e r e b a n is h e d b y ro y a l d e c r e e in 1 7 6 7 . T h e F r a n c is c a n s c a m e in th e ir s te a d , a n d as H u b e r t H . B a n c r o ft s u g g e sts, th e y e a r 1 7 7 6 c a n b e ta k e n as m a rk in g th e S p a n is h o c c u p a tio n o f T u c s o n . T h e S o b a ip u ris a n d th e P a p a g o s d id n o t s e e m u c h o f th e n e w c o m e r s th e y w e r e p r e p a r e d to w e lc o m e , a n d th a t w a s n o t a ttrib u ta b le s o le ly to S p a n is h w e a k n e s s or in d iffe r e n c e . T h e n e w c ry in th e la n d w a s no m o re th a n a m a g n ifie d e c h o o f a v e r y o ld c ry fa m ilia r to th e e a r o f P im a n a n d P u e b lo a n d S p a n iard . It s p e lle d terro r in a sin g le w o r d — A p a ch e!

'T 'T T IT H THE CORN

p e o p l e in th e S o u th w e s t lo n g b e fo re C o ro \ \ n a d o a n d his b e a r d e d c o u n try m e n c a m e lo o k in g fo r C ib o la w e r e a p a ir o f A th a p a s c a n -s p e a k in g g ro u p s r e la te d b y la n g u a g e

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b u t sh o w in g a w id e n in g c le a v a g e in h a b its in th e e ig h te e n th c e n tu ry . W e k n o w th e m to d a y as th e N a v a jo s a n d th e A p a c h e s , c o n v e n ie n t h a n d le s fo r w h a t w e r e n e ith e r n a tio n s n o r trib e s b u t m a n y ro a m in g b a n d s fe n d in g fo r th e m s e lv e s . H o w lo n g th e y h a d in h a b ite d th e S o u th w e s t is a m a tte r o f c o n je c tu r e still. T h e y a re b e lie v e d to h a v e d e s c e n d e d fro m th e la st p re h isto ric m ig ra n ts a cro ss th e A s ia n la n d b r id g e , so m e o f th e m le a v in g m a n y re la tiv e s in u p p e r C a n a d a to w a n d e r d o w n th e e a s t sid e o f th e R o c k ie s . O n c e in th e S o u th w e s t th e y s c a tte re d , w ith th o s e k n o w n a s A p a c h e s not r e a lly se ttlin g b u t b y th e e ig h te e n th c e n tu r y liv in g b o th e a s t a n d w e s t o f th e R io G r a n d e . T h o s e e a s t o f th e riv e r, in th e N e w M e x ic o h ill c o u n try a n d o n th e so u th e rn P la in s , th e “ e a s te rn A p a c h e s ,” w e r e e ith e r p lia n t fa rm e rs fa c in g a n n ih ila tio n a t th e h a n d s o f th e C o m a n c h e s , or w a rrio rs in s o u th w e s te rly re tre a t — a p e o p le b e in g te m p e r e d b e tw e e n a C o m a n c h e h a m m e r a n d a S p a n is h a n vil.

A p a ch e is a Z u n i w o rd fo r “ e n e m y ” th a t stu c k for th e s e s a v a g e , fu g itiv e b a n d s , w h o b y fa te a n d d isp o sitio n b e c a m e e n e m ie s to all. N o o n e e ls e w a s so b e g r u d g e d a p la c e u n d e r th e a m p le s o u th w e s te r n su n or m a d e th e o b je c t o f a c o m m o n h u n t b y a n a llia n c e o f P u e b lo s , C o m a n c h e s , S p a n ia rd s , a n d e v e n N a v a jo s o n o c c a sion . T h e y w e r e th e u n w a n te d , th e u n c le a n , th e p a ria h s o f th e S o u th w e s t. B u t to th e c h a g rin o f th e ir e n e m ie s , th e y p r o s p e r e d in a d v e r s ity a n d w e r e n e v e r so p ro s p e ro u s as in th e e ig h te e n th c e n tu r y , w h e n t h e y b e c a m e c h ro n ic d isru p te rs o f o rd e rly b u sin e ss . H isto ria n s a n d e th n o g r a p h e r s h a v e sa id th e r e n e v e r w e r e v e r y m a n y A p a c h e s . O n e e s tim a te p u ts th e ir n u m b e r w e s t o f th e R io G r a n d e a t n o t m a n y m o re th a n six th o u s a n d . I f th is is c o rrect, th e n e a c h fo u g h t w ith th e stre n g th o f te n , n o t o u t o f a n y p u rity o f h e a rt, b u t o u t o f th e w ill to s u r v iv e b y grit a n d th e ft. In th e e ig h te e n th c e n tu r y th e ir s p h e r e o f c h a o s e x te n d e d fro m s o u th e rn T e x a s a n d n o rth e rn C h ih u a h u a th ro u g h S o n o ra all th e w a y to th e Y a q u i R iv e r , n o rth to c e n tr a l A r iz o n a , a n d e a s t to c o v e r th e so u th e rn h a lf o f N e w M e x ic o . B e t w e e n th e m o st s o u th e rly N e w M e x ic a n p u e b lo a n d th e m o st n o rth e rly M e x ic a n stro n g h o ld , t h e y c o n tro lle d w h a t h a s b e e n c a lle d th e “ A p a c h e C o r r id o r ” — a n a v e n u e w id e e n o u g h to m a rc h tw e n ty m o d e rn a rm ie s th ro u g h . E a r ly

S p a n is h re p o rts fro m th e s e v e n te e n th c e n tu r y m a k e

s p a r s e m e n tio n o f th e “ w e s te r n A p a c h e s ,” or b a n d s th a t w o u ld

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la te r fit th a t d e sc rip tio n . W e c a n p ic tu re th e m a s d im fig u re s on th e fa r h o rizo n , w a tc h in g , fro m u m b e r h illto p s or in th e m a u v e sh ad ow s

o f a d e s e r t w a s h , th e a rriv in g S p a n ia r d s a n d th e ir

b a g g a g e . T h e y w e r e in te r e s te d in S p a n is h p o s s e s s io n s as th e y h a d b e e n a n d still w e r e in te r e s te d in P u e b lo p o s s e s s io n s . A b o v e all, t h e y w e r e in te r e s te d in th e h o rse . T h e A p a c h e s p r a c tic e d a k in d o f h a p h a z a r d a g ric u ltu re a ro u n d th e ir b ru s h s h e lte rs b o th b e fo r e a n d a fte r th e c o m in g o f th e h o rs e , b u t t h e y w e r e n o t, as c o m fo rta b le in th e s to o p e d p o sitio n as t h e y w e r e u p rig h t, m o u n te d . In th e e ig h te e n th c e n tu r y S p a n ia r d s sa w m o re A p a c h e s th a n th e y c a r e d to se e . T h e m a ra u d e rs c a m e , t h e y sa w , a n d t h e y sto le, w ith

g ro w in g r e g u la r it y — h ittin g a n d

ru n n in g w ith w h a t th e y

c o u ld ta k e , a n d k illin g b u t n o t fo r k illin g ’ s sa k e . T h is fin e m o ra l d istin ctio n d id n o t s ta y th e S p a n ia r d s , w h o trie d a v a r ie ty o f c o u n te rm e a s u re s : C h ris tia n iz in g th e m , w h ic h w a s a c o m p le te fizz le ; o stra c iz in g th e m , w h ic h o n ly e n c o u r a g e d th e m ; o r g a n iz in g p u n itiv e c a m p a ig n s o f p u rsu it, w h ic h too o fte n e n d e d in so m e e m p ty b lin d c a n y o n o f b r o k e n ro ck; a n d m a k in g s la v e s o f th e m , p a rtic u la rly th e ir c h ild re n , w h ic h o n ly fired A p a c h e a rd o r m o re . T h e y e a r s b e tw e e n 17 6 5 a n d 17 8 5 w e r e th e h e ig h t o f A p a c h e terror. T h e R io G r a n d e V a lle y w a s b le e d in g ; th e fu tu r e o f th e T a o s p u e b lo a c a u s e o f th e g r e a te s t c o n c e rn . T h e w e s te r n p u e b lo s all th e w a y to Z u n i n o w fe lt A p a c h e p r e s s u r e , a n d th e S o b a ip u r is w e r e c h a s e d o u t o f th e S a n P e d r o R iv e r V a lle y . T h e n o rth e a s t p o rtio n o f th e rich m in in g a n d ra n c h in g p r o v in c e o f S o n o r a h a d b e e n a b a n d o n e d , a n d th e c a p ita l h a d b e e n m o v e d so u th fro m S a n J u a n B a u tis ta a n d a w a y fro m th e a r e a o f d e so la tio n . E v e n on th e fa r so u th e rn T e x a s p la in s, th e e a s te r n A p a c h e s w e r e m a k in g liv in g h a z a r d o u s to h e a lth . In 178 6 th e d e s p e r a te S p a n ia r d s re s o rte d to th e ir “ fin a l so lu tio n ” to th e A p a c h e q u e stio n . It w a s a m a n y -s id e d p la n th a t a im e d

n o t a t im m e d ia te e x te rm in a tio n b u t at c o n ta in in g th e

m e n a c e a n d r e d u c in g it to m a n a g e a b ility . T h e C ro s s w a s d ro p p e d fro m C ro s s a n d S w o rd . A ll h o p e s o f C h ris tia n iz in g th e A p a c h e s w e re to b e g iv e n u p . P e a c e tre a tie s w e r e to b e m a d e w ith th e m w h e n e v e r p o s s ib le a n d fig h tin g a m o n g th e b a n d s e n c o u r a g e d . B r ib e r y w a s c h o s e n as th e b e s t w a y to in d u c e th e In d ia n s to se ttle n e a r p re sid io s, w h e re , in a ra d ic a l tu rn in S p a n is h p ra c tic e ,

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th e y w e r e to b e g iv e n , a lo n g w ith fo o d , a lc o h o l in g e n e ro u s a m o u n ts a n d p o o r-q u a lity firea rm s. S u c h p ro fo u n d c y n ic is m w a s n o t n o rm a l in S p a n is h In d ia n p o lic y , b u t th e n th e A p a c h e s w e re n o t “ n o rm a l” In d ia n s . T h e p la n a c tu a lly w o rk e d r e a s o n a b ly w e ll fo r a b o u t tw e n ty - fiv e y e a r s . T h e n all r e v e r te d to th e old sta te o f a ffa irs, as th e M e x ic a n s a n d la te r th e A m e r ic a n s w e r e p a in fu lly to e x p e r ie n c e .

(jlBOUT 1696, t h e P ueblo I ndians o f J e m e z , in th e c o m p a n y i x . o f so m e u n h a p p y n e ig h b o rs on th e R io G r a n d e , fle d th e ir h o m e s a n d th e r e c o n q u e r in g a rm y o f D o n D ie g o d e V a r g a s , to w h o m t h e y r e fu s e d to k n u c k le u n d e r. T h e y h e a d e d w e s t fro m th e riv e r o f life to se ttle w ith a p e o p le liv in g n o rth o f Z u n i w h o c a lle d th e m s e lv e s D in eh , w e r e c a lle d b y th e T e w a N avahu, la te r b y th e S p a n ia r d s A p a ch es d e N avajo, a n d still la te r b y A n g lo s th e N a v a jo s . T h e e x ile s b r o u g h t w ith th e m p o tte ry a n d w e a v in g , s to n e m a s o n ry , c e re m o n ia ls , a n d a so fte n in g o f m a n n e rs. In te r m a rria g e o c c u r r e d a n d th e c o m in g to g e th e r to o k on th e c h a r a c te ristic s o f a G r e c o - R o m a n e x c h a n g e . T h e n a b o u t 1764, th e J e m e z le ft th e re d c a n y o n c o u n try a s s u d d e n ly as th e y h a d c o m e a n d r e tu r n e d to th e R io G r a n d e , b u t th e ir in flu e n c e r e m a in e d b e h in d th e m a m o n g a p e o p le w h o w e r e e a g e r to le a rn a n d r e a d y to b e tte r th e m s e lv e s . W h e r e a s th e A p a c h e s h u n n e d c o n ta c t a n d g lo rie d in his iso la tio n , h is fe llo w A th a p a s c a n (c o n s id e re d b y so m e to b e m e r e ly a n A p a c h e m u ta tio n ) v a lu e d m e e tin g s w ith o u tsid e rs a n d th e ta n g ib le gifts th e y b ro u g h t. T h e A p a c h e sto le h o rs e s a n d re lis h e d w a r th a t w a s co n sta n t; th e N a v a jo b r e d h o rs e s a n d w e n t on in te r m itte n t ra id s to in c r e a s e p o ss e ssio n s. A t th e fo rk in th e trail, th e A p a c h e s c h o s e th e w a y th a t le d to th e m e n ta lity o f th e P la in s , w h ile th e ir d e v ia n t k in c h o s e a p a th th a t le d to c u ltiv a te d fie ld s a n d g r a z in g h e rd s. T h e N a v a jo s w e r e b o rro w e rs w h o d id n o t c a re fro m w h o m th e y b o r r o w e d . S u p p le m e n tin g w h a t t h e y g o t fro m liv in g w ith co rn p e o p le

w e r e th e s h e e p , h o rs e s , a n d c a ttle th e y a c q u ir e d b y

s te a lth fro m th e S p a n ia r d s . N o t th a t th e y w e r e o v e r ly fo n d o f th e S p a n is h ; th e J e m e z w h o a rriv e d a fte r th e r e c o n q u e s t w e r e n o t th e

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b e s t a d v a n c e m e n fo r th e “ b e a r d e d o n e s .” Y e t th e S p a n ia r d s w e r e n o t ru b b in g e lb o w s w ith th e N a v a jo s as t h e y h a d w ith th e J e m e z , a n d a n y b o d y w h o h a d w h a t th e S p a n is h h a d c o u ld a t le a s t b e le a r n e d from . G e o g r a p h y fa v o r e d th e N a v a jo s in this. C a n y o n d e C h e lly a n d C h in le a n d W in d o w R o c k w e r e on th e p e r ip h e r y o f n o rth e rn N e w S p a in , o u t o f ro y a l ju ris d ic tio n b u t c lo se e n o u g h to th e h u b o f a c tiv ity a n d th e p o p u la r tr a d e fa irs a t T a o s . H a r a s s m e n t c o u ld c o m e fro m o n ly o n e d ire c tio n ; th a t w a s fro m th e n o rth , fro m th e U te s , a n d it d id so fro m tim e to tim e. U te ra id s se n t o n e g ro u p o f N a v a jo s b e g g in g fo r S p a n is h p ro te c tio n in th e 174 0 s — an a c tio n th a t e a r n e d th e m th e ta g o f “ e n e m y p e o p le ” a m o n g o th e r N a v a jo s . T h e S p a n ia r d s d id w h a t t h e y c o u ld to a c c o m m o d a te th e ir w a rd s, re s e ttlin g th e h a rrie d N a v a jo s n e a r A c o m a a n d e s ta b lis h in g F r a n c is c a n m issio n s in th e n e w p u e b lo s o f C e b o le tta a n d E n c in a l in 17 4 5 . It w a s fa ile d g e n e ro s ity ; th e p ra c tic a l-m in d e d N a v a jo s w a tc h e d p a tie n tly a s th e m issio n s b e c a m e p o o re r a n d p o o re r th ro u g h la c k o f fu n d s , th e n t h e y d rifte d o ff a g a in , w ith no h a rd fe e lin g s , b u t c o n v in c e d th a t S p a n is h g o d s w e r e n o t N a v a jo g o d s, a n d S p a n is h g o o d s m ig h t a lr e a d y b e m o re p le n tifu l in N a v a jo c a re . B y 1 7 7 6 th e b o rro w e rs h a d b o rro w e d w e ll a n d p u t to g e th e r a c u ltu re o f th e ir o w n . L ik e th e P la in s In d ia n , th e N a v a jo w a s on th e b rin k o f a n e w e ra , b u t u n lik e th e P la in s In d ia n h e h a d d iv e r s i fied , b e c o m in g at o n c e fa rm e r, ra n c h e r, a n d s h e p h e r d to la rg e flo c k s o f s h e e p ra is e d fro m S p a n is h fo u n d a tio n sto ck . N a v a jo p o p u la tio n w a s h ig h e r th a n it h a d e v e r b e e n , p e r h a p s d o u b le or e v e n trip le w h a t it w a s in 170 0 . N e w id e a s a n d n e w skills a n d n e w cra fts r e le a s e d a n e n e r g y a n d a n e x p a n s io n w e s tw a r d to w a rd th e ju n ip e r - a n d p in o n - c o v e r e d c a n y o n la n d s a b u ttin g th e C o lo ra d o R iv e r . R a id in g c o n tin u e d a s a p a rt-tim e o c c u p a tio n , b u t in 1 7 8 1 a S p a n is h re p o rt g a v e th e N a v a jo s h ig h m a rk s fo r c itiz e n sh ip : th e y w e re in d u strio u s, s ta b le , a n d w o v e fa b r ic s th a t in c o r p o r a te d th e ir o w n d e s ig n s . F o r th e N a v a jo s , th e y e a r o f th e R e v o lu tio n w a s m o re th e so lstice o f su m m e r th a n a n In d ia n su m m e r. A u tu m n w a s d e fe r r e d u n til th e n in e te e n th c e n tu r y , w h e n ra id in g in c r e a s e d , w a rfa re b e c a m e m o re im p o rta n t, a n d th e A n g lo - A m e r ic a n s fo rc e d th e m to ta k e a lo n g w a lk in to w in ter.

134

Chapter 7

Waivers from the Dream O l l e y q u o t e q u ib e ,

known

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S p a n ia r d s

th e

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to n g u e - d e fy in g n a m e o f S a lv a d o r P a lm a , h a d e v e r y re a s o n to b e o p tim istic in th e a u tu m n o f 17 7 6 . T h e Y u m a c h ie f h a d le ft his p e o p le in th e fe rtile b o tto m la n d s w h e re th e G ila R iv e r jo in s th e C o lo r a d o , to e m b a r k o n a g re a t jo u r n e y in th e c o m p a n y o f n e w frie n d s . H is d e stin a tio n w a s n o n e o th e r th a n M e x ic o C ity , w h ic h w o u ld d a z z le h im w ith its sp le n d o rs ; a n d h is tr a v e lin g c o m p a n io n w as none

o th e r th a n J u a n

B a u tis ta d e A n z a , th e illu strio u s

S p a n is h fro n tie r c a p ta in . T w o a n d a h a lf y e a r s b e fo re , A n z a h a d p e r s o n a lly b e s to w e d o n h im th e c a n e s o f o ffice a n d th e title o f g o v e rn o r o n b e h a lf o f a k in g w h o s e la n d s w e r e sa id to b e v a s t a n d s e p a r a te d b y s e v e r a l o c e a n s . A n z a w a s on h is first visit to C a lifo r Â n ia a t th a t tim e , b u t h e h a d r e tu rn e d in 1 7 7 6 w ith m o re gifts to d is trib u te a m o n g th e Y u m a s . P a lm a tr e a s u r e d h is o w n e y e - c a tc h Â in g u n ifo rm o f y e llo w a n d b lu e w ith g o ld b ra id , a n d h e w a s ta k e n w ith th e R o m a n C a th o lic d o c trin e a n d ritu als. S a lv a d o r P a lm a a n d th r e e c o u n try m e n , in c lu d in g his y o u n g e r b ro th e r, Y g n a c io , w e r e r e g a le d in th e g ra n d S p a n is h m a n n e r in M e x ic o C ity . H is h o sts im p re s s e d u p o n h im h o w im p o rta n t th e Y u m a s w e r e in S p a n is h p la n s fo r th e fu tu re , co n tro llin g a s th e y d id th e o v e r la n d w a y to A lta C a lifo rn ia , w h e re th e k in g â&#x20AC;&#x2122;s m e n w e r e b rin g in g a b e tte r w a y o f life. S a lv a d o r a n d Y g n a c io lin g e re d a n d lis te n e d w ith p le a s u r e , ta k in g th e s a c r a m e n t o f b a p tis m d u rÂ in g th e ir sta y . In a p e titio n , S a lv a d o r a s k e d fo r m iss io n a rie s to b e s e n t a m o n g h is p e o p le (o v e r w h o m h e h a d le s s th a n a b s o lu te c o n tro l) a n d fo r a rm s to b e p r o v id e d fo r p ro te c tin g th o s e s a m e p e o p le fro m th e ir e n e m ie s . T o p le a s e th e k in g , no d o u b t, h e also

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fo rs w o re p o ly g a m y fo r e v e r , b o th fo r h im s e lf a n d fo r h is p e o p le . In tu rn , th e c h ie f r e c e iv e d a s s u r a n c e s o f g re a t th in g s to c o m e , a n d w h e n h e le ft th e c a p ita l o f N e w S p a in in 1 7 7 7 la d e n w ith p e r s o n a l gifts, h e a lso to o k w ith h im h ig h h o p e s a n d m e m o rie s o f a n o p u le n c e th a t w a s so o n to s p r e a d n o rth w e s t to th e Y u m a s . T h e h isto ry o f S p a n is h c o n ta c t o n th e lo w e r C o lo r a d o w a s lo n g b u t sp o tty , a n d fo r th a t r e a s o n ra th e r a h a p p y o n e th ro u g h 17 7 6 . In 15 4 0 , H e r n a n d o d e A la r c o n h a d s a ile d u p th e C o lo r a d o R iv e r th ro u g h Y u m a n territo ry, a n d in th e s a m e y e a r M e lc h io r D ia z a rriv e d b y la n d . O n a te h a d v is ite d th e Y u m a s in th e ir s e ttle m e n ts in 1604; K in o m e t so m e o n th e G ila in 16 9 9 a n d 170 0 , a n d se n t th e m w h e a t in 170 2 ; a n d o th e rs no d o u b t r e a c h e d th e m b o th b e fo re K in o a n d a fte r. B u t it w a s n o t u n til th e 174 0 s, w h e n th e J e s u it fa th e r J a c o b o S e d e lm a y r w e n t a m o n g th e m , th a t a p e r m a n e n t a llia n c e w ith th e C o lo ra d o R iv e r trib e s b e c a m e a g o a l o f S p a n is h p o lic y . T h is p o s td a te d a n old s la v e tra d e th a t h a d Y u m a s s e n d in g e n e m y c a p tiv e s to S o n o ra a n d th e ir e n e m ie s c a p tu rin g Y u m a s to fa c e th e sa m e u n k in d fa te o f h a rd la b o r. In th e e a r ly 17 7 0 s th e Y u m a s h a d g en tes d e razon w ith th e m on w h a t w a s to b e a v e r y te m p o ra ry b a sis. M u tu a l r e s p e c t w a s h ig h b u t sh o rt-liv ed . T h e In d ia n s a d m ire d S p a n is h p o m p a n d p a n o p ly , a n d d e s ire d th e h o rs e s a n d fin e ry th e y b ro u g h t. B y 1 7 7 6 , p a r tly th ro u g h th e d ip lo m a tic o ffice s o f F a th e r F r a n c is c o G a r c e s , p e a c e h a d b e e n m a d e b e tw e e n th e Y u m a s a n d th e ir tra d itio n a l e n e m ie s , th e C o c o m a r ic o p a s e a s t o n th e G ila a n d th e C h e m e h u e v is w e s t o f th e C o lo ra d o ; in te rtrib a l tra d in g w a x e d a s a re su lt. F o r th e ir p art, th e S p a n ia r d s fo u n d th e Y u m a s a h a n d s o m e p e o p le , tall, m u s cu la r, s u p e rb sw im m e rs, o f a d isp o sitio n d e fin ite ly in c lin e d to w a rd jo y a n d g a ie ty , a n d b y all o u tw a rd sign s g e n e r o u s a n d sm itte n w ith th e ir n e w frie n d s. F a th e r P e d r o F o n t d id e x p re ss so m e

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to w a rd b o d ily fu n c tio n s. T h e y w e r e a b o m in a b ly lic e n tio u s a n d e v e n g iv e n to a llo w in g h o m o s e x u a ls to e n g a g e in “ n e fa rio u s p r a c t ic e s ” w ith a p p a r e n t sa n c tio n . T h is , h e c o n c lu d e d , w a s c e rta in ly d u e to th e ir b e in g w ith o u t re lig io n , w h ic h r e n d e r e d th e m “ d is o rd e rly a n d b e a s tlik e .” T h e y w e r e a lso , F o n t p r o p h e tic a lly sa id in so m a n y w o rd s a y e a r la te r, o f a p ro u d a n d in d e p e n d e n t n a tu re w ith a k n o w n re p u ta tio n as w arrio rs.

136

W AKERS FRO M T H E DREAM

S a lv a d o r P a lm a r e tu r n e d h o m e in 1 7 7 7 w ith p ro m ise s th a t th ey w e r e c o m in g so o n — th o s e p a d r e s a n d p re s e n ts . B u t th e y d id n o t c o m e so o n . A p a c h e ra id s a n d a S e ri u p risin g d e p le te d S o n o ra , th e lo g ic a l su p p lie r, th a t v e r y y e a r . It w a s a d e la y th a t n e ith e r his sp o n so rs n o r P a lm a w e r e lo n g to liv e w ith — n o t to g e th e r. P a lm a m a d e n e r v o u s in q u irie s in 17 7 8 a n d 1 7 7 9 to fin d o u t w h e n th e g r e a t d a y m ig h t b e e x p e c te d , a n d w h e n F a th e r s F r a n c is c o G a r c e s a n d J u a n D ia z a rriv e d la te in 1 7 7 9 w ith a sm a ll c o n tin g e n t o f so ld ie rs, t h e y n o te d th a t th e Y u m a s w e r e su lle n a n d P a lm a ’s a u th o rity w a s slip p in g . F in a lly , la te th e fo llo w in g y e a r , a b o u t o n e h u n d r e d six ty so ld ie rs a n d se ttle rs a rriv e d to se ttle , n o t in m is sio n s, b u t in p u e b lo s C o n c e p c io n a n d B ic u n e r , w h ic h w e r e to s e c u r e th e v ita l ro u te to C a lifo rn ia . T h e se ttle rs w e r e a h u n g ry , b u m p tio u s

gang who

m e a n t to sh o w th e Y u m a s th e ir p la c e

s tr a ig h ta w a y . T h e y a p p r o p r ia te d th e c h o ic e r la n d s fo r th e m s e lv e s , a n d th e n e w c o m m a n d a n t, A lfa r e z S a n tia g o Y s la s , h a d th e b a d ju d g m e n t to im p riso n a c o u p le o f trib a l le a d e r s , in c lu d in g Y g n a c io P a lm a , a n d to a llo w th e liv e s to c k th e se ttle rs h a d b r o u g h t to fo r a g e w ith o u t re stra in t in th e fie ld s b o rd e rin g th e riv e rs, d e v o u r in g c ro p s th a t w e r e b a r e ly a d e q u a t e th a t y e a r to fe e d th e n a tiv e s. O v e ra ll, th e r e w a s a n o n -site h ig h - h a n d e d n e s s to w a rd th e I n d ia n s (w h o in tru th e x p e c te d m o re gifts th a n visito rs), a n d a fo o lish H is p a n ic p r e s u m p tio n th a t th e Y u m a s w e r e tim id so u ls w h o c o u ld b e c o w e d in to o b e d ie n c e w ith a m in im u m o f fo rc e a n d v ig ila n c e . U n h e e d e d w e n t th e c o u n s e l o f S a lv a d o r ’ s frie n d A n z a th a t th e s e fr e e d o m -lo v in g n a tiv e s n o t b e p r e s s u r e d into th e c u s to m a ry n e a r p e o n a g e o f In d ia n “ r e d u c tio n .” U n fo llo w e d , to o , w a s th e 1 7 7 7 o rd e r o f S p a in ’ s C a r lo s I I I th a t P a lm a ’s p e o p le b e tr e a te d g e n tly a n d n o t “ b e in ju r e d in a n y w a y in th e ir g o o d s or th e ir la n d s w ith a v ie w to g iv in g th e m to S p a n ia r d s .” E v e n b e fo r e th e g r e e d y se ttle rs c a m e , th e re w e r e sig n s o f tro u b le . S a lv a d o r ’s b ro th e r, th e b a p tiz e d Y g n a c io , h a d b e c o m e a m a g n e t fo r y o u n g m a le d is sid e n ts w h o h a d g ro w n w e a r y o f w a it in g fo r m anana. F o r a w h ile S a lv a d o r h e ld th e th a n k le s s ro le o f m e d ia to r a n d d o u b le -d e a lin g p la c a to r, try in g to m a in ta in a u th o rity w ith h is o w n p e o p le a n d a lso to r e a s s u r e th e S p a n ia r d s w h o h a d p la c e d th e ir tru st in h im . T h e n in J u n e o f 1 7 8 1 a g ro u p o f so ld ie rs u n d e r th e c o m m a n d o f F e r n a n d o R iv e r a y M o n c a d a d r o p p e d in

137

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on th e C o lo r a d o R iv e r c o m m u n ity fo r a la y o v e r b e fo r e h e a d in g on to C a lifo rn ia . W ith o u t su p p lie s , t h e y to o k fo o d fro m Y u m a n m o u th s. It p r o v e d to b e th e w illo w w a n d th a t b r o k e th e b u r r o ’s b a c k . O n J u ly 17 , n o t lo n g a fte r m o st o f th e tra n sie n ts h a d m o v e d

F a th e r G a r c e s . F o r a y e a r a n d a h a lf th e S p a n ia r d s trie d w ith fo r c e o f arm s to r e a s s e r t th e m s e lv e s a m o n g th e Y u m a s , b u t e v e n w ith th e a id o f In d ia n a llie s th e y fa ile d . T h e stra te g ic r iv e rla n d s w o u ld n e v e r b e th e irs. W h a t h a d b e g u n as S a lv a d o r P a lm a ’s d r e a m h a d e n d e d

R IC H A R D

as a S p a n is h n ig h tm a re . r ie n d l y n e ig h b o r s to t h e n o r t h

h a d jo in e d th e Y u m a s in

th e ir 1 7 8 1 e x tirp a tio n o f th e S p a n ia rd s . T h e s e w e r e th e M o -

ja v e s , a strikin g p e o p le p h y s ic a lly , sa id to h a v e b e e n th e ta lle s t o f all N o rth A m e r ic a n In d ia n s , w h o h a d w ith in th e ir n u m b e r a cu lt c a lle d th e kwanamis d e d ic a te d to o ffe n s iv e w a rfa re . (D e fe n s iv e w a r w a s a p p a r e n tly u n n e c e s s a r y , th e re b e in g n o o n e w ith th e te m e rity to a tta c k th e M o ja v e s in th e ir N e e d le s - a r e a stro n g h o ld .) T h e kwanamis w e re

S p a rta n s to h e a t a n d c o ld a n d h u n g e r,

p a s s in g th e ir tim e, n o t in tu rn in g th e riv e r soil, b u t ra p t in d re a m s o f spirits w h o ta u g h t th e m h o w to m e te o u t d e a th a n d a c c e p t th e sa m e in c o m b a t w ith m a n ly in d iffe r e n c e . T h e M o ja v e s a n d th e Y u m a s w e r e b u t tw o o f o n e h u n d re d th re e

“ tr ib e s ,”

s p e a k in g

P R IN T S . S A N T A

te re d , in c lu d in g , o n th e fo llo w in g d a y , a fte r so m e d e lib e ra tio n ,

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s a c k e d a n d b u r n e d , a n d m o re th a n a h u n d r e d S p a n ia r d s s la u g h

F IT C H O L D

m u c h fo llo w in g as le a d in g th e m . B ic u n e r a n d C o n c e p c io n w e re

on to C a lifo rn ia , th e Y u m a s ro se in b lo o d y re v o lt, S a lv a d o r as

tw e n ty -o n e

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la n g u a g e s , w h o liv e d w ith in th e p r e s e n t b o u n d a r ie s o f C a lifo rn ia . U s u a lly th e M o ja v e s a n d th e Y u m a s a re c o n s id e r e d p e o p le s a p a rt fro m th e re st o f C a lifo rn ia In d ia n s . T h e ir liv e s w e r e b e n e fited b y th e ir n e a r n e s s to th e C o lo ra d o R iv e r a n d th e “ h ig h e r ” m a iz e c u ltu re s o f th e S o u th w e s t. T h e ir p o litic a l o rg a n iz a tio n w a s m o re e la b o ra te (trib al w ith th e M o ja v e s a n d a p p r o a c h in g n a tio n sta tu s w ith th e Y u m a s ), a n d th e ir w a rfa re w a s m o re d e v e lo p e d , th o u g h t-o u t, c o n c e r te d — a ll th o s e w o rd s th a t m e a n th e y c o u ld kill w ith g r e a te r e ffic ie n c y a n d c o m m o n p u rp o s e . T h e re st to th e w e s t — w e ll, t h e y w e r e n o t r e a lly trib e s b u t c o m m u n itie s, so m e tim e s

138

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These not-quite-believable drawings o f California Indians appeared in a geography book printed in London in the yea r 1779.

e v e n a s in g le e x te n d e d fa m ily liv in g b y a n o a k -s h a d e d stre a m , a n d th e ir w a rs w e r e little m o re th a n fa m ily fe u d s , sh o rt-liv ed a n d r e m a r k a b le fo r th e little b lo o d th a t w a s sp ille d . T h e g u lf s e p a ra tin g th e riv e r trib e s fro m m o st o f th e ir fe llo w C a lifo rn ia n s w a s o f th e m in d , in w a y s o f lo o k in g at a w o rld th a t p h y s ic a lly d id n o t a lw a y s a p p e a r th a t d iffe re n t. I f th e r e w a s a b r id g e b e tw e e n th e tw o , it m a y h a v e b e e n in th e d re a m -p ro n e kwanam is: a n o th e rw o rld li n e s s o f v isio n s a n d sp irits a n d d e a th -th o u g h t to u c h e d m a n y w e s t o f th e m a s w e ll. F o r a tim e it w a s fa s h io n a b le to th in k o f th e C a lifo rn ia In d ia n a s a h o p e le s s re ta r d a te , a d im w it sk illed in b a s k e tr y a n d n o th in g e ls e , a “ d ig g e r ” — in sh ort, lo w m a n o n e v e r y o n e ’s c u ltu ra l to te m p o le , w h o s e h o u s in g , clo th in g , re lig io n , a n d a rt w e r e d istin ctly s u b s ta n d a rd . T h e s c h o la r ly w o rk o f A lfr e d L . K r o e b e r , R o b e r t F . H e iz e r , a n d o th e rs h a s b ro u g h t a b o u t so m e re th in k in g in th e tw e n tie th c e n tu r y . A m a n is a lw a y s m o re th a n h e s e e m s , a n d th e C a lifo r n ia In d ia n s e e n in re tr o s p e c t is no e x c e p tio n . B a c k in 17 7 6 , F a t h e r P e d r o F o n t d e s c r ib e d so m e D ie g u e n o s liv in g e a s t o f S a n D ie g o a s th e “ m o st u n h a p p y p e o p le in th e w o rld ,” liv in g a m o n g b le a k ro c k s a n d o ff ta s te le s s roots a n d s e e d s , a n d o w n in g n o m o re

139

A N IN D IA N S U M M E R

th a n a b o w a n d a fe w b a d a rro w s. “ In fin e ,” F o n t su m m e d u p , “ t h e y a re so s a v a g e , w ild a n d d irty , d is h e v e le d , u g ly , sm a ll a n d tim id , th a t o n ly b e c a u s e th e y h a v e th e h u m a n fo rm is it p o s s ib le to b e lie v e th a t t h e y b e lo n g to m a n k in d .” M u c h th e s a m e w a s sa id a b o u t o th e r C a lifo r n ia In d ia n s , m a n y tim es. Y e t a n a g g in g fa c t d iv id e s a p p e a r a n c e fro m re a lity . E s tim a te s o f h o w m a n y In d ia n s liv e d in N o rth A m e r ic a a t a n y g iv e n tim e h a v e flu c tu a te d w ild ly in a c a d e m ic c irc le s, b u t w h ic h e v e r fig u re s a re a c c e p te d , C a lifo rn ia k e e p s a d is p ro p o rtio n a te ly h ig h n u m b e r fo r its la n d

a re a . ( K r o e b e r e s tim a te d

133,00 0 fo r th e y e a r 17 7 0

a g a in s t a to ta l o f 719,0 0 0 in th e p r e s e n t U n ite d S ta te s , th o u g h n e w r e s e a r c h s u g g e s ts b o th fig u re s sh o u ld b e p r o p o rtio n a te ly m u c h h ig h e r.) T h e o n ly th in g m a d e p e r fe c tly c le a r is th a t C a li fo rn ia In d ia n s w e r e b e tte r o ff th a n F o n t a n d o th e rs b e lie v e d . T h e In d ia n s o f C a lifo rn ia m a y h a v e b e e n th e m o st o m n iv o ro u s m e n o f th e ir tim e. W h e r e v e r th e y w e r e t h e y c o u ld c o u n t on fo o d in v a r ie ty . O n th e c o a s t th e re w e r e fish a n d m o llu sk s a p le n ty (a m o n g th e C h u m a s h e v e n b e a r c u b s w e r e r a is e d a s th e E u r o p e a n s m ig h t ra is e pigs); in la n d th e r e w e r e d e e r , sm a ll g a m e , m ig ra to ry b ird s, a n d g ru b s a n d in se c ts. A lm o s t e v e r y w h e r e , e x c e p t th e d e se rt, th e re w e r e o a k s a n d th e r e fo r e a c o rn s, g ro u n d b y th e w o m e n in to a w h o le s o m e m e a l a n d th e n le a c h e d b y a v a r ie ty o f in g e n io u s m e th o d s to r e m o v e th e b itte r ta n n ic a c id . T h e d e s e r t a lso o ffe re d sta p le s . T h e r e w a s th e n o u rish in g m e s q u ite b e a n in in e x h a u s tib le s u p p ly , w h ic h w a s p o u n d e d to a m e a l a n d th e n e a te n ; th e s c re w b e a n , w h ic h p r o v id e n tia lly m a tu re d a little la te r; th e u b iq u ito u s a g a v e , w h ic h th ro u g h b u rn in g c o u ld b e r e d u c e d to a fib ro u s, d e lic io u s, a n d n u tritio u s h o t sa la d ; th e y u c c a fruit, th e p ric k ly p e a r “ fig ,” p in o n n u ts, a n d chia, th e s e e d o f s a g e b r u s h g ro u n d a n d c o o k e d in to th e fa m e d p o rrid g e , p in ole. T h e la n d o f p le n ty c o u ld e v e n a llo w m o st “ tr ib e s ” a ta b o o fo o d , o n e th a t c o u ld b e e a s ily c o m e b y b u t a b s ta in e d fro m fo r re a s o n s sa c re d . W ith o u t it th e re w a s e n o u g h , a n d th e s a tisfie d s to m a c h g a v e th e gift o f le is u re a n d tim e — tim e in w h ic h to p o n d e r tim e or to try to m a k e it sta n d still. T h e la n g u o r m ig h t o n ly b e d is tu rb e d b y a s u d d e n q u a k e , c a u s e d b y “ th e g ia n t w h o m o v e s in th e e a r th .” T im e slo w e d w a s a c a d e n c e for life th a t w e n t b a c k fa r b e fo re a n y E u r o p e a n le ft h is e r a s a b le fo o tp rin t on th e P a c ific sa n d s. A

140

W A K ERS FRO M T H E DREAM

r e c e n t d a tin g o f a D e l M a r sk u ll fin d p u ts m a n in S o u th e r n C a lifo r n ia fo r 48,000 y e a r s . B u r ia ls u n e a r th e d in c e n tra l C a lifo rn ia r e v e a l th e d e c e a s e d o f 4,000 y e a r s a g o la id to re st fa c e d o w n a n d e x te n d e d , a c c o m p a n ie d w ith g r a v e o ffe rin g s u s e fu l in th e a fte r life. T h o s e d e p a r te d m a y h a v e k n o w n w h e re th e y w e r e g o in g , b u t w h e r e h a d t h e y c o m e fro m ? H a d th e y ta k e n th e w ro n g m ig ratio n a l o ffra m p ? W e r e t h e y th e n , a s so m e s u g g e s t n o w , flo tsa m c o lle c tin g in

a s lu g g is h e d d y ? M a y b e . T h e ir m a n y lin g u istic

fa m ilie s w o u ld s e e m to s a y so. T h e r e w e r e H o k a n s a n d P e n u tia n s, A lg o n k in s a n d Y u k ia n s , A th a p a s c a n s a n d S h o s h o n e a n s . B u t a ll w e r e lu lle d a n d s o fte n e d on th e P a c ific slo p e , w h e re , w h e n th in g s h a p p e n e d , t h e y d id n o t h a p p e n too w r e n c h in g ly fast. O u ts id e in flu e n c e s d id c r e e p in fro m th e N o rth w e s t c o a s t a n d th e A n a s a z i S o u th w e s t, a n d p e r h a p s e v e n fro m M e x ic o b e tw e e n 500 B .C . a n d A .D . 500. L a te r , a fte r 1200, life in C a lifo r n ia ’s n o rth w e s t r e s e m b le d life in th e P a c ific N o rth w e st, a n d th e re e v o lv e d a m o n g th e sa lm o n -e a te rs a rich a n d a p o o r th ro u g h th e s c ra m b le fo r p ro p e r ty . P u e b lo in flu e n c e in th e so u th w a s le ss p ro n o u n c e d , a n d in c e n tr a l C a lifo r n ia n a tiv is m p r e v a ile d . W h a t o u tsid e w a y s e n te r e d th e P r o m is e d L a n d d e v e lo p e d c o n s e r v a tiv e ly a n d m ig h t b e ig n o r e d a lto g e th e r b y o n e p e o p le o n ly a v a lle y r e m o v e d fro m a n o th e r w h o , s a y , p r a c tic e d g ro u n d p a in tin g d e r iv e d fro m S o u th w e s t s a n d p a in tin g . E v e r y w h e r e th e r e w a s d iv e rs ity , p r iv a c y , a n d a la c k o f in tr u s iv e n e s s . T h e P o m o s n o rth o f S a n F r a n c is c o B a y w ove

th e

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a n d b e a u tifu l b a s k e ts o f a n y N o rth

A m e r ic a n trib e , p e r h a p s o f a n y p e o p le a n y w h e r e . T h e C h u m a s h o f th e S a n ta B a r b a r a re g io n c o n s tru c te d p la n k c a n o e s s e a le d w ith a s p h a ltu m th a t w e r e s u p e r b ly s e a w o r th y a n d o n ly fo u n d in o n e o th e r p la c e in th e w e s te r n h e m is p h e r e , o n th e c o a s t o f C h ile . O th e r fru its o f c u ltu re w e r e m o re w id e s p r e a d . T h e r e w a s th e s w e a th o u s e , a k in d o f m e n ’s c lu b w h e r e m a le s g a th e r e d d a ily a ro u n d a s m o k y c e n tr a l fire to g a b a b o u t b u s in e s s or h u n tin g b e fo r e e x c u s in g th e m s e lv e s to p lu n g e in to a c o ld stre a m . T h e p a s s a g e o f a girl to w o m a n h o o d w a s w id e ly r e g a r d e d as a g re a t e v e n t, w ith rig id p ro sc rip tio n s fo r c o n d u c t on th e p a rt o f th e a d o le s c e n t a n d a g e n e r a l a tte n tiv e n e s s fro m th e re st o f h e r p e o p le . M o u r n in g rite s th a t m ig h t la st a y e a r w e r e w id e ly o b s e r v e d , e s p e c ia lly in th e so u th , th o u g h a p r e o c c u p a tio n w ith d e a th its e lf

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BANCROFT LIBRARY, UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA, BERKELEY

Father Junipero Serra arrived in 1769, and the missionization o f Alta California was soon begun. The languid aborigines did not take well to regimentation.

w a s c o n s p ic u o u s th ro u g h o u t C a lifo rn ia . In th e n o rth th e r e w e r e K u k s u cu lts w ith sp irit im p e rso n a tio n s a n d g h o s t c o n ta c ts ; in th e so u th , T o lo a c h e cu lts, w h ic h u s e d th e n a rc o tic jim s o n w e e d to a c h ie v e tr a n s c e n d e n c e . M e d iu m s , cu lts, d ru g s â&#x20AC;&#x201D; little is e v e r n e w u n d e r th e C a lifo rn ia sun , a n d life in C a lifo rn ia th e n a s n o w h a d a n u n r e a lity a b o u t it. W h a t th e In d ia n s h a d , a n d th e r e fo r e w e r e th o u g h t to b e , d id n o t m e e t th e e y e . T im e th a t c o u ld h a v e b e e n u s e d in m a k in g p o tte ry a n d w e a p o n r y a n d m a s o n ry e d ific e s th a t w e re u n n e c e s s a r y w a s s p e n t in s te a d in m y stic c o n te m p la tio n o f g o o d a n d e v il, o rigin s a n d d e stin a tio n s , d e a th a n d d re a m s.

(j|^ HE DREAMERS ON THE DREAMSCAPE a w o k e in 1 769 to fin d A

g u e sts. F a th e r J u n ip e ro S e r r a a n d a su ffe rin g h a n d fu l o f

S p a n ia r d s h a d a rriv e d in S a n D ie g o , a n d on J u ly 19, S e rra d e d i-

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W A K ERS FRO M T H E DREAM

The visiting French Comte de la Perouse, on a scientific expedition, received this orderly welcome at the Carmel mission in 1786.

c a t e d a r u d e b r u s h c h u rc h a s M iss io n S a n D ie g o d e A lc a la . F iv e y e a r s la te r a m o re p e r m a n e n t stru c tu re w a s ra ise d , w h ic h a u g u r e d s o m e th in g e ls e fo r th e In d ia n s , w h o h a d h a d o n ly o c c a s io n a l v isito rs s in c e C a b r illo b r u s h e d th e ir sh o re s in 15 4 2 . T h e s e b r ie f e n c o u n te r s b e t w e e n E u r o p e a n a n d a b o rig in e w e r e b y a n d la rg e c o rd ia l, e v e n fr a te r n a lly a ffe c tio n a te b y th e a c c o u n ts o f D r a k e ’s

J579 v isit to w h a t w e r e p r o b a b ly th e M iw o k s . T h e s a m e c lim a te o f g o o d w ill e x is te d in J u n e o f 1 7 7 5 , w h e n tw o S p a n is h v e s s e ls r e tu rn in g fro m

a n e x p lo ra tio n o f th e N o r th w e s t c o a s t p u t into

T r in id a d B a y a n d w e r e w e lc o m e d b y Y u r o k In d ia n s w e a r in g fe a th e r s a n d flo w e rs in th e ir hair. D o n J u a n F r a n c is c o d e la B o d e g a y Q u a d ra , c a p ta in o f th e sm a ll s c h o o n e r S onora, in c lu d e d in h is jo u r n a l th e visit to th is “ h a p p y p a r a d is e ” a n d h a d th e s e r e v e a lin g w o rd s to s a y o f th o s e w h o g r e e te d him : “ C o n s is te n t w ith th e in d o le n t situ a tio n in w h ic h N a tu r e p la c e s th e m , t h e y e x e rt little m o re e ffo rt th a n th a t o f N a tu re ; h e n c e th e r e is le s s h o stility

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to w a rd th e ir n e ig h b o rs , fe w e r d is p u te s a b o u t p ro p e r ty , a n d le ss h a te p r o d u c e d b y a m b itio n .” O n e s u s p e c ts th a t Q u a d r a h a d a ro m a n tic stre a k in h im a n d w a s so m e th in g o f a n e a r ly - d a y “ b le e d in g h e a r t.” T h e h a r d h e a d e d J o s e E s p in o s a y T e llo , w ritin g la te r o f th e C o s ta n o a n s o f M o n te r e y B a y , c a lle d th e m th e m o st stu p id a n d d e g r a d e d o f a ll In d ia n s . H e w a s in h a lf a g r e e m e n t w ith a n e a r ly c le r ic a l e v a lu a tio n o f th e In d ia n s o f B a ja C a lifo r n ia w h ic h fa u lte d th e m

fo r th e ir “ e x tra o rd in a ry s la c k n e s s ” a n d in g r a titu d e b u t

n e v e r th e le s s p r a is e d th e m fo r th e ir h o n e s ty a n d fo r th e te n d e r n e s s th e y s h o w e d th e ir c h ild re n . P e d r o F a g e s , a m ilita ry m a n a n d a c o n s ta n t th o rn in S e r r a ’ s sid e , g a v e a so ld ie rly a p p r a is a l o f th e C h u m a s h in th e

17 7 0 s. H e fo u n d th e m fr ie n d ly to w a rd th e

S p a n ia r d s , q u a r r e ls o m e a m o n g th e m s e lv e s , a b le a s tra d e rs (“ th e C h in e s e o f C a lifo r n ia ” ), in c lin e d to w o rk w h e n it w a s in th e ir selfin te re st, b u t “ id o la to rs lik e th e r e s t” a n d “ m u c h a d d ic te d to th e a b o m in a b le v i c e ” o f so d o m y . A c o m p o site p o rtra it ta k e s r e s o lu tio n fro m all th e s e re p o rts: th a t o f a m ia b le sorts, g iv e n to le th a r g y a n d s e n s u a lity , o n th e s u r fa c e tr a c ta b le a n d r e s p o n s iv e to p a te rn a lism , b u t in su m a fra g ile p e o p le . T h e S p a n is h re q u is ite s fo r a m issio n w e r e a r a b le soil, a r e a d y w a te r s u p p ly , a n d a la r g e In d ia n p o p u la tio n b o th to p r o v id e la b o r a n d to r e c e iv e th e gifts o f civ iliza tio n . T h e s e S e r r a a n d h is a s s o c ia te s lo c a te d . A fte r S a n D ie g o d e A lc a la th e r e w a s S a n C a r lo s B o rro m e o d e l C a r m e lo o n M o n te r e y B a y in J u n e 17 7 0 ; S a n A n to n io d e P a d u a in a n o a k -sp rin k le d v a lle y o f th e S a n ta L u c ia M o u n ta in s in J u ly 1 7 7 1 ; S a n G a b r ie l A r c a n g e l in S e p te m b e r o f th e sa m e y e a r , on th e p la in b e lo w th e m o u n ta in s n a m e d fo r th e sa m e a r c h a n g e l; S a n L u is O b is p o d e T o lo s a o n a s u n n y h ill in la n d fro m th e s e a in S e p te m b e r 17 7 2 ; in O c to b e r 1 7 7 6 , S a n F r a n c is c o d e A s is w a s d e d ic a te d o n th e p e n in s u la n a m e d fo r th e g e n tle sa in t w h o fo u n d e d th e F r a n c is c a n o rd er; a n d in th e fo llo w in g m o n th S a n J u a n C a p is tra n o w a s fo u n d e d on th e so u th c o a s t, for th e s e c o n d tim e. A s e c o n d fo u n d in g w a s n e c e s s a r y b e c a u s e th e p r e v io u s y e a r th e m issio n h a d b e e n a b a n d o n e d b y th e S p a n ia rd s w h e n w o rd r e a c h e d th e m o f a re v o lt a t M issio n S a n D ie g o d e A lc a la to th e so u th . P e r h a p s th e m o st r e v e a lin g sta tistic fro m th e u p risin g o f th e c o a s ta l K a m ia s w a s th a t, w ith th e d e stru c tio n o f

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th e m issio n , a g ra n d to ta l o f th re e S p a n is h liv e s h a d b e e n ta k e n , in c lu d in g th a t o f a p a d r e , F a th e r L u is J a y m e . A s if in s y m p a th y , r e s is ta n c e flic k e r e d in D e c e m b e r o f th e fo llo w in g y e a r w h e n I n d ia n s a tta c k e d M issio n S a n F r a n c is c o d e A s is a t th e n o rth e rn e n d o f th e m issio n c h a in . T h a t in su rre c tio n a c c o m p lis h e d e v e n le s s th a n th e first. T h e m iss io n a rie s S p a in se n t to A lta C a lifo rn ia w e r e a m o n g th e m o st e n lig h te n e d a n d h u m a n e o f th e ir c a llin g . S e rra , F r a n c is c o P a lo u , F e rm in L a s u e n , a n d J u a n C r e s p i. It w a s sim p ly th a t d is c ip lin e , le a r n in g a tra d e , g ro w in g citru s, d a te s , figs, a n d o liv e s h e ld n o th in g fo r a p e o p le w h o h a d n o t y e t b e e n su ffic ie n tly d is a b u s e d o f th e n o tio n th a t t h e y h a d e v e r y th in g , or at le a s t a s m u c h as t h e y w a n te d . S o fa r a p a rt w e re th e tw o p e o p le s th a t c u ltu ra l s y n c r e tis m d id n o t h a v e m u c h o f a c h a n c e . S o m e n e o p h y te s fle d th e m issio n s to th e d ry in terio r. M a n y w h o d id n o t fle e la p s e d into a g r e a te r to rp o r, a n d M iss io n In d ia n w o m e n w e r e k n o w n to in d u c e a b o rtio n s . In th e w o rd s o f A lfr e d K r o e b e r : “ It m u st h a v e c a u s e d m a n y o f th e fa th e rs s e v e r e p a in to re a liz e , as th e y c o u ld n o t b u t d o d a ily , th a t th e y w e r e s a v in g so u ls o n ly at th e in e v ita b le c o s t o f liv e s .” W h e n F a t h e r S e r r a d ie d in 178 4 , o n e y e a r a fte r th e T r e a t y o f P a ris , w h ic h c e rtifie d th e a u to n o m y o f th e th irte e n fo rm e r B ritish c o lo n ie s c ro w d in g th e A tla n tic C o a s t, th e r e w e r e n in e fu n c tio n in g S p a n is h

m issio n s m in iste rin g to 5,800 c o n v e rts

c lo se b y th e

P a c ific c o a s t. T h e n u m b e r o f C a lifo r n ia In d ia n s a ffe c te d w e re d e c id e d ly a sm a ll m in o rity o f th e to ta l, for w h o m th e g re a te s t s u ffe rin g w a s still m a n y y e a r s off, lo n g a fte r th e m issio n s w e re g o n e . A ll th e s a m e , th e lo n g d re a m w a s d e c id e d ly e n d e d .

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Chapter 8

Isolation (Splendid and Otherwise

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e m b r a c e s v irtu a lly all o f N e v a d a , w e s te r n U ta h , m u c h o f so u th e rn Id a h o , th e s o u th e a s te r n c o rn e r o f O re g o n , a n d , in C a lifo rn ia , th e d ry le e w a r d la n d s e a s t o f th e S ie rra N e v a d a a n d m o st o f th e M o ja v e D e s e r t to th e so u th — th a t la n d w h e r e th e riv e rs w h e n th e y ru n a t all ru n in w a rd , a w a y fro m th e s e a s to e n d in sa lt sin ks, th a t in te rm o n ta n e re a lm o f s a g e a n d m e s q u ite a n d p in o n , h a d n o t fe lt th e w e ig h t o f a w h ite m a n ’s fo o t. N o t u n til 17 7 6 . In M a r c h o f th a t y e a r F a th e r F r a n c is c o G a r c e s b e c a m e th e first k n o w n o u ts id e r to h a v e s e e n th e B a s in , a n d h e o n ly its fa r s o u th w e s te rn tip. A fte r a c c o m p a n y in g th e s e c o n d A n z a e x p e d itio n as fa r a s Y u m a , G a r c e s se t o u t n o rth o n a n o th e r o f h is p e re g rin a tio n s ; fro m th e N e e d le s a r e a o f th e C o lo ra d o R iv e r , h e tu rn e d w e s t w ith a fe w M o ja v e In d ia n s a n d ro d e a c ro ss th e d e s e r t to S o d a L a k e , w h e re th e s e a s o n a l M o ja v e R iv e r d is a p p e a r s in a n a lk a lin e fla t n e a r m o d e rn B a k e r , C a lifo rn ia . Iro n ic a lly , it w a s c o ld a n d w e t th a t e a r ly M a r c h in th is L a n d o f L ittle R a in , as M a r y A u s tin w o u ld la te r c a ll it, a n d th e p rie s t a c tu a lly fo u n d p a s tu r a g e fo r h is m u le s a n d h o rs e s . O n M a r c h 1 1 h e e n te r e d a rancheria o f a p e o p le h e c a lle d th e B e n e m e s , p r o b a b ly P a n a m in ts o f S h o s h o n e a n sto ck . W ith th e m h e e x c h a n g e d a fe w ite m s fro m his “ little s to r e ” fo r tu le roots, th e ir sta p le , w h ic h fa ile d to p le a s e th e p a la te s o f his M o ja v e g u id e s. T h e g e n tle p a d r e fo u n d m u c h to lo v e a n d p ity in th e g e n e r o u s B e n e m e s : th e s e “ p o o r p e o p le m a n ife s te d m u c h c o n c e r n at th e ir in a b ility to go h u n tin g in o rd e r to s u p p ly m e , in a s m u c h as it w a s ra in in g a n d v e r y co ld , a n d th e y w e r e e n tir e ly n a k e d .” W e ll, a lm o st n a k e d . In his

146

IS O L A T IO N S P L E N D I D A N D O T H E R W IS E

d ia r y G a r c e s d e s c r ib e s th e ir c o a ts o f ra b b it h id e s a n d th e ir “ v e r y c u rio u s s n a r e s ” m a d e o f w ild h e m p u s e d to c a tc h th e ir q u a rry . T o h im th e y w e r e u n c le a n , y e t q u ie t a n d in o ffe n s iv e ; th e y h e a rd “ w ith a tte n tio n th a t w h ic h is to ld th e m o f G o d .” G a r c e s sh o rtly le ft h is n e w frie n d s to p r o c e e d w e s t o v e r C a jo n P a s s to M issio n S a n G a b r ie l, b u t n o t b e fo r e h a v in g to s la u g h te r a h o rs e e n ro u te fo r h im a n d h is p ro u d c o m p a n io n s , w h o d id n o t e v e n w a s te a d ro p o f its b lo o d . A s e c o n d entrada in to th e G r e a t B a s in w a s m a d e la te r th a t sa m e y e a r b y o th e r S p a n ia r d s , th is o n e a d e e p e r p e n e tra tio n a n d fro m th e so u th e a s t, o u t o f s u n n y S a n ta F e in J u ly . L e d b y F a th e r

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V e le z d e E s c a la n te , th e e x p e d itio n o f te n sk irte d th e S a n J u a n M o u n ta in s , c ro s s e d th e U n c o m p a h g re P la te a u , a n d z ig z a g g e d u p m o st o f w e s te r n C o lo r a d o b e fo r e tu rn in g s h a rp ly w e s t a cro ss th e G r e e n R iv e r , th ro u g h th e W a s a tc h M o u n ta in s, a n d d o w n into B a s in c o u n try . In h is jo u r n a l E s c a la n te p r e d ic ta b ly p ra ise d th e “ p la in s ” a ro u n d L a k e T im p a n a g o s (U ta h L a k e ) as fe rtile a n d a lik e ly sp o t fo r m issio n s. T h e In d ia n s w ith w h o m E s c a la n te a n d h is p a r ty s ta y e d n e a r th e la k e ’ s sh o re w e re n o t d o in g b a d ly , th e g o o d fa th e r re p o rte d ; b e s id e s b e in g “ fis h -e a te r s ” (as th e y w e r e d e s c r ib e d b y th e U te s to th e e a st), th e y a p p a r e n tly h a d a g o o d s u p p ly o f s e e d s a n d h a re s. F o r n e a r ly a m o n th a fte r le a v in g th e m , th e S p a n ia r d s tr a v e le d so u th , o b liq u e ly w e s t, th e n so u th a g a in b e fo r e a n g lin g e a s t to fin d a fo rd o f th e c a v e r n o u s C o lo ra d o g o rg e . T h e fe w n a tiv e s e n c o u n te r e d in th e r e g io n so u th o f S e v ie r L a k e , in th e c o tto n w o o d c o u n tr y th a t w o u ld h a v e a M o rm o n fu tu re , w e r e e x c e p tio n a lly tim id . T h e ir fe a r w a s n o t o n ly o f th e s tr a n g e ly c la d w h ite m e n p a s s in g th ro u g h th e ir la n d s , b u t it a lso e x te n d e d to U te s a n d A p a c h e s a n d C o m a n c h e s as w e ll. E s c a la n te a n d h is c o m p a n io n s le a r n e d th is w h e n , a fte r m u c h c o a x in g a n d m a n y p ro te sta tio n s o f k in d n e s s d e liv e r e d th ro u g h a g u id e th e y h a d p ic k e d u p at U ta h L a k e , th e tre m b lin g a b o rig in e s a p p r o a c h e d th e m . T h e y w e r e n o t u n lik e th e P a n a m in ts , w h o m G a r c e s h a d s e e n in th e sp rin g . T h e y lis te n e d w ith p le a s u r e to se rm o n s o n th e w h ite m a n ’s G o d (no d o u b t s w a y e d b y b e a d s a n d rib b o n s p a s s e d o u t to p r o s p e c tiv e c o n v e rts). T h e y d r e s s e d in r a b b it sk in s, a n d th e y

147

Spaniards first penetrated the Great Basin in 1776. Artist Keith Eddington recreates Fray Escalante’s approach to Utah Lake.

m a d e sn a re s o f tw is te d fib e rs to tra p th e ir g a m e , w h ic h w e ig h e d o u t a t v e r y little, fo r E s c a la n t e ’s h u n g r y c o m p a n y tried to tr a d e for a n y fle sh th a t w o u ld stick to th e rib s b u t u s u a lly h a d to se ttle fo r g ra ss s e e d s a n d d rie d p ric k ly p e a r fruit, w h ic h at le a s t o n c e b a d ly u p s e t th e ir sto m a c h s. B y J a n u a r y o f 1 7 7 7 , th e e x p e d itio n h a d re tu rn e d s a fe ly to S a n ta F e , w ith m o re th a n a th o u s a n d n e w m ile s o f o u tb a c k k n o w n . T h e s e c o n d e n try into th e g re a t b o w l-o f-little w a s h is to ry. V isito rs w o u ld n o t c o m e a g a in fo r a lm o st h a lf a c e n tu ry , a n d w h e n th e y d id th e y w o u ld n o t d e s c r ib e its in h a b ita n ts as in n o c e n t h e a th e n in n e e d o f G o d ’s W o rd b u t w o u ld c o n te m p tu o u s ly c a ll th e m “ d ig g e r s ,” w h o w e r e so p a th e tic t h e y w e r e h a r d ly w o rth sh o o tin g . M a n y A m e r ic a n In d ia n s h a v e rich , co lo rfu l, a n d e v e n ro m a n tic p a sts; n o t so th o s e o f th e G r e a t B a s in . T h e y w e r e a lm o st all p h y s ic a lly sh o rt a n d d a rk , s p e a k e r s o f th e S h o s h o n e a n to n g u e , liv in g in a la r g e ly tr e e le s s la n d th a t r e c e iv e d le ss th a n te n in c h e s

148

IS O L A T IO N S P L E N D I D A N D O T H E R W IS E

o f ra in a y e a r — a la n d s u c k e d d ry b y e v a p o r a tio n a n d r a v a g e d b y e x tr e m e s o f h e a t a n d co ld . T h e d e e p e r into th e B a s in th e y liv e d , th e m o re m a te r ia lly a n d c u ltu ra lly im p o v e r is h e d w e r e its p e o p le .

F o r th e

G o s iu te s

o f w e s te rn

U ta h , th e

Sh osh on i o f

c e n tr a l N e v a d a , a n d th e P a iu te s to th e w e s t a n d so u th o f th e m , m a iz e w o u ld n o t g ro w , n o r w e r e th e r e a n y g ra ssla n d s to s p e a k of. T h is m e a n t a n a b s e n c e o f b u ffa lo , th a t g re a t lu m b e rin g m e a lfo r-m a n y th a t fe d th e p e o p le s o f th e G r e a t P la in s. In its p la c e w a s th e o n ly g a m e a n im a l o f a n y size: th e p ro n g h o rn a n te lo p e , n a tu r e ’ s c r u e l su b stitu tio n , as fle e t as a w in te r ’s b itin g w in d , a n d UTAH STATE HISTORICAL SOCIETY

le a n a n d strin g y fa r e fo r c h a s e r s lu c k y e n o u g h to co rral o n e . A s fo r th e h o rs e , th e S p a n is h gift w h ic h m u st h a v e o c c a s io n a lly r e a c h e d th e m fro m th e m a in so u th -to -n o rth traffic on th e w e s t sid e o f th e R o c k ie s , th e r e w a s o n ly o n e th in g to d o w ith it: w ith o u t p a s t u r a g e a n d w ith c o n c a v e b e llie s , th e y k ille d it a n d a te it. B y n e c e s s ity , B a s in In d ia n s w e r e m a in ly g a th e re rs liv in g in d e m o c r a tic p o v e r ty . E x c e p t d u rin g w in te r, w h e n th e y re tire d to m o re p r o te c te d sp o ts w h e re c a c h e s o f fo o d h a d b e e n b u rie d to tid e th e m o v e r to sp rin g , t h e y w e r e a lw a y s on th e m o v e to m a k e th e n e x t s e a s o n ’ s s c a n ty h a rv e s t. In e a r ly su m m e r th e s e e d s o f h e r b a c e o u s p la n ts r ip e n e d in th e lo w e r hills a n d d e s e rt v a lle y s . A t th e p e a k o f su m m e r o th e r s e e d s w e r e r e a d y h ig h e r u p , a n d la te in s u m m e r e d ib le ro o ts a n d b e rrie s h a d to b e fo u n d . F o r so m e , fa ll m e a n t p in o n n u ts, th e w in d fa ll fro m Pinus m ono-

p h ylla , a n e rra tic b u t c r u c ia l h a r v e s t o f n o lo n g e r th a n tw o w e e k s ’ d u ra tio n , w h ic h h a d to b e sto re d to s e e a fa m ily th ro u g h th e w in te r. In th e b e s t y e a r s , o n ly fo u r m o n th s ’ s u p p ly c o u ld b e la id a w a y , w h ic h m a d e e a r ly sp rin g th e critica l tim e, w h e n th o s e w h o h a d n o t d ie d o f sta rv a tio n fo u g h t h u n g e r -in d u c e d stu p o r b y n ib b lin g th e first g r e e n sh o o ts p u s h in g u p th ro u g h th e e a r th to r e a d y th e m s e lv e s fo r a n o th e r ro u n d o f ro a m in g w ith th e s e a s o n s . W ith th e p ic k in g s so slim , s u rv iv a l b e c a m e a fa m ily ’s o n ly b u s in e s s . O c c a s io n a lly , fa m ilie s w o u ld c o m e to g e th e r in c o m m u n a l p u r p o s e . It m ig h t b e fo r a r a b b it ro u n d u p , so m e m e n s tre tc h in g th e ir le n g th s o f in g e n io u s n e ts into a s e m ic irc le h u n d r e d s o f y a r d s a c ro ss, w h ile th e re st — m a n , w o m a n , a n d c h ild — b e a t th e b u s h to d r iv e th e ja c k r a b b it s in to th e e n ta n g lin g b a r-

149

A N IN D IA N S U M M E R

rier. T h e fiv e -a n d - a - h a lf p o u n d s o f m e a t o n a n a n im a l c o u ld b e je r k e d , b u t k e p t n o lo n g e r th a n tw o w e e k s b e fo r e sp o ilin g . F o r s u p p le m e n ta l fo o d

in w in te r th e r e

w a s th e co tto n ta il, e ith e r

ta k e n w ith b o w a n d a rro w or sn a re d . Y e t a lw a y s th e h u n g e r fo r p ro te in w a s th e r e , to b e in a d e q u a t e ly s a tisfie d b y d ig g in g u p g o p h e rs, c a tc h in g liz a rd s , c lu b b in g rats, or d riv in g g r a s s h o p p e r s in to a tre n c h w h e r e th e y c o u ld b e ro a s te d a n d g ro u n d in to m e a l. C u ltu r e w a s lo w a m o n g th e s e w a n d e r e rs . L ife w a s to o s tin g y fo r b a n d or trib a l o rg a n iz a tio n s a n d re lig io n w a s p rim itiv e — little m o re th a n a n a w a r e n e s s th a t th e w o rld w a s m a n a g e d b y tw o c o n te n d in g b ro th e rs, W o lf, w h o w a s g o o d , a n d C o y o t e , w h o w a s a m is c h ie v o u s c u tu p . C e r e m o n ie s w e r e th e r e fo r e ra re , th o u g h a n a n n u a l m o u rn in g rite m ig h t b rin g th e n o m a d s to g e th e r b rie fly , or in su m m e r th e r e m ig h t b e a c o m m u n ity sin g o f th e so n g s o f b ird s, p e r h a p s e v e n a d a n c e . W a r w a s a lu x u ry th a t h a d no p la c e

w h ere

life w a s

strip p e d

to fu n d a m e n ta ls :

g e ttin g

and

e a tin g , p r o c r e a tin g a n d d y in g . In th e e ig h te e n th c e n tu r y , N a v a jo s , A p ach es, and

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B a s in , th e r e to rid e d o w n h a p le s s P a iu te s a n d se ll th e m to th e S p a n is h as s la v e s . It m u st h a v e b e e n o n e o f th e fe w in s ta n c e s in h u m a n h isto ry , in m a n ’s a lle g e d u p w a rd stru g g le fo r lib e rty , th a t b o n d a g e w a s p r e fe r a b le to fre e d o m . In d ia n s liv in g o n th e o u te r r e a c h e s o f th e G r e a t B a s in g e n e r a lly h a d it b e tte r th a n th o s e a t its c o re . In th e w e s t, th e P a iu te s o f C a lifo r n ia ’ s O w e n s V a lle y fo u n d a g o o d v a r ie ty o f fo o d w ith in sh o rt r a n g e . G ra ss s e e d s w e r e c u ltiv a te d in fa m ily p lo ts; th e re w e r e p in e n u ts, stre a m s th a t w e r e c le a r a n d s u s ta in e d fish, a n d o th e r-th a n -b ra c k is h p o n d s or la k e s w h e r e g a m e c o u ld w a te r a n d b e ta k e n . H e r e b a n d o rg a n iz a tio n w a s p o s s ib le , a n d th e r e w e r e w e e k -lo n g fe s tiv a ls , s w e a th o u s e s , a n d d o rm ito rie s w h e r e y o u n g m e n h a d e n o u g h to g a m b le in g a m e s . O n th e e a s te r n frin g e , w h e re th e U te s ru le d th e so u th e rn R o c k ie s a n d r o b b e d th e R io G r a n d e c o r n b a s k e t, p o s s e s s io n o f th e h o rs e m a d e a d iffe r e n c e . B e lo w th e G u n n is o n R iv e r t h e y w e r e in c h a r g e , b e n e fitin g fro m th e H is p a n o c u ltu re to th e so u th b u t p ro v id in g a n a rm e d d e te r r e n t to a n y S p a n is h n o tio n s a b o u t stra y in g n o rth . A b o v e th e U te s, s p r e a d a c ro ss C o lo r a d o ’ s n o rth e rn R o c k ie s into W y o m in g a n d w e s tw a r d th ro u g h I d a h o ’s S n a k e R iv e r v a lle y , w e r e th e n o rth e rn

150

IS O L A T IO N S P L E N D ID A N D O T H E R W IS E

S h o s h o n i, d istrib u to rs o f th e h o rse to th e n o rth e rn P la in s. L ik e th e U te s , th e y ro d e d o w n fro m th e R o c k ie s to h u n t b u ffa lo a n d a d o p te d tip is a n d c lo th e s o f h id e s, m a rtia l arts, a n d th e su n d a n c e . B o th th e U te s a n d th e n o rth e rn S h o s h o n i w e re b o rd e r p e o p le s , b e t w e e n th e g ra ssla n d s a n d th e g ra ssle s s la n d s, a n d on e le v a t e d g ro u n d p h y s ic a lly a n d m e ta p h o ric a lly . N o rth o f th e G r e a t B a s in , ju s t n o rth o f th e to rtu o u s c h a s m o f th e S n a k e , w h e r e th e e a rth b e g in s to lift its e lf o ff th e la v a b a d la n d s a n d lo d g e p o le a n d p o n d e r o s a p in e s g ro w in u p la n d p a tc h e s , w e r e th e B a n n o c k s o f so u th -c e n tra l Id a h o . T h e y w e r e a S h o sh on ean

p e o p le

who

s h a re d

th e ir p re h isto ric h o m e la n d w ith

th e n o rth e rn S h o s h o n i a n d w h o liv e d in r e la tiv e p e a c e w ith th e m o re

n o rth e rn

P la te a u

trib e s — N e z

P erces,

K u te n a is ,

F la t-

h e a d s — tra d in g w ith th e m a n d so m e tim e s a c c o m p a n y in g th e m e a s t u p th e v a lle y o f th e S n a k e to tra d e on th e P la in s. H e r e th e B annocks

h u n te d

b u ffa lo , le a r n e d th e u s e s o f th e tipi, a n d

a ffe c te d th e w a r b o n n e t. B u t th e y d id n o t sta y , nor d id th e p e o p le o f th e P la t e a u p ro p e r. W h e n th e y h a d h a d w h a t th e y w a n te d , t h e y r e tu r n e d to th e ir riv e rs, m e a d o w s , a n d fo re sts b e tw e e n M o n ta n a ’s B itte rro o t R a n g e a n d th e C a s c a d e s , on th e w a tc h fo r th e ir c o m m o n e n e m y , th e B la c k fe e t. It w a s th e h o rs e s th a t h a d r e a c h e d th e m e a r ly in th e 170 0 s th a t m a d e s u c h lo n g trips p o s s ib le . Y e t th e h o rs e w a s o f lim ite d u s e in th e b ro k e n , tim b e re d c o u n tr y o f th e I d a h o p a n h a n d le , a n d so it b e c a m e a sta tu s s y m b o l, a n ite m o f e x p o rt tra d e a n d th e o b je c t o f th o u g h tfu l h u sb an d ry. T h is w a s p a r tic u la r ly tru e o f th e N e z P e r c e s , th e m o st n u m e ro u s a n d in m a n y w a y s th e m o st r e m a r k a b le p e o p le o f th e P la te a u . P e r h a p s a s m a n y as six th o u s a n d o f th e m liv e d w h e re th e S a lm o n jo in s th e S n a k e , w h e re th e fu tu re sta te s o f Id a h o , O re g o n , a n d W a s h in g to n

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th e ir o w n sp o tte d b r e e d , th e A p a lo o s a , n a m e d a fte r

th e ro llin g g r e e n h ills o f th e n e a r b y P a lo u s e c o u n try .

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A N IN D IA N S U M M E R

Culture was richer with the Indians o f the Northwest. Along with wealth, there was more leisure to pursue the arts and play games. S o m e n e ig h b o rs o f th e N e z P e r c e s a lso go t in to th e h o rs e tra d in g b u sin e ss , e s p e c ia lly th e C a y u s e s o f n o rth e a s te rn O re g o n , w h o s e n a m e b e c a m e w e s te rn ja r g o n fo r a m o u n t. T h e N im a p u s , th e “ R e a l P e o p le ,” a s th e N e z P e r c e s r e fe r r e d to th e m s e lv e s , had

o th e r n e ig h b o rs — th e

F la th e a d s , th e

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W a lla s, a n d th e Y a k im a s — w ith w h o m th e y liv e d h a rm o n io u sly , in te rm a rry in g fr e e ly a n d sh a rin g a sp rin g a n d fa ll d e p e n d e n c e on th e m ira c u lo u s sa lm o n ru n s in th e C o lu m b ia a n d th e riv e rs th a t fe d it. T h e N im a p u s a n d th e ir frie n d s w e r e n o t so m u c h trib e s as c o n c e n tra tio n s o f in d e p e n d e n t v illa g e s th a t c o o p e r a te d in d ig g in g u p c a m a s roots in su m m e r to b e c o o k e d or sto re d a w a y a g a in s t th e fu tu re . G a m e w a s a lso to b e h a d ; e lk a n d d e e r s e a s o n a lly d e s c e n d e d

to th e m e a d o w s , a n d m o u n ta in s h e e p

tro d h ig h o n th e ra n g e s th a t c ro s s h a tc h th e c e n tr a l P la te a u . The

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P e r c e s r e m a in e d

n u c le a r to th o s e a ro u n d th e m .

A s fo r re lig io n , it w a s, m o re th a n a n y th in g , a r e v e r e n c e for n a tu re a n d a n e x a g g e r a te d fe a r o f th e d e a d , w ith in d iv id u a l g u id in g spirits — th e ir w y-ya-kin —to h e lp th e m a lo n g . P e r s o n a l e th ic s w e r e th e th in g : re c titu d e , rig h tn e ss, p ro b ity , h o n o r . . . b e h a v in g w ell.

154

IS O L A T IO N S P L E N D ID A N D O T H E R W IS E

T h r e e d e c a d e s a fte r E n g la n d lo st h e r A tla n tic c o lo n ie s , a p a rty o f w h ite m e n le d b y W illia m C la r k a n d M e r iw e th e r L e w is w o u ld b e th e first o f th e ir ra c e to p a ss th ro u g h th e N e z P e r c e c o u n try on th e ir w a y to la n d ’s e n d a n d to b e s a v e d fro m sta rv a tio n b y th e o p e n - h a n d e d m a s te r h o rs e -b re e d e rs . A fte r th a t th e N e z P e r c e s w o u ld

b e s to w

th e ir g e n e r o s ity on w h ite m ig ra n ts b o u n d

for

A s to ria o n th e O re g o n co a st. E v e n tu a lly th e y w o u ld b e re p a id for th e ir k in d n e s s e s w ith th e h o u n d in g o f C h ie f J o s e p h a n d h is p e o p le b y th e U .S . A r m y in o n e o f A m e r ic a n h is to ry ’ s m o st d is g ra c e fu l e p is o d e s . B u t th a t w a s a c e n tu r y la ter. In 17 7 6 th e N e z P e r c e s a n d th e ir P la t e a u b ro th e rs h a d n o t e v e n r e a c h e d th e ir c a m a s root su m m e r. F ig u r a tiv e ly , it w a s m o re lik e sp rin g , s a y M a y , w h e n th e c o h o m a d e th e C o lu m b ia , th e S n a k e , a n d th e C le a r w a te r fla sh silv e r w ith th e ir th ra s h in g b o d ie s.

reat

a sin

sta n d a rd s,

th e p e o p le o f th e P la te a u w e re

' liv in g a life o f lu x u ria n t e a s e w ith th e ir w e ll-s to c k e d la rd ers.

B u t o n a la r g e r s c a le t h e y w e r e m e r e ly tra n sitio n a l, a s th e ir g e o g

r a p h y a n d c u ltu re s w e r e tra n sitio n a l, fo r to th e w e s t o f th e m b e y o n d th e C a s c a d e s u p o n w h ic h P a c ific c lo u d s p ile d h ig h , liv e d th o s e on to p o f th e e c o n o m ic to te m p o le . T o th e C h in o o k s liv in g n e a r th e C o lu m b ia R i v e r ’ s m o u th , a n y visitin g N e z P e r c e w h o c a m e tr a d in g h id e s fo r d e n ta lia (th e c o n ic a l sh e lls fro m V a n c o u v e r I s la n d th a t s e r v e d as th e W e s t’s a n s w e r to E a s te r n w a m p u m ) w a s n o d o u b t c o n s id e r e d a p ro v in c ia l o u tla n d e r. T h e n o rth e rn P a c ific s lo p e w a s th e c e n te r o f th e w o rld . I f o n e w o rd c o u ld d e s c r ib e life o n th e N o rth w e s t co a st, it w o u ld b e su rp lu s. F ro m th e so u th e rn c o a s t o f A la s k a to th e n o rth e rn c o a s t o f C a lifo r n ia d w e lt In d ia n s o f s e v e r a l la n g u a g e fa m ilie s (S a lis h a n , P e n u tia n , A lg o n k in ), tie d b y c o m m o n th r e a d s o f c u l tu re a n d a r e lia n c e o n th e b o u n ty o f th e s e a or in la n d w a te r w a y s . T h e y w e r e all p r e o c c u p ie d w ith w e a lth , w ith g e ttin g a n d s p e n d in g , b u t th e ir m o re s w e r e n o t e x a c tly u n ifo rm , n o r w e r e th e ir a ttitu d e s to w a rd p r o p e r ty o n c e t h e y h a d it. T h e ric h e s t liv e d n o rth o f P u g e t S o u n d — th e N o o tk a s o f V a n c o u v e r Isla n d , th e K w a k iu tls , B e lla C o o la s , T s im s h ia n s , H a id a s , a n d T lin g its — o n th e s o g g y s h e lf th a t c u rle d o u t to w a rd th e b le a k n e s s o f A s ia . T h is w a s th e

155

MUSEO NAVAL. MADRID; PRINT COURTESY OF WARREN L. COOK

la n d o f m a n y sa lm o n ru n s. It w a s a lso th e la n d o f c e d a r, a w o o d m a lle a b le to ru d e sp littin g a n d c h is e lin g to o ls a n d fro m w h ic h g re a t o c e a n g o in g c a n o e s c o u ld b e fa s h io n e d ; a w o o d th a t c o u ld b e h e w n into lo n g p la n k lo d g e s , in w h ic h p e o p le s le p t a c c o r d in g to ra n k , a n d w h o s e in n e r b a rk p r o v id e d so ft m a te ria l fro m w h ic h c lo th e s w e r e m a d e ; a w o o d fro m w h ic h to te m p o le s — th e fo r c e fu l lite ra tu re o f a p ro u d m a n a n d h is c la n — m ig h t b e c a r v e d a n d ra is e d . T h is w a s th e la n d o f th e p o tla tc h , a la v is h p a r ty m a rk in g so m e m a jo r or m in o r e v e n t th a t m ig h t ta k e y e a r s in p re p a ra tio n , a t w h ic h th e h o st w o u ld g iv e a w a y b la n k e ts a n d c a n o e s a n d c o p p e rs (sh e e ts o f h a m m e r e d c o p p e r th a t h e v a lu e d m o re th a n th e w h ite m a n d id his go ld ) to sh o w his s u p e rio rity to h is w e a lth y g u e sts, w h o w e r e th e n e x p e c te d to o u td o h im if t h e y c o u ld . O f th e s e m o st c o n s p ic u o u s o f c o n su m e rs, th e K w a k iu tls w e n t e v e n fu rth e r. T h e y p e r v e r te d th e p o tla tc h in to a n o r g y o f o u trig h t d e stru ctio n , sa c rific in g th o s e b la n k e ts , b o a ts, a n d c o p p e rs , e v e n h o u s e h o ld s la v e s , in a p o m p o u s sh o w o f e x p e n d a b le w e a lth .

156

A Spanish drawing o f the late eighteenth century shows suitors wrestling for the hand o f a Vancouver Island princess.

T o th e so u th , o n C a lifo r n ia â&#x20AC;&#x2122;s n o rth e rn c o a st, n a tu re w a s n o t q u ite so g e n e r o u s . H e r e p r o p e r ty w a s h o a r d e d a n d sh o w n o ff ra th e r th a n g iv e n a w a y or d e s tr o y e d . T h o s e in b e tw e e n , in w e s tÂ e rn O r e g o n a n d W a s h in g to n , w e r e m id d le m e n , in e c o n o m ic a d Â v a n t a g e a n d b e h a v io r as w e ll as in fa c t. T h e y w e re a t th e tra d in g c e n te r , th e y a w n in g m o u th o f th e C o lu m b ia , w h e re th e C h in o o k la n g u a g e p e p p e r e d w ith N o o tk a n ism s la te r b e c a m e th e p a to is o f c o m m e r c e . Y e t in fu n d a m e n ta l a ttitu d e s th e T lin g its o f th e n o rth a n d th e Y u r o k s fa r to th e so u th a n d th o s e in th e m id d le w e re o n e . S o c ie ty h a d its rich a n d its p o o r, its h a v e s a n d its h a v e -n o ts. T h e r e w e r e s la v e s (u s u a lly ta k e n fro m n e a r b y v illa g e s in th e in te rm itte n t ra id s th a t p a s s e d fo r w ar), a s a ru le w e ll-tre a te d b u t th e o n ly p e o p le d e n ie d th e o p p o rtu n ity to a m a s s w e a lth a n d t h e r e b y b e tte r th e m s e lv e s . N o rth to so u th th e r e w a s a p re m iu m on a m b itio n , o n a m o u n tin g to so m e th in g : b e c o m in g w e a lth y e n o u g h to b e v is ite d in d r e a m s b y a n im a l spirits; to jo in s e c r e t so c ie tie s, w h ic h w o r s h ip e d th e b e a r (a c u lt th a t h a r k e d b a c k to th e d a w n

157

A N IN D IA N S U M M E R

o f m a n ), or to p r a c tic e ritu a l c a n n ib a lis m ; to b e c o m e w o rth y , in short, th ro u g h th e a c c u m u la tio n o f e a r th ly g o o d s, to k n o w terro r o f s u p e rn a tu ra l o rigin . I f th e c a r ic a tu r e o f th e m o d e rn u p w a rd strivin g m id d le -c la s s A m e r ic a n is a p t, th e n th e In d ia n s o f th e N o rth w e s t c o a s t w e re , in d e e d , th e first A m e r ic a n s . N o o n e k n o w s fo r su re w h e r e th e N o r th w e s t p e o p le s c a m e from , b u t th e e v id e n c e s u g g e s ts it w a s fro m in la n d â&#x20AC;&#x201D; p re h isto ric m iÂ g ra n ts w h o h a p p e d o n a c o a s t to th e ir likin g. N o o n e d o u b ts w h y th e y w o u ld h a v e lik e d it. T h e J a p a n e s e C u rre n t, w h ic h flo w e d d o w n fro m th e A le u tia n s , h a d a m o d e ra tin g e ffe c t o n th e c lim a te s o f la n d it b r u s h e d . It b r o u g h t fe c u n d ity to c o a s ta l w a te rs in th e d a rk , h ig h la titu d e s , a n d d a m p , d rip p in g fo re s ts th a t c lim a x e d in S itk a s p ru c e to th e n o rth a n d in re d w o o d to th e so u th . T h e gifts

BY JOHN WEBBER; TRUSTEES OF THE NATIONAL ART GALLERY OF NEW ZEALAND. WELLINGTON

A 1776 portrait o f Captain James Cook. Two years later the famed mariner put into Nootka Sound on his final voyage.

158

IS O L A T IO N S P L E N D ID A N D O T H E R W IS E

o f th e s e a w e r e m o re th a n e n o u g h : w h a le s , se a ls , o tters, h a lib u t o f p ro d ig io u s siz e , co d , c ra b s, b iv a lv e s , h e rrin g , a n d o ily sm e lt th a t fille d th e s e a s . In th e in la n d stre a m s o f W a sh in g to n a n d O re g o n , th e r e w e r e tro u t a n d sa lm o n a n d h y b rid tro u t-sa lm o n . G a m e m ig h t n o t b e a n y w h e r e n e a r a s p le n tifu l a s it w a s on th e P la in s , b u t th e r e w a s c o m p e n s a tio n in roots a n d b e rrie s th a t r ip e n e d in b ib lic a l p r o lific a c y — h u c k le b e r r y , b lu e b e r r y , c ra n b e rry , a n d th e m in e ra l-ric h s a s k a to o n b e r r y — all in all, a w e ll-b a la n c e d d iet. D e s p ite th e d a m p n e s s , h e a lth s e e m s n o t to h a v e s u ffe re d . L ife , fo r a ll its s tra n g e tu rn in g s, w a s no m o re fle e tin g th a n e ls e w h e re . T h e s a m e c u rre n t th a t fo r e o n s s o fte n e d a n d m o is te n e d th e N o r th w e s t c o a s t b e c a m e a n a tu ra l s e a -la n e fo r sa ilin g sh ip s, p e r h a p s fo r p rim itiv e ju n k s in th e d im p a s t as w ell. (A m o n g th e H a id a s o f A la s k a ’ s c o a s ta l isla n d s, w o u n d s w e r e e x p e rtly s u tu re d a n d c e rta in h e r b a l r e m e d ie s w e r e k n o w n , s u g g e s tin g p re v io u s c o n ta c t w ith th e C h in e s e .) S p a n is h M a n ila g a lle o n s in th e la te six te e n th a n d th r o u g h o u t th e s e v e n te e n th c e n tu rie s re g u la rly a r c e d th ro u g h th e n o rth P a c ific o n th e ir w a y to M e x ic o , a n d th o u g h la n d fa lls on th e N o r th w e s t c o a s t w e r e n o t p la n n e d , th e re is e v id e n c e th a t o n e or m o re m e t th e ir e n d s o n th a t o b s c u r e sh o re. In th e n in e te e n th c e n tu r y I n d ia n s w e r e to b rin g w h ite se ttle rs m y ste rio u s b lo c k s o f b e e s w a x . O n e w a s g r a v e n w ith th e L a tin in itials I H S , a n d a n o th e r fr a g m e n t w ith th e c lo s e -c r o p p e d n u m e ra ls 67 (for 16 7 9 ?), w h ic h h a s r e c e n tly b e e n c a r b o n -1 4 - d a te d to a p p ro x im a te ly w h e n th e ill-fa te d San F ran cisco X a v ie r, A c a p u lc o - b o u n d , le ft M a n ila for a v o y a g e it w o u ld n e v e r c o m p le te . In d ia n lo re is rife w ith o th e r ta n ta liz in g p o ss ib ilitie s o f e a rly m e e tin g s : o f visito rs w h o la n d e d o n th e ir sh o re s a n d b u rie d c h e s ts a lo n g w ith d e a d m e n w h o w o u ld te ll no ta le s; o f o th e r stra n g e rs c a s t u p on th e ir sa n d s, so m e o f th e m k ille d o n th e sp ot, s o m e sla in la te r w h e n t h e y to o k to q u a rre lin g o v e r w o m e n , so m e s p a r e d w h o ro se to p r o m in e n c e in th e trib e s th a t a d o p te d th e m ; sto rie s o f r e d -h a ire d , fr e c k le d In d ia n s , o n e o f th e m

seen b y

L e w is a n d C la r k . B u t th e s h a d o w y c o a s t th a t o fte n h a d fir a n d p in e a n d h e m lo c k g ro w in g rig h t d o w n to th e h ig h -tid e lin e r e m a in e d a b iz a r r e tw ilig h t w o rld o f th e I n d ia n s ’ o w n m a k in g . In J a n u a r y o f 1 7 7 4 , a m o n th a fte r w h ite B o s to n ia n s d r e s s e d u p lik e r e d m e n a n d th re w te a in to A tla n tic w a te rs, th e S p a n is h

159

PUBLIC ARCHIVES OF CANADA

When Resolution and Discovery dropped anchor off Nootka, Cook did a brisk trade with the metal-mad Indians.

Cook returned to the Hawaiian Islands to winter in 1779, a yea r after he had discovered them. But cordiality turned to conflict, and on February 14 â&#x20AC;&#x153;the first mariner o f the worldâ&#x20AC;? was stabbed to death in the surf.

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IS O L A T IO N S P L E N D I D A N D O T H E R W IS E

fr ig a te Santiago s a ile d q u ie tly o u t o f M e x ic o to w a rd th e P a c ific ’ s n o rth e rn w a te r s in r e c o n n a is s a n c e fo r th e k in g o f S p a in . S k ip p e r J u a n J o s e P e r e z H e r n a n d e z a n c h o r e d o ff V a n c o u v e r I s la n d ’s N o o tk a

S o u n d in A u g u s t a n d w a s w e lc o m e d b y c a n o e -b o r n e

I n d ia n s e a g e r fo r tra d e . A fo llo w -u p S p a n is h e x p lo ra tio n o f th e N o r th w e s t c o a s t a y e a r la te r b ro u g h t a d e c id e d ly m o re m ix ed r e c e p tio n . W h e n a p a r ty w a s se n t a sh o re o n th e O ly m p ic P e n in su la , it w a s p ro m p tly m a s s a c r e d , a n d its sm all b o a t s m a s h e d fo r th e m e ta l fittin g s. In 1 7 7 8 , C a p t . J a m e s C o o k a p p r o a c h e d N o o tk a fro m th e se a o n h is th ird a n d fin a l v o y a g e o f d is c o v e r y . H e r e c e iv e d th e sa m e fr ie n d ly g r e e tin g P e r e z h a d fro m th e tra d e -a n x io u s c a n o e m e n .

DEATH OF COOK" BY GEORGE CARTER; REX NAN KIVELL COLLECTION, NATIONAL LIBRARY OF AUSTRALIA. CANBERRA

C o o k p u t in to th e so u n d a n d s ta y e d a w h ile , m a k in g re p a irs on his

A N IN D IA N S U M M E R

tw o v e s s e ls , th e R esolu tion a n d th e D isco v ery , a n d ta k in g o n p ro v isio n s. It g a v e h im a m o n th to o b s e r v e th e n a tiv e s o f th e isla n d : t h e y s h o w e d n o fe a r o f his sh ip s a n d w illin g ly c a m e a b o a rd ; th e y w e r e fr ie n d ly e n o u g h w ith h is c re w , b u t t h e y q u a r r e le d w ith e a c h o th e r fo r th e rig h t to tra d e w ith th e E n g lis h m e n ; as fo r th e w a re s th e y w a n te d , c lo th a n d m a n y o f th e u s u a l b a u b le s d id n o t in te re s t th e m , b u t m e ta l ite m s — iron , c o p p e r, b ra ss — w h ic h th e y a lr e a d y h a d in so m e q u a n tity , w e r e so p r iz e d th a t C o o k h a d a d e v il o f a tim e c o n tro llin g th e ir p e tty th e ft. S ig n ific a n tly , w h e n C o o k p r e p a r e d to le a v e , th e In d ia n s le t h im k n o w th e y e x p e c te d to b e p a id for th e w o o d , w a te r, a n d g ra ss h e h a d ta k e n fro m th e ir la n d s. N o w h e r e e ls e in re d m a n ’ s A m e r ic a w o u ld th a t h a v e o c c u rre d . In A p ril C o o k s a ile d a w a y fro m N o o tk a fo r th e S a n d w ic h I s la n d s a n d his o w n tra g ic e n d . A b o a r d w e r e s e a -o tte r sk in s o b ta in e d in b a rte r. A fte r h e w a s k ille d in a sk irm ish w ith H a w a iia n s , his c r e w w o u ld ta k e th o s e p e lts to th e O rie n t a n d , to th e ir su rp rise , to u c h o ff o n e o f h is to ry ’ s g re a t s e lle r ’s m a rk e ts. In th e 178 0 s a n d 1 790s th e

N o rth w e s t c o a s t b e c a m e a m e c c a fo r e n te rp ris in g

m a rin ers, w h o a rriv e d fo r fu rs to ta k e o n to C h in a . O n e o f g e o g r a p h y ’s la st a n d b e s t-k e p t se c re ts w a s a s e c r e t n o lo n g e r. T h e sp le n d id iso la tio n o f th e N o rth w e s t w a s e n d e d — a t le a s t th e iso la tio n w a s. F o r y e a r s a fte r th e first c o n ta c ts , th e sp le n d o r, e c o n o m ic a n d c u ltu ra l, a c tu a lly w a x e d w ith th e r e c e ip t o f m e ta l to o ls a n d firea rm s. T h e c a s te -c o n s c io u s trib e s o f th e c o a s t n o w h a d e v e n m o re w e a lth to h o a rd a n d s q u a n d e r, m o re c a u s e to d is p la y th e ir w o rth in w h a t th e y o w n e d . It w o u ld n o t b e u n til m u c h la te r, w e ll in to th e n in e te e n th c e n tu ry , th a t liq u o r, p ro stitu tion , a n d d is e a s e , w ith th e ir u s u a l d isa stro u s re su lts, c a u g h t u p w ith th e b ig s p e n d e rs .

N 17 6 3

the

Ottaw

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P o n t i a c , h a v in g s e e n his o ld frie n d s

th e F r e n c h d e p o s e d a n d th e re d m e n o f th e O h io V a lle y n o w b e in g fle e c e d b y a n in flu x o f o p p o rtu n istic A n g lo -S a x o n s , fo r g e d a n a llia n c e th a t in c lu d e d D e la w a r e s a n d S h a w n e e s a n d M ia m is a n d o th ers. H e trie d to e n list m o re to w a r as o n e a g a in s t th e c o m m o n p e ril, e v e n s e n d in g e m is sa rie s a m o n g th e O s a g e w e s t o f th e M ississip p i. F o r a w h ile P o n tia c ’s co a litio n g a v e th e B ritish a

162

IS O L A T IO N S P L E N D ID A N D O T H E R W IS E

c a s e o f th e fro n tie r m ise rie s, u n til th e B ritish b ro k e th e a llia n c e w ith b r ib e s a n d

d ip lo m a tic p le d g e s th a t w o u ld n o t b e k e p t.

P o n tia c w a s n o t a b le to c o n v in c e th e m o re w e s te rn trib e s, th e C r e e s , th e C h ip p e w a s , a n d th e S io u x , th a t th e w h ite m a n h a d to go a n d th a t th e o ld w a y s sh o u ld b e re sto re d . T h e w e s te rn e rs w a n te d tra d e rs a n d th e th in g s o n ly th e w h ite m a n h a d . In th e e n d th e O tta w a c h ie f re tire d to th e Illin o is c o u n try , a c e le b r a te d fa ilu re . A d a rk c lo u d h a d p a s s e d o v e r th e fa c e o f th e su n , slig h tly b e fo r e n o o n , o n a w e s te r n s u m m e r’s d a y . T h e P o n tia c re b e llio n w a s th e m o st c o n c e r te d sh o w o f re s is t a n c e th e w h ite m a n w o u ld m e e t in N o rth A m e r ic a , b u t it fa ile d , a s it h a d to fail. In tru th , th e I n d ia n ’ s c u ltu ra l in h e rita n c e w a s sim p ly w e a k e r th a n th e w h ite m a n ’s; th e g a d g e ts a n d co rru p tio n s o f E u r o p e p r o v e d irre sistib le a n d th e n e w life irre v e rs ib le . T h e v e r y in d e p e n d e n c e o f spirit th a t o fte n le d th e re d m a n to w a r a g a in s t h is n e ig h b o rs w a s th e s a m e trait th a t sh u t h is e a rs to th e w a rn in g s o f a fe w se e rs th a t o n ly in u n ity w a s th e re h o p e . In th e W e st, a s in th e E a s t, his su m m e r c o u ld n o t last.

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ipaet m m

une 10, 1776. Barely able to contain his excitement, the forty-fouryear-old toast of Paris halted his carriage at 26 rue de Conde, got out, and hurriedly started toting mysterious canvas bags into his elegant reception room. When it was done, Pierre Augustin Caron de Beau marchais—Protestant watchmaker’s son, literary lion, inventor, sometime secret agent, and scarred veteran of many court intrigues and lawsuits — summoned his household. His mistress, two sisters, two nephews, a niece, and sundry servants looked on in astonishment as the maitre de maison, with a flash of his huge diamond ring (a gift from the Austrian queen, Maria Theresa, mother of Marie Antoinette), loosened the bags and noisily emptied their contents onto the floor. Out spilled coins, gold coins, piles of them —one million livres’ worth, until that very day stored in the French treasury. How had Beaumarchais come by them? His request for the monies, spelled out in a secret plan submitted to the Crown on May 24, had been enthusiastically approved by the foreign minister, the Comte de Vergennes, and somewhat reluctantly by King Louis XVI. It was a good plan, one that could conceivably change history. In 1775, Beaumarchais’s The Barber of Seville had been a smash comedy hit in Paris; in 1777 he would write the equally popular Marriage of Figaro. But in 1776 he was deeply involved in a nonliterary effort that absorbed his boundless energies: that of supplying the American revolutionaries with war materiel shipped out of France’s Atlantic ports. True, the plan he had submitted called for an outright gift of one million livres to back the colonists’ flimsy paper money and give them hard currency to purchase what they had to have. But he was pleased enough with the compromise. The money was to be considered a loan to buy surplus guns and muskets from the French arsenal, as well as new gun powder, shoes, clothing, and blankets; it would have to be repaid in ship ments of tobacco and rice. Yet the details of the plan were his: the dummy corporation funded by a cool million from the coffers of France, a match ing amount from ally Spain, and a third million easily raised from private

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sources. Roderique Hortalez et Cie would be the name of the firm, and he himself would manage it, clandestinely channeling provisions to the needy American rebels. The motives of the foreign minister and the king may have been reducible to unadorned hatred of England. As for himself, Beaumarchais believed in “those brave people who defend their liberty” and, well, he just liked to be in the thick of things. In 1776 there were Frenchmen in the West, but no France. The nation that La Salle had put in the Mississippi Valley with a dream of a new empire, the nation that knew more about the North American wilderness than any other, was gone—sans dream, sans empire. The immediate cause was the Seven Years’ War (known in North Amer ica as the French and Indian War), one of the most disastrous conflicts ever for France. It started as just one more of the imperial wars that had, for more than a century, involved France, England, Spain, and other European nations in shifting alignments. The clashes that had come before —the War of the League of Augsburg, the War of the Spanish Suc cession, and the War of the Austrian Succession —were each brought to a close when the parties were sufficiently exhausted and courting bank ruptcy, at which time a peace parley would be held where one nation might give up a sugar island here, another might gain fishing rights there, or yet another obtain trading concessions at some distant post in a rival’s far-flung empire. Not so the Seven Years’ War. This time France ran smack into an English haymaker thrown by First Minister William Pitt the Elder, whose aim was to reduce France permanently to a second-rate power, imperially and commercially, which were to his thinking but two sides of the same coin. Pitt got his chance when he came to power in a war that had seen a com plete reshuffling of all traditional alliances on the Continent. Chiefly through Austrian statecraft, France found herself allied with Sweden, Russia, and old-enemy Austria against old-friend Prussia, while England was uneasily in bed with old-foe Prussia. At first glance the match-ups seem grossly uneven. But England’s new ally was Prussia rising, the Prussia of Frederick the Great, the brilliant militarist and freethinker who was quite able to hold his own against the numerically superior forces aligned against him. England maintained only a token force in Germany, sending Frederick money while allowing her own navy and armies to spread out in the colo nial world in a grand strategy that included, as Pitt put it, “conquering America in Germany.” The French coast was blockaded, the French fleet was trounced decisively, and one by one the French overseas possessions were peeled away. Clive took most of India. Canada and Montcalm fell on the Plains of Abraham. The West Indies sugar islands of Guadeloupe and Martinique surrendered. The island of Goree that secured the Senegal

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slave trade was temporarily seized. And all the while France floundered on the Continent in a war against Prussia that made no sense.

When the Due de Choiseul became France’s foreign minister in Decem ber of 1758, he inherited the unhappy duty of presiding over the im pending dissolution of the French empire. Desperately he sought help. But that could come from only one quarter: neutral Spain. With the ascen sion of Carlos III to the Spanish throne in 1759, Choiseul applied himself to that task. Charles was a Bourbon. So was Louis XV. Logic as well as blood dictated that they unite against rampaging England if they were to save their colonies and the commerce that sustained them both as nations of the first rank. So, in August of 1761, France and Spain signed another Family Compact, and Carlos started to mobilize for war with England. Choiseul must have winced at each news report that followed the open ing of those hostilities in January of 1762. The ill-prepared Spaniards took a shellacking from the juggernaut that Pitt had put together. The English stopped a Spanish attempt to seize Portugal, conquered Cuba, and later took Manila by sea. For Choiseul personally and for France, it had become a double disaster, and the shrewd duke went to the peace table with a hand hardly worth playing. He now had an added liability in Carlos III, who was smarting under the British humiliations and wanted to continue a war that could not be won. Only one favorable change oc curred, and Choiseul resolved to make the most of it. William Pitt, the hard-nosed genius of English imperialism, had fallen from power in England, replaced by a bunch of political mediocrities who seemed, strangely, to want peace as much as did prostrate France —providing Spain would be a party to the settlement. The Peace of Paris was signed on February 10, 1763, in Choiseul’s city on the best terms he could get under the circumstances. Today they appear harsher than they did to the duke. France ceded Canada, all lands east of the Mississippi (save New Orleans), and navigation rights on the river proper to England. France also gave her Senegal and French claims in India, save for five small trading stations. But —coup of coups! — Choiseul managed to restore to France the sugar islands of Martinique and Guadeloupe. As for Spain, in order to get Cuba back, she had to give up the Floridas to the English. When Carlos III balked, Choiseul se cretly agreed to give him Louisiana west of the Mississippi and the city of New Orleans. Carlos hardly needed to be told that, with the English now in possession of the river’s east bank, he could use a larger buffer to guard those precious mines of Mexico. Looking back, it is hard to appreciate Choiseul’s amusement at the “good joke” he had played on the English in concluding the Treaty of Paris. The retention of the two tiny but commercially profitable sugar islands no doubt seemed a master stroke at the time, while the loss of Canada—those “few acres of snow” that Voltaire wished sunk “at the

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bottom of the Arctic Sea together with the reverend Jesuit fathers” — also fit French policy in 1763. Let England administer it and spread her self thin. Choiseul reflected the widespread cynicism in France when he wrote Voltaire, “Don’t count on me for furs this winter. You are hereby notified to address yourself to England.” The eighty thousand former French subjects abandoned in Canada could scarcely have been amused. The loss of Louisiana was not such a laughing matter, even in France. Because its southernmost part was tropical and therefore fit the mercan tile theory that colonies should produce what Europe lacked, there were misgivings. Even Voltaire, without of course ever having seen Louisiana, put in a few good words for the enormous land that still lacked a definite western or northern boundary. Choiseul kept his mouth shut on the sub ject, but there is no question he considered the Seven Years’ War just a prelude to another that would have to be fought with England for imperial dominance. Immediately he secretly set to rebuilding the French war ma chine, particularly its navy. The Family Compact was still in force, and he held a marker from Carlos III. Louisiana might be redeemable one day. Those living at the gates of the American West were still overwhelmingly French —perhaps La Salle’s dream had not died with the stroke of a pen.

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Chapter 9

'l lic Rivet" People F our C anadi an brothers n a m e d L e M o y n e s e r v e d F r a n c e w ith d istin ctio n in th e lo w e r M iss is sip p i V a lle y . A n to in e L e M o y n e d e C h a t e a u g u e p u t in m a n y y e a r s in L o u is ia n a ; J o s e p h L e M o y n e d e S e r ig n y o n ly tw o . B e tt e r r e m e m b e r e d , h o w e v e r , w e r e P ie rre L e M o y n e , S ie u r d ’ Ib e rv ille , a n d J e a n - B a p tis te L e M o y n e , S ie u r d e B ie n v ille . It w a s Ib e r v ille w h o c o m m a n d e d th e F r e n c h sh ip th a t e n te r e d th e b ird fo o t m u c k o f th e M iss is sip p i R iv e r in M a r c h o f 169 9 , sa ilin g p e r ilo u s ly th ro u g h th e b lu e - b la c k m o u n d s o f h a r d e n e d o o z e th a t h a d h id d e n th e r iv e r ’ s m o u th fro m S p a n is h m a rin ers. A n d it w a s B ie n v ille w h o a y e a r la te r, tw e n ty -th r e e le a g u e s u p riv e r b e n e a th to w e rin g tre e s th a t o n e a w e d F r e n c h m a n la te r s p e c u la te d w e re as o ld as th e e a rth , tu rn e d b a c k an K n g lis h se a c a p ta in w h o h a d c o m e to ta k e p o s s e s s io n o f th e M ississip p i. F r a n c e h a d w o n th e r a c e fo r th e g re a t riv e r th a t c o m m a n d e d th e h e a rt o f th e c o n tin e n t a n d th e e a s te r n e n tr a n c e s to th e W e st. L o u is ia n a in th e so u th , in th e s u b d e lta , c o u ld n o t h a v e liv e d u p to L a S a lle ’ s a d v e r tis e m e n t o f a la n d th a t w a s b o th b e a u tifu l a n d fe rtile , “ so fu ll o f m e a d o w s , b ro o k s a n d rivers; so a b o u n d in g in fish, g a m e a n d v e n is o n , th a t o n e c a n fin d th e re in p le n ty . . . th a t w h ic h is n e e d fu l fo r th e su p p o rt o f flo u rish in g c o lo n ie s .” B u t h e h a d c o m e d o w n riv e r fro m th e n o rth a n d h a d s e e n th e d iv e r s ity in th e v a s t te rrito ry to w h ic h h e h a d g iv e n th e n a m e L o u is ia n a . N o w it w a s u p to I b e r v ille a n d B ie n v ille to g iv e it a n e x is te n c e , a n d sta rtin g as th e y d id in th e d e lta la n d s , th a t w a s to p r o v e a n y th in g but easy. A n e ig h te e n th -c e n tu r y P a ris ia n p h r a s e -m a k e r sa id th a t w h a t-

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BOTH ILLUSTRATIONS: LOUISIANA STATE MUSEUM, NEW ORLEANS

T H E R IV E R P E O P L E

Jean-Baptiste L eM oyn e, Sieur de Bienville, governed Louisiana.

Brother Paul, Sieur d’Iberville, had seized the heartland in 1699.

e v e r w a s fo u n d b y E u r o p e a n s , th e F r e n c h w o u ld h a v e “ c o n s tru c te d a fo rt th e re ; th e S p a n ia r d s w o u ld h a v e b u ilt a c h u rc h ; th e E n g lis h a t a v e r n .” T h e F r e n c h w e r e first a n d th e y b u ilt forts, th o u g h th e first tw o o f a n y s ig n ific a n c e w e r e n o t o n th e M iss is sip p i p r o p e r b u t to th e e a s t o f it: F o r t M a u r e p a s at B ilo x i in 1699 a n d F o r t S a in t L o u is a t M o b ile B a y in 170 2 . N o d o u b t th e lo c a tio n s m a d e g o o d s e n s e . T h e s w a m p y la b y rin th th ro u g h w h ic h h a lf a c o n tin e n t e m p tie d its b u r d e n o f w a te rs w a s n o t th e b e s t p la c e to se ttle , le t a lo n e n a v ig a te , a n d c o a s ta l fo rtific a tio n s fa c in g th e G u lf o f M e x ic o w e r e e a s ie r to m a n a n d to su p p ly , a n d t h e y g u a r d e d th e th r e e e n tr a n c e s to th e riv e r b e tte r th a n a n y in terio r fa s tn e s s . T h e m a in th in g w a s th a t, fro m b o th th e C a n a d ia n n o rth a n d th e d e lta so u th , w e d g e s h a d b e e n d riv e n b e tw e e n riv a ls S p a in a n d E n g la n d in N o rth A m e r ic a . B y c a r e fu lly c u ltiv a tin g th e frie n d s h ip o f th e riv e r v a lle y trib e s , E n g la n d c o u ld b e c o n ta in e d in th e e a s t a n d th e S p a n is h m in e s to th e w e s t m a d e v u ln e r a b le to b o ld F r e n c h m e n , o f w h o m th e r e w a s n e v e r a la ck .

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T H E F A IL U R E O F F R A N C E

The

s tr a te g y s e e m e d

so u n d e n o u g h , b u t th e f e e b le c o lo n y

e s ta b lis h e d a t B ilo x i b o d e d ill fo r th e fu tu re o f L o u is ia n a . T h e W a r o f th e S p a n is h S u c c e s s io n d is tra c te d w h a t in itia l in te re s t F r a n c e m ig h t h a v e h a d in se ttlin g th e h e a r tla n d in stre n g th . A fe w h u n d r e d so ld ie rs a n d a s s o rte d v a g r a n ts v e g e t a t e d a t th e G u lf C o a s t p o sts u n d e r th e fru s tra te d g o v e rn o r B ie n v ille , fa r fro m th e fu rs t h e y w e r e s u p p o s e d to b e g a th e rin g fo r th e C ro w n , d e s u l to rily tu rn in g a s a n d y soil th a t y ie ld e d little. L o u is X I V w a s n o t p le a s e d w ith th e p ro g re s s o f th e c o lo n y , a n d h is m in iste r o f m a rin e , th e C o m te d e P o n tc h a rtra in , w a s su s C ro w n

tu rn e d

o v e r L o u is ia n a to th e P a ris fin a n c ie r A n to in e

C r o z a t as h is p r iv a te m o n o p o ly fo r fifte e n y e a r s . H e w a s r e q u ire d to b rin g in co lo n ists a n d p e rm itte d to im p o rt A fr ic a n s la v e s a t his o w n e x p e n s e to w o rk th e la n d fo r h is o w n pro fit. U n til th e c o lo n y go t o n its fe e t, th e k in g w o u ld p a y fo r tro o p s to d e fe n d it a n d fo r th e n e w g o v e rn o r, A n to in e d e la M o th e C a d illa c , se n t to L o u is i a n a fro m th e north , w h e re h e h a d fo u n d e d D e tro it. C a d illa c w a s fa r fro m sm itte n w ith h is d u ty in B ilo x i. “ T h is c o u n try is n o t w o rth a s tra w ,” h e b lu n tly in fo rm e d his su p e rio rs. “ T h e in h a b ita n ts a re e a g e r to b e ta k e n o u t o f it. T h e so ld ie rs a re a lw a y s g ru m b lin g , a n d w ith r e a s o n .” T h e u n h a p p y o ffic ia l g o v e r n e d w ith a h a rsh a n d h e a v y h a n d , w h ic h w a s p r o b a b ly n e c e s sa ry , g iv e n th e q u a lity o f co lo n ists w h o m M . C r o z a t c h o s e to se n d — b e g g a r s , v a g a b o n d s , w h o re s , a n d s c a m p s in th e m ain , fo lk s w h o c o u ld b e h a d a t m in im a l e x p e n s e a n d w e r e e x p e c te d to toil g la d ly fo r C r o z a t a n d s p e n d th e little th e y e a r n e d in th e c o m p a n y store. In 1 7 1 7 , C r o z a t c a lle d it q u its a n d , w ith his p u r s e c o n s id e r a b ly lig h te n e d , h a n d e d o v e r h is p a te n t a n d so m e s e v e n h u n d r e d u n h a p p y co lo n ists to a v a c a n t th ro n e . L o u is X I V h a d d ie d in 1 7 1 5 , a n d th e D u e d ’O rle a n s, s e rv in g as r e g e n t for th e y o u n g L o u is X V , n o w c a lle d o n th e fin a n c ia l w iz a rd J o h n L a w for a so lu tio n . T h e S c o ts m a n h a d it. H is p u b lic sto c k v e n tu r e , th e C o m p a n y o f th e W e s t (re o rg a n iz e d tw o y e a r s la te r a s th e C o m p a n y o f th e In d ie s ), w o u ld b e e f u p th e c o lo n y ’s n u m b e rs a n d m o v e it o ff th e unh e a lth fu l a n d u n p r o d u c tiv e G u lf stra n d into th e fe rtile in terio r. T h e r e L a w e n v is io n e d a g re a t e m p ire re stin g o n th e h a rv e s ts o f

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B IB L IO T H E Q U E N A T IO N A L E . P A R IS

p ic io u s o f th e L e M o y n e b r o th e r s ’ a m b itio n s. S o , in 1 7 1 2 , th e

Paris hucksters painted a dazzling picture o f the “Port o f Mississippi” in 1717. Investors who bit were soon to lose their shirts.

tro p ic a l p la n ta tio n s a n d on th e o res o f rich m in e s th a t, all S p a in ’ s e x p e r ie n c e fo re to ld , h a d to b e th e re . A s u c c e s s fu l g a m b le r w h o w a s w a n te d fo r m u rd e r in E n g la n d , L a w c o n v in c e d th e r e g e n t th a t a stro n g in je c tio n o f p a p e r m o n e y w o u ld p ro m o te a liv e ly tra d e b e t w e e n h o m e a n d th e c o lo n y , a n d th e d u k e le t his w o n d e r w o rk e r o r g a n iz e th e B a n q u e G e n era te d e F ra n ce to is s u e it. L a w ’s stro n g su it w a s p ro m o tio n . In P a ris ia n sto re-fro n ts th e re q u ic k ly a p p e a r e d p o ste rs sh o w in g a n In d ia n tra d in g a g o ld in g o t fo r a F r e n c h m a n ’s k n ife , a n d o th e rs d e p ic tin g b e je w e le d la d ie s a n d g e n tle m e n rid in g in c a r ria g e s th ro u g h a lu sh la n d o f C a n a a n a b u n d a n c e , w h e r e s la v e s a n s w e re d th e g e n tr y ’s b e c k a n d call. P r ic e s in th e sto c k so a re d to d iz z y h e ig h ts , a n d w ith th e fro n t m o n e y L a w sta rte d p e o p lin g h is e m p ire . T itle s o f n o b ility w e re p e d d le d a lo n g w ith la n d g ra n ts to in te re s te d b u y e r s , a fe w o f w h o m a c tu a lly s a ile d fo r L o u is ia n a a n d b e g a n w o rk in g th e la n d . G e r m a n s w e r e r e c r u ite d to th e n u m b e r o f tw o th o u s a n d . M a n y o f th o s e w h o s u r v iv e d sta rv a tio n w h e n th e y d e b a r k e d in im p o v e r-

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T H E F A IL U R E O F F R A N C E

Part Barnum, part Baruch, the Scotsman John Law peopled Louisiana with slaves from Africa, refugees from Germany, and the cream o f French gutters.

is h e d B ilo x i s e ttle d on th e w e s t sid e o f th e M ississip p i, o n th e C o te d e s A lle m a n d s a b o v e th e b r a n d -n e w s e ttle m e n t o f N e w O rle a n s; th e r e w ith th e ir c u s to m a ry d ilig e n c e th e y tra n s fo rm e d th e d a rk d e lta soil in to b lo o m in g g a rd e n s . A ls o b ro u g h t in w e r e b la c k sla v e s ; th e first c o n sig n m e n t, a rriv in g in 1 7 1 9 , n u m b e r e d fo u r h u n d r e d fifty, a n d in th e fo llo w in g tw o y e a r s , a lm o st fo u r tim es th a t n u m b e r. F o r o th e r w a rm b o d ie s , L a w re s o rte d to w h a t w a s fa n c ifu lly e n te r ta in e d a s th e s u c c e s s fu l E n g lis h c o lo n ia l fo rm u la : c le a n s in g th e re a lm o f u n d e s ir a b le s to s e c u r e o v e r s e a s la n d s. O n c e a g a in th e flo tsa m o f th e F r e n c h u rb a n g u tte rs a n d p riso n s w a s c o lle c te d a n d tra n s p o rte d to th e h u m b lin g n e w w o rld o f p r im e v a l fo re sts a n d sw a m p s a n d prairie's a n d sk y. N e w O rle a n s w a s fo u n d e d in 1 7 1 8 u n d e r B ie n v ille , re a p p o in te d to th e p o st o f g o v e rn o r fo r w a n t o f a n e x p e r ie n c e d h a n d . T h a t v e r y y e a r F r e n c h n e w s p a p e r s c o m p lim e n te d th e c ity fo r h a v in g â&#x20AC;&#x153; e ig h t h u n d r e d fin e h o u s e s .â&#x20AC;? B u t w h e n th e F r e n c h J e s u it P ie r r e F ra n -

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go is d e C h a r le v o ix v isite d N e w O rle a n s in 17 2 2 , h e d e s c r ib e d it w ith G a llic iro n y as b e in g “ r e d u c e d at p r e s e n t to a h u n d r e d b a r ra c k s, p la c e d in no v e r y g re a t o rd er; to a g re a t-sto re h o u s e , b u ilt o f w o o d ; [an d ] to tw o or th r e e h o u s e s , w h ic h w o u ld b e no o rn a m e n t to a v illa g e o f F r a n c e .” E ls e w h e r e a lo n g th e lo w e r river, o a k s w e r e fe lle d a n d c a n e s b u r n e d to c le a r field s fo r p la n tin g . L a w e s ta b lis h e d a m a jo r p o st on th e A rk a n s a s , ju s t n o rth a n d w e s t o f th a t r iv e r ’s c o n flu e n c e w ith th e M ississip p i. A n d th e n , in 172 0 , th e s p e c u la tiv e b u b b le b u rst. T h e F r e n c h b o u r g e o is ie lo st its c h e m is e a n d L o u is ia n a w a s b r a n d e d a c a n a rd , stu c k w ith a re p u ta tio n it w o u ld n e v e r c o m p le te ly liv e d o w n . L a w g a v e th e c o lo n y a h a lf-life th a t F r a n c e w o u ld n e v e r a llo w to b e a fu ll life. S till it g re w , tw o fo rts fo rw a rd a n d o n e fo rt b a c k , u p a n d d o w n th e im m e n s e riv e r th a t to o k a b o u t th re e m o n th s to a s c e n d b y p ir o g u e a n d a m e re te n or tw e lv e d a y s to c o m e d o w n in sp rin g flo o d . In tim e th e p la n ta tio n s d id b e g in to p r o d u c e , b u t th e v a lu e o f th e ir e x p o rts fa ile d to m a tc h F r e n c h e x p e n d itu re s , a n d th e c o lo n y s tr u g g le d on w ith y e a r ly d e fic its th a t e x c e e d e d 800,000

livres b y 17 5 0 , s u b s id iz e d fo r g e o -p o litic a l re a s o n s. It n e e d n o t h a v e b e e n th a t w a y . T h e la n d w a s as fe rtile as a d v e r tis e d , y ie ld in g p r e c is e ly th o s e cro p s th e m o th e r c o u n try la c k e d . T o b a c c o — th e m u c h -s o u g h t c o m m o d ity th a t F r a n c e h a d b e e n im p o rtin g fro m th e E n g lis h c o lo n ie s to th e g re a t d istre ss o f its m e r c a n tile th e o ris ts — w a s fo u n d to g ro w th e re a n d b e o f d e c e n t q u a lity . In d ig o , n a tiv e a n d im p o rte d v a rie tie s , d id e v e n b e tte r. In lo w e r L o u is ia n a , n e a r th e r iv e r ’s m o u th , tre e s w e r e c u t fo r sh ip tim b e rs a n d b le d o f p itc h fo r c a u lk in g . M u lb e r r y tr e e s su p p o rte d a fle d g lin g silk c u ltu re , a n d rice d id w e ll. S u g a r c a n e c u ttin g s w e re la te r b r o u g h t fro m S a n to D o m in g o a n d p la n te d , w h ile co tto n g re w in th e w ild . Its c u ltiv a tio n w a s n o t p o p u la r w ith th e se ttle rs, h o w e v e r , b e c a u s e th e s e e d s stu c k to e v e r y th in g , m a k in g th e p ic k in g n o t w o rth th e tro u b le . F o r m a n y L o u is ia n a n s th e d r u d g e r y o f p la n ta tio n fa rm in g its e lf w a s too m u c h tro u b le , fit o n ly fo r th e m a n w h o c o u ld a ffo rd s la v e s th a t fr e q u e n tly d ie d in th e m a la ria l h e a t. S o ld ie r s g a rris o n e d in th e d r e a r y fo rts stru n g u p th e riv e r w e r e fig h te rs, n o t fa rm e rs. T h e d e re lic ts b ro u g h t o v e r in th e c le a n s in g o f F r e n c h to w n s fo u n d id le n e s s w a s so m e th in g y o u c o u ld ta k e w ith y o u .

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S o m e m e n o f m o re e n te r p r is e d is c o v e r e d it p r e fe r a b le a n d p ro fita b le to g e t fu rs, h id e s , a n d b u ffa lo w o o l fro m th e In d ia n s in tra d e , w h ic h too o fte n m e a n t c h is e lin g a n d c h e a tin g th e re d m a n . O n e sto ry te lls o f a F r e n c h s h a rp ie w h o v is ite d th e M iss o u ri trib e e a r ly in th e c e n tu r y to tr a d e g u n p o w d e r fo r fu rs. T h e c h ie f sa id no, t h e y a lr e a d y h a d e n o u g h fo r th e ir n e e d s . B u t d id th e y h a v e e n o u g h to p la n t fo r n e x t y e a r ’s c ro p ? th e n im b le -w itte d tra d e r w a n te d to k n o w . H e e x p la in e d to th e c r e d u lo u s M iss o u ri th a t th e p o w d e r c o u ld b e so w n a n d h a r v e s te d ju s t lik e m illet. H e go t his fu rs. L a t e r th e s a m e tra d e r s e n t his p a rtn e r a m o n g th e M isso u ris w ith a n o th e r lo a d o f m e rc h a n d is e . T h e In d ia n s , w h o h a d w a tc h e d c a r e fu lly o v e r th e ir g u n p o w d e r fie ld s u n til t h e y r e a liz e d th e y h a d b e e n ta k e n , r e c o g n iz e d th e m a n as a n a s s o c ia te o f th e d is h o n e s t tra d e r. W ith o u t a w o rd o f c o m p la in t t h e y in v ite d th e p a r tn e r to u n lo a d his p a c k a g e s in th e p u b lic c a b in . N o so o n e r w a s it d o n e th a n so m e o f th e p o w d e r fa rm e rs g r a b b e d th e w a r e s a n d ran . F u rio u s , th e tra d e r w e n t to th e c h ie f a n d b itte rly c o m p la in e d . Y e s , th e c h ie f a g r e e d , a g re a t in ju s tic e h a d b e e n d o n e . A n d it w o u ld b e r ig h t e d — ju s t as so o n as th e trib e w a s d o n e w ith h a r v e s t in g its g u n p o w d e r cro p . F o r all its e a r ly p ro m ise , L o u is ia n a u n d e r F r a n c e n e v e r liv e d u p to e x p e c ta tio n s , p a rtly b e c a u s e th e y w e r e fa ls e e x p e c ta tio n s . B e s id e s C r o z a t a n d L a w , th e r e w e r e m a n y o th e r F r e n c h m e n w h o w e re c o n v in c e d th a t g o ld a n d silv er c o u ld b e fo u n d in th e c o lo n y w e s t o f th e river. T h a t w a s , a fte r all, th e d ire c tio n in w h ic h th e S p a n ia rd s , th e e rro n e o u s b e lie f p e rs is te d , w e r e d o in g h a n d s o m e ly w ith th e ir m in e s in S a n ta F e . W h ile h e w a s g o v e rn o r, e v e n C a d il la c w a s te d m u c h tim e a n d e n e r g y p r o s p e c tin g in th e in c a lc u la b ly la r g e a n d tra c k le s s la n d . G o ld , c o p p e r, iron , m a n g a n e s e , le a d , zin c, a n tim o n y , a n d o th e r m in e ra ls w e r e la te r m in e d w ith in w h a t w a s th e n c a lle d L o u is ia n a , b u t a ll th a t th e F r e n c h fo u n d in a n y a m o u n ts w e r e sa lt a n d le a d . S a lt sp rin g s a n d fla ts n e a r th e S a lin e C r e e k o f M isso u ri w e r e w o rk e d fro m as e a r ly as 170 0 , as w e re su rfa c e d e p o sits o f le a d fo u n d in a th re e -th o u s a n d -s q u a re -m ile tra c t fro m th e h e a d w a te r s o f th e S a n F r a n c o is R iv e r to th e M e ra m e c R iv e r — a g a in , w e s t o f th e M ississip p i. L e a d fro m th is d is trict, v a r io u s ly la b e le d “ R e g io M e ta llo r u m ,” “ E n d ro it re m p li d e M in e s ,” a n d “ C o u n tr y F u ll o f M in e s ” on e ig h te e n th -c e n tu r y

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m a p s , w a s m e lte d a n d m o ld e d in to h o rs e -c o lla r b a rs to sa tisfy lo c a l n e e d s , w ith so m e le ft o v e r for e x p o rt to N e w O rle a n s a n d o c c a s io n a lly to F r a n c e . T h e le a d w e ig h e d m o re th a n g o ld b u t la c k e d its lu ster. G iv e n a c o a t o f p a in t, th e b a rs m ig h t h a v e p a s s e d fo r o n e o f M r. L a w ’ s in g o ts s h o w n in th e in fa m o u s sto re -fro n t p o ste rs, b u t a fte r th irty y e a r s o f p ro m ise s, v a in sc ra tc h in g s, a n d s a m p le s se n t b a c k h o m e th a t fa ile d a s s a y e r s ’ te sts, c y n ic a l P a ris ia n s re fu s e d to b e g u lle d . T h e a b u s e h e a p e d u p o n p ro m o te rs o f L o u is ia n a ’s m in e ra l w e a lth le d A n to in e S im o n L e P a g e d u P r a tz , fo r six te e n y e a r s a p la n te r in L o u is ia n a a n d a m a n w h o fe lt d e e p ly th a t th e c o lo n y ’s tru e r ic h e s w e r e a g ric u ltu ra l, to a n s w e r th e critics a fte r his re tu rn to F r a n c e . T h e r e w e r e , in d e e d , p re c io u s m e ta ls th e re , h e w ro te . H e h a d e v e n s e e n g o ld d u st w ith his o w n e y e s in trib u ta rie s o f th e A r k a n s a s R iv e r . T h e n w h y h a d no F r e n c h m e n b ro u g h t b a c k go ld ? A m a n tr a v e lin g in a c o u n try o f “ im m e n se w o o d s a n d d e s e r ts ” p e o p le d b y s a v a g e s h a d e n o u g h to do g e ttin g b a c k u n s c a th e d w ith o u t

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c a p ita liz a tio n b e fo r e a n y p ro fits c o u ld b e r e a liz e d — c a p ita l th a t th e c o lo n is ts d id n o t h a v e a n d th a t th e tig h tfiste d sta y -a t-h o m e s w e r e to o tim id to a d v a n c e . F in a lly , d u P r a tz a d m itte d , th e F r e n c h c o lo n is ts sim p ly d id n o t k n o w v e r y m u c h a b o u t m in in g , a n d th e “ S p a n ia r d s , th e ir n e ig h b o rs , a re too d is c r e e t to te a c h th e m .” O th e r ills b e s e t th e fa lte rin g c o lo n y . C o n tr a r y to th e te stim o n ia ls o f r e tu rn in g F r e n c h m e n on th e “ h e a lth fu ln e s s ” o f L o u is ia n a ’ s c lim a te , it w a s a n y th in g b u t th a t, p a rtic u la rly in th e so u th e rn lo w la n d s , th e m o sq u ito la n d s w h e re , in a d d itio n to b e in g n u is a n c e s ,

A e d e s a eg y p ti b r o u g h t th e le th a l y e llo w fe v e r a n d A n o p h eles th e e v e n m o re p r e v a le n t m a la ria . E p id e m ic s o f m u m p s a n d sm a llp o x r e g u la r ly to o k th e ir toll o f w h ite m e n a n d re d m e n in a c o lo n y sh o rt o f d o cto rs. U p riv e r, th e g rip p e a n d p le u ris ie s w e r e ch ro n ic, a n d v e n e r e a l d is e a s e w a s fr e e ly d is trib u te d b y m e n o f c a s u a l m o ra ls. T e r s e n o ta ria l re c o rd s te ll th e tru e sto ry o f life in e ig h te e n th - c e n t u r y L o u is ia n a : e a r ly d e a th s , e s ta te s in le g a l ta n g le s , th e n a m e s o f th re e -tim e w id o w s a n d w id o w e rs. D e s p it e th e h ig h m o rta lity ra te , L o u is ia n a n s d id g ro w s lo w ly in n u m b e r s . In 1 7 3 1 , w h e n th e c o lo n y o n c e a g a in b e c a m e a n e x

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c lu s iv e ly r o y a l re s p o n s ib ility , th e r e w e r e a b o u t 5,200 n o n -In d ia n re s id e n ts . A t m id -c e n tu ry th e r e w e r e so m e 8,000, a n d w h e n th e S p a n is h to o k o v e r in th e 176 0 s, th e r e w e r e a s m a n y a s 12,000. Y e t , th e fig u re s a re m is le a d in g . H a lf o f th o s e “ F r e n c h m e n ” w e re b la c k s la v e s b r o u g h t fro m G u in e a a n d S e n e g a l b y th e fle sh d e a le r s o f N a n te s to w o rk th e soil fo r th e ir o fte n c r u e l F r e n c h m a ste rs. In e v ita b ly , th e r e w e r e r u n a w a y s , a n d tim e s p e n t c h a s in g d o w n r u n a w a y s ; a n d o n m o re th a n o n e o c c a s io n th o s e r u n a w a y s c o n g r e g a te d in th e w ild s a n d th r e a te n e d th e c o lo n y w ith in s u r r e c tion . T h e e x is te n c e o f a n a s c e n t fifth c o lu m n c o u ld o n ly h a v e w o rrie d th e F r e n c h , e s p e c ia lly in v ie w o f th e w id e s p r e a d d is c o n te n t w ith in th e ir g u a rd ia n g a rriso n , w h ic h in 17 4 5 fla re d u p in w h a t w a s c a lle d th e B a d B r e a d M u tin y . T h e r e w e r e o th e r c o m p lic a tio n s . It w a s th e F r e n c h c u sto m to d iv id e a u th o rity in its c o lo n ie s b e tw e e n a g o v e rn o r a n d a n inte n d a n t (c a lle d a com m issaire ord on n a teu r in L o u is ia n a ). B o th w e r e th e k in g ’ s m e n , o n a p a r w ith e a c h o th e r in p o w e r b u t w ith d iffe re n t a d m in is tra tiv e re sp o n s ib ilitie s. T h e r o y a l in te n t w a s to c h e c k e a c h m a n ’s m e a n e r a m b itio n s w ith th is w a tc h d o g a r r a n g e m e n t, b u t in p r a c tic e th e tw o fr e q u e n tly q u a r r e le d a n d , w ith th e ir r e s p e c tiv e fa v o rite s lin in g u p b e h in d th e m , b ro u g h t m o re d iv isio n to th e c o lo n y . O n o n e o c c a s io n in th e la te 17 5 0 s, it w a s n e c e s s a r y to r e c a ll b o th g o v e rn o r a n d in te n d a n t to P a ris for a c o o lin g -o ff stint in th e B a s tille . A s in m o st c o lo n ia l sy ste m s , h ig h a d m in is tra tiv e o ffic e s m o st o fte n w e n t to h o m e b r e d g e n tle m e n w ith c o n n e c tio n s a t co u rt. W ith th e e x c e p tio n o f B ie n v ille a n d P ie r r e F ra n q o is d e R ig a u d d e C a v a g n o l, M a rq u is d e V a u d r e u il, L o u is ia n a ’s g o v e rn o rs c a m e fro m a c ro ss th e se a . E v e n in le s s e r p o sts th e ta le n te d C r e o le w h o m e a n t to s ta y in th e la n d o f his b irth w a s o fte n p a s s e d o v e r in fa v o r o f sh o rt-tim ers, w h o w e r e u n d e r s ta n d a b ly le s s in te r e s te d in L o u is ia n a ’s w e lfa r e th a n in th e ir o w n . N o w o n d e r th e C r e o le w a s n o t a v e r s e to g o u g in g th e C r o w n or to p a d d in g h is o w n e x p e n s e a c c o u n t for s e r v ic e s r e n d e r e d ; a L o u is ia n a n ’ s lo y a lty to m o th e r F r a n c e w a s a p t to b e le ss th a n a b s o lu te . P a r a m o u n t a m o n g his c o m p la in ts w a s th e c u r r e n c y h e h a d or, m o re a c c u r a te ly , th e c u r r e n c y h e la c k e d . F e a r in g s h ip w r e c k a n d E n g lis h in te rc e p tio n , F r a n c e w ith h e ld sh ip m e n ts o f h a rd m o n e y to N e w F r a n c e . In-

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s te a d , th e se ttle rs h a d to m a k e d o w ith b ills o f e x c h a n g e a n d “ c a rd m o n e y ,” w h ic h , lik e m o st s u c h p a p e r te n d e r , w a s g r e a tly d is c o u n te d . S o d e s p e r a te w e r e th e c o lo n ists fo r s p e c ie in th e 174 0 s th a t S p a n is h silv e r p istoles b e c a m e th e c o in o f th is n e g le c te d c o rn e r o f th e re a lm . W ith so m u c h w ro n g in L o u is ia n a , th e re h a d to b e so m e th in g righ t. T h e c o lo n y d id , if n o t th riv e , a t le a s t s u rv iv e . W h y ? F o r o n e th in g , n e ith e r E n g la n d n o r S p a in w a s in m u c h o f a p o sitio n or o f a m in d to s e rio u s ly c o n te s t th e F r e n c h p r e s e n c e b e t w e e n th e m . T h is w a s p a rtly d u e to th e F r e n c h In d ia n p o lic y . B y c o m p a ris o n w ith th e S p a n ia r d , w h o a tte m p te d to c o n v e r t th e re d m a n to his re lig io n a n d to in te g ra te h im into his s o c ie ty (u s u a lly as a b o tto m ru n g m e n ia l), a n d th e A n g lo , w h o a s a ru le v ie w e d th e N e w W o rld a b o rig in e as a n o b s ta c le to h is la n d lu st a n d b e r e ft o f a so u l w o rth s a v in g , th e F r e n c h m a n ’s a ttitu d e w a s e n lig h te n e d , a t tim es a lm o st h u m a n ita ria n . H e a p p r o a c h e d th e In d ia n a s a n e a r e q u a l, a tra d in g p a rtn e r, th e b rin g e r o f fu rs, a w o rth y a lly a g a in s t h is im p e ria l riva ls. B e h e illite ra te v o y a g eu r p a d d lin g u p a n u n k n o w n riv e r to w a rd th e b a c k s id e o f n o w h e re or w itty m a s te r o f th e

b on m ot in P a ris ia n in te lle c tu a l circle s, h e h a d a ro m a n tic a d m ir a tio n fo r th is p e rso n ific a tio n o f l ’h om m e n a tu rel w h o liv e d life fr e e o f th e d a y -to -d a y p e tty d e c e p tio n s a n d co rru p tio n s so fa m ilia r to a F r e n c h m a n . F ro m th e v e r y first, I b e r v ille ’s s c h e m e fo r m a s te ry o f th e riv e r n e c e s s ita te d w in n in g its In d ia n s o v e r to th e sid e o f th e F r e n c h . W h e n h e b u ilt F o rt S a in t L o u is a t M o b ile , h e c a lle d a g re a t c o u n cil o f trib e s to c e m e n t th e In d ia n n a tio n s in a llia n c e a g a in s t th e E n g lis h , a n d w ith a fe w n o ta b le e x c e p tio n s h e s u c c e e d e d . T h e s c h e m e a lso c a lle d fo r th e c o n stru c tio n o f forts (th e n a tio n th a t g a v e V a u b a n to m ilita ry s c ie n c e k n e w p r e c is e ly h o w to b u ild forts a n d w h e re to p la c e th em ), th e in tro d u c tio n o f m issio n a rie s, a n d th e a n n u a l d istrib u tio n o f p r e s e n ts a m o n g th e fr ie n d ly trib es. N o d e s ig n fo r h u m a n re la tio n s, h o w e v e r n o b le or fu n d a m e n ta lly so u n d , is e v e r a p p lie d a c c o r d in g to th e b lu e p rin t; g r e e d a n d error w ill a tte n d . A c e rta in M . d e C h e p a rt, c o m m a n d a n t o f F o rt R o s a lie n e a r th e N a tc h e z p o st o n th e e a s t sid e o f th e M ississip p i, d e c id e d h e w a n te d th e site o f th e N a tc h e z In d ia n v illa g e b u ria l g ro u n d fo r h is o w n p la n ta tio n a n d p ro m ise d to p u t c h a in s on a n y

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In d ia n w h o o p p o s e d h im . T h u s w a s th e s e e d p la n te d for a s e c r e t r e b e llio n th a t b r o k e o u t on N o v e m b e r 28, 17 2 9 , a n d in o n e b lo o d y d a y s e v e r a l h u n d r e d F r e n c h s u b je c ts lo st th e ir liv e s. F o r a lm o st tw o y e a r s th e w h o le fu tu re o f th e c o lo n y te e te r e d o v e r a re d a b y s s . T h e n , a fte r m a n y b a ttle s a n d b ru ta litie s, th e F r e n c h w ith In d ia n a u x ilia rie s fin a lly s u b d u e d th e N a tc h e z . T h o s e n o t slain w e r e sold in to s la v e r y or, in th e c a s e o f a fe w , fle d to jo in th e C h ic k a s a w s . T h e e x te rm in a tio n o f th e N a tc h e z , a n in flu e n tia l a n d g ifte d p e o p le , le ft a c r u c ia l v a c u u m in L o w e r L o u is ia n a th a t w a s n e v e r tru ly fille d a g a in . T h e w a r h a d a n o th e r loser: u n d e r its strain th e C o m p a n y o f th e I n d ie s c o lla p s e d , a n d th e c o lo n y a g a in re tu rn e d to r o y a l co n tro l. T h e a lie n a tio n o f th e p o te n t C h ic k a s a w s w a s n o t so m u c h a c a s e

Faith and flag came to the Mississippi with Father Marquette, though neither was to prosper in the immense river valley.

T H E F A IL U R E O F F R A N C E

o f F r e n c h b lu n d e r in g as o f th e E n g lis h g e ttin g to th e m first, a n d th e fu tility o f try in g to p le a s e all th e p e o p le a ll th e tim e . A t I b e r v ille ’ s M o b ile c o n fa b th e y w e r e in a tte n d a n c e , a lo n g w ith th e C h o c ta w s , th e ir h e r e d ita r y e n e m ie s . A b e t t e d b y E n g lis h b rib e s fro m th e C a r o lin a s (E n g lis h g o o d s w e r e b o th b e tte r a n d c h e a p e r th a n F r e n c h g o o d s), th e C h ic k a s a w s b e c a m e a p e r m a n e n t th o rn in th e F r e n c h sid e . It w a s as th o u g h h isto ry w e r e r e p e a tin g its e lf w ith a n o th e r v e r s io n o f th e Iro q u o is sto ry th a t h a d stu n te d th e g ro w th o f C a n a d a . A s th e F r e n c h r e a d ily c o n c e d e d , th e C h ic k a sa w s w e r e “ a w e ll-b u ilt p e o p le o f u n e q u a lle d b r a v e r y ” w h o h a d g o o d r e a s o n to sid e w ith th e “ b lo n d m e n ,” a s th e In d ia n s d iffe r e n tia te d th e E n g lis h fro m th e F r e n c h . In 17 3 9 , a fte r tw o e x p e n s iv e a n d d isa stro u s c a m p a ig n s a g a in s t th e C h ic k a s a w s , e v e n G o v e r n o r B ie n v ille w a s d is c o u ra g e d , a n d su b m itte d h is re s ig n a tio n , th o u g h h is r e p la c e m e n t w o u ld n o t a rriv e u n til fo u r y e a r s la te r. T h e r e w e r e o th e r, le s s e r s e tb a c k s to F r e n c h d ip lo m a c y in th e lo w e r M iss is sip p i V a lle y — lo c a l in s ta n c e s o f d is h o n e s t tra d in g , F r e n c h m e n s e d u c in g a n d a b d u c tin g In d ia n girls, th e d e b ilita tin g tra ffic in b r a n d y th a t r o b b e d th e re d m a n o f th e m a n ly v irtu e s th e F r e n c h m e n r e s p e c te d . Y e t , o v e ra ll, th e first F r e n c h p o lic y su r v iv e d m u ch : th e d e b a u c h e r ie s , th e s te a d ily d e te rio ra tin g “ m u tu a l tru st,” a n d th e a n n u a l p re s e n ts , w h ic h in fla tio n g r a d u a lly m a d e a F r e n c h m a n ’s b u r d e n a n d w h ic h w e r e in te r p r e te d b y so m e trib e s n o t a s gifts b u t as trib u te. he

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b a n k s a n d C yprus g r o v e s a n d c a n e b r a k e s o f th e so u th , b u t fro m th e n orth, o u t o f C a n a d a , o ld N e w F r a n c e . A fte r M a r q u e tte a n d L a S a lle , a sp rin k lin g o f h a r d y n o rth e rn e rs b e g a n a rriv in g in th e riv e r v a lle y , lo n g b e fo r e th e r e w a s a N e w O rle a n s or an A r k a n s a s p o st. T h e y

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p u m p e d in to th e c o n tin e n t fro m th e so u th . T o h a v e g o t th is fa r so u th a n d w e s t fro m th e sto n y re a litie s o f th e L a u r e n tia n S h ie ld , to h a v e r e a c h e d b y p a d d le a n d p o r ta g e th e first w a te r w a y o f th e W e st, th e y w e r e e q u a l to th e rigo rs o f fro n tie r life. T h e y s p o k e F r e n c h b e c a u s e th e ir a n c e s to rs w e r e F r e n c h , b u t th e ir tie s to th e F r a n c e o f th e B o u r b o n s h a d w o rn e x c e e d in g ly thin. T h e g r a d u a l e x h a u s tio n o f fu rs in e a s te r n C a n a d a b ro u g h t th e

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A French Canadian o f the Iberville party (from La Potherie’s Histoire o f 1722). It was a case o f the strong being too few.

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C a n a d ia n s w e s tw a r d — th a t, a lo n g w ith th e im p u ls e to a d v e n tu r e a n d th e c h im e ra o f th e w e s te r n se a . T h o u g h th e y w e re to b e fo u n d u p a n d d o w n th e le n g th o f th e M ississip p i, th e y te n d e d to c o lle c t in w h a t th e F r e n c h c a lle d th e Illin o is C o u n tr y , th e e a s te rly -tilte d V b e t w e e n th e M iss is sip p i a n d O h io riv e rs, w h e re th e d e c id u o u s w o o d la n d s b a c k e d o ff fro m th e rich c h e r n o z e m p ra irie . T h e n e a r n e s s to th e m o re a n d b e tte r p e lts o f th e n o rth w a s o n ly o n e re a s o n w h y th e C a n a d ia n s w e r e d ra w n th e re . T h e g o o d n e s s o f th e e a rth w a s a n o th e r. A th ird w a s th a t th e Illin o is C o u n tr y la y a b o u t h a lf w a y b e t w e e n th e c a p ita ls o f L o u is ia n a a n d C a n a d a — p r e tty m u c h a n o - m a n ’ s-la n d u n til 1 7 1 8 , w h e n th e m id la n d s w e r e g iv e n to L a w ’ s C o m p a n y o f th e In d ie s , to th e c h a g r in o f Q u e b e c . T h e u p riv e r r e s id e n ts d id n o t m in d w h o s e ju ris d ic tio n th e y w e r e u n d e r so lo n g a s th e la w s w e r e n o t e n fo rc e d .

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T h e F r e n c h fu r tr a d e w a s n e v e r fr e e b u t a lw a y s s u b je c t to so m e r e g u la to r y s y s te m th a t g ra n te d m o n o p o lie s a n d lic e n s e s to th e fe w a n d e x c lu d e d th e m a n y e n te rp ris in g fre e -la n c e r s . E n fo r c in g th e ord on n a n ces w a s so m e th in g e ls e . O fficia ls c o m fo r ta b ly s e ttle d in M o n tr e a l or Q u e b e c se ld o m h a d a ta s te fo r tra c k in g d o w n e rra n t

cou reu rs d e bois in th e w e s te r n w ild s; a n d M o n tr e a l’s fu r m e r c h a n ts a s k e d n o q u e stio n s, p r o v id in g th e p ric e w a s righ t. S o , e a r ly on, th e Illin o is C o u n tr y b e c a m e a s a n c tu a r y fo r fu g itiv e field ru n n e rs, a p ro to ty p e o f th e A m e r ic a n W e s t’s m o re c e le b r a te d o u tla w te rrito ries w h e r e b a d m e n a n d fr e e m e n ru le d a n d ro is te re d to th e ir h e a r t’s c o n te n t. “ L ic e n s e , la x ity o f c o n d u c t a n d v ic e a re th e c h a ra c te ris tic s o f its in h a b ita n ts ,” r e a d a s h o c k e d S p a n is h re p o rt on o n e s e ttle m e n t in 176 9 , a fte r F r a n c e h a d g iv e n w e s te rn L o u is ia n a o v e r to its a lly . “ R e lig io n is g iv e n b u t s c a n t r e s p e c t, or to s p e a k m o re c o rre c tly , is to ta lly n e g le c t e d .” T h is w o u ld h a v e c o m e as no n e w s to th e F r e n c h . T h e y h a d k n o w n th a t fa c t all a lo n g a n d p r o b a b ly w o u ld h a v e b e e n le ss s c a n d a liz e d a n y w a y . A ll th e sa m e , in 1 7 4 7 th e G o v e r n o r o f C a n a d a , th e C o m te d e la G a lis s o n ie re , tried to c ra c k d o w n on th e Illin o is C o u n t r y ’s “ la w le ss e le m e n ts ,” w h ic h a ttra c te d a rm y d e s e rte rs . H e p r e p a r e d “ w a n te d ” lists fo r o u tp o st c o m m a n d e rs a n d e v e n fa c e tio u s ly s u g g e s te d lic e n s in g th e ro g u e s as p r iv a te e r s in s te a d o f tra d e rs , sin c e th e y w e r e b y te m p e r a m e n t su ite d to s u c h a life. U n lik e th e E n g lis h (a n d to a le s s e r e x te n t th e S p a n is h ), th e F r e n c h w e r e n o t s q u e a m is h a b o u t c o h a b itin g w ith In d ia n w o m e n . I n d e e d , s u c h p rior a rc h ite c ts o f F r e n c h c o lo n ia l p o lic y a s R i c h e lie u a n d C o lb e r t s a w m is c e g e n a tio n as a w a y to w in N o rth A m e r ica . N e v e r th e le s s , o fficia ls in F r a n c e b e lie v e d th e habitants w e r e g o in g a b it fa r w h e n th e y sp u rn e d F r e n c h w o m e n s p e c ia lly im p o rte d fro m th e m o th e rla n d in fa v o r o f th e ir s q u a w s , a n d v e s tig e s o f E u r o p e a n c a s te -c o n s c io u s n e s s s u r v iv e d th e A tla n tic cro ssin g s o f c iv il a n d m ilita ry o ffice rs w h o w e r e fro m th e u p p e r a n d m id d le c la ss e s . T h e habitants, o n th e o th e r h a n d , w e r e fro m la-bas. T o th e ir su p e rio rs, p ro m isc u ity c o u ld b e o v e r lo o k e d , b u t th e ir c o n sta n t q u a rre lin g a m o n g th e m s e lv e s , th e ra n d o m n e s s o f th e ir v io le n c e , a n d th e ir u n re s tra in e d u s e o f liq u o r th a t d e b a s e d th e n a tiv e p e o p le s a lso e n d a n g e r e d th e p u b lic p e a c e a n d th e F r e n c h In d ia n a llia n c e . T h e a u th o ritie s w e r e no d o u b t p a r tly rig h t in th e ir

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c o n c e r n fo r th e im p a c t o f it all o n th e u n c o rru p te d A m e rin d . B u t th e s a m e fa m ilia rity b e tw e e n F r e n c h m a n a n d In d ia n th a t b re d c o n te m p t (a n d c h ild re n ) a lso b r e d a n o ffse ttin g m e a s u r e o f r e sp e c t, or a t le a s t in te r d e p e n d e n c e . H o w e v e r m u c h th e F r e n c h v ie w e d w ith a la rm th e la w le s s situ a tio n in th e Illin o is C o u n tr y , th e re la tiv e s u c c e s s o f th e re g io n s p o k e fo r itse lf. B e s id e s tra d in g fo r fu rs, th e in h a b ita n ts o c c u p ie d th e ir s p a r e tim e w ith p la n tin g , a n d th e v irg in p ra irie b ro u g h t forth w h e a t a n d c o rn in s u c h p le n ty th a t it b e c a m e , w ith n o g re a t e ffo rt on th e fa r m e r s ’ p a rts, th e g r a n a ry fo r all L o u is ia n a . E a c h sp rin g a c o n v o y w ith o n e h u n d r e d to tw o h u n d re d m e n to o k th e m ille d g ra in s, a s w e ll a s fu rs, h id e s , a n d le a d , d o w n th e M ississip p i from a s e v e n ty - m ile s tre tc h o f s e ttle m e n ts ly in g b e tw e e n th e e n trie s o f th e M iss o u ri a n d K a s k a s k ia rivers: C a h o k ia , P ra irie d u R o c h e r , S a in t P h ilip p e , F o r t d e C h a rtre s , K a s k a s k ia , a n d o n th e w e s t b a n k o f th e a o rta l riv e r, S a in te G e n e v ie v e . In all, th is Illin o is C o u n tr y (or U p p e r L o u is ia n a , as it w a s also c a lle d ) w a s a b o u n tifu l la n d p r a is e d fo r its c lim a te a n d n a tu ra l e n d o w m e n ts b y lite ra te F r e n c h m e n w h o p a id it a visit. B y th e m id e ig h te e n th c e n tu r y it w a s a lso c o v e te d b y th e a p p ro a c h in g E n g lis h a n d th e r e fo r e g iv e n m ilita ry m u s c le in th e re c o n s tru c tio n o f F o r t d e C h a r tr e s , th e stra te g ic e a s t-b a n k r e d o u b t d a tin g fro m 172 0 . W o rk b e g a n in 17 5 2 on a m a s s iv e sto n e stru c tu re c o m p le te w ith tw o -fo o t-th ic k w a lls, p la s te r e d a n d p ie r c e d w ith lo o p h o le s a n d e q u ip p e d w ith in terio r b a n q u e tte s . It w a s m u s c le n e v e r to b e fle x e d . B y th e tim e it w a s fin is h e d F r a n c e h a d a lr e a d y lo st th e c o n tin e n t, a n d th e v ic to rio u s B ritish , w h o in v e s te d it w ith o u t a sh o t b e in g fired , c o r r e c tly p r o n o u n c e d C h a r tr e s th e b e s t fo rtific a tio n in a ll N o rth A m e r ic a . The

Illin o is C o u n tr y d iffe r e d fro m th e re st o f L o u is ia n a in

a n o th e r c u rio u s re s p e c t: it w a s th e o n e p la c e w h e re C a th o lic m is s io n a ry to il b o r e sp iritu a l fruit. T h e v oya g eu rs a n d o th e r fre e sp irite d a d v e n tu r e r s w h o c a m e w e s t a n d so u th o u t o f C a n a d a d id n o t c o m e a lo n e . C le r g y m e n w e r e w ith th e m , sh a rin g e q u a lly in th e e a r ly h o n o rs o f d is c o v e r y a n d o c c u p a tio n , at le a s t u n til th e y r e a c h e d th e M iss is sip p i. A fe w p rie sts w a n d e r e d u p th e M isso u ri R iv e r in th e n o rth a n d th e R e d R iv e r in th e so u th , b u t th e y w e re a c c o r d e d a c o ld r e c e p tio n th e re , a n d th e w e s te r n b a n k s o f th e

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M iss is sip p i b e c a m e a fig u ra tiv e le v e e fo r th e tid e o f th e tru e fa ith . O n e re a s o n w a s th a t F r e n c h m e n - b e c o m e - h a lf- I n d ia n w e r e n o t id e a l tr a v e lin g c o m p a n io n s or n e ig h b o rs fo r d e v o u t p rie s ts in te n t o n c o n v e r tin g s a v a g e s to th e w o rd o f C h rist. C o m p la in ts fro m th e Illin o is c le r g y w e r e n o t lo n g in r e a c h in g g o v e r n m e n ta l a u th o ritie s, a n d th e y w e r e n o t d iffe re n t fro m th o s e a lr e a d y v o ic e d in C a n a d a . T h e r o w d y fu r tra d e rs w e r e se ttin g a b a d e x a m p le fo r In d ia n c o n v e rts , p a r tic u la rly th e w o m e n t h e y w e r e b e d d in g d o w n w ith . T h e c le ric s a lso o b je c te d to th e c o n tin u in g u s e o f a lc o h o l in th e tr a d e fo r fu rs, fo r it m a d e th e In d ia n s w ild a n d u n r e s p o n s iv e . T h o s e in c h a r g e o f a d m in is te rin g F r e n c h c o lo n ia l d e s tin ie s — e v e n M in iste r o f M a rin e P o n tc h a rtra in , w h o w a s a re lig io u s m a n a n d b e lie v e d th a t th e p u r p o s e fo r b e in g in th e n e w la n d s w a s “ in th e first p la c e th e in stru c tio n o f th e s e s a v a g e s a n d th e k n o w le d g e to b e g iv e n th e m o f th e C h ris tia n fa ith ” — fe ll b a c k on a p a t a n sw e r. Y e s , liq u o r w a s b a d fo r th e re d m a n , b u t th a t w a s w h a t h e w a n te d . A s w a s w e ll k n o w n , E n g lis h tr a d e g o o d s w e r e c h e a p e r a n d b e tte r th a n th o s e o f th e F r e n c h — e x c e p t fo r spirits. H a p p ily , F r e n c h b r a n d y b e s t p a s s e d th e ta s te te st. S o w a s n ’t it b e tte r to liv e w ith th e la m e n ta b le v ic e , e s p e c ia lly w h e n th e E n g lis h w o u ld o n ly m a k e P ro te s ta n ts o f th e In d ia n s ? T h e p o in t w a s w e ll m a d e , a n d m a d e o fte n in th e n a m e o f e x p e d ie n c y . Y e t , th e

C h u r c h ’s g re a te r p ro b le m s w e r e u n r e la te d to th e

c a rry in g s-o n o f lu s ty F r e n c h fro n tie rsm e n . T h e y w e r e in te rn a l; or w h e n e x te rn a l, th e y w e re ro o te d in E u r o p e a n p o litics, lik e so m u c h e ls e o f e a r ly N o rth A m e r ic a n h isto ry . P o n tc h a rtra in w a n te d J e s u its fo r L o u is ia n a . S o d id B ie n v ille , w h o p r e fe r re d th e m b e c a u s e th e y w e r e “ w o r ld ly ” a n d c o u ld b e c o u n te d on to le a rn th e In d ia n la n g u a g e s . T h e c o n s e n s u s d id n o t e x te n d m u c h fu rth e r, h o w e v e r , a n d th e S o c ie ty o f J e s u s h a d m o re e n e m ie s in th e e ig h te e n th c e n tu r y th a n e v e n it c o u ld h a n d le . R iv a l o rd e rs w a n te d th e c h a n c e to p r o s e ly tiz e in L o u is ia n a , fo re m o s t a m o n g th e m th e S e m in a ria n fa th e rs fro m th e S em inaire d es Missions E tra n g eres in P a ris , w h o h a d a lr e a d y c la s h e d w ith th e J e s u its in th e e v a n g e lic a l v in e y a r d s o f C h in a o n n ic e tie s o f th e o lo g ic a l d o ctrin e . E x a m in e d n o w , th e “ C h in e s e r ite s ” h a v e th e s a m e r e le v a n c e as so m e tw e lfth -c e n tu ry m o n a stic s p a t o v e r d a n c in g a n g e ls , d is p u te s a b o u t w h a t n a m e G o d sh o u ld b e c a lle d in C h in e s e , a n d w h e th e r th e

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h o m a g e p a id C o n fu c iu s sh o u ld b e b r a n d e d id o la try or sim p ly an e x a m p le o f lo c a l p a trio tism . N o m a tte r. T h e ill fe e lin g s p re v a ilin g in P a ris s p r e a d to U p p e r a n d L o w e r L o u is ia n a , w h e re th e J e s u its w e r e d e n ie d th e sp iritu a l m o n o p o ly t h e y w a n te d . J e s u it s e tb a c k s b e g a n at th e tu rn o f th e e ig h te e n th c e n tu r y in th e lo w e r c o rn e r o f th e Illin o is C o u n tr y , k n o w n a fte r 17 6 5 a s th e A m e r ic a n B o tto m . T h e S e m in a r ia n s w e r e th e first to g e t th e re . In 16 9 9 , H e n r i d e T o n t y le d th re e o f th e fa th e rs — F ra n g o is d e M o n tig n y , A n to in e D a v io n , a n d J e a n -F r a n g o is B u is s o n d e St. C o s m e — to th e T a m a r o a In d ia n s liv in g on th e e a s t b a n k o f th e M ississip p i a fe w m ile s so u th o f w h e r e th e M isso u ri m a d e its m u d d y ru sh in fro m

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C a h o k ia b e fo r e m o v in g d o w n riv e r in s e a rc h o f n e w so u ls for s a v in g . T h e n , in th e fo llo w in g y e a r , th e J e s u it p rie s t M a r e s t b ro u gh t a

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o f K a s k a s k ia n

In d ia n s

and

F r e n c h tra d e rs

m a rrie d to w o m e n o f th e trib e fro m th e ir h o m e o n th e u p p e r Il lin o is R iv e r to th e m o u th o f th e D e s P 6 re s R iv e r , o p p o s ite C a h o k ia a n d n e a r m o d e rn S a in t L o u is . T h r e e y e a r s la te r M a r e s t m o v e d th e s e ttle m e n t s o u th e a s t a c ro s s th e M iss is sip p i a n d a fe w m ile s u p th e K a s k a s k ia R iv e r , fo u n d in g th e v illa g e o f K a s k a s k ia . T h e tw o o rd e rs je a lo u s ly e y e d e a c h o th e r, u n til th e C h u r c h d e c r e e d th a t C a h o k ia w a s to re m a in a S e m in a ria n p r e s e r v e a n d K a s k a s k ia J e s u it te rrito ry. O th e r m is s io n a rie s fro m b o th o rd e rs s p re a d d o w n th e riv e r v a lle y a n tic ip a tin g , a s S t. C o s m e said , “ th a t so m a n y n a tio n s h a v in g liv e d fo r so lo n g in ig n o r a n c e a n d in fid e lity w ill k n o w a n d w ill lo v e th e tru e G o d a n d th e ir S a v io r a n d R e d e e m e r J e s u s C h r is t.” T h e in fid e ls c h o s e ig n o r a n c e . T h e fa th e rs b e lie v e d th e y w e r e c o m p e tin g w ith o n e a n o th e r w h e n all a lo n g it w a s a n a lie n la n d o f a lie n p e o p le s th a t o p p o s e d th e m a n d fr e q u e n tly m a d e m a rty rs o f th e m . M o n tig n y p u t u p a cro ss a m o n g th e A r k a n s a s b e fo r e o p tin g fo r le s s d e m a n d in g d u ty e a s t o f th e M ississip p i; D a v io n s e ttle d a m o n g th e T u n ic a s o n th e lo w e r Y a z o o R iv e r w ith o u t c o n v e r tin g a sin g le liv in g m e m b e r o f th e trib e; a n d St. C o s m e w a s m u r d e r e d b y th e C h itim a c h a s w h ile sa ilin g d o w n th e M is s is s ip p i in a p iro g u e . T h e J e s u its a lso s e n t th e ir m e n a m o n g th e In d ia n s o f L o w e r L o u is ia n a , b u t w ith little m o re s u c c e s s th a n th e S e m in a ria n s .

187

T H E F A IL U R E O F F R A N C E

W h ile th e y c o n trib u te d to th e c o lo n y b y o p e ra tin g a th riv in g p la n ta tio n , b y m illin g g rain , a n d b y s u c h a c ts as a ss is tin g in th e c o n stru ctio n o f a c o m b in a tio n o r p h a n a g e -h o s p ita l- c o n v e n t in N e w O rle a n s fo r th e U r s u lin e n u n s, in 17 2 6 th e y r e c e iv e d w ith ill h u m o r th e n e w s th a t th e C a p u c h in s w e r e to s h a re L o w e r L o u is ia n a w ith th e m .

S u b s e q u e n t e ffo rts in th is c o lo n y to w h ic h th e y w e re

d e n ie d a p o sto lic e x c lu s iv ity s e e m to h a v e b e e n h a lfh e a r te d . A s th e c e n tu r y w o re on, th e o u tlo o k b e c a m e e v e n d a r k e r fo r th e S o c ie ty o f J e s u s . T h e ir fo e s w e n t b e y o n d fe llo w C a th o lic o rd e rs th a t e n v ie d th e m th e ir m a te ria l w e a lth a n d p o litic a l in d e p e n d e n c e . A storm w a s g a th e rin g in E u r o p e . L ig h tn in g stru c k first in P o rtu g a l, w h e re M in iste r P o m b a l d iv in e d a c o n s p ir a c y a g a in s t th e m o n a r c h y a n d c r u s h e d th e J e s u its o v e r th e o b je c tio n s o f R o m e . T h e lo n g -e s ta b lis h e d re s e n tm e n t a g a in s t th e m

sh o rtly

th u n d e r e d th ro u g h F r a n c e . U n d e r th e p r e te x t o f a c o m m e rc ia l la w s u it in v o lv in g J e s u it sp e c u la tio n , a c o a litio n o f n a tio n a lists, a n ti-c le ric a l p h ilo s o p h e rs , p o litic a lly p o w e r fu l J a n s e n is ts , a n d th e r o y a l c o n c u b in e , M m e . d e P o m p a d o u r (to w h o m t h e y h a d r e fu s e d c o n fe ssio n ), sa w th a t th e o rd e r w a s b ro k e n a n d in 17 6 4 b a n is h e d fro m O ld F r a n c e a n d N e w . S p a in , th e B o u r b o n tail, w a g g e d in 17 6 7 . T h e p u r g e o f th e S o c ie ty a n d c o n fis c a tio n o f its e x te n s iv e p ro p e rtie s r e m o v e d th e J e s u its as a fo rc e fro m N o rth A m e r ic a a n d th e W est. It c a n b e a r g u e d th a t th e fo llo w e rs o f Ig n a tiu s L o y o la (a n d riv a l o rd e rs as w e ll) n e v e r r e a lly w e r e a n in flu e n c e in th e F r e n c h W e s t o f th e P la in s In d ia n s , w h o s ta y e d u n r e p e n ta n t p a g a n s liv in g o n th e w ild sid e o f life. A fte r 17 6 3 , n e ith e r w a s F r a n c e . B u t in d iv id u a l F r e n c h m e n r e m a in e d — in 1 7 6 3 , a n d 17 7 6 , a n d a lo n g tim e th e r e a fte r . A c tin g fo r th e m s e lv e s or a s a g e n ts o f S p a in , E n g la n d , or la te r, th e U n ite d S ta te s , t h e y w o u ld le a v e b e h in d th e ir c u ltu re a n d c u sto m s a n d p la c e - n a m e s o n g ra n d e x p a n s e s o f th e A m e r ic a n W e st, w h ic h th e y h a d b e e n th e first to se e .

188

Chapter 10

The Farthest with the Fewest It

w a s a lm o st a s th o u g h so m e

renchm en

w h o r e m o v e d to

th e N e w W o rld w e r e th e m s e lv e s m a d e n e w m e n ; as th o u g h th e p la c e th a t h a d b e e n d e n ie d th e m in P r o v e n c e or N o r m a n d y or G a s c o n y w a s to b e fo u n d in th e W e s t o f N e w F r a n c e , w h e re first th e su n d o w n e d b e h in d th e p u r p le sh im m e r o f n o rth e rn la k e s, th e n b e y o n d th e w a v in g c u rta in o f b re a s t-h ig h p ra irie g ra ss, a n d fin a lly o v e r th e b a c k lit s h a rk ’ s te e th o f d ista n t m o u n ta in s th a t still b e c k o n e d . It a m o u n te d to a k in d o f tro p ism fo r th o s e w h o d re s s e d lik e In d ia n s in th e sk in s o f a n im a ls a n d w o re m o c c a s in s or sn ow sh o e s to fo llo w th e lig h t. It w a s w e s te rin g , m o re th a n a c e n tu r y b e fo r e th e r e w a s a n E n g lis h w o rd to d e s c r ib e th e p h e n o m e n o n o f c h a s in g th e su n o v e r th e A m e r ic a n W e st. N o b o d y k n o w s h o w m a n y o f th e m d id it, fo r m o st le ft no re co rd s, n o t o n ly b e c a u s e t h e y d id n o t k n o w h o w to w rite b u t b e c a u s e th e y d id n o t fe e l th e n e e d to te ll o f w h e re th e y h a d b e e n a n d w h a t th e y h a d s e e n . It w a s su ffic ie n t to h a v e k n o w n fe s tiv e su m m e rs fo l lo w e d b y in d e s c r ib a b le a u tu m n s a n d fo r g e tta b le w in te rs a n d w e l c o m e sp rin g s w h e n th e y e a r w a s r e n e w e d . N o t th a t c a le n d a r s m a tte r e d m u c h ; fo r th e m , tim e d id s e e m to h a v e a stop. T h e y c h o s e m o stly th e riv e rs a s a v e n u e s in to th e o p e n - e n d e d la n d t h e y c a lle d L o u is ia n a . T h e riv e rs o f C a n a d a h a d a lr e a d y s e r v e d th e m or th e ir fa th e r s or th e ir g ra n d fa th e rs w e ll. W h e r e th e riv e rs to o k th e m w a s a lw a y s a p la c e b e y o n d th e w h ite m a n ’s la w s a n d c u sto m s , so th a t w h a te v e r t h e y b e c a m e k n o w n as — voya -

g eu rs, co u reu rs d e bois, fu r h o u n d s , s q u a w m e n — t h e y w e r e in a r e a l s e n s e w h a t m a n y c a lle d th e m : o u tla w s. T h o s e w h o liv e d b e y o n d th e la w ; th o s e w h o p r e fe r r e d th e c o m p a n y o f sauvages to

189

T H E F A IL U R E O F F R A N C E

th e ir o w n kin d . F o r tu n a te ly , a fe w w h o w e n t w e s t w e r e m e n o f h ig h e r sta tio n — g e n tle m e n -b o rn , or s e lf-m a d e , or g e n tle m e n -in th e -m a k in g — w h o w e r e lite ra te a n d w h o le ft re c o rd s , fr a g m e n ta r y th o u g h t h e y b e . T h is h a n d fu l w a s n o le s s b r a v e or r e s o u r c e fu l th a n th e ir u n le tte r e d c o u n try m e n , a n d it w a s t h e y w h o le ft u p o n

th e W e s t la rg e r-th a n -life le g e n d s w ith th e ir w it, d a rin g , a n d p la in o ld p a n a ch e. N o so o n e r w a s F r a n c e p r e c a r io u s ly p o s itio n e d in th e M iss is sip p i S p a in a n d th e m e ta llic p lu m th a t s e e m e d n o t fa r fro m im p e ria l r e a c h . A s e a r ly a s 17 0 5 , B ie n v ille h a d s e n t m e n e x p lo rin g u p th e R e d R iv e r , p e r h a p s as fa r a s th e R io G r a n d e , a n d a lr e a d y F r e n c h c lo th e s a n d a rm s w e r e tu rn in g u p a t th e T a o s tr a d e fa ir. T h e n , in 1 7 1 3 , w h e n L o u is ia n a w a s a p r iv a te e n te r p r is e u n d e r C r o z a t, w h o e x p e c te d his w e a lth to c o m e fro m tr a d e w ith th e S p a n ia r d s , G o vern o r

C a d illa c

d is p a tc h e d

a n o th e r p a r ty u p

th e

R ed

a n s w e r to a sin g u la r le tte r fro m a p rie s t n a m e d H id a lg o . T h e u n h a p p y F r a n c is c a n h a d b e e n fo r c e d to a b a n d o n h is m issio n o f S a n F r a n c is c o a n d th o u g h t th a t b y in v itin g th e F r e n c h to c o m e w e st, h e c o u ld p ro d his o w n n e g le c tfu l S p a n is h sp o n so rs to r e o c c u p y T e x a s . (H id a lg o w a s no d o u b t a lso a w a r e th a t a c e rta in S p a n is h J e s u it h a d sa id it w o u ld b e b e s t “ fo r th e g lo ry o f G o d ” i f th e F r e n c h w ith th e ir J e s u it m issio n a rie s w e r e to ta k e o v e r in T e x a s .) C a d illa c d id n o t v ie w th e in v ita tio n a s a n o fficia l c a r te b la n c h e to w e s tw a rd e x p a n sio n , b u t h e k n e w a n o p p o rtu n ity w h e n h e sa w o n e , e v e n if it w a s risk y. T o h e a d th e tw e n ty -fo u r-m a n m issio n o f q u e s tio n a b le m e rc y , w ith its te n th o u s a n d liv res’ w o rth o f tra d e g o o d s, h e c h o s e a th irty -fiv e -y e a r-o ld C a n a d ia n w h o h a d b e e n w ith th e L e M o y n e b ro th e rs fro m th e first o c c u p a tio n o f th e d e lta . C a d illa c c o u ld n o t h a v e c h o s e n b e tte r. L o u is J u c h e r e a u d e St. D e n is w a s th e first, i f n o t th e fo re m o st, o f F r a n c e ’s w e s te r n e r s . H e w a s a fle s h -a n d -b lo o d fu g itiv e fro m p ic a r e s q u e fictio n , tall, h a n d so m e, e d u c a te d , p o lite , d ip lo m a tic , w itty , a n d a b o v e a ll b r a z e n — a n a d v e n tu r e r w ith a n in stin c tiv e k n o w le d g e o f th e w e a k n e s s e s o f th o s e w h o w o u ld sta n d in h is w a y . S o o n a fte r fo u n d in g N a tc h i to c h e s , in th e m id st o f th e R e d R iv e r In d ia n s a fte r w h o m th e tra d in g p o st w a s n a m e d , h e s e t o ff w ith th r e e o th e r F r e n c h m e n so u th o v e r re d hills to w a rd th e S a b in e R iv e r . A n In d ia n a tta c k

190

BY FREDERIC REMINGTON: MINNESOTA HISTORICAL SOCIETY

V a lle y th a n sh e b e g a n lo o k in g w e s tw a rd , th e d ire c tio n o f riv a l

The archetypal French westerners Radisson (standing) and Groseilliers defected to the English; most others stayed true to France.

o n ly d e la y e d h im . W h e n h e r e a c h e d th e R io G r a n d e , th e su n n y S p a n is h s e ttle m e n t o f S a n J u a n B a u tis ta h a d re a s o n to ro u se its e lf fro m sie sta . N o o n e w a s m o re a r o u s e d th a n D o n D ie g o R a m o n b y th e a rÂ riv a l o f th e F r e n c h m a n w h o c a m e o u t o f th e d u st d r e s s e d in ta ilo r e d fin e ry , w e ll c a r e d fo r b y h is p a rt-tim e v a le t, p a rt-tim e p r e s s a g e n t, M e d a r J a lo t. W h a t w a s th e m e a n in g o f th is? th e S p a n is h c o m m a n d e r m u st h a v e a s k e d h im se lf. D id th e u p sta rt n o t k n o w th a t fo r e ig n tr a d e w ith N e w S p a in w a s fo r b id d e n b y r o y a l e d ic t? T h e u p s ta rt k n e w , a ll righ t. T h e r e w a s little th a t St. D e n is d id n o t k n o w , in c lu d in g a n o p p o rtu n ity s u p p o rte d b y th e b lu f f o f H id a lg o â&#x20AC;&#x2122;s le tte r a n d a p a s s p o rt s ig n e d b y th e g o v e rn o r o f L o u is ia n a . H e a lso k n e w a p r e tty girl w h e n h e sa w o n e . W h ile D o n R a m o n to o k St. D e n is a n d h is F r e n c h c o m p a n io n s in to c o m fo rtÂ

191

T H E F A IL U R E O F F R A N C E

a b le c u s to d y a n d w a ite d fo r M e x ic o C it y to d e c id e w h a t to d o , th e c h a rm in g c a v a lie r , w h o e n te r ta in e d h is h o sts a t d in n e r w ith sc in tilla tin g p u n s in S p a n is h , c o u rte d th e s e v e n te e n - y e a r - o ld g r a n d d a u g h te r o f S e n o r R a m o n , D o n a E m a n u e lle , r e g a r d e d a s th e g r e a te s t b e a u t y in all n o rth e rn M e x ic o . It w a s a c o n fe c tio n , a c o tto n -c a n d y ro m a n c e — d a s h in g y o u n g b la d e m e e ts fie ry L a tin b e a u t y a m o n g th e so ft e a rth co lo rs o f a d o b e la n d . S t. D e n is w o n E m a n u e lle ’s h e a rt a n d D o n R a m o n ’ s in te re s t in h is p ro p o s e d tra d e b e fo re b e in g su m m o n e d to M e x ic o C ity , w h e re h e m e t his stern in q u isito rs in J u n e . T h e g a lla n t w a s as w itty a n d w in n in g as u su a l. H e d id n o t k n o w h e h a d b ro k e n a n y ru les; h e h a d o n ly c o m e to h e lp th e m issio n a rie s, w h o s e re lig io n t h e y all sh a re d . T h e n , to o , h e h a d lo st his h e a rt to a S p a n is h girl. It w a s as g o o d as if h e h a d b e c o m e S p a n is h h im self. V ic e r o y L in a r e s bit. W o u ld th e F r e n c h m a n th e n p e r so n a lly le a d a S p a n is h o c c u p a tio n fo rc e in to th e e a s t T e x a s o f H id a lg o ’s h o p e , sin c e h e h a d s u c h a r e n o w n e d r e p u ta tio n as a frie n d o f th e In d ia n s ? S t. D e n is w o u ld , a n d h e d id , b u t n o t b e fo r e s e c r e tly in fo rm in g G o v e r n o r C a d illa c w h a t w a s a fo o t a n d g iv in g tim e fo r N a tc h ito c h e s to b e fo rtifie d . H e a lso s to p p e d first in S a n J u a n B a u tis ta to m a rry his b e lo v e d in a fro n tie r g a la th a t w a rm e d th e w in te r o f 1 7 1 5 . T h e n h e s h e p h e r d e d a r e c o lo n iz in g a n d rem issio n izin g p a r ty le d b y m e m b e rs o f th e R a m o n fa m ily in to a L o s A d a e s se ttle m e n t o n ly a c o in ’ s th ro w fro m h is o w n N a tc h ito c h e s , w h e re g o o d s c o u ld b e g o t fo r th e righ t a m o u n t o f silver. St. D e n is h a d le ft h is p r e g n a n t w ife in S a n J u a n B a u tis ta , a n d h e n o w r e tu rn e d to M o b ile a n d a m a s s e d o n e h u n d r e d th o u s a n d

livres’ w o rth o f g o o d s, w h ic h h e b ro u g h t b a c k to N a tc h ito c h e s , tra d in g th e m w ith th e In d ia n s a n d S p a n ia r d s , a n d try in g to s m u g g le so m e o n to his n e w in -la w s. B u t h e w a s c a u g h t. E n v y w a s as m u c h a c o n d itio n o f s o u th w e s t fro n tie r life as it w a s in M a d rid a n d P a ris . T h e G o v e r n o r o f C o a h u ila a n d T e x a s , A la r co n , s q u e a le d , a n d o n c e a g a in St. D e n is w a s p a c k e d o ff to a M e x ic o C ity ja il fo r v io la tin g th e tr a d e la w s. B u t a g a in th e b ra z e n to n g u e d c a v a lie r h a d h is a n sw e r. N o , h e w a s n ’t sm u g g lin g a n y th in g , m e r e ly b rin g in g th irte e n m u le s (th a t is all th e R a m o n s a d m itte d to re c e iv in g ) w ith h is o w n p e r s o n a l b e lo n g in g s , in c lu d in g so m e b r o c a d e fo r his w ife , w h o w a s e x p e c tin g a n d w a s, o f

192

T H E F A R T H E S T W IT H T H E F E W E S T

c o u r s e , S p a n is h . S o m e h o w th e r a s c a l m a n a g e d to e s c a p e th e c a la b o o s e a n d h e a d n o rth a g a in . T h e S p a n is h w o u ld n e v e r a g a in h a v e a c h a n c e to le t th e g lib g a lla n t slip th ro u g h th e ir fin g ers. T h is tim e h e to o k h is w ife to N e w O rle a n s, ju s t b e fo r e th e o u t b r e a k o f th e W a r o f th e Q u a d r u p le A llia n c e , w h ic h p itte d S p a in a g a in s t F r a n c e on th e c o n tin e n t a n d , w h e n w o rd c ro s s e d th e A tla n tic , in N o rth A m e r ic a , too. O n th e G u lf C o a s t th e F r e n c h stru c k first, ta k in g P e n s a c o la ; th e n th e S p a n is h to o k it b a c k ; th e n F r a n c e w a s th e w in n e r a g a in w ith S t. D e n is a n d h is In d ia n a llie s th e d e c is iv e fa c to r — all this w ith in tw o m o n th s ’ tim e . It w a s a g e n tle m a n ’s w a r, v ic to rs a n d v a n q u is h e d e x c h a n g in g c o u rtly c o m p lim e n ts a n d sh a rin g th eir sto re s o f fin e sp irits. T o th e w e s t, in th e N a tc h ito c h e s c o u n try th a t S t. D e n is h a d te m p o ra rily left, th e w a r a m o u n te d to a co m ic o p e r a . In J u n e o f 1 7 1 9 a F r e n c h o ffice r to o k s e v e n m e n a n d m a r c h e d fifte e n m ile s w e s t to s e iz e L o s A d a e s (w h ich St. D e n is h a d h e lp e d th e S p a n is h b u ild ), c a p tu rin g its “ g a rris o n ” o f o n e ra g ged

S p a n is h so ld ie r a n d s e v e r a l s q u a w k in g c h ic k e n s . T h e

fr ig h te n e d m iss io n a rie s a n d se ttle rs r a c e d so u th to S a n A n to n io , th e n e w m issio n a n d to w n fo u n d e d in 1 7 1 8 b y A la rc o n . S p a in w a s o u t o f e a s t T e x a s a g a in , a n d in P a ris it w a s d e c id e d to fin ish th e jo b b y c o m m issio n in g St. D e n is to d riv e S p a in so u th o f th e R io G ran d e.

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o rd e rs w a s c a p tu r e d b y S p a n ia rd s. P r o u d S p a in h a d a n o th e r w o u n d to lick. N o t o n ly h a d sh e g iv e n u p e a s t T e x a s w ith o u t firin g a sh o t or d ra w in g a sa b e r, sh e h a d a lso s u ffe r e d a stu n n in g d e fe a t fa r in th e n o rth , at a p la c e th a t w a s n ’t e v e n o n a m a p . F o r tw o d e c a d e s S p a n ia rd s h a d w o rrie d a b o u t th e s p r e a d in g F r e n c h in flu e n c e a m o n g th e In d ia n s o f th e G r e a t P la in s , to w h o m th e F r e n c h h a d c o m e w ith tra d e a n d g u n s. C o n c e r n ra n d e e p e s t in S a n ta F e , w h e re , u p o n in stru ctio n s fro m th e v ic e r o y , G o v e r n o r V a lv e r d e d e c id e d so m e o n e h a d to go o u t a n d r e c o n n o ite r F r e n c h a c tiv ity . In 172 0 h e se n t D o n P e d r o V illa su r a n d m o re th a n a h u n d r e d S p a n ia r d s a n d fr ie n d ly In d ia n s n o rth o v e r th e S a n g r e d e C risto s a n d o n to th e u n fr ie n d ly shortg ra ss fla tla n d s . V illa s u r w a s n o t th e m a n fo r th e jo b . H e w e n t too fa r, a n g lin g u p th ro u g h e a s te r n C o lo r a d o a n d th e n o n to th e b a n k s o f th e n o rth e rn b r a n c h o f th e P la tte R iv e r , n e a r th e p r e s e n t to w n

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o f N o rth P la tte , N e b r a s k a . H e r e , th ro u g h in d e c is io n a n d stu p id ity , V illa s u r in v ite d a m a s s a c r e b y F r e n c h - a r m e d P a w n e e w a rrio rs th a t c o st N e w M e x ic o m o re th a n th irty o f its n o n -In d ia n d e fe n s e fo rc e , a th ird o f th e p r o v in c e ’s fin e s t tro o p s. T h e tim e h a d c o m e to a v e n g e s u c h in d ig n itie s . T im e fo r a sh o w o f fo rc e in th e W e st, w h ic h S p a in th o u g h t o f as h e r o w n la n d . B u t sh e a c te d w ith ty p ic a l d e lib e r a te n e s s , a n d th a t, as u su a l, c o st h er. B y th e tim e a n a rm y o f fiv e h u n d r e d m e n w a s a s s e m b le d , p ro v is io n e d , a n d o r g a n iz e d to r e ta k e th e lo st T e x a s te rrito ry , its p ro u d c o m m a n d e r J o s e d e A z lo r, th e M a r q u e s o f S a n M ig u e l d e A g u a y o , w h o w a s d e te r m in e d to p u s h F r a n c e b a c k a c ro s s th e M ississip p i, r e c e iv e d w o rd th a t p e a c e h a d b e e n m a d e b e tw e e n S p a in a n d F r a n c e , o n M a y 16, 1 7 2 1 . D e fla te d , A g u a y o m a r c h e d on to r e o c c u p y L o s A d a e s . T h e r e h e r e c e iv e d u n d e r a sa fe c o n d u c t p a s s th e m a n th e In d ia n s c a lle d “ B ig L e g .” St. D e n is a s k e d if A g u a y o m e a n t to r e s p e c t th e p e a c e a g r e e d to b y th e ir r e s p e c tiv e c o u n trie s, or w h e th e r h e c h o s e to figh t. T h e m a r q u e s , h a v in g o b s e r v e d th e h e a v ily a rm e d co a litio n o f In d ia n trib e s th a t St. D e n is h a d p u t to g e th e r w ith h is c u s to m a ry skill, c h o s e p e a c e . S o th e sta tu s q u o re tu rn e d to th e b lu rre d b o u n d a r y b e t w e e n th e re d -e a rth hill c o u n try o f S p a n is h T e x a s a n d th e r e e d y sw a m p s a n d g ia n t c y p r e s s e s o f th e F r e n c h R e d R iv e r v a lle y . St. D e n is , w h o h a d b e e n m a d e c o m m a n d a n t o f N a tc h ito c h e s a n d w a s to re m a in in th a t c a p a c ity fo r a n o th e r tw e n ty -th r e e y e a r s as a n im m o v a b le b a rrie r to S p a n is h e x p a n s io n e a s t, p r o b a b ly w e lc o m e d th e re tu rn o f h is w ife ’s n a tio n to L o s A d a e s . H e w a s as m u c h a tra d e r as a F r e n c h h e ro , a n d h is b e s t c u sto m e rs w e re b a c k , sh o rt as a lw a y s o f e v e r y th in g h e ju s t h a p p e n e d to h a v e in sto ck . T h e

fa c t th a t H is M o s t C a th o lic M a je s t y fo r b a d e his

c o lo n ia l s u b je c ts to tra d e w ith th e F r e n c h w a s c o n v e n ie n tly fo r g o tte n m o st o f th e tim e on th e T e x a s - L o u is ia n a b o rd e r, w h e r e a s u c c e s s io n o f S p a n is h c o m m a n d e rs a n d p a d r e s s u p p le m e n te d th e ir in c o m e s in a liv e ly tr a d e w ith th e p u z z lin g g e n tle m a n w h o w o re silv e r-b ra id e d d a m a s k a n d ta ffe ta u n ifo rm s a n d r e s id e d in a w e ll-a p p o in te d w ild e rn e s s m a n sio n . A n o th e r F r e n c h m a n o p p o s e d to th e h o stilities w a s J e a n B a p tiste B e n a r d d e la H a r p e , lik e St. D e n is a n o ffic e r-e x p lo re r w h o le ft re co rd s. In 1 7 1 8 h e d e p a r te d N e w O rle a n s w ith th e b le s s in g

196

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o f B ie n v ille a n d a c o n c e s s io n fro m L a w ’s c o m p a n y to go u p th e R e d R iv e r w e ll b e y o n d N a tc h ito c h e s a n d in itia te tra d e w ith th e S p a n ia r d s , w h e r e v e r t h e y m ig h t b e fo u n d . T h e fo llo w in g y e a r L a H a r p e b u ilt a tra d in g p o st a m o n g th e C a d d o a n N a s s o n ite s n e a r w h a t is n o w T e x a r k a n a a n d se n t o u t th e w o rd th a t h e w a s p r e p a r e d to p a y 5 p e r c e n t co m m issio n s to a n y S p a n ia rd s th a t w o u ld f e n c e fo r h im . A g a in , th e im p o te n t S p a n is h a u th o ritie s w e r e in a r a g e . F r e n c h m e n w e r e p o p p in g u p e v e r y w h e r e , a n d th e ir in so le n c e k n e w no b o u n d s . N e ith e r d id th e ir w a n d e rin g s . A fte r r e m in d in g th e S p a n ia r d s th a t T e x a s r e a lly b e lo n g e d to F r a n c e b y d in t o f L a S a lle ’s c o lo n iz a tio n th e re , L a H a r p e tr a v e le d to th e C a n a d ia n R iv e r in m o d e rn O k la h o m a , b e fr ie n d in g In d ia n s a s h e w e n t a n d c a ta lo g in g th e flo ra, fa u n a , a n d g e o lo g ic a l fin d s in c o m m e n d a b le F r e n c h d e ta il. T h e W a r o f th e Q u a d ru p le A llia n c e a n d th e flig h t o f th e S p a n ia r d s a fte r th e “ b a ttle ” o f L o s A d a e s d a s h e d L a H a r p e ’s h o p e s fo r c o m m e rc e , a n d in 1 7 2 1 h e w a s o r d e r e d to p r o c e e d b y s e a a n d ta k e M a ta g o r d a B a y (c a lle d St. B e r n a r d b y th e F r e n c h a n d E s p iritu S a n to b y th e S p a n ish ), w h e re L a S a lle h a d m a d e h is fa te fu l la n d fa ll. L a H a r p e m iss e d M a ta g o r d a B a y a n d p u t in a t G a lv e s to n B a y . O n ly th e y e a r b e fo re a F r e n c h m a n n a m e d B e r a n g e r h a d a rriv e d th e r e to c a rry o ff th e fa ire s t In d ia n d a m s e ls

o f th e la n d a n d le a v e s ic k n e ss b e h in d . L a H a r p e ’ s

b la n d is h m e n ts g a in e d h im n o th in g . H e h a d no c h o ic e b u t to sail a w a y , b a c k to L o u is ia n a , w h ile A g u a y o fo u n d th e righ t b a y a n d fo rtifie d it. T h e re s o lu te L a H a r p e m ig h t b e d o n e in T e x a s , b u t h e w a s n o t th r o u g h in th e W e st. L a t e r in 1 7 2 1 h e to o k th r e e p iro g u e s ou t o f N e w O rle a n s la d e n w ith tr a d e g o o d s a n d h e a d e d n o rth to th e A r k a n s a s R iv e r , u p w h ic h , h e said , h e tr a v e le d th re e h u n d re d m ile s b e fo r e h e lo st a th ird o f his sto re s in strik in g a r e e f a n d h a d to re tu rn . “ I d id n o t o b ta in a n y a d v a n ta g e s fro m this d is c o v e r y ,” h e la te r w ro te w ith re g re t, “ e x c e p t to h a v e lo o k e d o v e r a v e r y b e a u tifu l c o u n try , p ra irie s c o v e r e d w ith o x e n a n d o th e r a n im a ls w h o s e sk in s a re v a lu a b le . T u r tle s a re v e r y g o o d th e re . T h e r e a re b ird s o f a ll k in d s th e r e . T u r k e y - h e n s a n d b la c k b e a r s a re c o m m o n [as a re] tr e e s s u ita b le fo r c la p b o a r d s . . . a n d o th e rs o f fruit, w ild v in e s , a n d w h ite m u lb e r r y t r e e s .” It w a s a riv e r w o rth fo rtify in g , L a H a r p e a d v is e d h is c o u n try m e n in 17 6 3 , w h e n h e w a s a n o ld

197

T H E F A IL U R E O F F R A N C E

m a n a n d F r a n c e h a d ju s t g iv e n th a t riv e r a n d m a n y o th e rs a w a y to th e n a tio n th a t h a d o n c e b lu n te d h is e n te rp ris e . R is in g in th e a lp in e h e ig h ts o f th e so u th e rn R o c k ie s , th e A r k a n s a s w a s tru ly a w o rth y riv e r, a n im p o rta n t riv e r. B u t th e r e w a s a n o th e r th a t d ra in e d th e W e s t e v e n b e tte r, o n e th a t w a s e v e n m o re im p o rta n t.

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a n d m u d in so lu tio n , c a lle d it th e P e k ita n o u i. F a th e r C h a r le vo ix, tra v e lin g d o w n th e M iss is sip p i o n a r o y a l in s p e c tio n trip in 172 0 , d e s c r ib e d th e M is s o u ri’s e n tr a n c e as th e “ fin e s t c o n flu e n c e in th e w o r ld .” “ T h e M isso u ri is b y fa r th e m o st r a p id ,” h e w ro te , “ a n d s e e m s to e n te r th e M iss is sip p i lik e a C o n q u e r o r , th ro u g h w h ic h it c a rrie s its w h ite w a te rs to th e o p p o s ite sh o re, w ith o u t m ix in g th e m ; a fte rw a rd s it g iv e s its c o lo u r to th e M ississip p i, w h ic h it n e v e r lo se s a g a in , b u t ca rrie s it q u ite d o w n to th e s e a .” S o fo r c e fu l a n d p ro m isin g a riv e r w a s irre sistib le to w e s te rin g F r e n c h m e n fro m th e first, a n d a fte r L a S a lle th e y b e g a n to w o rk th e ir w a y u p it in o n e s a n d tw o s, m o st o f th e m a n o n y m o u s a d v e n tu re rs lo o k in g fo r m in e s a n d tra d in g fo r fu rs. T h e first o fficia l e x p e d itio n to p e n e tr a te th e in terio r o f th e M isso u ri c o u n try (at le a s t th e first o f re co rd , fo r th e F r e n c h tra d e rs tu rn e d u p v irtu a lly e v e r y w h e r e b e fo re t h e y w e r e p e rm itte d to a n d d e lib e r a te ly le ft no re co rd s) w a s n o t s e n t u n til 1 7 1 9 , w h e n G o v e r n o r B ie n v ille a g a in g a v e th e o rd er. T h e Illin o is C o u n tr y h a d o n ly r e c e n tly b e e n a d d e d to th e ju ris d ic tio n o f L o u is ia n a , a n d th e p r e v a ilin g b e lie f w a s th a t th e sh o rte st w a y fro m th e re to S a n ta F e w a s u p th e B ig M u d d y . L e a d in g th e p a r ty o f tra d e r-d ip lo m a ts th a t s e t o u t fro m K a s k a s k ia w a s C h a r le s C la u d e d u T is n e , a m a n sta m p e d in th e S t. D e n is m o ld w h o h a d ta k e n o v e r th e c o m m a n d o f th e N a tc h ito c h e s p o st w h e n his su p e rio r w e n t w o o in g in O ld M e x ic o . D u T is n e w a s a g e n tle m a n , a P a ris ia n , c le v e r , lite ra te , b le s s e d w ith th e gift o f m irth, a n d if so m e ta le s to ld o f h im a re tru e , th e first g re a t p ra n k s te r o f th e W e st. (A m o n g o th e r trick s, h e is s u s p e c te d o f h a v in g sa lte d th e Illin o is C o u n tr y w ith s ilv e r-b e a rin g o re fro m M e x ic o , h o w lin g w h e n th e a s s a y re p o rts se n t th e c o lo n y into a tizz y .)

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T is n e ’s in te n tio n to go fa rth e r w e s t a n d m a k e p e a c e w ith th e P a w n e e s , th e O s a g e s o b je c te d . T h e P a w n e e s w e r e th e ir e n e m ie s , a p e o p le t h e y w e r e a c c u s to m e d to e n s la v in g a n d tra d in g to th e F r e n c h . E v e n t u a lly d u T is n e m a n a g e d to g e t p a s t th e m , b u t o n ly o n th e c o n d itio n th a t h e ta k e n o m o re th a n th r e e g u n s w ith him . F o llo w in g th e O s a g e R iv e r so u th w e st, d u T is n e fin a lly r e a c h e d a trib e o f P a w n e e s in O k la h o m a . H e r e h e b a r te r e d a w a y his la st th re e w e a p o n s a n d to ld h is h o sts th a t h e w a s n o w r e a d y to p ro c e e d w e s t to th e C o m a n c h e s , to w h ic h th e P a w n e e s g a v e a n e m p h a tic “ n o th in g d o in g .” C o m a n c h e s w e r e th e ir m o st h a te d fo e s. T h e r e is a sto ry th a t th e P a w n e e s first p la n n e d to sc a lp du T is n e a n d a p p ro p ria te his g o o d s. B u t th e little F r e n c h m a n o v e r h e a r d th e m . B o ld ly h e c o n fro n te d th e m sh o u tin g , “ D o y o u w a n t m y sc a lp ? P ic k it u p i f y o u d a r e .” T h e n h e y a n k e d a w ig fro m his c u e -b a ll h e a d a n d th r e w it a t th e ir fe e t. T h e a s to n is h e d In d ia n s g a p e d a t th e w o n d e r. T h e n d u T is n e th u n d e r e d , “ I f y o u a tte m p t to h a rm m e I w ill b u rn y o u r riv e rs a n d fie ld s !” T o p r o v e his p o w e rs h e to o k so m e w a te r, p o u r e d o n a little b r a n d y (th e ea u -d e-

vie w a s still u n fa m ilia r to th e P a w n e e s ) a n d s e t it a fla m e . N e x t h e to o k a m a g n ify in g g la ss w ith w h ic h h e s e t a lo g o n fire. It w a s stro n g m e d ic in e w e ll ta k e n b y th e P a w n e e s , w h o la v is h e d gifts o n th e m ira c le m a n a n d lo o k e d c a r e fu lly a fte r his s a fe ty . O n S e p te m b e r 27, 1 7 1 9 , d u T is n e p la n te d th e r o y a l w h ite fla g o f F r a n c e in th e ir v illa g e , th e n r e tu rn e d to th e Illin o is C o u n tr y w ith an e s p e c ia lly n ic e h a u l o f fu rs. T h e w e s tw a rd th ru st o f F r a n c e w a s h a r d ly m a s s iv e , b u t th e fe w to o k it far. D is c o u r a g e d b y th e in te rn a tio n a l s ta le m a te o n th e L o u is ia n a - T e x a s fro n tier, F r a n c e tu rn e d m o re a n d m o re to th e M isso u ri as th e w a y to b rin g N e w M e x ic o w ith in strik in g , or at le a s t tra d in g , d is ta n c e . L a c k in g m a n p o w e r to fo rtify th e ro u te , sh e d e c id e d to u n ite all th e P la in s trib e s u n d e r th e fle u r-d e -ly s in tre a tie s o f p e a c e — a p la n as lik e ly o f s u c c e s s as th a t o f so m e A s ia tic p o te n ta te , a rriv in g in e ig h te e n th -c e n tu r y G e r m a n y , to b rin g th e m a n y p rin c ip a litie s to g e th e r in a la stin g u n d e rs ta n d in g . Y e t , th e F r e n c h g a v e it th e ir b e s t a n d c h o s e o n e o f th e ir b e s t fo r th e ta sk . E tie n n e V e n ia r d , S ie u r d e B o u rg m o n t, h a d m a n y

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q u a lific a tio n s a n d a fe w fa ilin g s th a t p e r h a p s o n ly th e F r e n c h c o u ld h a v e fo u n d fo r g iv a b le . T h e c o m p e te n t o ffice r h a d b e e n c o m m a n d a n t o f F o r t D e tro it b e fo r e ru n n in g o ff into th e w ild s w ith a m a rrie d F r e n c h w o m a n . T h o u g h h e a n d his la d y lo v e w e re c a p tu re d a n d r e tu r n e d in 1 7 0 7 , th e p h ila n d e r e r d e s e r te d a g a in in 1 7 1 4 , th is tim e e n a m o r e d o f a M isso u ri In d ia n girl. F o r so m e y e a r s h e liv e d w ith h e r a n d h e r p e o p le , le a rn in g m u c h o f th e lo n g riv e r a n d its trib e s , w h ic h h e h a d th e g o o d s e n s e to p u t on p a p e r. T h e y e a r 1 7 1 9 fo u n d B o u r g m o n t le a d in g a g ro u p o f M isso u ri w a rrio rs a g a in s t th e S p a n is h o n th e G u lf C o a s t b e fo re re tu rn in g th a t fa ll to F r a n c e in h o n o r, h a v in g b e e n n o m in a te d for th e C ro s s o f S a in t L o u is . T h e r e h e is sa id to h a v e m a rrie d a rich w id o w , a n d in 172 2 h e w a s c o m m issio n e d b y th e C o m p a n y o f th e In d ie s to b u ild a fo rt o n th e M isso u ri, p a c ify th e riv e r trib es, m a k e a n alli a n c e w ith th e C o m a n c h e s , a n d o p e n tra d e w ith N e w M e x ic o . It w a s a ta ll o rd e r, b u t th e c o lo rfu l B o u rg m o n t, w h o h a d a r e s p e c t fro m th e re d m a n th a t s e e m s to h a v e b o r d e r e d on id o la try , w a s u p to fillin g it. B y w in te r o f 17 2 3 h e h a d c o n s tru c te d F o rt O rle a n s o n th e n o rth b a n k o f th e M isso u ri (n e a r m o d e rn B ru n sw ic k ), c o m p le te w ith p e r s o n a l q u a rte rs , b a rra c k s , c h u rc h , a n d ic e h o u s e . T h e n th e b r in g e r o f m u tu a l frie n d s h ip a n d fid e lity c a lle d to g e th e r th e M iss o u ris a n d O s a g e s a n d O to e s a n d P a w n e e s — trib es n o t a lw a y s th e b e s t o f frie n d s . It w a s tim e, B o u rg m o n t to ld th e m , to m a k e p e a c e w ith th e C o m a n c h e s , w h o h a p p e n e d to b e th e e n e m ie s o f all. In th e su m m e r o f 17 2 4 , B o u r g m o n t h e a d e d m o re th a n o n e h u n d r e d fifty In d ia n s a n d e ig h t F r e n c h m e n u p th e riv e r to c o lle c t s o m e K a n s a s fo r th e trip to C o m a n c h e territo ry. S ic k n e s s d e la y e d th e s to u th e a r te d c a p ta in , b u t in O c to b e r h e w a s b a c k a t it, le a d in g a c o lu m n a c ro s s p r e s e n t- d a y K a n s a s w ith d ru m s ro llin g a n d b a n n e rs fly in g , a m ic ro s c o p ic d is tu r b a n c e on th e s tu b b le d flo o r o f th e s k y c o u n try . A t la s t sm o k e w a s s e e n on th e a fte rn o o n h o rizo n , w h ic h B o u r g m o n t a n s w e r e d b y se ttin g th e p ra irie a fire. H e h a d h a d th e w it to p u r c h a s e tw o C o m a n c h e s la v e s fro m th e K a n s a s , fr e e th e m , a n d s e n d th e m a h e a d a s g o o d w ill m e s s e n g e r s w ith th e w h ite co lo rs o f F r a n c e . It w a s a g lo rio u s c o m in g to g e th e r: w h o o p in g a n d p isto l sh o o tin g , h a n d s h a k in g all a ro u n d , p a s s in g th e p e a c e p ip e , a n d

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o th e r sig n s o f b ro th e rlin e s s. A t six th e n e x t m o rn in g B o u r g m o n t u n p a c k e d a n d c a r e fu lly so rte d o u t a v e r ita b le s to re h o u s e : a x e s , b la n k e ts , re d clo th , b lu e clo th , m irrors, k n iv e s , sh irts, scisso rs, c o m b s, a w ls, k e ttle s , b e lls , b e a d s , b ra ss w ire , a n d , b a d n e w s fo r th e S p a n ia r d s , g u n s, p o w d e r, a n d b a lls. T h e n , F r e n c h fla g in h a n d , h e a d d r e s s e d a n a s s e m b ly o f tw o h u n d r e d n o ta b le s : “ I b rin g y o u th e w o rd o f th e K in g , m y m a ste r, w h o is th e b ig c h ie f o f a ll n a tio n s, o u r a llie s, w ith w h o m w e h a v e a c q u a in ta n c e a n d w h o a re th e M isso u ris, th e O s a g e s , th e K a n s a s , th e O to e s, th e P a n im a h a s [P a w n e e s ], w h o m y o u s e e w ith m e a n d w h o a re w itn e s s o f this, so th a t h e r e a fte r y o u m a y liv e in a llia n c e a n d . . . v isit e a c h o th e r a n d tra d e w ith e a c h o th e r. . . .” B o u r g m o n t a lso a p p e n d e d a w a rn in g to th e C o m a n c h e s th a t it c o u ld go h a rd o n th e m if th e tru st w a s b ro k e n , or i f F r e n c h m e n c o m in g la te r w e r e s to p p e d on th e ir w a y to tr a d e w ith th e S p a n ia rd s . A t la st, h a n d in g his fla g o v e r to th e c h ie f w ith th e c o m m a n d th a t h e k e e p it sp o tle s s fo r th e F r e n c h th a t w o u ld “ fro m n o w on c o m e to s e e y o u ,” B o u r g m o n t o ffe r e d th e m th e tre a s u re s a n d trin k e ts d is p la y e d , g ra tis, in th e n a m e o f his k in g . T h e C o m a n c h e s w e r e o v e r w h e lm e d . T h e y a c c e p te d u n c o n d itio n a lly , th e c h ie f b a d -m o u th in g th e S p a n is h and

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F r a n c e . T h e n lio n s a n d la m b s s e a le d th e p a c t w ith a fe s tiv e b u f fa lo b a n q u e t. B o u r g m o n t h a d d o n e e v e r y th in g e x p e c te d o f h im , e x c e p t to r e a c h N e w M e x ic o . H is su m m e r illn e ss p r e v e n te d h im in th a t, a n d h e p r o b a b ly fig u re d th e tr e a ty h e h a d a r r a n g e d w a s su f ficie n t, h a v in g n o re a l w a y o f k n o w in g th a t th e C o m a n c h e s w e re n o t a sin g le trib e b u t m a n y b a n d s u n ifie d o n ly b y a c o m m o n la n g u a g e a n d fe ro c ity . N o r d id h e k n o w th a t th e F r e n c h w o u ld p r o v e u n a b le to m a in ta in s u c h a b o u n tifu l s u p p ly o f g o o d s on w h ic h th e p e a c e w o u ld d e p e n d . W h a te v e r , B o u r g m o n t r e tu rn e d to F o rt O rle a n s a n d c a lle d a g re a t c o u n c il o f his n e w c o n fe d e r a c y . It w a s tim e , h e c o n c lu d e d , to in tro d u c e th e s e n e w e s t s u b je c ts o f L o u is X V firsth a n d to th e m ig h t a n d g ra n d e u r o f h is n a tio n (“ p o u r le u r d orm er u n e

id e e d e la puissance des F rancais,” as h is sp o n so rin g c o m p a n y h a d said). T h e S u p e rio r C o u n c il o f N e w O rle a n s p a r e d d o w n h is o rig in a l e n to u r a g e to o n e M isso u ri c h ie f, o n e O s a g e , o n e

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Illin o is, o n e O to, o n e M e tc h ig a m i, a n d a y o u n g M isso u ri p rin c e s s — th e last, w e m a y g u e s s , at B o u r g m o n t’s in siste n c e . O h , w h a t a P a ris g a la w h e n th e visito rs a rriv e d in S e p te m b e r 17 2 5 ! T h e p ea u x -ro u g es w e r e r e g a le d in g ra n d sty le a n d d re s s e d in fin e r y o f b lu e a n d g o ld . T h e y a tte n d e d a fa n c y re c e p tio n g iv e n b y th e D u k e a n d D u c h e s s o f B o u r b o n a n d th e d ire cto rs o f th e C o m p a n y o f th e In d ie s ; th e y e v e n h a d a n a u d ie n c e w ith th e h a n d s o m e L o u is h im se lf. F o r th e p le a s u r e o f P a ris ia n s , th e y p e r fo r m e d w a r d a n c e s at th e O p e ra , a n d p u t on a d e m o n stra tio n o f sta g h u n tin g in th e B o is d e B o u lo g n e . T h e M isso u ri p rin c e s s w a s b a p tiz e d a n d th e n m a rrie d o ff to o n e o f B o u r g m o n t’s se r g e a n ts in th e C a th e d r a l o f N o tre D a m e . (M a d a m e B o u rg m o n t m u st h a v e p u t h e r fo o t d o w n .) W h e n th e In d ia n d e le g a tio n le ft P a r is to re tu rn to th e ir u n c o u th W e st, th e y d id so w ith o u t B o u r g m o n t, w h o , ric h in h o n o rs, d e c id e d to s ta y in F r a n c e . I f v ic to rie s w e r e w o n o n b rillia n t g a m b its, g ra n d g e stu re s, or co u r a g e sans p eu r, th e A m e r ic a n W e s t m ig h t b e F r e n c h to d a y . B u t th e r e w a s m o re to it th a n th a t. T h e fo u n d a tio n s la id b y du T is n e a n d B o u r g m o n t w e r e n o t b u ilt u p o n . B y th e c lo se o f 173 2 F o r t O rle a n s w a s a b a n d o n e d b y m issio n a rie s a n d tra d e rs a lik e. T h e b o n d s th a t w e r e to h o ld re d m e n to re d m e n , a n d re d m e n to F r e n c h m e n , c a m e u n s tu c k , o u t o f n e g le c t a n d th e n o rm a l stra in s o f r o w d y life o n th e P la in s. T h is w a s n o t to s a y th a t in d iv id u a l F r e n c h m e n g a v e u p th e id e a o f r e a c h in g N e w M e x ic o b y th e M isso u ri, w h ic h tu rn e d a w a y fro m th a t d ire c tio n b y a q u a d ra n t. In 17 3 9 e ig h t F r e n c h m e n le d b y th e C a n a d ia n b ro th e rs P ie r r e a n d P a u l M a lle t a c tu a lly r e a c h e d th e p o t o f sa n d a t th e e n d o f th e ra in b o w b y th a t cir c u ito u s ro u te . A fte r fo llo w in g th e B ig M u d d y , n o t q u ite a s fa r a s th e A n k a r a In d ia n s in S o u th D a k o ta , th e y tu rn e d a b o u t a n d h e a d e d so u th a c ro s s th e P la tte a n d th ro u g h th e C o m a n c h e c u rta in to N e w M e x ic o . T h e rin g in g o f S p a n is h b e lls g r e e te d th e m in T a o s a lo n g w ith a m o st h o s p ita b le d e te n tio n in S a n ta F e w h e n th e y a r r iv e d th e r e on J u ly 22, 17 3 9 . It w a s a g ra n d d e to u r fro m th e S a n ta F e T r a il o f fu tu r e lo re , a n d y e t it h a d b e e n d o n e ; N e w M e x ic o w a s r e a c h e d b y th e first w h ite m e n to h a v e c ro s s e d th e fu ll g irth o f th e G r e a t P la in s. The

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d e lig h te d m a n y in c lu d in g th e c le r g y , w h o h a d a lso r e s p o n d e d to St. D e n is ’s o v e rtu re s . T h e F r e n c h c o u ld p ro m ise d ry g o o d s a n d lu x u rie s th e S p a n is h la c k e d , in e x c h a n g e fo r h o rs e s a n d silv e r co in . T h e o ld p ro sc rip tio n s a g a in s t tr a d e no lo n g e r s e e m e d r e a s o n a b le sin c e B o u r b o n S p a in a n d B o u r b o n F r a n c e h a d b u rie d th e h a tc h e t in 17 3 3 , c o m in g to th e r e a liz a tio n th a t E n g la n d w a s m o re a th re a t to th e m b o th th a n th e y w e r e to e a c h o th er. T h e M a lle ts s ta y e d n in e m o n th s in S a n ta F e , n o tin g th a t th e g a rriso n w a s sm a ll a n d r a g g le - ta g g le , a n d c o n v in c in g th e m s e lv e s th e re w e re m in e s in th e v ic in ity th a t th e S p a n is h w e r e to o la z y to w o rk . In M a y o f 174 0 all b u t o n e o f th e M a lle t p a r ty ( h e ’d m a rrie d a lo c a l girl) d e p a r te d th e p ro v in c e . B y n o w t h e y h a d th e ir g e o g r a p h y s tra ig h te n e d o u t s o m e w h a t, a n d th is tim e th e y fo llo w e d a n e w ro u te a lo n g th e C a n a d ia n a n d A r k a n s a s riv e rs b e fo r e sp littin g u p , so m e re tu rn in g to th e Illin o is, o th e rs m a k in g a n u n e v e n tfu l jo u r n e y to N e w O rle a n s, w h e re t h e y w e r e r e c e iv e d w ith su rp rise a n d p le a s u r e b y B ie n v ille . T h e g o v e rn o r w a s so p le a s e d w ith th e n e w s o f h o w g ra c io u s ly th e M a lle ts h a d b e e n tr e a te d th a t h e se n t th e m b a c k in th e sa m e d ire c tio n th e n e x t y e a r u n d e r th e le a d e r s h ip o f a c le rk n a m e d F a b r y d e la B r u y e r e . F a b r y w a s a p p a r e n tly a d olt, at le a s t in th e w ild s, a n d th e e x p e d i tion b o g g e d d o w n on th e A r k a n s a s R iv e r , w h e re th e S e p te m b e r w a te rs w e r e too lo w fo r tr a v e l b y b o a t. D is s e n s io n s c a tte r e d th e p a rty . F a b r y w a s u n a b le to g e t h o rs e s fro m th e C o m a n c h e s , so th e M a lle t b ro th e rs fin a lly w e n t th e ir o w n w a y o n fo o t. T h e F a b r y fa ilu re p r o v e d o n ly a n is o la te d sto p to th e F r e n c h m o v e m e n t w e st. S o m a n y u n lic e n s e d voya geu rs a n d cou reu rs

d e bois w e re o p e ra tin g a lo n g th e M isso u ri a n d its trib u ta rie s (a n d m o re th a n a fe w o f th e m w ith th e k in d s o f m e th o d s th a t e a r n e d th e m su rp rise d e a th s) th a t L o u is ia n a ’s G o v e r n o r V a u d re u il fa r m e d o u t th e w h o le r e g io n in 17 4 5 to a sin g le tra d e r, S ie u r D e r u is s e a u . S o o n a fte rw a rd s F o r t C a v a g n o lle w a s e r e c te d o n th e M isso u ri R iv e r n e a r m o d e rn K a n s a s C ity to co n tro l a b u s e s in th e fu r tra d e a n d m a k e s a fe th e w a y to w a rd S a n ta F e . A n in siste n t trick le o f F r e n c h m e n n o w h e a d e d w e s tw a r d v ia th e R e d R iv e r a n d th e u p p e r A r k a n s a s . S o m e w e n t w ith o fficia l a p p ro v a l, so m e w e r e fr e e - la n c e tra d e rs , a n d so m e w e r e sim p ly d e s e r tin g th e fro n tie r a rm y w ith its h a rsh d isc ip lin e .

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T H E F A R T H E S T W IT H T H E F E W E S T

D is tr e s s e d S p a n is h o ffic ia ld o m c o u ld a g r e e o n no c o n siste n t p o lic y fo r d e a lin g w ith th e in tru d e rs. In M e x ic o C ity , w h e re s u s p ic io n o f F r e n c h in te n tio n s r e m a in e d d e s p ite th e n e w e r a o f p e a c e b e t w e e n th e tw o n a tio n s (w h y e ls e w o u ld a n y b o d y g iv e g u n s to C o m a n c h e s ? ) , a u th o ritie s te n d e d to ta k e th e h a rd lin e o n e n fo r c in g r o y a l r e g u la tio n s th a t fo r b a d e co lo n ia ls to tra d e w ith o u tsid e rs . N o t so in N e w M e x ic o . T h e m o n o p o listic p r a c Â tic e s o f lic e n s e s , d u tie s , a n d p o rts o f e n try m a d e p ric e s e x o rb ita n t fo r g o o d s th a t m ig h t or m ig h t n o t a rriv e on th e o n c e -a -y e a r m u le tra in c o s tly

u p fro m and

C h ih u a h u a .

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w a re s w e r e n o t o n ly le ss

b e tte r , t h e y w e r e a lso r e a d ily a v a ila b le fro m th e

e n te r p r is in g visito rs w h o c ro s s e d a h o stile w ild e rn e s s to r e a c h th e m . W h a t th e v ic e r o y d id n â&#x20AC;&#x2122;t k n o w w o u ld n â&#x20AC;&#x2122;t h u rt him , b u t it w o u ld c e r ta in ly h e lp h is n e g le c te d se rv a n ts sc ra tc h in g a liv in g fro m th e v a lle y o f th e R io G r a n d e d e l N o rte . I lle g a l tr a d e in N e w M e x ic o b e c a m e a lm o st a s c o m m o n as A p a c h e a tta ck s. N e v e r t h e le s s , so m e n o rth e rn g o v e rn o rs, e ith e r b e c a u s e th e y w e r e sh o rt-tim e rs a n s w e r a b le to h ig h e r a u th o ritie s, or b e c a u s e t h e y s a w a c o n n e c tio n b e t w e e n tra d in g a n d ra id in g , w e re z e a lo u s a n d m e a n t to e n fo r c e th e la w to th e le tte r. N o w a n d a g a in a n u n lu c k y

F ren ch

tra d in g p a r ty w a s a rre s te d , a n d its c o v e te d

g o o d s a u c tio n e d o ff to p a y th e r o y a l e x p e n s e s o f c u s to d y w h ile a u th o ritie s d e c id e d w h a t to d o w ith th e m . T h a t w a s th e rub. W h a t to d o w ith th e m ? S p a n is h r e s p o n s e s v a rie d . O n e in trig u in g c a s e in v o lv e d th r e e F r e n c h d e s e r te r s fro m th e A r k a n s a s p o st w h o s h o w e d u p w ith C o m a n c h e s a t th e T a o s tr a d e fa ir in 17 4 9 a n d w e r e a r r e s te d . G o v e r n o r T o m a s V e le z C a c h u p in a ire d his p r e d ic a m e n t in a n e x c h a n g e o f le tte rs w ith th e v ic e r o y . T h e s e F r e n c h m e n w e r e , o f c o u rs e , la w b r e a k e r s , C a c h u p in a d m itte d . B u t t h e y h a d skills. O n e w a s a c a rp e n te r, a n o th e r a tailor, a n d th e th ird a b a r b e r a n d b lo o d le tte r. T h e p r o v in c e c o u ld u s e m e n o f s u c h e x tr a o r d in a ry ta le n ts. T h e v ic e r o y a c c e d e d . T h e y m ig h t s ta y in N e w M e x ic o , b u t u n d e r no c ir c u m s ta n c e s w e r e th e y to b e a llo w e d to re tu rn to L o u is ia n a a n d e n c o u r a g e o th e rs to c o m e . O th e rs d id c o m e . S o m e w e r e c a u g h t a n d d e a lt w ith m o re s e v e r e ly , a m o n g th e m M e s s rs . J e a n C h a p u is a n d L u is F e u illi, w h o a r r iv e d a t th e P e c o s p u e b lo in 17 5 2 p le a d in g ig n o r a n c e o f a n y tr a d in g p ro h ib itio n s. T h e y d id tim e in a M e x ic o C it y ja il

205

T H E F A IL U R E O F F R A N C E

b e fo r e b e in g s h ip p e d to S p a in as p riso n e rs. O n e J o s e p h B la n c p a in , a p p r e h e n d e d in 17 5 4 , d ie d in a M e x ic o C ity p riso n th e fo llo w in g y e a r , c a u s in g G o v e r n o r K e r le r e c o f L o u is ia n a to p ro te st.

S p a in

r e m a in e d

in fle x ib le . A

new

r o y a l o rd e r d e c r e e d

d e p o rta tio n to S o u th A m e r ic a fo r a n y F r e n c h m a n c a u g h t tra d in g in its territo ries. S o m u c h fo r a p p e a r a n c e s . In r e a lity , c o n tr a b a n d tr a d e in th e S o u th w e s t

c o n tin u e d — w ith

g u b e r n a to r ia l c o n n iv a n c e h e re ,

a m ordida th e r e — u n til 17 6 3 , w h e n th e W e s t th a t w a s F r a n c e ’s b e c a m e S p a in ’s a n d th e w e s te r in g trails b la z e d b y St. D e n is , L a H a r p e , d u T is n e , B o u rg m o n t, a n d th e M a lle ts r e v e r te d to n a tu re a n d th e s a v a g e r y th a t w a s th e n a tu ra l c o n d itio n o f life o n th e s o u th e rn G r e a t P la in s. T h e y w o u ld b e r e c u t a n d r e c ro s s e d a g a in g e n e ra tio n s la te r b y w h ite m e n w h o s p o k e n e ith e r F r e n c h n o r S p a n ish .

HE RIVERS OF L o u is ia n a w e r e n o t th e o n ly w a y s w e s t. A n o th e r w a y w a s fro m th e fa r n o rth , n o rth o f th e F o x In d ia n s w h o fo r m a n y y e a r s b lo c k e d F r e n c h e x p a n s io n w e s t, fro m C a n a d a , th e b r o a d sh o u ld e rs o f th e c o n tin e n t, th e p rim e fu r c o u n try th a t b ro u g h t m a n y a tra d e r fro m riv e r to la k e to riv e r to la k e , c h a s in g th e su n a n d th e d im in ish in g b e a v e r fo r p e r s o n a l p ro fit a n d th e c h a n c e to liv e life at its fr e e s t a m o n g th e h o s p ita b le C h ip p e w a s a n d C r e e s . T h e r e w a s o n e w h o c a m e w e s t for a n o th e r re a s o n . H is n a m e w a s P ie r r e

G a u ltie r d e V a r e n n e s , S ie u r d e la V e r e n d r y e , a

C a n a d ia n -b o r n so ld ie r w h o h a d fo u g h t for F r a n c e in E u r o p e , been

w ounded

th e re , a n d

a fte rw a rd s r e tu rn e d

to h is n a tiv e

la n d in his m id d le a g e to p u r s u e w h a t b e c a m e his life ’ s c o n s u m in g p a ss io n : to fin d th e e lu s iv e w e s te r n s e a th a t tw o c e n tu rie s o f F r e n c h s a v a n ts h a d b e lie v e d in. P e r h a p s th e p a s s io n ra n in th e V e r e n d r y e b lo o d , fo r it w a s s h a re d b y h is fo u r so n s, J e a n B a p tis te , P ie r r e , F ra n q o is, a n d L o u is -J o se p h , a n d b y a n e p h e w , L a Jem eraye. T h e fa m ily s a g a to o k tw o d e c a d e s to u n fo ld . In

173 0 , L a

V e r e n d r y e p r e s e n te d h is d e s ig n fo r d is c o v e r y to th e C a n a d ia n g o v e rn o r,

C h a r le s

B o is c h e ,

206

M a rq u is

B e a u h a r n o is ,

T H E F A R T H E S T W IT H T H E F E W E S T

h o p in g fo r r o y a l fu n d s to o u tfit a g ro u p o f p r o v e n fro n tie rs m e n fo r th e e x p e d itio n . T h e m in iste r o f m a rin e , C o m te d e M a u r e p a s , sa id n o . T h e b e s t h e c o u ld d o w a s to g ra n t L a V e r e n d r y e a fu r m o n o p o ly in th e u n o p e n e d c o u n try a n d so m e r o y a l p r e s e n ts fo r th e In d ia n s w h o w o u ld le a d th e p a rty to th e w e s te rn se a . W ith h is o w n r e s o u r c e s m e a g r e , th e C a n a d ia n h a d n o re c o u rs e b u t to go fo r fin a n c in g to th e M o n tre a l m e rc h a n ts — a g ra sp in g , b a c k b itin g lo t w h o h a d b e e n th e ru in o f m o re th a n o n e g o o d m a n . H e w a s a d v a n c e d e q u ip m e n t a n d sto res, b u t o n te rm s th a t sto o d to e n r ic h th e b a c k e r s a t th e e x p e n s e o f th e v isio n a ry . T h e su m m e r o f 173 2 fo u n d th e V e r e n d r y e c la n a t L a k e o f th e W o o d s , w h e r e t h e y b u ilt F o r t S a in t C h a r le s ; b y th e a u tu m n o f 1 7 3 4 a n o th e r fo rt w a s b u ilt o n th e R e d R iv e r o f th e n o rth , th o u g h th e s e n io r L a V e r e n d r y e h a d to go b a c k to M o n tr e a l to p la c a te th e m e r c h a n ts , w h o w a n te d m o re fu rs fo r th e p ro v isio n s th e y w e r e fo rw a rd in g . T h e n a d o u b le tr a g e d y b e fe ll L a V e r e n d r y e in 17 3 6 . F irs t, h is n e p h e w L a J e m e r a y e d ie d ; n e xt, h is o ld e st so n J e a n - B a p tis te a n d n in e te e n o th e r F r e n c h m e n w e r e m u rd e re d a n d d e c a p ita te d b y th e S io u x at L a k e o f th e W o o d s. B u t th e r e w a s n o tu rn in g b a c k for th e m a n a n d h is su rv iv in g so n s. T h e

In d ia n s t h e y m e t a n d b e fr ie n d e d c o n tin u e d to fill

th e ir e a rs w ith sto ries o f a r a n g e o f ta ll a n d sh in in g m o u n ta in s to th e w e s t, a n d b e y o n d th a t a s e a w h o s e w a te rs c o u ld n o t b e d ru n k . In 17 3 8 , L a V e r e n d r y e le ft h is fa rth e s t o u tp o st at F o rt L a R e in e fo r th e so u th w e st, w h e re , h is A s s in ib o in frie n d s to ld h im , w e r e a p e o p le w h o c o u ld te ll m o re o f th e w e s te rn se a . O n a N o rth D a k o ta D e c e m b e r d a y , L a V e r e n d r y e a n d his p a rty w e r e w e lc o m e d in a M a n d a n v illa g e b e s id e th e U p p e r M isso u ri. L a V e r e n d r y e fo u n d th e M a n d a n s a n im p re s s iv e p e o p le . In h is jo u r n a l h e d e s c r ib e d th e m tra d e rs ,

as c le a n a n d in d u strio u s, sh re w d

“ th e m o st sk illfu l in d re s s in g le a th e r ,” a n d w o rk in g

“ v e r y d e lib e r a t e ly in h a ir a n d fe a th e r s .” T h e v illa g e (o n e o f s e v e n th e M a n d a n s h a d ) c o n s is te d o f o n e h u n d r e d th irty la rg e e a r th - c o v e r e d lo d g e s la id o u t w ith g e o m e tric p re c is io n , th e w h o le e n c lo s e d w ith d e fe n s iv e ra m p a rts a n d a p a lis a d e . A s fo r th e ir p h y s ic a l a p p e a r a n c e , L a V e r e n d r y e le ft a p u z z lin g d e sc rip tio n , w h ic h w o u ld la te r b e c ite d b y M a d o c b o o ste rs: “ T h is trib e is o f m ix e d b lo o d , w h ite a n d b la c k . T h e w o m e n a re ra th e r h a n d -

207

BY C. W JEFFERYS; COLLECTION OF MRS. PAUL GLASGOW

The brothers La Verendrye look to the “Shining Mountains” (in a latter-day painting). What range was it? The debate continues.

so m e , p a rtic u la rly th e lig h t-c o lo re d o n e s; th e y h a v e a n a b u n d a n c e o f fa ir h a ir .” A ll th e sa m e , L a V e r e n d r y e w a s d is a p p o in te d . H is in te rp re te r had

ru n

off,

m a k in g

c o m m u n ic a tio n

d ifficu lt. W o rse , o f th e

w e s te rn s e a th e M a n d a n s a p p a r e n tly k n e w n o th in g . T h e n L a V e r e n d r y e fe ll ill, a n d o n D e c e m b e r 13 , still sick , h e d e p a rte d , le a v in g tw o F r e n c h m e n w ith th e M a n d a n s to le a rn th e ir la n g u a g e . F o r th e n e x t tw o m o n th s h e r e tr a c e d h is ste p s in a g o n y , h is h e a lth b ro k e n . “ N e v e r in m y life ,” h e w ro te , “ d id I e n d u r e so m u c h m ise ry , p a in a n d fa tig u e as on th a t jo u r n e y .” T h e se n io r L a V e r e n d r y e w a s n e v e r to m a k e it as fa r w e s t as th e M a n d a n s a g a in . H is su p p lie r h a d s e iz e d w h a t g o o d s th e e x p lo re r h a d sto re d a t M ic h ilim a c k in a c , a n d h e h a d to re tu rn to M o n tr e a l to s e e k re d re ss . M u c h o f h is tim e w a s n o w s p e n t try in g to k e e p h is te n u o u s e n te rp ris e a liv e a g a in s t S io u x w a r p a rtie s

a n d th e

m o re c o rro s iv e h o stility o f th e c h e a te r s a n d

g o u g e rs in M o n tre a l. N e v e r th e le s s , th e fa m ily s e a r c h fo r th e w e s te rn s e a d id n o t

208

T H E F A R T H E S T W IT H T H E F E W E S T

e n d . In M a y o f 17 4 2 , so n s F ra n g o is a n d L o u is -J o se p h , k n o w n a s th e C h e v a lie r , r e tu r n e d to th e M a n d a n v illa g e ; a n d th a t lo n g -a g o s u m m e r th e y w a n d e r e d w e s t a m o n g trib e s th e C h e v a lie r c a m e to k n o w as th e B e a u x H o m m e s , th e P e tits R e y n a r d s , th e G e n s d e s C h e v a u x , th e G e n s d e la B e lle R iv ie r e , a n d th e G e n s d e l’A rc , a b r a v e p e o p le th a t a t th e tim e w e re a s s e m b lin g a n a rm y to fig h t th e m o st d r e a d e d e n e m ie s o f all, th e G e n s du S e r p e n t, w h o liv e d at th e b a s e o f th e ta ll a n d sh in in g m o u n ta in s o v e r w h ic h th e r e w a s a s e a w h e re w h ite m e n liv e d . W h a t d id th e G e n s d e l’A r c k n o w o f th e s e w h ite m e n ? th e C h e v a lie r in q u ire d . H e w a s to ld th a t th o s e on th e c o a s t w e re n u m e ro u s a n d liv e d in s e p a r a te a p a rtm e n ts , h a v in g m a n y s la v e s a n d h o rse s a n d a n im a ls u s e d in tillin g th e la n d . T h e y a lso h a d “ m a n y c h ie fs ,” so m e fo r th e ir so ld ie rs a n d “ so m e a lso fo r p r a y e r .” S p a n ia r d s , th e C h e v a lie r c o n c lu d e d w ith a h e a v y h e a rt. T h e w e s te r n s e a w a s th e S o u th S e a a n d in no n e e d o f d is c o v e ry . T h e b r o th e r s a c c o m p a n ie d th e In d ia n a rm y a n y w a y , un til on J a n u a r y 1, 1 7 4 3 , t h e y s a w o n th e w e s te r n h o riz o n th e ir sh in in g m o u n ta in s. U n fo r tu n a te ly , th e In d ia n s so o n g a v e u p th e ir c h a s e a n d re tire d in d is o r d e r ly fa sh io n , le a v in g th e b ro th e rs L a V e r e n d r y e no c h o ic e b u t to fo llo w . P in n in g d o w n th e v a rio u s “ g e n s ” th e C h e v a lie r m e t h a s b e e n th e c e n te r o f c o n tin u in g c o n tro v e rs y , as h a s d e te rm in in g th e r a n g e o f m o u n ta in s h e sa w c a p p e d w ith sn o w . S o m e h a v e sa id t h e y w e r e th e B ig h o r n M o u n ta in s o f W y o m in g , so m e th e W in d R iv e r

ran ge.

The

m o st

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B la c k H ills o f S o u th D a k o ta . T h e C h e v a lie r ’s re p o rt is s k e tc h y e n o u g h to ra is e d o u b t as to w h e th e r th e w h o le th in g w a s n ’t a d r e a m , w e r e it n o t fo r th e p ro b ity o f th e m a n h im s e lf a n d a M a r c h e n tr y m a d e on th e w a y b a c k th a t re a d s in p a rt, “ I d e p o s ite d o n a n e m in e n c e . . . a ta b le t o f le a d w ith th e arm s a n d in s c rip tio n o f th e K in g .” In 1 9 1 3 a sc h o o lg irl p la y in g o n a hill n e a r P ie r r e , S o u th D a k o ta , fo u n d th e lo n g -b u rie d p la te , w h ic h b o r e th e n a m e s o f L o u is X V , G o v e r n o r B e a u h a r n o is , a n d P ie rre G a u ltie r d e la V e r e n d r y e . M e a n w h ile , th e e ld e r L a V e r e n d r y e ’s situ a tio n w o r s e n e d . It w a s n ’t e n o u g h th a t h e h a d a w ild e rn e s s a n d th e fu r b a ro n s o f M o n tr e a l a g a in s t h im . P o is o n p e n le tte rs c a rrie d lib e ls b a c k to

209

T H E F A IL U R E O F F R A N C E

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The lead plate the La Verendryes “deposited on an eminence” was found b y a schoolgirl on a hill near Pierre, South Dakota, in 1913.

F r a n c e , w h e re M in iste r M a u r e p a s is s u e d a b a r r a g e o f c a rp in g le tte rs th a t c ro s s e d th e N o rth A tla n tic to G o v e r n o r B e a u h a r n o is . The

m in ister e x p r e s s e d

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“ s u c c e e d in re m o v in g th e su sp ic io n s fo r w h ic h , u p to th e p r e sen t, h e h a s g iv e n c a u s e .” H e w a s c h a r g e d w ith fa v o r in g his o w n so n s o v e r o th e rs b e tte r q u a lifie d a n d “ fo r s e v e r a l y e a r s [b ein g ] s o le ly o c c u p ie d w ith h is o w n a ffa irs, [h a v in g ] d o n e n o th in g fo r th e s e r v ic e .” W h a t is m o re, L a V e r e n d r y e w a s sa id to b e “ c o n te n t w ith th e p ro fits a c c r u in g fro m th is tr a d e [an d ] v e r y sla c k in p u rs u in g th e d is c o v e r y w h ic h o u g h t to h a v e b e e n th e p rin c ip a l o b je c t o f his e ffo r ts .” B y M a u r e p a s ’s c h o p lo g ic L a V e r e n d r y e w a s g u ilty o f try in g to p a y h is b ills in s te a d o f fin d in g th e w e s te rn se a , a p r o je c t fo r w h ic h th e C r o w n in its w o n d ro u s p a rsim o n y h a d e x te n d e d v e r y little. B u t a t le a s t M a u r e p a s w a s co n siste n t. A fte r lo o k in g at m a p s d ra w n b y c h a rla ta n s w h o , lik e

210

T H E F A R T H E S T W IT H T H E F E W E S T

h im s e lf, h a d n e v e r s e e n th e o th e r sid e o f th e A tla n tic , h e a lso fo u n d re a s o n to fa u lt th e d ire c tio n s th e L a V e r e n d r y e s w e r e tr a v e lin g , b e in g fa r fro m “ th e o n e th a t w o u ld le a d to w h a t th e y w e r e c o m m issio n e d to d is c o v e r .” G o v e r n o r B e a u h a r n o is b r a v e ly sto o d u p for th e “ m ild a n d firm ” m a n w h o h a d su c h a k n a c k fo r w in n in g o v e r s a v a g e s a n d w h o , c o n tra ry to w h a t w a s b e in g sa id in F r a n c e , w a s b e c o m in g p o o re r, n o t rich e r, in h is q u e s t fo r th e w e s te rn se a . It w a s no u se.

The

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c o n tin u e d u n til, in 17 4 4 , B e a u h a r n o is

had

to a sk fo r L a V e r e n d r y e ’s re sig n a tio n . T h e jo u r n e y m a n

o ffice r se n t to r e p la c e h im le ft th e e n te rp ris e a s h a m b le s b e fo re a s k in g to b e re lie v e d .. T h a t le ft a v a c a n c y . T h e r e w a s o n ly o n e m a n in N e w F r a n c e q u a lifie d to fill it: P ie r r e G a u ltie r d e V a re n n e s , S ie u r d e la V e r e n d r y e . H a v in g r e c e iv e d h is lo n g -d e la y e d p ro m o tio n to c a p ta in , th e old m a n n o w in his sixty-fo u rth y e a r w a s o v e r jo y e d a t a n o th e r c h a n c e a n d b e g a n m a k in g p la n s. “ I sh a ll b e o n ly too h a p p y ,” h e w ro te th e m in iste r o f m a rin e in S e p te m b e r 17 4 9 , “ if a fte r all th e tro u b le , fa tig u e a n d d a n g e r I a m a b o u t to e n c o u n te r in this lo n g e x p lo ra tio n I c o u ld s u c c e e d in p ro v in g to y o u th e . . . z e a l o f m y s e lf a n d m y so n s fo r th e g lo ry o f th e k in g a n d th e w e lfa r e o f th e c o lo n y .” The

n o n e x is te n t w e s te r n s e a c o u ld n o t b e fo u n d b y P e r e

V e r e n d r y e . A fe w m o n th s la te r th e m a n w h o h a d g iv e n F r a n c e th irty -n in e y e a r s o f s e r v ic e , ta k e n n in e w o u n d s on h e r b a ttle fie ld s, s a c r ific e d a so n a n d a n e p h e w to a p a trio tic d re a m , a n d c a rrie d th e flic k e rin g lig h t o f his n a tio n in to a th o u s a n d m iles o f g e o g r a p h ic a l d a rk n e s s , d ie d . N o F r e n c h m a n a c tin g o fficia lly fo r F r a n c e w o u ld e v e r a g a in go so far. L a S a lle , h a d h e c o m e b a c k fro m his T e x a s g ra v e , w o u ld h a v e b e e n s a d ly a m u s e d . N o th in g h a d c h a n g e d . A m a n w h o h a d b e e n W e s t a n d h a d d re a m s d id n ’t sta n d a c h a n c e w ith th e p o u n d -o ffle s h m e rc h a n ts o f M o n tr e a l a n d th e m y o p ic m in iste rs b a c k in w h a t w a s s o m e tim e s th o u g h t o f as h o m e .

211

Chapter 11

Loose Chip in the Imperial Gam e In

the

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su m m er

17 6 3 , P ie r r e d e L a c le d e

L ig u e s t w e n t u p riv e r fro m N e w O rle a n s to fin d a p la c e to sto re h is b u lk y c a rg o . T h e firm o f M a x e n t, L a c le d e , a n d D e e h a d ju s t r e c e iv e d a m o n o p o ly to tr a d e w ith th e trib e s o f th e M iss o u ri for six y e a r s , g ra n te d b y G o v e r n o r J e a n J a c q u e s B la is e d ’A b b a d ie , w h o fe a r e d th a t th e fin a n c ia l d islo c a tio n s b ro u g h t o n b y th e S e v e n Y e a r s ’ W a r w e r e g o in g to b e th e ru in o f L o u is ia n a ’s e n tr e p re n e u rs. A c tin g w ith th e b le s s in g o f M a x e n t, his se n io r p a rtn e r, L a c le d e so u g h t a p o st th a t w a s c o n v e n ie n t to th e re d m e n as w e ll as to th e a rte ria l riv e rs, th e M isso u ri a n d th e M ississip p i. H e fo u n d his p la c e , a n d in m id -F e b r u a r y o f 17 6 4 c o n stru c tio n b e g a n a fe w m ile s so u th w e s t o f w h e re th e riv e rs m et. F ro m th e first th e se ttle m e n t s h o w e d sig n s o f h e a lth , a ttra c tin g fa m ilie s fro m C a h o k ia a n d o th e r F r e n c h v illa g e s on th e e a s t sid e o f th e M ississip p i. L a t e r it w a s to b e k n o w n in slo g a n a n d in fu n c tio n a s th e G a t e w a y to th e W e st. L a c le d e c a lle d it S a in t L o u is , in h o n o r o f L o u is X V . W h a t L a c le d e d id n o t k n o w w a s th a t h is k in g no lo n g e r h a d title to th e p ro p e rty , th a t h e h a d p a lm e d it o ff on S p a in as h e m ig h t a n o ld a n d ta tte r e d b e a v e r h a t. W h a t th e tra d e r h a d n o t y e t h e a r d w a s th a t h e a n d his fe llo w L o u is ia n a n s h a d b e e n sold d o w n th e riv e r, d o w n b o th rive rs. W h o w a s re s p o n s ib le ? W h ile th e D u e d e C h o is e u l w a s p r e s e n t a t th e d is m e m b e rm e n t o f F r a n c e ’ s c o lo n ia l e m p ire , so p a in s ta k in g ly p u t to g e th e r first b y C a r d in a l R ic h e lie u a n d th e n b y L o u is X I V ’s m in ister, C o lb e r t, h e a rriv e d o n th e s c e n e too la te for b la m e . T h e fin g e r o f su s p ic io n sh ifts e ls e w h e r e , to th e m a n L o u is ia n a h isto ria n C h a r le s G a y a r r e sa id “ n e v e r h a d e ith e r th e

212

L O O S E C H I P IN T H E IM P E R I A L G A M E

MISSOURI HISTORICAL SOCIETY

A portrait o f Pierre de Laclede Liguest, who in 1763 selected a site on which to build a trading post. H e named it St. Louis.

te n d e r n e s s o f a w o m a n ’s h e a rt, th e p rid e o f a k in g , or th e c o u r a g e o f a m a n .” A p o lo g is ts fo r L o u is X V p o in t o u t th a t h e w a s n o t a n u n in te l lig e n t fe llo w a n d th a t h is illu strio u s fa th e r, th e S u n K in g , h a d le ft h im a tr e a s u r y e m p tie d b y th e co sts o f his n e v e r - e n d in g w a rs. T r u e , b u t th a t d id n o t e x p la in a w a y th e ro y a l fla w s in th e ro y a l c h a r a c te r , w h ic h in c lu d e d tim id ity, d u p lic ity , in d e c isio n , sloth, and

s e n s u a l a p p e tite s th a t a s u c c e s s io n o f m istre ss e s a n d a

p r iv a te b ro th e l c o u ld n o t sa tisfy . H e w a s n o S u n K in g , m o re a M o o n K in g , w h o s e v e r y lo n g e v ity le d F r a n c e in to fiv e d e c a d e s o f s te a d y e c lip s e , a n d w h o to w a rd th e e n d o f h is re ig n a tte n d e d m o re to s c o tc h in g ru m o rs o f h is sc a b ro u s re p u ta tio n a s E u r o p e ’s p r e m ie r le c h e r th a n h e d id to v ita l m a tte rs o f sta te. T h e a rm y o f L o u is X I V h a d b e e n th e e n v y o f E u r o p e . U n d e r L o u is X V it b e c a m e a fla b b y r e fu g e fo r b u r e a u c r a tic p lu m ep u sh ers,

o v e r lo a d e d

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o fficers w h o

p u r c h a s e d th e ir c o m

m issio n s a n d c o n g r e g a te d in h ig h s o c ie ty ’s w a te rin g sp o ts, fa r

213

T H E F A IL U R E O F F R A N C E

The beginnings o f St. Louis. Land was cleared and buildings raised in 1764. The settlement drew Frenchmen from across the river in what was now the English Illinois Country.

O >-

fro m th e tro o p s th e y se ld o m if e v e r sa w . A s fo r th e n a v y , th e p e r e n n ia lly w e a k e r lin k th a t h a d b e e n h u m ilia te d b y E n g la n d in th e S e v e n Y e a r s ’ d e b a c le , a n d w h ic h h is fo re ig n m in iste r n o w w o rk e d fe v e r is h ly to re b u ild , L o u is d e liv e r e d h im s e lf o f this o p in io n : “ M y d e a r C h o is e u l, y o u a re as m a d as y o u r p r e d e c e s s o rs . . . . T h e r e w ill n e v e r b e a n y o th e r n a v ie s in F r a n c e th a n th o s e [p a in te d b y] V e r n e t, th e a rtis t.” L o u is Q u in z e w a s b y n o m e a n s a n a b s o lu te m o n a rc h . U n d e r h is d iffid e n t ru le th e tra d itio n a l in stitu tio n s w ith w h o m th e k in g sh a re d p o w e r b e g a n to b r e a k d o w n . T h e c e n te r d id n o t h o ld . D iv is io n h a d b e c o m e e n d e m ic . T h e ju d ic ia l a u th o rity o f th e p a rlem en ts w a s c h a lle n g e d b y a d m in istra to rs w h o c la im e d to

214

L O O S E C H I P IN T H E I M P E R I A L G A M E

b e a c tin g in th e n a m e o f th e C ro w n , a n d th e p a rlem en ts in tu rn in v a d e d a r e a s o f r o y a l ru le. T h e rise to in flu e n c e o f th e b o u r g e o is ie p itte d th e m a g a in s t th e n o b le c a s te fo r p o litica l in flu e n c e a n d o ffice s. T h e C h u r c h fo u n d its e lf se t u p o n b y b o th p a trio tic n a tio n a lis ts a n d s k e p tic a l philosop h es, w h o s h o w e r e d b o u q u e ts o n th e “ e n lig h te n e d ” P r u s s ia n e n e m y F r e d e r ic k a t th e v e r y h e ig h t o f th e S e v e n Y e a r s ’ W ar. T h e in te lle c tu a l c lim a te (a lw a y s m o re m e a n in g fu l in F r a n c e th a n in o th e r n a tio n s) w a s c h a n g in g . It w a s th e tim e o f R o u s s e a u a n d V o lta ire , D id e r o t a n d D ’A le m b e rt. T h e r e w a s ta lk a b o u t n a tu ra l la w a n d ta lk c ritica l o f d e s p o tic k in g s a n d la u d a to r y o f th e rig h ts o f m a n . T h a t ta lk w a s n ’t c o n ta in e d in F r a n c e e ith e r; it sp ille d a c ro ss th e o c e a n to c o lo n ia ls w h o

215

BY HYACINTHE RIGAUD; MUSEE DE VERSAILLES

T H E F A IL U R E O F F R A N C E

Louis Quinze in all his finery. The ineffectual Bourbon played no small part in Franceâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s colossal failure in North America.

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L O O S E C H I P IN T H E I M P E R I A L G A M E

s p o k e E n g lis h b u t c o u ld th in k in F r e n c h . It e v e n s e e p e d fa rth e r w e s t to a d is o w n e d p e o p le w h o a c tu a lly s p o k e F r e n c h . T h e y n o w liv e d in S p a n is h L o u is ia n a . C h o is e u l c le a r ly id e n tifie d E n g la n d as th e o n e a n d o n ly e n e m y o f F r a n c e ; h e c o n s id e r e d th e se ttle m e n t o f th e S e v e n Y e a r s ’ W a r n o m o re th a n a b a d h a n d in a n u n fin is h e d g a m e th a t w o u ld b e r e s u m e d la te r, a fte r h e h a d re b u ilt th e a rm y a n d n a v y o f F r a n c e to s u p r e m a c y . W h a t p a rt L o u is ia n a m ig h t p la y in th e c a g e y fo r e ig n m in iste r’ s v isio n o f a F r e n c h -d o m in a te d fu tu re is le s s c le a r. L o u is ia n a n s d id n o t le a r n o f th e ir s u b je c tio n to th e S p a n is h c ro w n u n til S e p te m b e r 17 6 4 , a n d th e n e w s w a s n o t w e ll r e c e iv e d . B u t w h e n a fu ll y e a r p a s s e d a n d th e n a n o th e r w ith o u t th e S p a n is h a rriv in g to im p le m e n t th e ta k e -o v e r, th e co lo n ia ls to o k h e a rt. P e r h a p s it h a d b e e n m e r e ly a ru m o r. O r m a y b e F r a n c e h a d s e e n th e a b s u r d ity o f it a ll a n d h a d r e v o k e d th e c e ssio n . T h e n h o p e d is s o lv e d in th e sp rin g o f 17 6 6 w h e n a sm all S p a n is h c o n tin g e n t, w h ic h in c lu d e d th e n e w g o v e rn o r, b e la te d ly a rriv e d in N e w O rle a n s to ra is e th e fla g o f S p a in . A n to n io d e U llo a w a s a w id e ly r e s p e c te d scie n tist a n d e n g in e e r , b u t a p o o r c h o ic e to g o v e r n a c o lo n y o f s e e th in g F r e n c h m e n . F irs t o f all, h e c a m e w ith o n ly n in e ty s lo v e n ly so ld ie rs, a n in s u ltin g ly sm a ll n u m b e r e v e n if t h e y h a d lo o k e d a b le to d e fe n d a q u a r te r o f a c o n tin e n t. A n a rro g a n t y e t re tirin g m a n , U llo a ch ose

ru le

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th e r e s id e n t F r e n c h

g o v e rn o r, P h ilip

A u b r y , ig n o rin g th e N e w O rle a n s S u p e rio r C o u n c il. T h e w id e sp read

g ru m b lin g b e c a m e crie s o f o u tra g e w h e n U llo a g a v e

sig n s o f e n fo r c in g th e S p a n is h m e rc a n tile d o g m a th a t no tra d in g sh ip s w e r e to b e a llo w e d in th e c o lo n y w h ic h w e r e n o t S p a n is h c r e w e d a n d fro m S p a n is h p o rts. N o s u c h v e s s e l h a d e v e r p u t in to L o u is ia n a , a n d w h a t ite m s m ig h t b e s h ip p e d o u t o f N e w O rle a n s S p a in c o u ld g e t c h e a p e r fro m h e r o w n c o lo n ie s. S in c e tr a d e w ith tra d itio n a l F r e n c h m a rk e ts w o u ld b e s to p p e d a n d s m u g g lin g c r a c k e d d o w n on, th e c o lo n y w a s le ft to its o w n d e v ic e s , w h ic h w e r e n ’t e n o u g h w ith o u t e ith e r F r e n c h or S p a n is h la w s or s u b s id ie s . T h e e ffe c t w a s to m a k e p riso n e rs o f th e F r e n c h in a c o m m e r c ia l le p e r c o lo n y . T h e p r e d ic ta b le re v o lt c a m e in la te O c to b e r o f 176 8 , w h e n a m o b o f s e v e r a l h u n d r e d to o k to th e stre e ts a n d th e S u p e r io r

217

T H E F A IL U R E O F F R A N C E

The Due de Choiseul had to deal away Canada and Louisiana in the settlement o f the Seven Years’ War.

C o u n c il la b e le d U llo a a u su rp e r. T h e fr ig h te n e d S p a n ia r d a n d h is fa m ily b o a r d e d a n a n c h o r e d frig a te , w h o s e m o o rin g s w e r e th e n s h e a r e d b y th e g o v e r n e d . H e d rifte d d o w n riv e r th ro u g h th e c o o l b a y o u c o u n try a n d o u t in to th e w a rm G u lf o f M e x ic o , no d o u b t d is m a y e d b y h is u n g r a te fu l se n d -o ff. S o m e L o u is ia n a n s w e re ju b ila n t a fte r th e ir b lo o d le s s re v o lt. T h e y se n t p e titio n s a n d a m b a s s a d o r s to V e r s a ille s , b e g g in g th e C r o w n to m a k e th e m F r e n c h a g a in , sin c e th e S p a n ia r d s w e r e o b v io u s ly n o t c o n c e r n e d w ith th e ir w e lfa r e a n d th ro u g h w e a k n e s s w o u ld o n ly in v ite E n g la n d to b e c o m e th e ir c o lo n ia l m a ste rs. In th e s u p p o rtin g p a m p h le ts w ritte n b y a fe w o f th e in s u r r e c tio n ’ s m o re ra d ic a l in stig a to rs, th e r e w a s a h e a v y s e a s o n in g o f r e p u b lic a n th o u g h t, e v e n th e s u g g e s tio n o f c r e a tin g a n in d e p e n d e n t r e p u b lic o f fr e e m e n g o v e rn in g th e m s e lv e s . C h o is e u l w a v e r e d . E n g la n d w a s flu sh a g a in s t th e M iss is sip p i R iv e r a n d g r e e d ily lo o k in g to th e w e s t b a n k . A n d if S p a in w a s n ’t stro n g e n o u g h to h o ld it . . . . C h o is e u l go t a d v ic e o n h o w to e x p lo it th e to u c h y situ a tio n fro m

218

L O O S E C H I P IN T H E IM P E R I A L G A M E

BOTH PAGES: STANFORO UNIVERSITY LIBRARIES

Antonio de Ulloa, the unpopular first governor o f Spanish Louisiana, was run off the continent by rebellious Frenchmen.

th e C o m te d ’E s ta in g , a h e ro ic so ld ie r w h o w o u ld la te r d istin g u ish h im s e lf in th e R e v o lu tio n a r y W a r on th e sid e o f th e A m e r ic a n s . H e s u g g e s te d

m a k in g L o u is ia n a a q u a s i-re p u b lic w h o s e in te g rity

w o u ld b e g u a r a n te e d jo in tly b y F r a n c e a n d S p a in . T h is w a y S p a in w o u ld h a v e h e r p r e c io u s b u ffe r a n d F r a n c e w o u ld s e e th e B ritish h a lte d in th e ir im p e ria l tra c k s — e n d s a c h ie v e d w ith o u t fu rth e r d e p le tin g th e tr e a s u r ie s o f th e tw o h a r d -p r e s s e d n a tio n s. T h e p la n w a s a s d e v io u s a s it w a s in g e n io u s. W h ile F r a n c e a n d S p a in w o u ld d ir e c t th e n e w r e p u b lic ’s fo re ig n a ffa irs, it w o u ld b e a llo w e d a d o m e s tic in d e p e n d e n c e th a t w o u ld b e a liv in g m o d e l o f th e e n lig h te n e d n e w th e o r ie s o f s e lf-g o v e rn m e n t, a c c o rd in g to d ’E s ta in g . “ T o g iv e w illin g ly w h a t th e E n g lis h P a r lia m e n t re fu s e s ; to c o p y th e fo rm o f L o u is ia n a ’s g o v e r n m e n t fro m th a t o f th e fr e e s t E n g lis h c o lo n y , N e w Y o r k , fo r in s ta n c e , to ta k e fro m th e re g im e o f e a c h w h a t [it] h o ld s d e a r e s t, w h a t is w ise st, to go b e y o n d th a t a n d m a k e it fr e e ; to th e n m a in ta in its p r iv ile g e s , so w o rth y o f th e e n v y o f th e s e n e w m e n o f E n g la n d a n d A m e r ic a , a n d so c a p a b le o f m a k in g th e m d ru n k w ith e n th u s ia s m .” W h a t b e tte r w a y c o u ld

219

T H E F A IL U R E O F F R A N C E

th e r e b e to h u rt E n g la n d th a n to s e t h e r c o lo n ists a g a in s t h e r? C h o is e u l lis te n e d — to

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w ith d ’E s ta in g , a n d to

o th e rs, w h o v a r io u s ly s u g g e s te d th a t F r a n c e tra in a n d a rm th e L o u is ia n a n s fo r a n a tta c k o n E n g la n d ’s b a c k s id e or th a t F r a n c e r e ta k e L o u is ia n a a n d th e n tr a d e it b a c k to S p a in fo r h e r h a lf o f th e isla n d o f H is p a n o la . B u t th e fo re ig n m in iste r d id n o t a ct. H e c o u ld s y m p a th iz e w ith th e co lo n ists a n d r e g r e t th a t F r e n c h sh ip s w e r e n o t a b le to p u t in a n d tr a d e w ith th e m . A t th e s a m e tim e h e d id n o t d a r e a lie n a te S p a in b y m e d d lin g in w h a t w a s n o w h e r o w n in te rn a l a ffa ir. A t a ll co sts, th e F a m ily C o m p a c t h a d to b e p r e s e r v e d fo r th e n e x t s h o w d o w n w ith E n g la n d , w h e n e v e r it m ig h t co m e . S p a in , w h ic h c o u ld to le ra te n o in c e n d ia r y e x a m p le s fo r its e x te n s iv e

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d e lic a te

m a tte r

o u t o f C h o is e u l’s h a n d s in A u g u s t o f 17 6 9 , w h e n D o n A le ja n d r o O ’R e illy a rriv e d in N e w O rle a n s w ith m o re th a n tw o th o u s a n d c r a c k S p a n is h tro o p s a n d m u c h c e re m o n ia l c a n n o n fire. F r e n c h o p p o sitio n , n e v e r u n a n im o u s, d is in te g ra te d u n d e r th is so ld ie rly sh o w o f firm n e ss. G o v e r n o r O ’R e illy (o n e o f s e v e r a l ta le n te d C a th o lic C e lts in th e s e r v ic e o f C a th o lic S p a in ) q u ic k ly a rre s te d a d o z e n o f th e r e v o lt’s rin g le a d e rs . H e s e n t six to p riso n a n d fiv e to a firin g s q u a d , th u s e a r n in g h im s e lf th e n ic k n a m e “ B lo o d y O ’R e illy .” T h e r e w o u ld b e n o C r e o le r e p u b lic , o n ly th e su b s id in g rip p le s o f r e v o lt-th a t-n e v e r-b e c a m e -re v o lu tio n , tion s fo r th e n e a r fu tu re .

and

ad u m b ra

C h o is e u l w e n t b a c k to b u ild in g th e F r e n c h n a v y a n d la y in g a w a y a rm s fo r th e n e x t w a r w ith E n g la n d . T h e n , in 17 7 0 , L o u is X V s a c k e d him . It w a s a risk e v e r y p u b lic se rv a n t, r e g a r d le s s o f his a b ilitie s or a c c o m p lis h m e n ts , to o k u n d e r L o u is th e E ffe te , w h e n s h a d o w y c liq u e s o f c o u rte s a n s , b a n k e rs , a n d o p p o rtu n ists c o n tro lle d th e c h a n g e a b le d e s tin ie s o f F r a n c e . H is s u c c e s s o r, C h a r le s G r a v ie r , C o m te d e V e r g e n n e s , w a s a m a n le ss in c lin e d to w a r th a n

C h o is e u l b u t o n e

who

s h a r e d h is a n g lo p h o b ia .

F r a n c e w o u ld n e v e r p r o s p e r as lo n g as E n g la n d th riv e d . S o h e c o n tin u e d in C h o is e u l’ s ta c tic s o f s e n d in g a g e n ts in to E n g lis h c o lo n ie s to stir u p tro u b le w h ile a t th e s a m e tim e iso la tin g E n g la n d fro m E u r o p e th ro u g h a se rie s o f c a r e fu lly c ra fte d a llia n c e s . V e r-

220

BY DUPLESSIS; MUSEE DE VERSAILLES

No man for his revolutionary time, Louis X V I reluctantly agreed to aid the American rebels against mutual enem y England.

g e n n e s w a s a lso o f a m in d w ith C h o is e u l th a t E n g la n d , b y h a v in g a c c e p t e d C a n a d a a n d la n d s e a s t o f th e M iss is sip p p i in th e s e ttle Â m e n t o f th e S e v e n Y e a r s â&#x20AC;&#x2122; W a r, h a d w a lk e d in to a tra p . L e t th e m d ilu te th e ir stre n g th a d m in is te rin g th e ir n e w la n d s w h ile th e ir o w n s u b je c ts w e r e a id e d in th e ir tre a s o n o u s a c tiv itie s. L o u is X V d e p a r t e d h is e a r th ly p la y g ro u n d in 1 7 7 4 , a n d F r a n c e a n d V e r g e n n e s in h e rite d L o u is X V I , L o u is th e P a th e tic , ru m o re d to b e im p o te n t in b o d y , s u s p e c te d o f b e in g th e sa m e in m in d , w h o s e u n k in g ly v irtu e w a s to b e lie v e th a t w a r w a s ip so fa c to w ro n g . V e r g e n n e s h im s e lf w a s no h a w k , b u t h is h a tre d o f E n g la n d w a s to o d e e p to le t h im p a s s u p th e c h a n c e to w o u n d th e e n e m y

221

T H E F A IL U R E O F F R A N C E

a c ro ss th e E n g lis h C h a n n e l. T h r o u g h C a r o n d e B e a u m a r c h a is a n d h is c o m p a n y o f R o d e r iq u e H o rta lez e t C ie, h e b e g a n in 1 7 7 6 to s e n d arm s a n d m a te rie l to th e tra n s a tla n tic in su rre c tio n ists u n d e r a tr a n s p a r e n t c lo a k o f n e u tra lity . L o u is X V I h a d b a lk e d at first. H e d id n o t th in k a n y k in g sh o u ld b e e n c o u r a g in g th e r a b b le o f a fe llo w m o n a rc h a g a in s t its G o d -a n o in te d m a ste r. H e w a s n ’t so d u ll th a t h e d id n ’t fe e l th e r e v o lu tio n a r y tre m o rs o n h is o w n h o m e turf. B u t w h e n E n g la n d sta rte d in te rfe rin g w ith F r e n c h - A m e r ic a n sh ip p in g , e v e n th e la st L o u is g a v e in. F r a n c e in itia lly fe a r e d th a t its e x p o rt o f a rm s a n d “ v o lu n te e r o ffic e rs” w o u ld c o m e to n a u g h t, fo r th e first y e a r o f w a r b e c a m e a c h ro n ic le o f A m e r ic a n d e fe a ts . T h e n , in O c to b e r o f 1 7 7 7 , G e n . J o h n B u r g o y n e , on a c a m p a ig n d o w n fro m C a n a d a , s u r r e n d e r e d his a rm y o f s e v e n th o u s a n d to th e A m e r ic a n s a t S a r a to g a . It w a s r e c o g n iz e d in F r a n c e a s a tu rn in g p o in t, a tim e fo r th e fle u r-d e -ly s to m a k e its re a l fe e lin g s k n o w n to th e w o rld , if a n y n a tio n c o u ld p o s s ib ly still b e in th e d ark . T w o tre a tie s w ith th e A m e ric a n s , th e T r e a t y o f A llia n c e a n d th e T r e a t y o f A m ity a n d C o m m e r c e , w e r e s ig n e d b y L o u is X V I o n F e b r u a r y 6, 17 7 8 . A rtic le V I o f th e A llia n c e sa id F r a n c e w o u ld a s s e rt n o c la im on a n y o f h e r fo rm e r territo ries e a s t o f th e M iss is sip p i c o n q u e r e d b y th e A m e r ic a n s in th e c o u rse o f th e w ar. It w a s a cu rio u s c o n c e s s io n fo r a w o rld p o w e r to g ra n t a n in fa n t re p u b lic w h o s e p ro s p e c ts fo r m a k in g it o u t o f th e c ra d le w e re no b e tte r th a n e v e n . O f c o u rse , sig n in g a tr e a ty a n d a b id in g b y it a re tw o q u ite d iffe re n t th in g s. Y e t e v e n as a p a p e r a g r e e m e n t, it sa y s m u c h a b o u t F r e n c h th in k in g at th e tim e. A s r e v e a lin g w a s th e c o lla p s e o f a n A m e r ic a n p la n in 17 7 8 fo r a jo in t in v a s io n o f C a n a d a . T h e A m e r ic a n s m u st h a v e h a d re s e rv a tio n s a b o u t in v itin g e rstw h ile

e n e m y F r a n c e b a c k o n to th e N o rth

A m e r ic a n c o n tin e n t. B u t th e F r e n c h w e r e m o re th a n c o n te n t to le t C a n a d a re m a in E n g lish ; th a t w a y , if th e A m e r ic a n s w e r e s u c c e s s fu l in w in n in g th e ir in d e p e n d e n c e , th e re w o u ld b e tw o m u tu a lly u n fr ie n d ly E n g lis h -s p e a k in g n a tio n s tie d to th e soil o f N o rth A m e r ic a . A rm ie s w o u ld h a v e to b e sta tio n e d th e re , a rm ie s th a t c o u ld n o t b e d e p lo y e d e ls e w h e re , sa y , in E u r o p e . A s for L o u is ia n a , th e fo rm e r F r e n c h W e st, th e re is no in d ic a tio n th a t V e r g e n n e s e v e r s c r a tc h e d h is w ig o v e r it. T h a t w a s a w a g e r lo st in

222

L O O S E C H I P IN T H E IM P E R I A L G A M E

th e la s t g a m e , d o n e w ith , or a lm o st. A q u a rte r o f a c e n tu r y off, F r a n c e w o u ld r e c o u p th e a m o rp h o u s te rrito ry a n d h o ld it fo r a b r ie f tw o y e a r s , o n ly to h a z a r d it as a ch ip in a n o th e r im p e ria l g a m e , w h o s e p la y e r s in c lu d e d T h o m a s J e ffe r s o n a n d N a p o le o n B o n a p a r te .

N THE HISTORY OF THE AMERICAN WEST no p e o p le d id SO m u c h fo r so little re tu rn a s th e F r e n c h . T h e y w e r e n e v e r

m a n y , b u t th ro u g h th e ir d a rin g a n d so m e tim e v isio n t h e y m a n a g e d to m a k e th e fa ilu re o f F r a n c e o n e o f h e ro ic d im en sio n ; th r o u g h th e m th e p ro m ise h a d b e e n o f e v e r y th in g , y e t th e a d d itio n c a m e u p n e x t to n o th in g . W h y ? T h e p ro b le m w a s m a d e e p ig ra m b y J o h n Q u in c y A d a m s w h e n h e sa id th a t F r a n c e “ m a y w e ll c o n q u e r c o lo n ie s b u t h o w c a n s h e p o s s ib ly k e e p th e m ? ” T h e re so lu tio n is p e r h a p s to b e fo u n d in th e F r e n c h c h a ra c te r. T h e r e w a s a ro m a n tic, a lm o st m e s s ia n ic fla v o r to F r e n c h c o lo n iz a tio n w o rld -w id e . W h ile th e n a tio n o f lig h t d id n o t r e a lly try to b rin g th a t lig h t to N o rth A m e r i c a ’s p ea u x -ro u g es (as w a s th e c a s e w ith m o st o f h e r o th e r c o lo n ia l

w a rd s),

sh e

n e v e r th e le s s

em b raced

th e m

fra te rn a lly .

H u m a n is m te m p e r e d m a n y a n o fficia l d e cisio n . T h e r e w a s a lso a stro n g e le m e n t o f in te lle c tu a l c u rio s ity in th e F r e n c h N e w

W o rld e x p e r ie n c e . T h e h u n g e r to k n o w for

k n o w le d g e ’s s a k e a lo n e sh o w s th ro u g h th e jo u r n a ls a n d le tte rs o f in d iv id u a l F r e n c h m a n w h o h a d c o m e a n d g o n e b a c k h o m e . T h e id e a o f th e w e s te r n s e a b ro u g h t th e sc h o la rly C h a r le v o ix to th e M is s is s ip p i V a lle y on a fa c t-fin d in g m issio n in 172 0 . O th e r le a r n e d g e n tle m e n c a m e to c a ta lo g th e flo ra a n d fa u n a o f th e n e w la n d s, e v e n to fin d th e re , th e y h o p e d , a m e d ic in a l c u re fo r sy p h ilis. (It w a s b e lie v e d th e n , as it still is b y so m e , th a t th e u n s p e a k a b le p o x w a s a d is e a s e o f N e w W o rld origin; th e re fo re , G od

in h is ra tio n a l w isd o m w o u ld g ro w its c u re th e r e , too.)

E x o tic

s e e d s a n d c u ttin g s w e r e c o lle c te d a n d ta k e n b a c k to

F r e n c h g a r d e n s , w ith m agnolia grandiflora a p o p u la r o rn a m e n ta l. T h is w a s all v e r y w e ll a n d p ra is e w o rth y , b u t in th e m o re d o w n -to -e a rth

d e te rm in a n ts

o f c o lo n ia l

su ccess,

F ran ce

w as

d e fic ie n t. H e r m e r c a n tile m e n g a v e u p o n C a n a d a a s a p a y in g

223

T H E F A IL U R E O F F R A N C E

p ro p o sitio n too so o n , a n d L o u is ia n a n e v e r g o t th e in v e s tm e n t m o n ie s e v e n

so m e F r e n c h m e n th o u g h t it d e s e r v e d . W h e r e a s

B ritish c a p ita l w a s d a rin g , to b e risk e d o n a n o v e r s e a s v e n tu r e th a t m ig h t b rin g h a n d s o m e re tu rn s, F r e n c h m o n e y s ta y e d h o m e , in th e h a n d s o f c o n s e r v a tiv e m e n lo o k in g fo r su re th in g s a t th e P a r is B o u r s e . W h e r e m o n e y g o e s, so d o p e o p le . T h e r e is a s a y in g th a t F r e n c h m e n d o n o t e m ig ra te , a t le a s t in a n y n u m b e rs , b e c a u s e m o st a lr e a d y b e lie v e th e y a re liv in g in th e b e s t o f all p o s s ib le w o rld s. E n g la n d h a d p o p u la te d h e r c o lo n ie s w ith re lig io u s d is s e n te rs s e e k in g to start n e w

liv e s a n d w ith a m b itio u s y o u n g e r so n s

d riv e n fro m h o m e b y th e la w s o f p rim o g e n itu re . F r a n c e h a d c o n s c io u s ly e x c lu d e d h e r H u g u e n o t m in o rity fro m se ttlin g in N o rth A m e r ic a , a n d m a n y F r e n c h m e n w h o d id a rriv e s a w th e ir su rro u n d in g s as te m p o r a r y — a p la c e to m a k e a p ile (n o ta b ly in th e e p h e m e r a l fu r tra d e ) b e fo r e h e a d in g b a c k h o m e to liv e o u t th e ir y e a r s in th e c e n te r o f th e c iv iliz e d w o rld . In 176 0 th e r e w e r e tw ic e as m a n y E n g lis h s u b je c ts in th e c o lo n y o f N e w Y o r k as th e re w e r e F r e n c h s u b je c ts in C a n a d a a n d L o u is ia n a c o m b in e d . T h e o n e -s id e d o u tc o m e o f th e S e v e n Y e a r s ’ W a r in N o rth A m e r ic a d id n o t v io la te th e la w s o f p r o b a b ility . B u t th e s e e m in g c a s u a ln e s s w ith w h ic h F r a n c e fo r fe ite d h e r v a s t cla im s th e re a t th e P a r is tr e a ty ta b le b e g s fu rth e r e x p la n a tio n . W h e r e in su la r E n g la n d lo o k e d o u t on th e w o rld at th e e n d

o f h e r s e a la n e s, c o n tin e n ta l F r a n c e a lw a y s lo o k e d

first to h e r te rre s tria l b a c k s id e , to E u r o p e , w h e r e h e r fu tu re a n d h e r fo rtu n e s a lw a y s c o n v e r g e d . F o r e v e r e n m e s h e d in its B y z a n tin e p o litics, th e le a s t im p e ria l o f th e th re e im p e ria l riva ls w o rried m o st a b o u t w h a t w a s h a p p e n in g in G e r m a n y or A u s tria or R u s s ia or Ita ly . W h e n th e c h ip s w e r e d o w n , h e r p w n c o n tin e n t c a m e first. In th e tra n s-M ississip p i W e s t th e r e w e r e n o m o re th a n a fe w th o u s a n d F r e n c h m e n w h o fo u n d th e m s e lv e s d is o w n e d d u rin g th e re ig n o f L o u is X V . S o m e fe lt b e tr a y e d a n d so m e h a d v o ic e d th e ir b itte rn e s s a n d lo n g e d fo r a re tu rn o f w h a t w e r e n o t e x a c tly th e g o o d o ld d a y s . S till o th e rs m u st h a v e ta k e n th e ir a b a n d o n m e n t lig h tly , if it tro u b le d th e m a t all. A m o n g th e m w e r e m e n six g e n e ra tio n s r e m o v e d fro m th e F r a n c e o f th e ir fo re fa th e rs .

224

L O O S E C H I P IN T H E IM P E R I A L G A M E

T h e y w e r e th e cu ttin g e d g e o f F r e n c h m e n m o v in g W e st: th o s e w h o h a d “ g o n e n a t iv e ” ; th o s e w h o h a d ta k e n s q u a w s ; th o s e w h o p a in te d th e ir b o d ie s lik e th e s a v a g e s w ith w h o m th e y d ra n k and

danced

and

la u g h e d

a ro u n d

e v e n in g

c a m p fire s

in th e

w ild e r n e s s th a t o w n e d th e m ; th o s e w h o h a d a d o p te d th e I n d ia n s ’ a ttitu d e s a n d b lu s te r e d a n d b e llo w e d a n d w h o o p e d w h e n t h e y w e n t ra id in g . G e n e a lo g ic a lly th e y w e r e F r e n c h m e n , b u t t h e y w e r e n o t o f F r a n c e , th e F r a n c e o f th e sa lo n s w h e re b rittle w its c r a fte d m ots ju stes th a t w o u ld liv e a y e a r in lite ra ry circle s, th e F r a n c e o f y o u n g s c h e m e rs a n d fo p s a b s o r b e d in b o u d o ir g a lla n trie s

and

fo rtu n e -h u n tin g ,

th e

F r a n c e - c e n te r e d

F ran ce

w h e r e c y n ic a l p ra c titio n e rs o f th e e x p e d ie n t v ie d w ith o n e a n o th e r fo r so c ia l or p o litica l su rv iv a l. T h e y w e re no lo n g e r e m is sa rie s

fro m

F ran ce,

th e

to r c h b e a r e r o f e n lig h te n e d

E u rop e.

T h e y h a d fo u n d th e ir h o m e in th e tra n s-M ississip p i sh a d o w la n d s

and

had

becom e

th e

first w e s te rn e rs ,

s le e p in g u n d e r

stars w h o s e lig h t c o u ld n o t h a v e s e e m e d m o re d ista n t or irre le v a n t th a n th e g litter o f V e r s a ille s .

225

PART IV: RESURGENT SI»AI\

'M m

**•

(Septem ber 17, 1776. Ceremony was the order of that late-summer day as nearly a hundred happy souls assembled near the peninsula’s white cliff, hard by the bay and its guardian presidio, which were to be formally possessed, blessed, and named with all possible Spanish punc tilio after San Francisco de Asis, founder of the order of the four attendant priests. The day was not randomly chosen. It had been selected, as the senior padre Fray Francisco Palou later wrote, because it was the day “our Mother Church celebrates the impression of the stigmata of our Seraphic Father San Francisco.” Nor was new ground this minute being broken. In the usual deliberate Spanish fashion, the hilly land was fa miliar before the formalities were arranged. For seven years Spain had known by exploration (six separate times by land and once by water) of this remarkable inlet in the north Pacific. For more than two months soldiers and settlers and priests had been living permanently on the muscular, windswept arm of earth that nearly closed the continent to the insistent Pacific chop. In June, Lt. Don Jose Joaquin Moraga had led the men, women, and children out of Monterey: one sergeant, two corporals, and ten soldiers, all with their wives, plus seven families of Sonoran settlers and a handful of servants and neophytes, who herded more than two hundred head of cattle and horses that would sustain the residents and the two mission aries, Fathers Palou and Pedro Benito Cambon. It had been a slow march north —ten days, in consideration of the children and the women carry ing children unborn. At last, on June 27, they stopped near a lagoon named for Nuestra Senora de los Dolores, where they immediately built a brush shelter in which to say Mass. Hesitant, inoffensive Indians ap proached them with gifts of seeds and mussels, accepting in exchange beads and food but refusing milk. With growing impatience the new comers waited for the support vessel that Moraga had watched put out from Monterey. Three pack trains had to be sent back to California’s capital for food and warm clothes to protect them from the chill weather and annoying winds. To ease their worry, the officers busied themselves

228

exploring while the settlers and soldiers set to work building huts and cutting small trees for more permanent dwellings. On August 18 their ship had at last come in, nearly two months de layed by strong winds that had driven it south to the latitude of San Diego before it found the north in its sheets again. When the packet San Carlos finally dropped anchor off the white cliff, its officers and crewmen came ashore to help lay out and construct the royal buildings, the settlers’ houses, and the church of the padres. And now one month later, all was in readiness for the dedication —the presidio this day, the mission later. After Mass, bells rang and voices sang the “Te Deum.” Cannons and muskets roared, and the swivel guns of the San Carlos bobbing in the bay echoed the salute. The noise, doubt lessly cheering to the Spaniards’ ears, was terrifying to the Indians who had come to watch. They scattered like the seabirds of the nearby marshes and would not be seen in San Francisco again for many days. The outpost at the Golden Gate was now Spanish, with Spanish can non guarding the entrance to what Father Pedro Font had earlier de scribed as a “marvel of nature [that] might well be called the harbor of harbors.” “Indeed,” Font added, reading the future, “although in my travels I saw very good sites and beautiful country, I saw none which pleased me so much as this. And I think that if it could be settled like Europe there would not be anything more beautiful in all the world, for it has the best advantages for founding in it a most beautiful city.” While westward-bound colonists not yet become Americans were spill ing down the Ohio River, through the inland valleys, and around Florida by sea, bound for the Mississippi, Spain was on the move again, covering even greater ground in the trans-Mississippi West that was now hers and hers alone. Why now, after nearly two centuries of virtual stasis, had the New World’s largest colonial landholder chosen to expand its already unmanageable borders? Certainly the time was right. All Europe, and some of its colonies, knew a quickening of life, felt the prod of new ideas, smelled change in the wind. Spain was a part of Europe —now more so than she had been since the sixteenth-century reign of Philip II, when she was the first of nations. After Philip, through a succession of lackluster Hapsburg rulers, the Iberian defender of conservative Catholicism had rested on its laurels, shielding itself from the heresies and realities beyond the Pyrenees. The price of this privacy was paralysis, and no aspect of life escaped the gen eral atrophy. Ideas were shut out by the Spanish Church lest they corrupt a people who already had their world in scholastic order. The far-fromabsolute monarchs shared administrative power with a seemingly end less number of overlapping councils and commissions, which scorned dissent and made inertia a national virtue. The economy grew sick and

229

stagnant through a system that was medieval, agrarian, pre-capitalist; for all its wealthy colonies, most of the bullion flowing into Madrid flowed right out again to buy what Spain had not bothered to learn how to make at home. The sprawling empire won by bold conquistadores might still be intact, but behind the facade of gilt and grandeur Spain had become an ailing second-class power. Spain awoke slowly from its century-plus of Hapsburg sleep when a Bourbon line took the throne in 1700, and through the reigns of Philip V and Ferdinand VI, French influence began to erode the legacies of igno rance, lethargy, and poverty. Political regalistas were successful in break ing the stranglehold the Spanish Church had on the Spanish Crown. A governmental reorganization that introduced the French system of de partmental ministers and intendants was somewhat less successful in bucking the reactionary boards and juntas whose greatest lack was ini tiative. There were crackdowns on the corrupt tax collectors, and lands were distributed to some peasants among the many who remained in thrall to feudal landlords. Reform found its greatest Bourbon champion in Carlos III, who came to the Spanish throne in 1759 after an instructive term as the King of Naples and Sicily. Carlos was an energetic, resourceful, and progressive man who meant to put Spain on the maps again —the New World’s as well as Europe’s —by dragging his kicking and scratching charge right into the eighteenth century. He wanted social welfare at home and respect abroad, and to get them, he further stripped the Church and the councils and the landowners of privileges and powers. Under his enlightened rule, in dividualism and speculative thought reappeared after a long absence in Spanish life. There also appeared a small middle class and the beginnings of industrialization. Of all the gifts of the gangly, homely Bourbon mon arch, none was greater than that of drawing talented and able men into his service. At the same time America had men like Franklin, Jefferson, Washington, and Hamilton, Spain had Pedro de Bolea, Count Aranda; Count Pedro Campomanes; Joseph Monino, the Count Floridablanca; and an Italian advisor to the king and minister of foreign affairs, the Marques de Grimaldi. They, too, were men of stature and action. But as their Ameri can contemporaries became radicals opposed to their king, the Spaniards remained conservatives who borrowed some liberal French ideas to re form existing institutions at the behest of their king. It was Carlos III and his enlightened traditionalists who directed the resurgence of Spain, a resurgence that crossed the Atlantic and was yet to leave its high-water mark on the American West.

230

Chapter 12

Tlie Pacific Defense O c c u p y in g A

lta

C a l i f o r n i a w a s n o t u n h e a r d o f b e fo re 176 9 .

T h e n o tio n h a d b e e n e n te r ta in e d o ff a n d on fo r m o re th a n tw o h u n d r e d y e a r s b e fo re F a th e r J u n ip e ro S e r r a sa id his first M a s s in S a n D ie g o . B u t th e d e s ire to a b so rb th e u p p e r la n d s n e v e r e x c e e d e d th e tro u b le o f b a ttlin g fru stra tin g w in d s a n d c u rren ts th a t m a d e th e n o rth w e ste rn c o a s t d ifficu lt to r e a c h b y se a , or o f s u b d u in g th e In d ia n - m e n a c e d a rid e x p a n s e o f S o n o ra th a t sto o d as a n o b s ta c le to s u p p ly in g it b y la n d . U n d e r C a rlo s III, d e sire overcam e

th e e le m e n ts . S p a in ’s p o o r u n d e r m a n n e d n o rth e rn

te rrito rie s, a lr e a d y m o re th a n d o u b le d in siz e b y r e c e ip t o f th e F r e n c h W e s t in 1 7 6 3 , w e re sh o rtly to b e e n la r g e d e v e n m o re. T h e e x p a n s io n w a s n o t as b lin d ly fo o lish as it m a y a p p e a r. N e ith e r w a s it a g lo rio u s o u tb u rst o f e x p lo ra to ry fe rv o r to e q u a l th e c o n q u e s ts a n d entradas o f th e six te e n th c e n tu ry . R a th e r , it w a s

c o n s e r v a tiv e ly m o tiv a te d , tru e to th e sa m e o b se ss io n

w ith d e fe n s e th a t h a d c a u s e d S p a in to s ta y in N e w M e x ic o , to o c c u p y a n d r e o c c u p y T e x a s , e v e n to a c c e p t L o u is ia n a . W h a t h a d to b e d e fe n d e d w e r e th e m in e s o f M e x ic o , a n d in th e S p a n ish w a y o f th in k in g , th e m o re a d v a n c e d y o u r b u ffe rs , b a rrie rs, b a s tio n s , a n d b u lw a rk s , th e b e tte r. A lo n g w ith th e n a tio n a l r e a w a k e n in g c a m e a n o th e r s e iz u re o f th e n a tio n a l p a ra n o ia . T h e la te s t p e r s e c u to r w a s d iv in e d to b e R u s s ia , w ith w h o m C a r lo s I I I h a d r e n e w e d d ip lo m a tic r e la tio n s in 176 0 a fte r a tw e n ty - y e a r b r e a c h . A lm o s t im m e d ia te ly in te llig e n c e

re p o rts

sta rte d

a rriv in g in M a d rid o f s te p p e d -u p

R u s s ia n a c tiv ity in th e n o rth P a c ific . A fte r 176 2 a n d th e a c c e s sio n o f E m p r e s s C a th e r in e II, th e B e a r w a s e v e n m o re re stle ss

231

The San Carlos sails from La Paz in 1769. F ew aboard would survive the ravages o f scurvy and stagger ashore in San Diego.

a n d d e te r m in e d to se n d m a rin e rs to th a t m y s te rio u s w e s te r n c o a s t o f N o rth A m e r ic a w h e r e S p a in h a d c la im s b y rig h t o f p r e v io u s d is c o v e r y a n d b y th e T r e a t y o f T o rd e s illa s . It w a s all v e r y u n s e ttlin g , as w a s th e fe a r th a t d y n a m ic E n g la n d — n o w p o is e d a r iv e r ’s b r e a d th a w a y on th e e a s t b a n k o f th e M ississip p i, d o in g G o d -k n e w -w h a t u p H u d s o n B a y w a y , a n d s u s p ic io u s ly a c tiv e in P a c ific w a te rs — w a s a b o u t to g ra b a g a in . A la rm ists se ld o m h a d th e ir w a y in th e in n e r c o u n c ils o f S p a n ish stra te g y . G r a n te d , th e in te n tio n s o f o th e r n a tio n s w e r e in v a r ia b ly b e g in

a v a ric io u s

w ith

and

irre v e re n t,

sc ru p u lo u s in v e s tig a tio n

y e t a n y resp o n se and

never be

sh o u ld

ra sh . B u t

in th e c a s e o f A lta C a lifo rn ia , it was ra sh . M o r e o v e r , a n d th e m o re a m a z in g , th e d e c is io n to o c c u p y ra th e r th a n r e c o n n o ite r s e e m s to h a v e b e e n th e w h im (or c a ll it visio n ) o f o n e m a n , w ith o u t th e p rio r a p p r o v a l o f a n y c o u n c il or b o a rd . J u st as o ld S p a in u n d e r C a rlo s h a d its n e w b lo o d , so d id N e w S p a in , a n d m u c h th a t w a s n e w w a s e m b o d ie d in th e m a n C a rlo s se n t to M e x ic o in 17 6 5 as h is v is ita d o r-g e n e ra l. J o s e d e G a lv e z w a s an A n d a lu s ia n o f m o d e s t lin e a g e w h o b y d in t o f h is m in d ,

232

BY WALTER FRANCIS; BANCROFT LIBRARY, UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA, BERKELEY

T H E P A C IF IC D E F E N S E

in d u stry , a n d a w ise m a rria g e ro se fro m s h e p h e r d to b u r e a u c r a t a n d th e h ig h e s te e m o f his k in g. H e w a s se n t to M e x ic o w ith e x tra o rd in a ry p o w e rs , a b o v e th o s e

o f th e v ic e r o y , his m a jo r

re s p o n s ib ility b e in g to b rin g fisc a l re fo rm to a c o lo n y rife w ith p o c k e t-lin e rs a n d th e r e b y in c r e a s e th e ro y a l r e v e n u e . In this h e s u c c e e d e d v e r y w e ll, b y e s ta b lis h in g a to b a c c o m o n o p o ly , re v is in g ta x p r o c e d u r e s , a n d c ra c k in g d o w n o n c u sto m s -h o u se cro o k s. A n a rro g a n t, v o la tile , y e t e ffe c tiv e m a n , h e d id n â&#x20AC;&#x2122;t o p e r a te b y c a llin g to g e th e r ju n ta s to d e b a te h is p la n s; m e m b e rs ru b b e rs ta m p e d (T h e re

th e m w ere

or th e y sto o d in d a n g e r o f lo sin g th e ir liv e s. a m p le g o ry e x a m p le s a m o n g re b e llio u s In d ia n s

w h o h a d o p p o s e d G a lv e z ; h e w a s w o n t to go to c h u rc h to p r a y to th e V ir g in fo r g u id a n c e o n w h a t to d o w ith th e m isc re a n ts a n d th e n c o m e o u t a n d o rd e r th e m to b e h a n g e d .) G a lv e z w a s n o t c o n te n t m e r e ly to sh o w a q u ic k p ro fit on th e r o y a l b o o k s, h o w e v e r . H e h a d a fa sc in a tio n w ith th e e m p ty a n d

Brilliant, ruthless, and for a time quite mad, Jose de Galvez was architect o f the Spanish occupation o f Alta California.

233

R E S U R G E N T S P A IN

th r e a te n e d

n o rth w e s t

c a lle d

C a lifo rn ia ,

w h ic h ,

b e lie v e d ,

o u g h t to b e m a d e s a fe fo r h is c o u n try a n d lie g e , a n d m in e d o f th e p r e c io u s m e ta ls th a t ru m o r a n d le g e n d sa id w e r e th e m a tc h o f M e x ic o ’s. H is a u th o rity n e v e r e x te n d e d to o rd e rin g its o c c u p a tio n ,

b u t w h e re

G a lv e z ’s p r e s c r ib e d

p o w e rs e n d e d , his

w illfu ln e s s b e g a n , a n d fe w in N e w S p a in h a d th e te m e r ity to cro ss th e k in g ’ s m a n . O n e w h o la c k e d b a c k b o n e w a s th e n e w v ic e r o y , C a r lo s F r a n c is c o , th e M a r q u e s d e C ro ix , w h o a rriv e d in M e x ic o C ity in 17 6 6 a n d w a s so o n in th e v is ita d o r ’ s p o c k e t. In 176 8 w o rd r e a c h e d G a lv e z o u t o f S a in t P e te r s b u r g b y w a y o f M a d rid a n d M e x ic o C ity th a t th e M u s c o v ite s w e r e h e a d in g so u th a lo n g th e

N o rth A m e r ic a n

m a in la n d . In th e c o m m u n ic a tio n ,

M in iste r o f S ta te G rim a ld i a s k e d th a t p r e c a u tio n s b e ta k e n to p ro te c t S p a n is h in te re s ts a g a in s t R u s s ia n e n c r o a c h m e n t. B u t G a lv e z a n d C ro ix w e r e a h e a d o f th e h o m e o ffice . In J a n u a r y o f th a t y e a r G a lv e z h a d m u s c le d a lo c a l ju n t a (in c lu d in g th e v ic e r o y , th e a rc h b is h o p , a n d th e ju d g e s o f th e A u d en cia o f G u a d a la ja r a ) into e n tru stin g h im w ith m e e tin g th e R u s s ia n th re a t. W h e n th e m in iste r’s le tte r w a s fo r w a r d e d to G a lv e z in th e sp rin g , h e w a s a l r e a d y o n h is w a y to M e x ic o ’s w e s t c o a s t to c o n s tru c t a p o rt a n d s h ip y a rd a t S a n B ia s th a t w o u ld s u p p ly S o n o ra , w h e r e h e h a d o rd e re d C o l. D o m in g o E liz o n d o to c o n d u c t a m a s s iv e c a m p a ig n a g a in s t re b e llio u s S e ri a n d P im a In d ia n s in th e v ic in ity o f C e rro P rie to . S a n B ia s w o u ld a lso s e r v e th e lo g is tic a l n e e d s o f B a ja C a lifo rn ia , o c c u p ie d fo r m o re th a n s e v e n ty y e a r s , a n d A lta C a li fo rn ia, a v o id h e in te n d e d to fill w ith le a th e r - ja c k e te d S p a n is h so ld ie rs a n d le a th e r - s a n d a le d S p a n is h p a d re s . In a c k n o w le d g in g r e c e ip t o f th e le tte r, G a lv e z w ro te to C ro ix , m e n tio n in g th a t th e tw o o f th e m h a d a lr e a d y h a d “ m a n y c o n v e rs a tio n s a n d r e fle c tion s . . . c o n c e rn in g

th e

s u p r e m e im p o rta n c e

and

u tility o f

ta k in g p o s s e s s io n o f th e p o rt o f M o n te r e y .” A n d , b e n d in g th e w o rd s o f G rim a ld i a n d C ro ix to su it h im se lf, G a lv e z sa id h e w o u ld “ ta k e s u c h m e a s u r e s as I d e e m fittin g for r e a c h in g th a t p la c e b y la n d or s e a .” N o t sin c e th e d a y s o f C o r te s h a d N e w S p a in k n o w n a m o re e n e rg e tic a n d d e c is iv e ad m in istrato r. G a lv e z c a ta p u lte d h im s e lf in to a ctio n . H e first p e r s o n a lly s u p e r v is e d th e w o rk in th e s te a m y c o a s ta l sw a m p s o f S a n B ia s a n d th e n , in m id su m m e r o f 176 8 ,

234

T H E P A C IF IC D E F E N S E

p r o c e e d e d to L o w e r C a lifo rn ia to re fo rm lo c a l g o v e r n m e n t a n d m in in g a n d m issio n o p e ra tio n s, a n d to o r g a n iz e th e e x p e d itio n s th a t w e r e to s e iz e A lta C a lifo rn ia . In J a n u a r y o f 176 9 , G a lv e z w a tc h e d as th e tw o -h u n d re d -to n San Carlos, o rig in a lly e a rm a rk e d fo r S o n o ra n s e r v ic e b u t c a r e e n e d fo r P a c ific w a te rs, s a ile d o u t o f L a P a z fo r S a n D ie g o . O n F e b r u a r y 15 a r e p a ire d San A ntonio d e p a r te d in th e w a k e o f th e San Carlos, fo llo w e d in J u n e b y th e S a n J ose, w h ic h n e v e r m a d e it to C a b r illo ’ s p o rt b u t w a s sw a llo w e d u p b y th e v a s t b lu e o c e a n c a lle d p e a c e fu l. M e a n w h ile , tw o s e p a r a te la n d p a rtie s sta rte d n o rth u p th e arid le g o f B a ja C a lifo rn ia , ta k in g fro m th e p o o r fo rm e r J e s u it m is sio n s a ll th e su p p lie s th e y n e e d e d to g e t th e m s a fe ly b e y o n d w h a t d ia rist F r a y J u a n C r e s p i c a lle d “ th e b o rd e rs o f h e a th e n d o m .” G a lv e z w a s n o t p r e s e n t to s e e th e m o ff a n d w ish th e m w e ll. H e h a d m a d e c le a r w h a t w a s e x p e c te d o f th e m : C a lifo rn ia w a s to b e ta k e n , e s p e c ia lly M o n te r e y , th a t s p a c io u s “ fin e h a r b o r ” so g lo w in g ly d e s c r ib e d b y S e b a s tia n V iz c a in o a fte r his v o y a g e o f 1 6 0 2 03. F o r h is p a rt, G a lv e z th e v isita d o r h a d p re ss in g b u s in e s s e ls e w h e r e — in S o n o ra , so n e c e s s a r y to h is m o re g ra n d io se p la n fo r a s e p a r a te n o rth e rn c o m m a n d , w h e re th e c a m p a ig n h e h a d o rd e re d a g a in s t th e In d ia n s w a s fo u n d e rin g . T ir e le s s a n d fo r c ib le as h e w a s, G a lv e z h a d s tra y e d b e y o n d his c o m p a s s . T h e h it-a n d -ru n a tta c k s o f A p a c h e s a n d S e ris th a t h a d k e p t S o n o r a b le e d in g fo r d e c a d e s w e r e n o t to b e c o u n te re d w ith c o n v e n tio n a l m ilita ry ta c tic s, as th e e v e r -c o n fid e n t G a lv e z d is c o v e r e d a fte r a s s u m in g p e r s o n a l c o m m a n d in M a y . H is o rd e a l o f fa ilu re s a n d fru stra tio n s s n a p p e d a ta u t m in d , a n d b y O c to b e r o f 1 7 6 9 h e h a d b e c o m e m e g a lo m a n ia c a l to a d e g r e e e m b a rra s sin g to h is a id e s . A t v a rio u s tim e s h e im a g in e d h im s e lf th e k in g o f P r u s s ia , C h a r le s X I I o f S w e d e n , M o n te z u m a , S a in t J o s e p h . . . even

G od

A lm ig h ty . A u th o rita ria n

even

in his m a d n e s s , h e

o r d e r e d th e tr e a s u r y o p e n e d to th e c o m m o n so ld ie rs so th e y c o u ld h a v e w h a t t h e y w a n te d . H e a lso h a d a so lu tio n to h is In d ia n p ro b le m : six h u n d r e d G u a te m a la n a p e s w e r e to b e im p o rte d , d r e s s e d in u n ifo rm s, a n d m a d e to ru n a ro u n d th e C e r r o P rie to , flu s h in g th e te rrifie d re d s k in s into th e o p e n . T h e r e w e r e o th e r w o n d e r s to b e w o r k e d a t h is b id d in g , in c lu d in g th e c o n stru c tio n o f a c a n a l fro m M e x ic o C ity to G u a y m a s — no m e a n fe a t, g iv e n th e

235

R E S U R G E N T S P A IN

g ra d ie n t. G a lv e z ’ s n o n p lu s s e d s u b o rd in a te s c o v e r e d fo r h im un til h e r e g a in e d his s e n s e s in th e sp rin g o f 17 7 0 . It is te m p tin g to a r g u e th a t e v e n a sta rk -ra v in g -m a d G a lv e z w a s a n im p r o v e m e n t o v e r m o st o f th e o fficia ls N e w S p a in h a d k n o w n . B u t m o re g e rm a n e is th e fa c t th a t G a lv e z w a s n o t th e o n ly e n e r g e tic or a m b itio u s m a n in N e w S p a in a t th e tim e, a n d a g o o d ly n u m b e r o f th e m w e r e a m o n g th o s e h e h a d se n t o u t on th e C a li fo rn ia e x p e d itio n s. T h e ir n a m e s p e p p e r A lta C a lifo r n ia ’s h o n o r roll. O n b o a rd th e le a d sh ip San C arlos w a s P e d r o F a g e s , a fie ry C a ta lo n ia n a rm y lie u te n a n t w h o w o u ld c o m e to lo v e C a lifo rn ia , e x p lo re it fa r a n d w id e , a n d s e r v e a s its c iv il a u th o rity for tw o s e p a r a te te rm s. C o m m a n d in g th e s e c o n d -o u t San A n ton io w a s J u a n J o s e P e r e z , th e m o st e x p e r ie n c e d m a rin e r S p a in h a d a v a il a b le o n th e w e s t c o a s t o f N o rth A m e r ic a . I n c lu d e d in th e first o f th e la n d d iv isio n s w a s F r a y J u a n C r e s p i, a fo rm e r s tu d e n t o f S e r r a w h o fa ith fu lly s e r v e d in th e C a lifo rn ia m issio n s a n d a c te d as d ia rist on m o re th a n o n e e x p e d itio n . In th e s e c o n d o v e r la n d p a rty w e r e G a s p a r d e P o rto la , th e d u ty -d riv e n g o v e rn o r o f th e C a lifo rn ias; th e stu rd y S e r g e a n t O rte g a , w h o w a s to m a k e lie u te n a n t in th e n e w la n d ; a n d fo re m o st, th e lim p in g F r a y J u n ip e ro S e rra ,

le ss, th e ir in stru ctio n s w e r e to fin d a n d fo rtify M o n te r e y , a n d P o rto la w a s d e te r m in e d to do it. It w a s a g r e e d th a t P e r e z sh o u ld ta k e th e San A n ton io b a c k to S a n B ia s fo r p ro v isio n s, le a v in g th e c r e w le s s San C arlos te th e r e d in S a n D ie g o B a y . F a th e r S e r r a a n d a c o u p le o f o th e rs w o u ld s ta y in S a n D ie g o to te n d th e m a n y sick, w h ile P o rto la w o u ld ta k e th e re st o f “ th a t sm a ll c o m p a n y o f p e r son s, or ra th e r s a y s k e le to n s ,” n o rth to M o n te r e y . O n J u ly 14, 17 6 9 , P o rto la , F a g e s , C a p ta in F e r n a n d o d e R iv e r a y M o n c a d a , O rte g a , d iarists C r e s p i a n d M ig u e l C o s ta n s o , a n d fifty -s e v e n o th e rs b e g a n a six-m o n th jo u r n e y a tte n d e d b y w h a t

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The party o f duty-driven Gaspar de Portola discovers San Francisco B ay late in 1769. (Painting b y Arthur F. Mathews, 1896.)

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th e c o m m a n d e r la te r d e s c r ib e d a s th e “ g r e a te s t h a rd s h ip s a n d d iffic u ltie s” in th a t “ u n g r a c io u s c o u n tr y .” M o n te r e y p r o v e d an e n o rm o u s d is a p p o in tm e n t a n d a c r u e l d e c e p tio n . A lth o u g h so m e o f th e la n d fo rm s r o u g h ly c o n fo rm e d to V iz c a in o ’ s d e sc rip tio n , P o rto la c o u ld d is c e rn no w o n d e r fu l h a rb o r. S o h e m a r c h e d his tire d m e n fa rth e r n o rth u n til t h e y w e r e fin a lly h a lte d b y th e unc r o s s a b le b a y o f S a n F r a n c is c o (w h ic h th e y m is ta k e n ly th o u g h t to b e a n e s tu a r y o f D r a k e ’ s B a y ). T h e grim s c u r v y h a d r e a p p e a r e d a m o n g th e sta rv in g e x p lo re rs, a n d o n th e re tu rn to S a n D ie g o th e y h a d to s la u g h te r o n e g a u n t m u le a d a y , to w h ic h , P o rto la a llo w e d , “ w e sh u t ou r e y e s a n d fe ll [u p o n ] lik e h u n g r y lio n s .” T h e c o m m a n d e r h a d h o p e d to s e e P e r e z a n d th e San A ntonio w h e n h e b ro u g h t h is m u le -e a te r s b a c k to S a n D ie g o o n J a n u a r y 24, 17 7 0 . I n s te a d h e fo u n d S e r r a b u r y in g m o re d e a d , a n d a fe w s c a r e c r o w in v a lid s strip p e d to n e a r -n a k e d n e s s b y th e th ie v in g In d ia n s . P o rto la a n d S e r r a h a d g o o d r e a s o n to g iv e u p o n th e g a m b le , b u t th e y stu c k it ou t, e a tin g fish a n d fo w l a n d w h a t m e a g e r s u p p le m e n ts th e In d ia n s w o u ld tr a d e th e m fo r th e c lo th e s th e y w o re , un til, on th e e v e n in g o f M a r c h 22, th e sails o f th e San

A ntonio a p p e a r e d o n th e w e s te rn h o riz o n w ith its p r ic e le s s c a rg o o f co rn , flour, a n d rice . T h e d u tifu l P o rto la th e n o r d e r e d P e r e z on to M o n te r e y , w h e re h e w a s to b e jo in e d b y a s e c o n d la n d e x p e d itio n to fo rm a lly re c la im V iz c a in o ’s d is c o v e r y fo r S p a in . O n ly six te e n m e n a c c o m p a n ie d th e g o v e rn o r on th e s e c o n d fa tig u in g h ik e to th e u n p r o te c te d b a y , w h ic h w a s r u e fu lly a c k n o w le d g e d to b e M o n te r e y . T h e r e , on J u n e 3, 17 7 0 , th e p a r ty d id n o t fa il “ to e r e c t a fo rt a n d d e fe n d th e p o rt fro m th e a tro citie s o f th e R u s s ia n s w h o w e r e a b o u t to in v a d e u s, as w a s to b e in fe rre d fro m th e te rm s o f th e in stru c tio n s.” H is m issio n a c c o m p lis h e d , P o rto la tu rn e d o v e r c o m m a n d to P e d r o F a g e s a n d s a ile d b a c k to M e x ic o fo r a m ilita ry p ro m o tio n a n d , e v e n tu a lly , th e g o v e rn o rsh ip o f P u e b la . A fe w y e a r s la te r h e e x p r e s s e d h is c o n d o le n c e s for th o s e “ u n h a p p y S p a n ia r d s ” h e h a d le ft b e h in d — th e tw e n ty -o d d m e n w h o m a n n e d th e c a n n o n s o f th e p re sid io a n d th e m issio n at M o n te r e y , a n d th e sla b -s id e d d ie h a rd s a t S a n D ie g o . T h e ir m ise rie s w e re a s n u m e ro u s as th e fle a s o f th e c o u n try s id e , b u t th e y d id n o t in c lu d e a n y “ R u s s ia n a tro c itie s .” T h e n e w s th a t th e e s ta b lis h m e n ts h a d n o t g o n e u n d e r w a s

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THE BETTMANN ARCHIVE

Carlos III was a most capable king, though he may not look it in this candid portrait by Goya.

c e le b r a te d in M e x ic o C ity w ith a s p e c ia l M a s s, b e ll-rin g in g , a n d fla g -w a v in g . J o s e d e G a lv e z a n d V ic e r o y C ro ix c o u ld to a st a jo b , i f n o t c o m p le te , a t le a s t b e g u n , th o u g h n e ith e r w o u ld lo n g d ire c t th e d e s tin ie s o f th e ir c re a tio n . In S e p te m b e r o f 1 7 7 1 , C ro ix le ft h is p o s t a n d w a s r e p la c e d b y A n to n io M a ria B u c a r e li y U rs u a , th e m o st w id e ly r e s p e c te d v ic e r o y N e w S p a in w a s to h a v e . G a lv e z , h is m in d b a c k o n tra c k , s ta y e d a w h ile lo n g e r to c o u n s e l th e n e w v ic e r o y b e fo r e re tu rn in g to S p a in in F e b r u a r y 17 7 2 , th e re to b e c o m e a m e m b e r o f th e C o u n c il o f I n d ie s a n d , in 17 7 6 , its c h ie f m in iste r, th e first o ffic e r o f S p a in ’s N e w W o rld . B u c a r e li d id n o t h a v e th e flair o f so m e o f th e n e w b r e e d o f B o u r b o n a p p o in te e s , b u t h e w a s a m o st c a p a b le a d m in istra to r — in te llig e n t, m o d e st, ra tio n a l — a n d w h a t h e la c k e d in o rig in a lity h e m a d e u p fo r in th o ro u g h n e s s . A fte r a s s u m in g o ffice , h e h e a r d n e w ru m o rs o f R u s s ia n a n d E n g lis h th re a ts to th e C r o w n ’ s cla im s, a n d h e k n e w th e k e y to th e P a c ific d e fe n s e w a s A lta C a lifo rn ia , G a l v e z ’ s little fo u n d lin g w h ic h th e n e w v ic e r o y w o u ld a d o p t as if h is o w n . F r o m 17 7 2 th ro u g h 1 7 7 6 , h e n e v e r fla g g e d in a tte n d in g to th e n e e d s o f C a lifo rn ia .

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T h e y e a r o f d e c is io n w a s 1 7 7 3 . In th e p r e v io u s fa ll B u c a r e li h a d r e c e iv e d F a th e r S e r r a in M e x ic o C ity a n d lis te n e d to h is r e q u e s ts fo r su p p lie s a n d c ra fts m e n a n d se ttle rs. H e a lso h e a r d S e r r a ’s g r ie v a n c e s a g a in s t G o v e r n o r F a g e s a n d h is ro u g h tro o p s. M o re th a n p e r s o n a lity d iffe r e n c e s d iv id e d th e tw o . T h e r e w a s th e e v e r p r e s e n t frictio n o f c h u rc h in te re s t a n d sta te in te re s t, a n d a d iv isio n in a u th o rity b e tw e e n m iss io n a ry a n d m ilita ry m a n th a t h a d b o th th e fa th e r -p r e s id e n t a n d th e g o v e rn o r re p o rtin g to th e v ic e ro y . A m o n g S e r r a ’ s c o m p la in ts w a s a n u p risin g a t th e n e w ly - fo u n d e d M iss io n S a n G a b r ie l p r e c ip ita te d b y a so ld ie r w h o la s s o e d th e lo c a l c h i e f s w ife a s a p r e lu d e to g a in in g h e r a ffe c tio n s , th e n k ille d th e c h ie f w h e n h e o p p o s e d him . B u c a r e li s id e d w ith S e r r a a n d in 1 7 7 3 o rd e re d F a g e s to b e r e p la c e d b y R iv e r a a s th e c iv il a u th o rity in A lta C a lifo rn ia — n o t a g o o d c h o ic e , th e fu tu re sh o u ld sh o w . In A p ril m e re ru m o rs tu rn e d to ro y a l o rd ers w h e n M in is te r o f th e In d ie s , th e C o u n t o f A rria g a , in s tru c te d B u c a r e li to stre n g th e n th e C a lifo rn ia p o sts. T h e v ic e r o y a lr e a d y k n e w th e e x te n t o f C a li fo r n ia ’ s w e a k n e s s e s . N o m o re th a n a b o u t sixty so ld ie rs a n d e le v e n p rie sts w e r e in th e fa r p ro v in c e . G iv e n th e ir c a llin g s, t h e y w e r e ig n o ra n t o f h o w to so w th e e a rth to th e ir b e n e fit, a n d th e p r e v io u s y e a r th e y h a d ju s t e s c a p e d sta rv a tio n on a d ie t o f b e a r m e a t. I f R u s s ia n or E n g lis h a m b itio n sh o u ld b rin g e ith e r n a tio n to th e P a c ific sh o res, th a t su ffe rin g h a n d fu l o f S p a n ia rd s c o u ld h a r d ly o ffe r re sista n c e . T h e a n s w e r to B u c a r e li’ s d ile m m a w a s to b e fo u n d in th e O ld T e s t a m e n t ’s in ju n c tio n to in c r e a s e . T h a t w a s im p o ss ib le w ith th e “ p e r p e tu a l a n d in v o lu n ta ry c e lib a c y ” o f S p a in ’s so ld ie rs a n d th e v o lu n ta r y c e lib a c y o f h e r p riests. W h a t w a s c le a r ly n e e d e d w e r e fa m ilie s — se ttle rs, n o t o c c u p ie rs — w o m e n a s w e ll a s m e n w h o w o u ld s e e to th e ir o w n r e g e n e r a tio n a n d , p e r fo r c e , k n o w a little so m e th in g a b o u t fa rm in g . S u c h se ttle rs c o u ld n o t b e e n tru s te d to th e se a , as e x p e r ie n c e h a d m a d e p la in . N o r c o u ld th e y e a s ily b e re c ru ite d fro m B a ja C a lifo rn ia . G a lv e z ’s in itial c o lo n iz a tio n h a d a lr e a d y la id a “ h e a v y h a n d ” o n th e p e n in s u la , to b o rro w S e r r a ’s w o rd s. T h e r e w e r e n ’t e v e n v e r y m a n y m u le s le ft th e r e fo r p a c k trip s n orth, a n d as e x p e r ie n c e h a d a g a in sh o w n , th e re w a s n ’t e n o u g h w a te r or fo r a g e a lo n g th e w a y to s e e th e m th ro u g h . T h e o n ly o th e r w a y w a s a c ro s s th e b lo o d ie d e a rth o f S o n o ra , w h e re , in

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U.S. NATIONAL PARK SERVICE

Spam’s answer to France’s frontier heroes was the remarkable Anza. (Conjectural, artist unknown.)

R E S U R G E N T S P A IN

p lig h t o f th e A lta C a lifo r n ia n s w o r s e n e d , a n d a fte r S e r r a a n d o th e rs e n th u s ia s tic a lly e n d o rs e d th e o ffic e r ’s p la n , B u c a r e li c o n v e n e d a n o th e r ju n t a to c o n s id e r it. T h is tim e , o n S e p t e m b e r 9, 1 7 7 3 , ^ g a v e its b le s s in g . T h e c a p ta in in q u e s tio n w a s J u a n B a u tis ta d e A n z a , S p a in ’s sto lid , m e th o d ic a l a n s w e r to th e fla m b o y a n t F r e n c h h e r o e s o f w e s te r n p io n e e rin g . A n z a ’ s fa th e r a n d g r a n d fa th e r h a d b o th b e e n r e s p e c te d o ffic e rs in S o n o r a b e fo r e h im , a n d n o w , in h is th irtye ig h th y e a r , th e v e te r a n fig h te r o f A p a c h e s a n d S e ris sto o d to a d v a n c e h is c a r e e r a n d s e e so m e th in g o f th e w o rld u n s e e n . A r e a d in g o f A n z a ’s re p o rts r e v e a ls a h y p e r - c o m p e te n t, n o -n o n s e n s e o ffice r o f q u ie t d ig n ity w h o s e q u a litie s w e n t b e y o n d th o s e th a t m a k e a su p e rio r so ld ie r. I n d e e d , h e p a s s e d th a t litm u s te s t th a t o fte n s e p a r a te s th e e ffic ie n t m ilita ry m a n fro m th e tru e le a d e r o f m e n : h e w a s r e s p e c te d a n d b e lo v e d b y th e lo w lie s t w h o s e r v e d u n d e r him . A n z a le ft T u b a c o n J a n u a r y 9, 17 7 4 , w ith th irty -th re e m e n , in c lu d in g th e in tre p id F a th e r G a r c e s , b e a r in g o rd e rs to d is c o v e r a n e w w a y to M o n te r e y w ith o u t a lie n a tin g a n y o f th e n a tiv e p e o p le s w h o s e la n d s h e c ro sse d . M a r a u d in g A p a c h e s ra n o ff h is h o rs e s b e fo r e h e w a s fa r o u t a n d fo r c e d h im to ro u n d u p so m e “ sta c k s o f b o n e s ” as re p la c e m e n ts , b u t th is m isfo rtu n e w a s so o n o ffs e t b y e n c o u n te r in g a n In d ia n n a m e d S e b a s tia n T a r a b a l, a r u n a w a y fro m M iss io n S a n G a b r ie l w h o h a d ju s t m a d e th e v e r y d e s e r t c ro ssin g A n z a w a s a b o u t to e m b a r k o n a n d a g r e e d to h e lp sh o w h im th e w a y . N o th in g u n to w a rd h a p p e n e d to th e p a r ty b e fo r e r e a c h in g th e Y u m a In d ia n s at th e ju n c tio n o f th e G ila a n d C o lo r a d o riv e rs , a n d th e re — c o n tra ry to w h a t h e ’d b e e n le d to e x p e c t — A n z a w a s h o s p ita b ly r e c e iv e d b y C h ie f S a lv a d o r P a lm a , w h o s e p e o p le h e lp e d th e S p a n ia r d s fo rd th e R e d R iv e r o f th e W e st. A n z a w a s b o g g e d d o w n in th e d u n e c o u n try w e s t o f m o d e rn Y u m a , th e sh iftin g sa n d s s u c k in g stre n g th fro m h is sto ck , w h ic h b e g a n d y in g o ff in w h a t so o n b e c a m e a tr a c k le s s m a z e e v e n fo r T a r a b a l. S o A n z a w is e ly r e tu rn e d to th e Y u m a s , th e n d e to u r e d so u th a ro u n d th e so ft sa n d s a n d se t a c o u r s e fo r th e n o rth w e s t th a t to o k h im o v e r th e m o u n ta in s a n d d o w n to th e d e lig h te d p rie sts o f S a n G a b r ie l. H e w e n t o n to M o n te r e y a n d w a s b a c k in T u b a c o n M a y 26. N o t

T H E P A C IF IC D E F E N S E

o n ly c o u ld it b e d o n e , th is c ro ssin g o f th e d e se rt, b u t it h a d b e e n d o n e w ith e a s e . T h e m a n w h o d id it w a s im m e d ia te ly p ro m o te d to lie u te n a n t c o lo n e l. B u c a r e li w a s e v e n m o re d e lig h te d th a n th e lo n e ly F r a n c is c a n friars w h o h a d w e lc o m e d A n z a in th e n o t-y e t-p ro m isin g la n d . T h o u g h R iv e r a h a d in th e m e a n w h ile e s c o rte d a sm all p a r ty o f se ttle rs to A lta C a lifo r n ia fro m its n e th e r p e n in s u la , th e A n z a ro u te w a s c le a r ly sh o rte r a n d b e tte r. A fte r m e e tin g h im in M e x ic o C ity in th e la tte r p a rt o f 17 7 4 , B u c a r e li k n e w h e h a d h is m a n in A n z a . N o w le t h im r e a lly p r o v e h im self. L e t h im u s h e r a g ro u p o f im p o v e r is h e d fa m ilie s fro m S in a lo a to h e lp p o p u la te th e g re a t v o id to th e north . A n z a w a s fo r it. H e w is e ly s u g g e s te d p a y in g th e co lo n ists in g o o d s ra th e r th a n s p e c ie th a t c o u ld b e g a m b le d a w a y . T h e v ic e r o y a g r e e d , p ro v id in g fa rm im p le m e n ts, s e e d s , clo th in g , a n d all th a t th e se ttle rs w o u ld n e e d . O n O c to b e r 23, 1 7 7 5 , A n z a le d th e la rg e p a r ty o u t o f T u b a c w ith n e a r ly a th o u s a n d h o o v e d a n im a ls in h e rd . W h e n h e b ro u g h t h is c h a r g e s to th e Y u m a s , h e a lso b ro u g h t Anzaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s second California expedition convoyed much-needed settlers from Sonora to M on terey in 1775-76. (Painting b y Cal Peters.)

R E S U R G E N T S P A IN

th e m o st c iv il g r e e tin g s fro m K in g C a r lo s I I I a n d p e r s o n a l r a im e n t fo r S a lv a d o r P a lm a . T h e g r a te fu l c h ie f a s s is te d th e S p a n ia r d s th ro u g h a n a rd u o u s c ro ssin g o f th e s w o lle n C o lo r a d o , th e n o n sw im m e r G a r c e s b e in g b o rn e o n th e s h o u ld e rs o f th r e e Y u m a m e n . A fte r a fe w d a y s o f r e c u p e r a tio n o n th e C a lifo r n ia sid e , th e y w e r e o ff a g a in to tr a v e r s e a D e c e m b e r d e s e rt, w h ic h w a s a b n o r m a lly co ld . T h e y s to p p e d a t a w a te r le s s c a m p in c r e o s o te -d o tte d B o r re g o V a lle y , m a d e a s le e t-n u m b in g clim b o v e r th e S a n J a c in to M o u n ta in s, th e n d e s c e n d e d th e m ild c o a s ta l slo p e in to S a n G a b riel, a rriv in g on J a n u a r y 4, 17 7 6 . T h e jo u r n e y h a d b e e n little sh o rt o f m ira c u lo u s . A n z a sta rte d th e e x p e d itio n w ith 240 so u ls, 1 1 5 o f th e m c h ild re n , a n d fin is h e d w ith 244. T o c o m p e n s a te fo r th e sin g le d e a th o n th e w a y , a w o m a n lo st in c h ild b irth th e first sto p ou t, h e h a d p e r s o n a lly p la y e d m id w ife to th e a rriv a l o f a n u m b e r o f sq u a llin g in fa n ts. T h e o n ly o n e to fa u lt th e s o ld ie r’s c o n d u c t w a s h is c o m p a n io n , F a t h e r F o n t, w h o w a s s c a n d a liz e d b y A n z a ’ s p e rio d ic d istrib u tio n o f a g u a r d ie n te , w h ic h r e s u lte d in d ru n k e n n e s s a n d h a n g o v e r s to b e w o r k e d o u t on th e n e x t m o rn in g ’s trail. P e r h a p s A n z a k n e w h is flo c k b e tte r th a n th e fa stid io u s F o n t. T h is w a s n o c o te rie o f e le g a n t C a s tilia n s , b u t m o stly u n le tte r e d h a lf-b re e d s , h a r d y fro n tie r m e n a n d w o m e n w h o p r o b a b ly w o u ld n ’t h a v e la s te d th e rigo rs o f a lo n g , d r y trail if t h e y h a d b e e n o th e r th a n w h a t th e y w e re . A n z a fo u n d no re st in S a n G a b r ie l. U p o n h is c o m in g , w o rd a rriv e d o f a n In d ia n u p risin g in S a n D ie g o in w h ic h S p a n is h liv e s h a d b e e n lost. W ith s e v e n te e n o f h is so ld ie rs, A n z a jo in e d th e s u lle n R iv e r a in a m a rc h so u th to r e lie v e th e b e le a g u e r e d sta tion . T h e r e b e llio u s In d ia n s w e r e q u ic k ly c o w e d b y th e sh o w o f fo rc e — fo rc e e x c e s s iv e ly a p p lie d b y R iv e r a w h o , a m o n g o th e r a tro citie s, k ille d

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c h u rc h , fo r w h ic h S e r r a sa w th a t h e w a s e x c o m m u n ic a te d . A n z a r e tr a c e d his w a y to S a n G a b r ie l a n d im m e d ia te ly tu rn e d to th e b u s in e s s th a t b r o u g h t h im , le a d in g h a lf o f th e h u n g r y se ttle rs on a m o n th ’s tre k to M o n te r e y . R iv e r a r e s e n te d th is o u tsid e r. H e w a s n o t o n ly a c h a lle n g e to th e a c tin g g o v e r n o r ’ s a u th o rity , b u t h e w a s in te n t on c a rry in g o u t B u c a r e li’s in stru ctio n s to e s ta b lis h a p re sid io a t S a n F r a n c isc o , in stru ctio n s R iv e r a d is a g r e e d w ith a n d d id h is b e s t to o b -

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stru ct. H e h a d a lr e a d y e x p lo r e d th e p e n in s u la h im s e lf a n d s p o k e n d is p a r a g in g ly o f its c lim a te a n d c ite d a n o v e r e x te n s io n o f fo rc e s fo r n o t se ttlin g it p e r o rd ers. A n z a le ft a s ic k b e d in M o n te r e y to e x a m in e th e fu tu re site o f S a n F r a n c is c o fo r h im se lf, a n d w h a t h e sa w in M a r c h p le a s e d him a s it h a d n o t R iv e r a . H e th o r o u g h ly e x p lo re d th e a re a , d e s ig n a tin g w h e r e b o th th e p re sid io a n d th e m issio n w e r e to b e b u ilt, b e fo r e tu rn in g so u th a g a in in A p ril. R iv e r a s lig h te d A n z a b y n o t k e e p in g

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a m e e tin g in S a n L u is O b is p o th a t th e fo rm e r h a d a r r a n g e d ; in S a n G a b r ie l th e p a ir c o m m u n ic a te d o n ly b y le tte r. T h e n th e m a n fro m S o n o ra , h is ta s k c o m p le te d , le ft fo r h o m e o v e r th e trail h e had opened. N o d o u b t fe e lin g h e a t fro m th e v ic e r o y , a n d g la d to b e rid o f a riv a l, R iv e r a d id a tu r n a b o u t a n d o r d e r e d L ie u t e n a n t M o r a g a to e ffe c t th e lo n g o v e r d u e o c c u p a tio n o f S a n F r a n c is c o . R iv e r a c o u ld n o t g e t a lo n g w ith A n z a (or a n y o n e e ls e fo r th a t m a tter) a n d S e r r a c o u ld n o t g e t a lo n g w ith F a g e s or R iv e r a or th e la terto -c o m e G o v e r n o r F e lip e d e N e v e , w h o in tu rn h a d a h a tr e d o f A n z a . I f N e w S p a in h a d lo n g s u ffe r e d fro m too m a n y m in n o w s in a la k e , n o w re s u rg e n t, sh e s u ffe r e d fro m too m a n y b ig fish in a c o m m o n p o n d , a n d th e w a te rs go t m u d d ie d w ith th e ir th ra s h in g . T h e y e a r 1 7 7 6 w a s no e x c e p tio n . W h ile d e le g a te s fro m th e th irte e n E n g lis h c o lo n ie s w e r e o rg a n iz in g d e p a rtm e n ts o f a n e w C o n tin e n ta l C o n g r e s s , a d ra stic o r g a n iz a tio n a l c h a n g e w a s o r足 d e re d in th e a d m in istra tio n o f n o rth e rn N e w S p a in th a t w o u ld h a v e fa r-re a c h in g c o n s e q u e n c e s . W h a t h a d b e e n s u g g e s te d in 176 8 b y V is ita d o r - G e n e r a l G a lv e z a n d V ic e r o y d e C ro ix b e c a m e p o lic y u n d e r G a lv e z th e M in iste r o f th e In d ie s : N e w M e x ic o , T e x a s , C o a h u ila , N u e v a V iz c a y a , S o n o r a -S in a lo a , a n d th e tw o C a lifo rn ia s w e r e r e m o v e d fro m v ic e r e g a l c o n tro l a s th e P ro-

vincias Internas a n d p la c e d u n d e r a c o m m a n d a n t- g e n e r a l in w h o m c iv il a n d m ilita ry a u th o rity w e r e v e s te d . T h e m a n a p 足 p o in te d to th e n e w p o st in A u g u s t o f th e d e c is iv e y e a r w a s T e o doro d e C ro ix , n e p h e w o f th e M a r q u e s d e C ro ix . T e o d o r o w a s e ffe c tiv e w h e r e h e k n e w h is g ro u n d , a n d th e g ro u n d h e k n e w w a s T e x a s , N e w M e x ic o , a n d C o a h u ila , w h e re h e s p e n t m o st o f his y e a r s on th e n o rth e rn fro n tie r fig h tin g In d ia n s . H e h a d n e v e r b e e n to C a lifo rn ia a n d n e v e r w o u ld go, a n d C a lifo r n ia w a s to k n o w his fa r-fro m -b e n ig n n e g le c t. B u c a r e li c o u ld n o t h a v e b e e n p le a s e d w ith th e a rra n g e m e n t. E v e n b e fo r e th e r e o rg a n iz a tio n h e h a d a s k e d to b e a llo w e d to re sig n a n d liv e o u t h is la st y e a r s in S p a in . B u t h e w a s too v a lu 足 a b le w h e re h e w a s, so th e e v e r -o b e d ie n t c iv il s e r v a n t c o n tin u e d on as v ic e r o y , d iv e s te d o f a u th o rity o v e r C a lifo rn ia b u t still r e 足 sp o n sib le fo r s u p p ly in g it o u t o f S a n B ia s . T h is h e d id fa ith fu lly . B u t su p p lie s w e r e n o t e n o u g h fo r th o s e fe w on th e o a k -d o tte d

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h ills o f th e P a c ific slo p e â&#x20AC;&#x201D; n o t e n o u g h to m a k e h e a lth y w h a t w a s n o w th e y o u n g e r C r o ix â&#x20AC;&#x2122; s ste p c h ild . I f th e o c c u p a tio n o f C a lifo rn ia w a s a stra te g ic s u c c e s s , in m o st o th e r r e s p e c ts it h a d b e e n a fa ilu re . F a r fro m b e in g a p r o d u c e r o f r e v e n u e as G a lv e z h a d in te n d e d , A lta C a lifo rn ia h a d d ra in e d S p a in o f h a lf a m illio n p e s o s b y th e e n d o f 17 7 3 . T h e S p a n ia rd s h o ld in g it w e r e still p itifu lly fe w a n d m a ln o u rish e d , a n d S e rra a n d his z e a lo u s F r a n c is c a n s h a d b a p tiz e d fe w e r th a n a th o u s a n d c h ild re n a n d a g e d in to th e ir re lig io n . H a d it b e e n w o rth it? T h e q u e s tio n w a s p r o b a b ly n o t e v e n a s k e d b y th e on -site p a d r e s a n d so ld ie rs.

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p r o b le m s o lv e rs . C e r ta in ly S e r r a d id n o t lo o k b a c k . O n N o v e m b e r 1, 1 7 7 6 , h e r e fo u n d e d th e s w a llo w -fa v o re d M issio n S a n J u a n C a p is tra n o , a n d o n J a n u a r y 12 o f th e fo llo w in g y e a r M issio n S a n ta C la r a . F e lip e d e N e v e , w h o r e p la c e d R iv e r a as th e civ il a u th o rity a n d r e c e iv e d h is in stru c tio n s on C h ris tm a s E v e o f 17 7 6 , w a s lik e w is e a d o e r. H e im m e d ia te ly a s k e d B u c a r e li fo r at le a s t th r e e m o re m issio n s b e t w e e n S a n G a b r ie l a n d S a n L u is O b isp o , a n d th re e p u e b lo s a s w e ll. F o r this, a n d to stre n g th e n e x istin g p o sts, h e n e e d e d re in fo r c e m e n ts a n d so ld ie rs a n d se ttle rs a n d su p p lie s . B u c a r e li fo r w a r d e d th e r e q u e s ts to C ro ix fo r a ctio n , a lo n g w ith a d Â v ic e fo r e s ta b lis h in g c iv iliz in g m issio n s a m o n g th e Y u m a s , w h o c o n tro lle d C a lifo r n ia â&#x20AC;&#x2122; s life lin e . T h e c o m m a n d a n t-g e n e ra l trie d to to ss th e h o t p o ta to b a c k to th e v ic e r o y , th e n ju g g le d it fo r a tim e, th e n m o re or le s s le t it d ro p . A lta C a lifo r n ia w a s v irtu a lly o n its o w n , ru n b y th e in d u strio u s N e v e , w h o as th e s e c u la r a u th o rity p u s h e d s e c u la r e x p a n sio n . In N o v e m b e r o f 1 7 7 7 h e to o k so m e re s id e n ts o f M o n te r e y a n d S a n F r a n c is c o to start a p u e b lo o n th e b a n k s o f th e G u a d a lu p e R iv e r ; it w a s c a lle d S a n J o s e . In S e p te m b e r o f 1 7 8 1 , N e v e o rd e re d fo rtyfo u r m e n , w o m e n , a n d c h ild re n , n e w ly a rriv e d fro m S o n o ra , to fo u n d E l P u e b lo d e la R e y n a d e los A n g e le s n e a r th e b a n k s o f th e L o s A n g e le s R iv e r a b o u t s e v e n m ile s s e a w a r d o f M iss io n S a n G a b r ie l. T h e r e m ig h t h a v e b e e n m a n y m o re p u e b lo s w e r e it n o t fo r th e b lo o d y u p risin g o f th e Y u m a In d ia n s on J u ly 1 7 , 1 7 8 1 . A m o n g th e o n -th e -sp o t c a s u a ltie s w a s th e e x p e n d a b le R iv e r a , w h o h a d b r o u g h t th e la st c o n tin g e n t o f se ttle rs, a n d th e in n o c e n t

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BY WILLIAM ALEXANDER AFTER J. SYKES; E. E. AYER COLLECTION. NEWBERRY LIBRARY. CHICAGO

b y one o f English explorer G eorge Vancouver’s crew.

G a r c e s . T h e m u c h g re a te r, n e v e r - to - b e - r e c o v e r e d lo ss w a s A n z a ’s o v e r la n d trail. C a lifo rn ia w a s o r p h a n e d , its g ro w th stu n te d . Y e t it d id n o t p e ris h , th a n k s to th e a b le m e n a lr e a d y th e re . W h e n N e v e le ft to s u c c e e d C ro ix a s c o m m a n d a n t-g e n e r a l o f th e In te rio r P r o v in c e s in 17 8 2 , P e d r o F a g e s r e tu r n e d fo r a n o th e r stin t as g o v e rn o r. A fte r F a th e r S e r r a ’s d e a th at M iss io n S a n B o r ro m e o d e C a r m e lo in 178 4 , h is F r a n c is c a n frie n d a n d c o lle a g u e , F a th e r F e rm in L a s u e n , to o k o v e r a n d in h is s te a d y , w o rk m a n lik e w a y a d d e d n in e m issio n s to th e n in e fo u n d e d b y S e rra . A t th e c lo se o f th e A m e r ic a n R e v o lu tio n , S p a in ’s C a lifo r n ia w a s n o t y e t th e sto ried o n e o f sw o lle n c a ttle h e rd s, o f r a n c h e s a n d ro m a n c e s a n d fa n d a n g o s a n d b u ll-b e a r m a tc h e s . F e w e r th a n o n e th o u s a n d n o n -In d ia n s w e r e s c a tte r e d a lo n g th e P a c ific littoral, fro m S a n F r a n c is c o so u th , g ro w in g c ro p s, ra is in g sto ck , a n d s h o w in g n e o p h y te s h o w to d o th e sa m e fo r th e g r e a te r g lo ry o f G o d a n d th e r e d e m p tio n o f th e ir so u ls. T h e ir n u m b e r w a s ju s t e n o u g h to h o ld th e ir o w n a g a in s t In d ia n o p p o sitio n , e n o u g h to a s s u r e C a li fo rn ia o f a S p a n is h fu tu re .

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isle ts a w a s h w ith s e a fo a m . T h e s e d a y s c ru is e sh ip s p a s s c lo s e to th e c a p e re tu rn in g fro m C a lifo rn ia -to -M e x ic o p le a s u r e ru n s, p a rt in g sc h o o ls o f c a v o r tin g d o lp h in s a n d se n d in g fly in g fish sk im m in g th e b lu e , as th e c a p ta in g iv e s h is p a s s e n g e r s a lo o k a t th e la n d m a rk . T h e p a s s a g e is n o w a b r e e z e , a p ie c e o f c a k e . In th e 17 7 0 s it w a s a h o rro r fo r th e m o st e x p e r ie n c e d m a ste r o f sail. It m e a n t a lo n g r e a c h w e s t b e fo r e w in d a n d w a te r e v e n p e rm itte d a clim b th r o u g h th e n o rth e rn la titu d e s a n d a d o u b lin g b a c k to fin d th e la n d m a s s o f N o rth A m e r ic a . S p a n is h sa ilo rs h a d le a r n e d t h a t le s s o n a s e a r ly a s th e s ix te e n th c e n tu ry , b u t it h a d to b e r e le a r n e d in th e e ig h te e n th c e n tu r y w h e n w o rrie d S p a in la u n c h e d its n o rth w e s te r n d e fe n s e . B a s e s in A lta C a lifo rn ia w e r e n o t e n o u g h ; th e R u s s ia n s h a d to b e fo u n d a n d th e ir m is c h ie f m o n ito red . S in c e th e T s a r in a ’ s m e n h a d n o t r e a c h e d M o n te r e y (h a d n o t e v e n c o m e w ith in a th o u s a n d s e a m ile s o f it, re a lly ), th a t m e a n t g o in g b e y o n d A lta C a lifo r n ia to fin d th e m . T h a t d istru st o f R u s s ia n in te n tio n s o v e r la p p e d a sim ilar d is tru st o f E n g la n d , a b o u t to c h a s e a g a in th a t lo n g -liv e d p h a n to m , th e N o r th w e s t P a s s a g e . H isto ric a lly , S p a in ’ s a ttitu d e to w a rd th e S tra it o f A n ia n h a d w a v e r e d fro m d o u b t th a t it w a s th e re to fe a r th a t it m ig h t a c tu a lly b e fo u n d . M o re th a n o n c e h e r m a rin ers h a d b e e n d is c o u r a g e d fro m s e e k in g it; if it w e r e fo u n d , th e w o rd w a s b o u n d to le a k o u t a n d th e w o rld (or all n a tio n s w ith n a v ie s ) w o u ld b e in tru d in g in to a n o c e a n th a t w a s th o u g h t to b e rig h tly S p a in ’ s. B u t n o w th e tim e h a d c o m e to m o v e — m o v e b y s e a a b o v e C a lifo r n ia a n d p e r h a p s se ttle , if n o t th e la n d itse lf, th e n at le a s t th e q u e s tio n o f w h o w a s th e r e a n d w h a t th e y w e r e d o in g . S o it w a s th a t in 1 7 7 4 th e frig a te Santiago le ft S a n B ia s c a r r y in g s e c r e t o rd e rs fro m V ic e r o y B u c a r e li, w h ic h w e r e n o t to b e o p e n e d u n til a fte r th e v e s s e l h a d r e a c h e d a n d d e p a r te d M o n te r e y . T h e s k ip p e r o f th e e ig h ty -tw o -fo o t c ra ft w a s J u a n J o s e P e r e z , th e m a n w h o d id so m u c h to s u p p ly th e C a lifo rn ia c o lo n y . B u c a r e li ’ s s e a le d in stru c tio n s w e r e o p e n e d a t th e a p p o in te d tim e a n d P e r e z fo u n d his m issio n d e s c r ib e d in g re a t d e ta il. T h e San

tiago w a s to p r o c e e d to a t le a s t sixty d e g r e e s a n d th e n h u g th e c o a s t o n its s o u th e r ly re tu rn , P e r e z to go a sh o re , c la im sites

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w o rth y o f s e ttle m e n t, a n d p la n t th e r e a cro ss a n d ca irn . I f o th e r E u r o p e a n s w e r e e n c o u n te r e d , t h e y sh o u ld b e o b s e r v e d fro m a d is ta n c e a n d n o t p r o v o k e d b y h o stile a c tio n . T h e In d ia n s m e t on la n d w e r e to b e tr e a te d m o st k in d ly , q u e r ie d a b o u t o th e r visito rs, a n d w o n o v e r w ith p re s e n ts . In th a t w a y w o u ld th e k in g ’s p u r p o s e b e s e r v e d , B u c a r e li sta te d , n o t o n ly in “ c o n s e r v in g th e s e v a s t d o m a in s, b u t a lso in try in g to a u g m e n t th e m in so fa r a s p o s s ib le , b y m e a n s o f n e w d is c o v e r ie s in u n k n o w n a re a s , so th a t n u m e ro u s In d ia n in h a b ita n ts d ra w n in to th e s w e e t, so ft d e s ira b le v a s s a la g e o f H is M a je s ty m a y b e b a th e d in th e lig h t o f th e G o s p e l b y m e a n s o f sp iritu a l c o n q u e s t.” P e r e z fin a lly g o t th e w in d h e w a n te d on J u n e 14, a n d w ith e ig h ty -fiv e a b o a rd , a m o n g th e m F a th e r s C r e s p i a n d T o m a s d e la P e n a , th e Santiago trie d th e u n trie d , w ith fe a r a n d s c u r v y to b e th e ir c o n sta n t c o m p a n io n s. L a n d w a s s e e n in m id -J u ly n e a r th e p r e s e n t b o u n d a r y b e tw e e n A la s k a a n d C a n a d a . P e r e z w a s a c a u tio u s m a n — p e r h a p s to o c a u tio u s , h is d e tra c to rs h a v e s u g g e s te d . H e m e t In d ia n s o ff th e Q u e e n C h a r lo tte Is la n d s a n d , w h ile b e c a lm e d , c a rrie d o n a frig a te -to -c a n o e tr a d e w ith o u t a c c e p tin g th e o u tw a rd ly fr ie n d ly tr ib e ’s in v ita tio n to c o m e a sh o re . H e h a d his su sp ic io n s, a n d n e ith e r h is n e e d fo r fre s h w a te r nor h is in stru ctio n s to e r e c t his n a tio n ’s m a rk e rs w a s e n o u g h fo r h im to s e n d a la n d in g p a r ty a sh o re . T h e Santiago d rifte d slo w ly so u th a ro u n d sh o a ls a n d th ro u g h fo g b la n k e ts o ff th e u n c h a r te d sh o re , fin a lly a n c h o rin g o ff th e w e s t c o a s t o f V a n c o u v e r Is la n d on A u g u s t 8 a t th e m o u th o f an in let. In d ia n s a p p e a r e d in d u g o u t c a n o e s , sin g in g a n d s c a tte rin g fe a th e r s on th e w a te r in w e lc o m e . T h e fo llo w in g d a y t h e y b a r te r e d s e a -o tte r sk in s fo r a b a lo n e sh e lls a n d m e ta l o f a n y k in d . T h e in le t w a s N o o tk a S o u n d , th e first sig h tin g o f th e p la c e w h e re h isto ry w o u ld r e n d e z v o u s w ith in a sa ilo r’s life tim e , w h e n S p a in a n d E n g la n d w o u ld go ju s t to th e b rin k o f w a r fo r c o n tro l o f it. P e r e z trie d o n c e to s e n d a p a r ty a s h o re , b u t as so o n as a la u n c h h a d b e e n p u t o v e r th e sid e , th e w in d k ic k e d u p a n d b o th c ra ft w e r e im p e rile d . T h e a n c h o r c h a in on th e Santiago h a d to b e c u t to k e e p h e r fro m g o in g a g ro u n d a n d th e la u n c h w a s q u ic k ly r e tr ie v e d . T h e r e w a s n o fu rth e r a tte m p t to p u t m e n on la n d fo r th e d u ra tio n o f th e co ld , d a m p v o y a g e , w h ic h h a d P e r e z a n d h is sh ip

250

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s ta y in g w e ll o u t fro m sh o re. T h e g ia n t w h ite s h a p e o f M o u n t O ly m p u s w a s o b s e r v e d a n d n a m e d th e S ie rra N e v a d a d e S a n ta R o s a lia , b u t o th e rw is e k n o w le d g e o f la n d m a rk s a n d c o a s ta l c o n fo rm a tio n r e m a in e d sligh t. B u c a r e li c o m m e n d e d P e r e z a fte r h is re tu rn to S a n B ia s , b u t th e v ic e r o y w a s in fa c t d e e p ly d is a p p o in te d th a t so little h a d b e e n a c c o m p lis h e d a n d th a t no S p a n ia r d h a d to u c h e d la n d a n d fo r m a lly c la im e d it in th e n a m e o f his k in g. I m m e d ia te ly h e o r d e r e d a n o th e r v o y a g e a n d P e r e z to a c c o m p a n y it, th o u g h as se c o n d -in -c o m m a n d to B ru n o d e H e c e ta a b o a rd th e sa m e Santiago. H e c e t a w a s o n ly tw e n ty -fo u r y e a r s old, o n e o f six y o u n g n a v a l o ffic e rs ju s t tra n s fe rre d to S a n B ia s . T h e Santiago w a s to h a v e a n e s c o rt sh ip th is tim e, th e S onora, a p itifu lly sm all sc h o o n e r n o t m u c h o v e r th irty fe e t lo n g th a t w a s n o t d e s ig n e d fo r o c e a n c ro ssin g . Its c o m m a n d w a s g iv e n to a n o th e r o f th e y o u n g o f fice rs, J u a n d e A y a la . A th ird , M ig u e l M a n riq u e , w a s p u t in c h a r g e o f th e San C arlos, a s u p p ly sh ip th a t w o u ld a c c o m p a n y th e e x p lo re rs a s fa r as M o n te r e y . F in a lly , th e re w a s J u a n F r a n c is c o d e la B o d e g a y Q u a d ra , a th irty -tw o -y e a r-o ld P e r u v ia n C r e o le

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p a s s e d o u t b u t, w h e n fa c e d w ith a t le a s t a y e a r o f b o rin g sh o re d u ty , v o lu n te e r e d to s e r v e as s e c o n d o ffice r a b o a r d th e tin y S on ora. S p a in w a s fo rtu n a te th a t h e did. B u c a r e li’ s p la n fo r a s e c o n d e x p e d itio n to th e N o rth w e s t c o a s t w a s a p p r o v e d in M a d rid , w h e re w o rries a b o u t th e R u s s ia n s w e r e g r e a te r th a n b e fo re . In fa c t, th e M in istry o f th e In d ie s s e n t in stru c tio n s b a c k to th e v ic e r o y th a t c a rrie d a n e w m ili ta n c y : i f th e e x p lo re rs d is c o v e r e d in tru d e rs on S p a in ’s c o a st, t h e y w e r e to o rd e r th e m ou t, e v e n if th a t re q u ir e d fo rc e . B y th e tim e B u c a r e li r e c e iv e d th e c o m m u n ic a tio n , h o w e v e r , th e th re e sh ip s h a d s a ile d a w a y . T h e sta rt w a s n o t a u s p ic io u s . A fe w d a y s ou t, C a p t a in M a n riq u e w e n t m a d . T h is c a lle d fo r a sh ift o f p e rs o n n e l, w ith A y a la tr a n s fe r r e d to th e San C arlos a n d B o d e g a y Q u a d ra , th e b o ld y o u n g m a n w ith th e s e a fe v e r , s u c c e e d in g to th e c o m m a n d o f th e S on ora. T h e n e x t th r e e m o n th s w e r e slo w g o in g in b u ffe tin g s e a s , th e e x p lo re rs p r o c e e d in g n o rth o f M o n te r e y a n d la n d in g a t T r in id a d in C a lifo r n ia ’s r e d w o o d c o u n try to ta k e fo rm a l p o s

251

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se ssio n . T h e n , in m id -J u ly, th e Santiago a n d th e S on ora c r o w d e d th e c o a s t o f W a s h in g to n so u th o f th e Q u in a u lt R iv e r , w h e r e th e y p la n te d a w o o d e n cro ss o n sh o re a n d e n g a g e d in tr a d e w ith In d ia n s w h o s e e m e d a m ia b le . B u t w h e n Q u a d r a s e n t a p a rty to sh o re in a sm a ll b o a t fo r w o o d a n d w a te r, th e six-m a n c r e w w as

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S onora, re tr e a tin g o n ly w h e n Q u a d r a ’s s w iv e l g u n s o p e n e d fire a n d k ille d six o f h is b e s ie g e r s . Q u a d ra w a s h o t fo r r e v e n g e , b u t H e c e t a a n d o th e r o ffice rs a b o a rd th e Santiago o v e r r u le d h im . T h e ir p r e s e n t a n c h o r a g e w a s u n s a fe , n e ith e r v e s s e l w a s d e e m e d v e r y s e a w o r th y , a n d too m a n y m e n w e r e d o w n w ith th e s c u rv y . W h a t o u g h t to b e se ri o u s ly c o n s id e r e d , w e n t th e g ist o f c o n tin u in g p a r le y s , w a s an e a r ly re tu rn to S a n B ia s , e v e n th o u g h th e v ic e r o y ’s in stru ctio n s to r e a c h six ty -fiv e d e g r e e s h a d n o t b e e n c a rrie d ou t. Q u a d r a a n d his tw e n ty -o n e -y e a r -o ld p ilot, F r a n c is c o A n to n io M o u r e lle d e la R u a , b o w e d to th e g e n e r a l w ill — or s e e m e d to. O n th e n ig h t o f J u ly 29, at se a , Q u a d ra a n d M o u r e lle c o n v e n ie n tly g o t th e ir c r a m p e d little s c h o o n e r lo st fro m th e Santiago. H e c e t a fe a r e d fo r th o s e a b o a r d th e S onora, a n d a fte r sa ilin g b r ie fly n o rth b e y o n d th e S tra it o f J u a n d e F u c a (w h ic h h e d id n o t se e ), h e a lso fe a r e d fo r h is o w n c re w , w h o b e g g e d h im to tu rn b a c k . T h is h e d id on A u g u s t 1 1 . O n h is d o w n c o a s t ru n h e sp ie d a g re a t in le t b e tw e e n tw o h e a d la n d s , w h ic h h e trie d v a in ly to e n te r a g a in s t a stro n g a d v e r s e c u rre n t. H e c a lle d it B a h ia d e la A s u n c io n d e N u e s tr a S e n o r a a n d s u p p o s e d it to b e th e fa b le d S tra it o f J u a n d e F u c a , n o t r e d is c o v e r e d b e c a u s e its la titu d e h a d b e e n e rr o n e o u s ly c a lc u la te d . In fa c t, it w a s th e C o lu m b ia R iv e r . A fte r c h a rtin g th e m o u th a s b e s t h e c o u ld fro m o u ts id e its p ro te c tiv e sa n d b a r, h e h u rrie d so u th to M o n te r e y w ith h is in v a lid s. M e a n w h ile Q u a d r a a n d M o u r e lle w e r e h a rd at th e ir h e ro ic s . S h o rt o f w a te r, sh o rt o f fo o d , sh o rt o f s p a c e , sh o rt o f a b le - b o d ie d h a n d s — sh ort, in short, o f e v e r y th in g s a v e y o u n g m e n ’s c o u r a g e — th e y p itc h e d on th ro u g h th e N o rth P a c ific . O n A u g u s t 15 th e y m a d e la n d fa ll in A la s k a a t fifty -s e v e n d e g r e e s , n o t fa r fro m p r e s e n t- d a y S itk a . T h e k in g no lo n g e r la c k e d fo r sta n d a rd p la n te rs . Q u a d ra a n d M o u r e lle to o k p o s s e s s io n n e a r S a lis b u r y canoes

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m a tc h Q u a d r a ’ s fo r d ra m a a n d d e te rm in a tio n . B u t in k e e p in g w ith th e S p a n is h p e n c h a n t fo r s e c r e c y , it w a s d ra m a a n d d e te rm in a tio n k e p t u n d e r w ra p s . W e ll, alm o st. B u c a r e li w a s p le a s e d a n d r e a s s u r e d th a t R u s s ia n s w e r e n o t b r e a th in g

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253

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fo r S p a in th a n fo r E n g la n d or F r a n c e . T h e y e a r th a t fo u n d E n g la n d a t w a r w ith h e r A m e r ic a n o ffsp rin g a lso s a w S p a in d is tra c te d b y c o lo n ia l u p h e a v a l in N o rth A fr ic a a n d a rm e d c o n fro n ta tio n w ith P o r tu g a l in S o u th A m e r ic a o v e r th e R io d e la P la ta . B u c a r e li m u st b e e x c u s e d h is la c k o f in te re s t in th e n o rth -o fC a lifo rn ia c o a s t w h e re no d ra g o n s h a d b e e n fo u n d . C a r lo s ’ o w n a tte n tio n w a s d iv e r te d e ls e w h e r e to fla sh p o in ts a ll o v e r th e w o rld . B u t n o t so fo r th e n e w ly n a m e d m in iste r o f th e In d ie s , J o s e d e G a lv e z , h e o f th e o n c e - w a r p e d m in d , h e o f th e first P a c ific g a m b le , h e o f th e g re a t o b s e s s io n w ith C a lifo r n ia a n d a n e w e m p ire n o rth o f M e x ic o . G a lv e z w a s fra n tic o v e r re p o rts fro m E n g la n d th a t C a p t. J a m e s C o o k , r e n o w n e d fo r h is tw o p r e v io u s v o y a g e s th a t h a d r e v e a le d to th e w o rld s e c re ts o f th e S o u th e r n H e m is p h e r e , w a s a b o u t to sa il a g a in , th is tim e fo r th e n o rth P a c ific co a st, w h e re a m o n g o th e r d u tie s h e w o u ld s e e k th e N o rth w e s t P a s s a g e . C o o k w a s n ’t e x a c tly sa ilin g in to th e g re a t u n k n o w n , e ith e r. In sp ite o f S p a n is h s e c r e c y , su m m a rie s o f th e e x p lo ra tio n s o f 1 7 7 4 a n d 1 7 7 5 h a d b e e n p u b lis h e d in L o n d o n in 17 7 6 ; C o o k e v e n h a d a c c e s s to a c o p y o f M o u r e lle ’s jo u r n a l. E a r ly in 17 7 6 , G a lv e z d ra fte d n e w o rd e rs fo r B u c a r e li: c o m m a n d e rs o f P a c ific o u tp o sts w e r e to b e a le r te d o f C o o k ’ s in te n tio n s. T h e r e w o u ld b e no co m fo rt sh o w n th e E n g lis h m a n ; e v e r y o b s ta c le sh o rt o f m ilita ry fo rc e w a s to b e p u t in h is w a y . In M a y , a fte r r e a d in g H e c e t a ’s re p o rt o f sig h tin g th a t la rg e w a te r w a y b e tw e e n fo rty-six a n d fo r ty - s e v e n d e g r e e s — th e N o rth w e s t P a s s a g e ? — h e se n t in stru ctio n s th a t a th ird v o y a g e w a s to b e im m e d ia te ly r e a d ie d to in te r c e p t C o o k a n d a rre s t h im a s a tre sp a s se r. B u c a r e li w a s u n c o o p e r a tiv e . In M a r c h h e h a d b e e n to ld b y th e fo re ig n o ffice to g iv e his u n d iv id e d a tte n tio n to th e C a r ib b e a n , w h e re fo r m o re th a n a c e n tu r y E n g la n d h a d b e e n n ib b lin g a w a y at S p a n is h p o ss e ssio n s. N o w th a t E n g la n d w a s se n d in g m o re m e n a n d sh ip s to h e r r e b e llio u s c o lo n ie s , m o re tro u b le c o u ld b e e x p e c te d in a s e a th a t h a d lo n g b e e n c o n g e n ia l to p ira te s . A b o tto m -lin e m a n , B u c a r e li c o u ld sh o w th a t th e first tw o e x p e d itio n s h a d c o st th e C r o w n m o re th a n fifty th o u s a n d p e so s . B e s id e s , no R u s s ia n s h a d b e e n fo u n d c lo s e to C a lifo rn ia ,

254

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w h ic h s h o u ld b e th e first lin e o f d e fe n s e a n y w a y . A s fo r in te rÂ c e p tin g C o o k in th e n o rth P a c ific , th a t w a s a b o u t as lik e ly o f s u c c e s s as fin d in g a sin g le sa rd in e in th e se a . T h r o u g h o u t th e su m m e r o f 17 7 6 , w h ile C o o k h e a d e d to w a rd th e

Cape

o f G o o d H o p e , G a lv e z a n d B u c a r e li w r a n g le d b y

tr a n s -o c e a n ic c o m m u n iq u e . T h e a n g ry G a lv e z in siste d on a n Â o th e r v o y a g e . B u c a r e li p le d g e d o b e d ie n c e b u t p o in te d o u t th a t s u c h a p r o je c t w a s r e a lly no lo n g e r in his ju risd ic tio n , b e lo n g in g n o w to T e o d o r o d e C ro ix , th e c o m m a n d a n t-g e n e ra l o f th e b ra n d n e w P rovincias Internas, o f w h ic h th e m in iste r h im s e lf h a d b e e n a rc h ite c t. G a lv e z w a s n o t o n e to a p p r e c ia te b e in g h o iste d b y h is o w n p e ta rd . E v e n m o re a n n o y in g w a s th e g e n e r a l a g r e e m e n t o f h is s o v e r e ig n , C a r lo s III, w ith th e o p in io n o f B u c a r e li. In th e e n d G a lv e z go t h is w a y . In F e b r u a r y o f 17 7 9 , six m o n th s a fte r C o o k h a d fin is h e d c h a rtin g th e N o rth w e s t co a st, tw o frig a te s b u ilt in P e r u s p e c ific a lly for th e p u rp o s e sa ile d o u t o f S a n B ia s . T h e fla g s h ip P rincesa w a s c o m m a n d e d b y L t. Ig n a c io d e A r te a g a a n d th e Favorita w a s c a p ta in e d b y B o d e g a y Q u a d ra , th e m a n w h o s e d a rin g h a d n o t g o n e u n re m e m b e re d . T h e m o n th o f M a y s a w th e m to B u c a r e li S o u n d , w h e re th e y e x p lo re d th e c o n v o lu te d w a te r w a y s o f th e a r c h ip e la g o a n d h a d th e ir n u m b e rs th in n e d b y a s u d d e n o u tb r e a k o f a n u n k n o w n d is e a s e . In su m m e r A r te a g a to o k th e c la im o f S p a in fa r n o rth into P r in c e W illia m S o u n d a n d o n to th e K e n a i P e n in s u la ju s t b e lo w m o d e rn A n c h o r a g e . S to rm s a n d s c u r v y m a d e grim visita tio n s b e fo re th e tw o v e s s e ls tu rn e d a b o u t fo r h o m e . E v e n w ith o u t th e ir h a v in g m e t th e c e le b r a te d C a p ta in C o o k , it w a s a c r e d ita b le fe a t, b u t o n e th a t e v e n ts m a d e stra n g e ly a n tic lim a c tic . W h ile A r te a g a p lo w e d ic y w a te rs a m o n g m iste d fo r e s te d isla n d s, S p a in h a d g o n e to w a r w ith E n g la n d , r e lu c ta n tly o n th e s id e o f th e A m e r ic a n in su rg e n ts b u t a s a n a lly o n ly o f F r a n c e , w h e r e h e r B o u r b o n sister a n d realpolitik h a d le d h er. N o w s h e h a d to fa c e m a tte rs m o re u rg e n t th a n h o w tw o o f h e r m a rin e rs h a d d o n e on so re m o te a c o a s t, s u c h as d e fe n d in g h e r s e lf a g a in s t p o s s ib le a g g r e s s io n in th e G u lf o f M e x ic o , th e P h ilip p in e s ,

S o u th

A m e r ic a ,

and

th e M iss is sip p i V a lle y , a n d

p r o s e c u tin g a n o ld w a r a g a in s t a d iffe re n t e n e m y in, o f a ll p la c e s , N e w M e x ic o .

255

Chapter 13

(S tate of Less Than Enchantment

S pa in

knew

e x ic o

a q u a rte r-m ille n n iu m b e fo r e fra te rn a l

b lo o d w a s sp ille d o n C o n c o r d B r id g e . C o r o n a d o p a s s e d th ro u g h in 1540 , b e fo re th e r e w a s a S a in t A u g u s tin e in F lo rid a , a n d in 1598 O n a te b ro u g h t c o u n try m e n b e n t o n sta y in g in its v a lle y s , b e fo r e th e re w a s a J a m e s to w n in V irg in ia . P h y s ic a lly , it lo o k e d lik e a p la c e fo r S p a n ia rd s â&#x20AC;&#x201D; h o rs e c o u n try w ith b a r e e a rth co lo rs a n d a b o w l o f b lu e sk y, n o t u n lik e E s tr e m a d u r a , th e b ir th p la c e o f so m a n y o f th e first conquistadores. B u t b y th e m id d le o f th e e ig h te e n th c e n tu ry , th e S p a n is h sa lie n t th a t p r o tru d e d u p s tr e a m a lo n g th e R io G r a n d e d e l N o rte w a s tired , a s c r e a k y a s a ca rreta w h e e l, o ld w ith o u t e v e r r e a lly h a v in g b e e n y o u n g . In tru th , th e q u a lity o f life on th e riv e r w a s n e v e r m u c h fro m th e first, a n d th e q u a lity o f th o s e liv in g b e s id e it h a d b e c o m e p r o g r e s s iv e ly w o rs e w ith th e p a s s in g o f y e a r s . In th e b e g in n in g , w h e n th e p r o v in c e w a s g iv e n its n a m e g ra n d w ith p ro m ise , it w a s th o u g h t th a t N e w M e x ic o w o u ld p ro s p e r from m in in g . B u t n a tu re d e c r e e d o th e rw ise . N o g o ld or s ilv e r m e a n t no in flu x o f th e in d u strio u s g r e e d y , w h o , w ith a ll th e w o e s t h e y c a n b rin g , at le a s t g iv e life a n d v ita lity to a p la c e . M a n u fa c tu r in g d id n o t d e v e lo p e ith e r, b e c a u s e th e re w a s little to m a n u fa c tu r e from , no o n e w ith th e skills to m a n u fa c tu r e w e ll, a n d to o fe w w ith m o n e y to b u y fin is h e d g o o d s a n y w a y . R a th e r , th e m a in s ta y s o f th e

fa r-n o rth e rn

c o lo n y

becam e

s u b s is te n c e

a g ric u ltu re ,

th e

ra isin g o f c a ttle a n d s h e e p , a n d tra d e w ith th e n o m a d ic In d ia n s . N o w o n d e r th o s e in N e w

S p a in w ith ta le n ts c h o s e to a p p ly

th e m e ls e w h e re . W h a t c o lle c te d in th e e d d y th a t w a s N e w M e x ic o w a s m o stly

Coronado didnâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t find the riches he was after in N ew Mexico in 1540. Neither did other Spaniards in the next 282 years.

257

R E S U R G E N T S P A IN

h u m a n s e d im e n t. C a s te - c o n s c io u s S p a n ia r d s , w h o h a d n a m e s fo r e v e r y c la ss, c o u ld n o t c o u n t a m o n g th e p e r m a n e n t se ttle rs m a n y peninsu lares, th e e lite b o rn in S p a in . T h e r e w e r e n o t e v e n v e r y m a n y C r e o le s , fu ll S p a n ia r d s in b lo o d b u t, to th e ir m isfo r tu n e , b o rn on th e w ro n g sid e o f th e A tla n tic . I n s te a d , th e b u lk o f th e “ S p a n is h ” p o p u la tio n w a s m a d e u p o f g e n te s d e razon, m ix e d b lo o d s r e d e e m e d b y so m e Ib e r ia n g e n e tic h e r ita g e a n d a p a tin a o f c iv iliz a tio n , a n d genizaros, d o m e s tic a te d n o n - P u e b lo In d ia n s , w h o o fte n as n o t e n d e d u p s e r v in g in th e ir m a s te r s ’ fie ld s a n d ran ch os

w ith o u t

pay.

17 5 4 ,

G o vern o r P ed ro

F e rm in

M e n d in u e ta d e s c r ib e d th e in h a b ita n ts o f N e w M e x ic o a s “ p e r v e r s e , p o o r a n d la z y ,” a n d fo rty y e a r s la te r G o v e r n o r F e r n a n d o d e la C o n c h a sa w c o n c e a le d b e h in d th e ir “ s im u la te d a p p e a r a n c e o f ig n o r a n c e a n d ru stic ity . . . th e m o st re fin e d m a lic e .” O n th e o th e r h a n d , th e g o v e r n e d d id n o t h a v e m u c h to s a y in p ra is e o f th e ir c o rru p t o fficia ls, a s c o u n tle s s c o u rt re c o rd s sh o w , n o r fo r th e o u tp o sts w h e re life h a d d r o p p e d th e m a n d w h e r e t h e y p a s s e d th e tim e o f d a y in id lin g , g a m b lin g , q u a rre lin g , c h e a tin g th e In d ia n s a n d o n e a n o th e r. P o v e r ty w a s th e c e n tra l fa c t o f life in N e w M e x ic o in 1 7 7 6 , a s it a lw a y s h a d b e e n . T h e c u ltiv a tio n o f co rn a n d b e a n s a n d s q u a s h d e p e n d e d u p o n n a tu ra l ra in fa ll, w h ic h th e s e a s o n s so m e tim e s b ro u g h t a n d so m e tim e s d id not. H e r d s o f liv e s to c k g r a z in g o v e r th e o p e n c o u n try s id e w e r e s u b je c t to u n p r e d ic ta b le a n d in d e fe n sib le In d ia n th e ft. N o w o n d e r th a t in th e e ig h te e n th c e n tu r y th e In d ia n s o f th e p u e b lo s w e r e e x c u s e d fro m p a y in g trib u te to th e C ro w n , re q u ir e d e ls e w h e r e th ro u g h o u t N e w S p a in , a n d sa le s ta x e s , w h ic h ra n a s h ig h as 14 p e r c e n t in M e x ic o , w e r e a p p a r e n tly d is p e n s e d w ith in th e p r o v in c e fo r th e v e r y so u n d re a s o n th a t n o th in g c o u ld b e ta k e n fro m n o th in g . N e w M e x ic a n s w e r e c o n sta n tly in d e b t to th e fa r sh a rp e r tra d e rs o f C h ih u a h u a , a n d w h e n co in m o v e d fro m so u th to n o rth , it w a s in o p e n s u b s id y p a id to so ld ie rs a n d

p rie sts a n d

g o v e rn o rs b y th e k in g . A n to n io d e

B o n illa , a d ju ta n t-in s p e c to r o f p re sid io s , r e p o r te d in 1 7 7 6 th a t fro m th e tim e o f th e c o n q u e s t “ th e c o n s e r v a tio n o f N e w M e x ic o h a s co st, a n d c o n tin u e s to co st, th e k in g m a n y h u n d r e d s o f th o u sa n d s o f p e s o s .” ( T h e fig u re ra n to a b o u t fifty th o u s a n d p e r y e a r .) B u t B o n illa w a s o n e o f th o s e m e n w h o strain to s e e silv e r lin in g s.

258

A STA TE OF LESS TH A N EN C H A N TM EN T

“ A lth o u g h this p r o v in c e h a s n o t c o n trib u te d so m u c h as th e re st o f th e In te rio r P r o v in c e s in fa tte n in g th e ro y a l tr e a s u r y ,” h e c o n tin u e d in g ro ss u n d e r s ta te m e n t, “ th e g lo rie s o f s e e in g r e d u c e d a p a rt o f th e n u m e ro u s h e a th e n w h ic h liv e in th e s e te rrito ries a re w o r th y o f a tte n tio n .” T h e C h u r c h m ig h t h a v e w is h e d th a t “ p a r t ” w a s la r g e r th a n it w a s. S p a n ia r d s o n b o th sid e s o f th e A tla n tic to o k th e ir re lig io n a n d its

e v a n g e lic a l

o b lig a tio n s

d e e p ly

and

p e rs o n a lly .

W h ereas

F r e n c h m e n on th e w h o le h a d a g re a te r to le r a n c e fo r th e v a rie tie s o f re lig io u s e x p e r ie n c e , a n d E n g lis h m e n c o u ld se ld o m a c c o m m o d a te re d m e n in th e ir p ro te sta n t d e n o m in a tio n s a n d se c ts, th e S p a n is h c h u rc h w a s in e v e r y w a y ca th o lic , o p e n to all. A b a p tiz e d so u l th e r e b y s a v e d fro m h e ll or lim b o a n d se n t on to th e c o m p a n y o f G o d w a s so m e th in g e v e r y g o o d S p a n ia r d c o u ld r e jo ic e in. M is s io n a rie s w e r e n o t se n t o u t into h e a th e n d o m p u r e ly as a c o v e r fo r im p e ria l g a in . I n d e e d , w h e n th e w h o le N e w M e x ic o e x p e r i e n c e b e g a n to sour, w h e n it b e c a m e c le a r in th e e a r ly s e v e n te e n th c e n tu r y th a t th e d ista n t p ro v in c e w o u ld n e v e r p a y its w a y , th e S p a n is h m o n a r c h y a s s u m e d it as a p e r p e tu a l fin a n c ia l lia b ility p rim a rily in o rd e r to m in iste r to th o s e In d ia n s w h o h a d a lr e a d y b e e n c o n v e r te d a n d to g a th e r y e t o th e rs into th e fold . It d id n ’t tu rn o u t q u ite th a t w a y . T h e F a ith in th is in s ta n c e d id n o t go fo rw a rd to w a rd m o re a n d b e tte r, b u t d id th e r e v e r s e , in th e d ire c tio n o f d is illu sio n m e n t a n d less. A fte r th e r e c o n q u e s t th e a u th o rity o f th e p rie sts w a s c u rb e d , w h ile th a t o f c iv il o fficia ls w a s e n h a n c e d , u n til th e In d ia n s b e g a n g o in g to th e c le r g y w ith th e ir c o m p la in ts a g a in s t v e n a l a u th o ritie s a n d se ttle rs, th o u g h n o t for sp iritu a l a id . T h e m issio n a rie s fo u n d th e m s e lv e s g u a rd ia n s o f In d ia n righ ts a n d p ro p e rty , b u t n o t o f th e ir so u ls, w h ic h b e lo n g e d to o th e r g o d s, fa ls e g o d s. D e s p a ir a n d co rru p tio n a p p e a r e d m o re a n d m o re a m o n g th o s e a n o in te d w ith th e h o ly oil. W h e n B is h o p P e d r o T a m a r o n y R o m e r a l m a d e th e lo n g jo u r n e y fro m D u r a n g o to N e w M e x ic o on a n in s p e c tio n to u r in 176 0 , h e w a s g r e a tly s a d d e n e d . O n ly a fe w o f th e tw e n ty -e ig h t re s id e n t F r a n c is c a n friars h a d le a r n e d th e la n g u a g e s o f th e In d ia n s th e y w e r e m in iste rin g to, th o u g h so m e h a d b e e n th e re fo r o v e r tw e n ty y e a r s , a n d th e S p a n is h u n d e rs to o d b y th e In d ia n s w a s th e w ro n g S p a n is h . “ In tra d e a n d te m p o ra l b u s in e s s w h e re p ro fit is in v o lv e d ,

259

R E S U R G E N T S P A IN

th e In d ia n s a n d S p a n ia r d s u n d e r s ta n d e a c h o th e r c o m p le te ly ,” th e B is h o p w ro te . “ T h is d o e s n o t e x te n d to th e sp iritu a l re a lm w ith re g a r d to w h ic h th e y d is p la y te p id ity a n d in d iffe r e n c e .” T a m a r o n w a s re lu c ta n t to b e s to w th e s a c r a m e n t o f c o n firm a tio n on in s in c e re In d ia n s w h o c o n fe s s e d th e ir sins o n ly on th e ir d e a th b e d s a n d th e n th ro u g h a n in te rp re te r — if o n e h a p p e n e d to b e at h a n d . A g e n tle a n d p o litic m a n fa r a d v a n c e d in y e a r s , T a m a r o n n e v e r th e le s s le ft th e p rie sts firm o rd e rs to le a rn th e lo c a l la n g u a g e s a n d so b e tte r p e rfo rm th e re lig io u s o ffic e s fo r w h ic h th e ir k in g w a s p a y in g th e m th r e e h u n d r e d p e s o s a y e a r . S ix te e n y e a r s la te r, in th e sp rin g o f 1 7 7 6 , F a t h e r F r a n c is c o A ta n a s io D o m in g u e z

a rriv e d in N e w

M e x ic o as c o m m issa ry -

visito r w ith in stru ctio n s to m a k e h is o w n e x h a u s tiv e e v a lu a tio n o f th e sp iritu a l a n d e c o n o m ic situ a tio n . A y o u n g e r m a n th a n T a m a r o n (h e w a s th e n in h is m id -th irties) a n d a c c u s to m e d to th e c iv iliz e d life a n d a m e n itie s o f his n a tiv e M e x ic o C ity , D o m in g u e z w a s a p p a lle d b y v irtu a lly e v e r y th in g h e sa w e x c e p t th e la n d s c a p e . O f S a n ta F e h e said , “ Its a p p e a r a n c e , d e s ig n , a rra n g e m e n t, a n d p la n d o n o t c o rre s p o n d to its sta tu s a s a v illa n o r to th e v e r y b e a u tifu l p la in o n w h ic h it lies, fo r it is lik e a ro u g h sto n e s e t in fin e m e ta l.” T o h im th e c a p ita l lo o k e d “ m o u rn fu l” b e c a u s e th e h o u s e s w e r e all m a d e o f e a rth a n d “ n o t a d o r n e d b y a n y a rtific e o f b ru sh or c o n s tru c tio n .” In sum , h e sa id , “ it la c k s e v e r y t h in g .” H e fo u n d th e

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G a lis te o h a d n e ith e r h o rse n o r c o w a n d w e r e r e d u c e d to to a stin g o ld sh o e s fo r fo o d ), a n d n e a r ly e v e r y w h e r e th e n a tiv e s s h o w e d a “ r e p u g n a n c e a n d r e s is ta n c e to th e m o st C h ris tia n a c ts ,” w h ic h th e y p e rfo rm e d o n ly “ u n d e r c o m p u ls io n .” T h e sta te o f re lig io n w a s m o st d is tre ssin g in th e p u e b lo s o f T a o s a n d P ic u ris, w h e re th e In d ia n s w e r e so “ n o ta b ly o p p o s e d to C h r is tia n ity th a t th e y c a n n o t e v e n lo o k a t C h ris tia n th in g s .” T h e v isito r u n h a p p ily c o n c lu d e d th a t th e In d ia n s w e r e as m u c h n e o p h y te s a s t h e y h a d b e e n a t th e tim e o f th e c o n q u e s t. D o m in g u e z ’ a p p r a is a l o f th e se ttle rs w a s n o h ig h e r. S o m e h a d su n k so lo w a s to b e c o m e h ire d s e rv a n ts fo r th e In d ia n s . H e sin g le d o u t A lb u q u e r q u e fo r s p e c ia l c e n s u r e , c h a r g in g its c itiz e n s “ to a b a n d o n th e le th a r g y a n d la z in e s s in w h ic h th e y h a v e liv e d u p to n o w , to th e lo ss o f m a n y g ra c e s a n d in d u lg e n c e s .” A s fo r th e

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tw e n ty p rie s ts re s p o n s ib le for th e m o re th a n e ig h te e n th o u s a n d n o m in a lly C h ris tia n so u ls in th e territo ry, h e fo u n d so m e g o o d a n d lo v in g m e n la b o rin g u n d e r a lm o st im p o ss ib le co n d itio n s. B u t h e a lso fo u n d so m e b a d a p p le s , “ in so le n t a n d h a u g h ty o f sp irit,” w h o w e r e m o re in te re s te d in a d v a n c in g th e ir te m p o ra l fo rtu n e s in illicit tr a d e a n d co n so rtin g w ith “ n o to rio u s w o m e n o f e v il.” In th e fiv e m issio n s o f E l P a s o , p a rticu la rly , h e d is c o v e r e d a v e r ita b le o rc h a rd o f d ru n k a rd s liv in g in sin a n d sw in d lin g th e In d ia n s. D o m in g u e z ’ d e ta ile d re p o rt c o u ld n o t h a v e su rp rise d S p a n is h c h u r c h m e n or c iv il a u th o ritie s. T h e d e te rio ra tin g situ a tio n in th e n o rth w a s a lr e a d y w e ll k n o w n . A s b a d as th in g s h a d b e e n , th e y w e r e m a d e w o rs e in th e q u a rte r-c e n tu ry a fte r 17 5 0 b y a n In d ia n p r o b le m u n p a r a lle le d in tw o h u n d r e d y e a r s o f S p a n is h e x p e r i e n c e . T h e C o m a n c h e s h a d d riv e n th e A p a c h e s o ff th e so u th e rn p la in s , d riv e n th e m so u th in to th e arid la n d s e a s t a n d w e s t o f th e R io

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S p a n is h h o rs e s a n d sto le n S p a n is h w e a p o n s h u n tin g m o re o f th e sa m e . T o th e e a s t, in T e x a s , th e C o m a n c h e s d ro v e th e L ip a n A p a c h e s te m p o r a r ily in to th e arm s o f th e S p a n is h , to w h o m th e y a p p e a le d fo r h e lp a t m id c e n tu ry . C o m in g as it d id at a tim e w h e n S p a in w a s in a n e x p a n s iv e m o o d in th e p ro v in c e s th a t m a k e u p m o d e r n -d a y T e x a s , a n d c o u p le d w ith n e w re p o rts o f silv e r d e p o sits in A p a c h e te rrito ry, th e S p a n is h r e s p o n d e d b y e s ta b lis h in g a n e w m issio n a n d fo rt o n th e S a n S a b a R iv e r in 1 7 5 7 . T h e m is sio n n e v e r d r e w a sin g le p e r m a n e n t A p a c h e r e s id e n t w ith in its w a lls, b u t it d id a ro u s e th e a n g e r o f th e C o m a n c h e s , w h o stru ck it, first in 17 5 8 a n d a g a in in e a r ly 17 5 9 , b u rn in g th e fo rt a n d m a s s a c rin g so m e th irty so u ls. A p u n itiv e a rm y le d b y C o l. D ie g o O rtiz P a rrilla so u g h t th e e n e m y as fa r n o rth as th e R e d R iv e r , w h e r e o n O c to b e r 7, 17 5 9 , a n e n tr e n c h e d a n d F r e n c h -a r m e d fo r c e o f W ic h ita s r o u n d ly d e fe a te d a n d ro u te d th e S p a n is h tro o p s. T h e C o m a n c h e s th e m s e lv e s c a m e ra id in g fa rth e r so u th a n d w e s t w h e n t h e y h a d a m in d to, a n d a fte r 17 6 3 , w h e n E n g lis h tra d e rs r e p la c e d th e F r e n c h as su p p lie rs o f firea rm s, th e y c a m e w ith a w fu l re g u la rity . T h e d e p r e d a tio n s in N e w M e x ic o d id n ’t sto p th e r e . A m e r in d ia n h u n te rs h a d in stin cts th a t d re w th e m to th e stric k e n , a n d in 1 7 7 5 re s tiv e N a v a jo s to th e w e s t jo in e d in th e ra id in g .

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T h e w h o le w e a r y e n te rp ris e in th e n o rth m ig h t w is e ly h a v e b e e n a b a n d o n e d if S p a n ia r d s h a d n ’t b e e n m a d e o f to u g h e r stu ff. C e n tu r ie s o f u n b r o k e n m e d ie v a l w a r b e tw e e n M o o r a n d C h ris tia n h a d le ft a u n iq u e p e o p le on th e Ib e r ia n p e n in s u la . T h o u g h th e y w e r e r e m a r k a b ly u n ifo rm in h o w t h e y w o r s h ip e d th e ir G o d a n d o b e y e d th e ir k in g , th e ir c h a r a c te r r e m a in e d a m ix ra th e r th a n a re c o n c ilia tio n o f o p p o s ite s. In th e m e x tre m e s c o e x iste d : p rid e a n d p o v e r ty , c r u e lty a n d c o m p a ss io n , id e a lis m a n d c y n ic is m , th e h ig h e s t p u r p o s e a n d th e m e a n e s t m e a n s . W ith in th e m w a s a d ia m o n d -h a rd re s id u e , a g e n iu s fo r e n d u rin g , fo r s ta y in g , a n d w h e n fin a lly g o n e , le a v in g b e h in d w ith h a lf-S p a n ia r d s , or q u a rte rS p a n ia rd s , or s ix te e n th -S p a n ia rd s , or th o s e sim p ly to u c h e d b y th e S p a n ia r d s ’ c u ltu re , a n a lte r e d v ie w o f th e w o rld th a t w a s b a s ic a n d la stin g . E v e n if N e w M e x ic o h a d n o t b e e n a c o m p le te fa ilu re fin a n c ia lly a n d a b a d in v e s tm e n t sp iritu a lly , e v e n if h o ld in g o n to th e n o rth e rn sa te llite h a d n o t b e e n d e e m e d in d is p e n s a b le to th e d e fe n s e o f M e x ic o , S p a n ia rd s h a d a n o th e r re a s o n fo r s ta y in g a fte r 17 5 9 . T h a t w a s n e w h o p e b o rn o f th e B o u r b o n in flu e n c e o u t o f F r a n c e , w h e re th e n e w e n lig h te n e d th in k e rs b e lie v e d all w a s p o s s ib le if m e n b u t a p p lie d th e ir G o d -g iv e n re a s o n . T h e o p tim ism in fe c te d m o re th a n a fe w m e n on N e w S p a in ’s n o rth e rn b o rd e rla n d s . In 17 7 6 , a t th e h e ig h t o f th e In d ia n a g o n y , w h e n th e o u tlo o k w a s d o w n rig h t d ism a l, th e re w a s e x p a n s io n — le ss in te rrito ry h e ld th a n in fu rth e rin g S p a n is h k n o w le d g e o f th e W e st. T h e S p a n is h p r e s e n c e in A r iz o n a in c h e d n o rth th a t y e a r w h e n a p re sid io w a s m o v e d fro m T u b a c to T u c s o n , d e e p e r into to rm e n te d la n d s c o n tro lle d b y th e G ila A p a c h e s . T h e s e ttle m e n t o w e d its e x is te n c e to th e in d e fa tig a b le F a th e r G a r c e s , w h o h a d la id o u t a p u e b lo th e re b u t w a s n o w g o n e , s p e n d in g th e first h a lf o f 1 7 7 6 o n a n in c r e d ib le w a lk o f th e W e s t no w h ite m a n h a d s e e n , fro m th e S a n J o a q u in V a lle y o f C a lifo rn ia th ro u g h s o u th e rn N e v a d a a n d d e e p into n o rth e rn A riz o n a . T h e in h o s p ita b le H o p is p r e v e n te d G a r c e s fro m m a k in g it all th e w a y e a s t to N e w M e x ic o , b u t th e re s o u r c e fu l F r a n c is c a n d id m a n a g e to se n d on to S a n ta F e th e n e w s th a t th e jo u r n e y c o u ld b e m a d e , a n d th a t o n ly th e m a iz e fa rm e rs o f th e m e s a to p s w e re a n o b s ta c le to a la n d lin k b e tw e e n C a lifo rn ia a n d N e w M e x ic o .

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BANCROFT LIBRARY, UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA, BERKELEY

A STA TE OF LESS THAN EN CH A N TM EN T

In 1776 and 1777, the fearless and tireless Father Garces walked a vast stretch o f the Southwest no white man had seen.

G a r c e s ’ le tte r, w ritte n in th e w a n in g h o u rs o f J u ly 3, w a s s tu d ie d w ith th e g r e a te s t in te re s t b y F a th e r S ilv e s tr e V e le z d e E s c a la n te in S a n ta F e . N o t th e p a rt a b o u t th e c o n tra rin e ss o f th e H o p is — h e , to o , h a d v is ite d th e m th e p re v io u s su m m e r a n d k n e w th e ir w a y s — b u t th e fa c t th a t G a r c e s h a d a c tu a lly c o m e fro m C a lifo r n ia , th e d e s tin a tio n o f h is o w n tr a v e l p la n s. In 1 7 7 5 , d o u b tle s s on o rd e rs fro m V ic e r o y B u c a r e li, th e N e w M e x ic a n g o v e rn o r, M e n d in u e ta , h a d a s k e d th e tw e n ty -six -y e a ro ld p r ie s t fo r a re p o rt o n h o w M o n te r e y m ig h t b e r e a c h e d fro m N e w M e x ic o . T h e n , in th e fo llo w in g sp rin g , F a th e r F r a n c is c o A ta n a s io D o m in g u e z , th e s a m e citifie d n e w c o m e r w h o h a d m a d e s u c h a fra n k a p p r a is a l o f th e sta tu s o f N e w M e x ic o ’ s c h u rc h m e n , in v ite d E s c a la n t e to c o m e fro m h is m issio n a m o n g th e Z u n is to S a n ta F e , th e r e to d is c u ss th e p o ss ib ility o f a n e x p e d itio n to C a lifo r n ia . A n a ir o f c o n s p ir a c y h a n g s a b o u t th e tw o c le ric s. T h e fa th e rv isito r h a d b e e n in s tru c te d to le a rn w h a t h e c o u ld a b o u t a c o n n e c tio n b e t w e e n th e in terio r a n d M o n te r e y , a n d to fo rw a rd a n y

265

UTAH STATE HISTORICAL SOCIETY

R E S U R G E N T S P A IN

Modern Utah got feature treatment from Bernardo de M iera y Pacheco, a m em ber o f the Dominguez-Escalante expedition o f 1776.

in fo rm a tio n on th e w o rk o f F a th e r G a r c e s , in fo rm a tio n th a t w o u ld p le a s e â&#x20AC;&#x153; b o th M a je s t ie s â&#x20AC;? (G o d a n d kin g). B u t, n o t u n lik e J o s e d e G a lv e z b e fo re th e m , th e y o u n g a n d e a g e r p a ir s e e m to h a v e ta k e n m a tte rs in to th e ir o w n h a n d s b y a c tu a lly d o in g a s th e y d id , w h ic h w a s to p ic k u p a n d go w e st, n o t d u e w e s t th ro u g h H o p ila n d , b u t n o rth w e st in a g r e a t c irc le

o v e r la n d s th e r e to fo r e u n k n o w n .

Iro n ic a lly , th e ir d e p a rtu r e h a d b e e n se t fo r J u ly 4, b u t a C o m a n c h e c a m p a ig n a n d th e n illn e ss d e la y e d th e m u n til J u ly 29, w h e n th e tw o se t o u t w ith e ig h t o th e r m e n on a fifte e n -h u n d re d -m ile tre k th a t w o u ld ta k e th e m u p w e s te rn C o lo ra d o , a c ro ss n o rth e rn U ta h b e lo w th e U in ta R a n g e , d o w n o n to th e fla ts w e s t o f th e W a s a tc h to L a k e U ta h , so u th in to th e ju n ip e r a n d sa n d s to n e c o u n try , a c ro ss th e d e e p g o rg e o f th e C o lo ra d o , a n d fin a lly h o m e . T h e y r e tu rn e d to S a n ta F e o n J a n u a r y 2, 1 7 7 7 , a liv e a n d h a p p y . It w a s a s tu p e fy in g a c h ie v e m e n t, e q u a le d in c o u r a g e a n d lu c k th a t y e a r o n ly b y th e lo n e ly w a n d e r e r o f th e w a s te la n d s , F r a y

266

A STA TE OF LESS THAN EN C H A N TM EN T

G a r c e s . T h e y d id n o t m a k e it to M o n te r e y , h o w e v e r . In fa c t, th e le tte rs o f D o m in g u e z a n d E s c a la n te r e v e a l th a t n e ith e r th o u g h t t h e y w o u ld e v e r r e a c h C a lifo rn ia , th e ir o s te n s ib le d e stin a tio n . F o r th e m th e a d v e n tu r e w a s th e th in g , s e e in g n e w la n d s a n d n e w p e o p le s ,

a n d — in e v ita b ly ,

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P rio r to le a v in g , D o m in g u e z w ro te o f h o p in g to r e a c h th e C o sn in a s (H a v a s u p a is ) in th e C o lo ra d o R iv e r c a n y o n “ in o rd e r to s tr e n g th e n th e p e o p le o f th is n a tio n in th e ir g o o d in te n tio n s o f b e c o m in g C h r is tia n s .” G o v e r n o r M e n d in u e ta , w h o g e n e r o u s ly su p p lie d th e tra v e le rs w ith th e h o rs e s a n d liv e s to c k a n d o th e r n e c e s s itie s fo r th e ir trip, ex p ressed

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th e r e a r e n o t e n o u g h fa th e rs for th o s e a lr e a d y c o n q u e r e d ,” h e in q u ire d , “ h o w c a n th e r e b e a n y fo r th o s e th a t m a y b e n e w ly c o n q u e r e d ? ” T h e p a ir m ig h t h a v e a n s w e re d th e g o v e rn o r b y r e c o u n tin g C h r is t’ s p a r a b le in w h ic h th e s h e p h e r d le ft th e n in e ty a n d n in e a lo n e in th e d e s e r t to go a fte r th e o n e th a t w a s lost. F o r, u p o n re tu rn in g , th e tw o g lo rie d in h a v in g b ro u g h t b a c k a sin g le In d ia n c o n v e r t, w h o jo in e d th e m n e a r U ta h L a k e . N o , o p tim ism h a d n o t v a n is h e d on th e S p a n is h fro n tier in th a t y e a r o f w a r — th a t y e a r o f A m e r ic a ’ s w a r in th e E a s t a n d S p a in ’s w a r in th e W e st.

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c ru m b lin g rim o f n o m in a l C h ris te n d o m in 1 7 7 6 b y th e k in g to re p o rt o n its fu ll b r e a d th , fro m T e x a s to S o n o ra . H e d id not e x p e c t to s e e R u s s ia n s or E n g lis h m e n lu rk in g in th e m e s q u ite , b u t re d s k in s , y e s . T h o s e h e fo u n d e v e r y w h e r e , a n d th e y w e re on th e w a rp a th . P a p a g o s w e r e ra id in g th e p re sid io o f T u b a c , th e n S p a in ’s fa r th e s t p e n e tr a tio n in to m o d e rn A riz o n a . F a r to th e e a st, in T e x a s , C o m a n c h e s a n d th e trib e s S p a n ia r d s r e fe rre d to as th e I n d ia n s o f th e N o rth (W ich ita s, T o n k a w a s ) th r e a te n e d to lin k u p a n d d e s tr o y th e s p a r s e ly p o p u la te d a n d s a d ly stru n g o u t S p a n is h o u tp o sts . E v e r y w h e r e in b e tw e e n — w e st, so u th , a n d e a s t o f N e w M e x ic o — th e r e w e r e A p a c h e s : L ip a n s , J ic a rilla s, F a r a o n e s , a n d N a t a g e s e a s t o f th e R io G r a n d e ; M e s c a le r o s to th e so u th o n b o th s id e s o f th e riv e r; a n d G ila A p a c h e s in w e s te rn N e w M e x ic o a n d A r iz o n a .

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R E S U R G E N T S P A IN

N e v e r h a d th e A p a c h e s b e e n stro n g e r or m o re b r a z e n , n o w rid in g th e b e s t h o rs e s th e S p a n is h b r e d , r u n n in g o ff a n d fe a s tin g o n S p a n is h c a ttle , a n d ra id in g S p a n is h s u p p ly c o n v o y s . S o s u c c e s s fu l w e r e th e s e p a r a s ite s th a t t h e y th r e a te n e d to d o in th e ir h o sts. F a th e r G a r c e s sa w G o d ’ s h a n d in th e A p a c h e m a y h e m . H e th o u g h t th e s a v a g e s h a d b e e n se n t a s a s c o u r g e to p u n is h S p a n ia rd s fo r “ h a v in g la p s e d fro m th a t p rim a l fe r v o r o f c o n q u e s t o f so u ls fo r G o d .” I f so, th e n th e S p a n ia r d s c o m p o u n d e d th e ir sin o f n e g le c t b y o p e n ly re sistin g G o d ’s v e n g e a n c e ; a ll-o u t w a r w a s to b e w a g e d o n th e A p a c h e b a n d s , ju s t a s so o n a s th e S p a n ia r d s w e r e stro n g e n o u g h to w a g e it. R u b i re p o rte d h is fin d in g s in 1 769 a t a c o u n c il o f w a r in M e x ic o C ity . S o m e m ilita ry c o m m a n d e rs o n th e n o rth e rn fro n tie r w e re c o w a rd s, h e sa id , w h ile o th e rs w e r e p e c u la to r s , c h e a tin g th e m e n th e y le d o f th e ir m e a g e r sa la rie s . T h e tro o p s w e r e in ra g s, p o o rly a rm e d , th e ir m o ra le as lo w a s th e sp irit o f th e so rry n a g s th e A p a c h e s h a d le ft th e m . R u b i r e c o m m e n d e d re fo rm a n d n e w m a rtia l b lo o d in w h a t w a s strictly a m ilita ry so lu tio n . T h e d e fe n s iv e p e r im e te r h a d to b e s h o rte n e d to c o n fo rm w ith w h a t h e c a lle d th e “ r e a l” ra th e r th a n th e “ im a g in a r y ” fro n tier. S o m e p o sts sh o u ld b e a b a n d o n e d , e s p e c ia lly in T e x a s , w h e r e th e r e w a s no lo n g e r a F r e n c h d a n g e r a n d w h e re his M o s t C a th o lic M a je s t y ’s s u b je c ts w e r e to o w id e ly s p a c e d fo r th e ir o w n g o o d . N e w p re sid io s sh o u ld b e b u ilt to m a k e ta u t th e c h a in . T h e r e c o m m e n d a tio n s w e r e a c c e p te d a n d in c o rp o ra te d into th e R o y a l R e g u la tio n o f 1 7 7 2 , a n d V ic e r o y B u c a r e li a p p o in te d D o n H u g o O ’ C o n o r c o m m a n d e r-in s p e c to r to im p le m e n t th e m . F o u r m issio n s a n d tw o p re sid io s w e r e a b a n d o n e d in e a s t T e x a s , a n d th e ir in h a b ita n ts fo rc e d to m o v e to S a n A n to n io w h ic h w a s, lik e N e w M e x ic o , a n o u tp o st n o rth o f th e fifte e n p re s id io s th a t w ere

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e a s t, o ff th e o p e n p la in s a n d into th e p r o te c tiv e frin g e o f th e w o o d la n d s w h e re , in th e sp rin g o f 17 7 9 , th e s e ttle m e n t o f N a c a g d o c h e s to o k p e r m a n e n t root. M e a n w h ile , G e n e r a l O ’C o n o r h a d a rriv e d on th e n o rth e rn fro n tie r w ith m o re a rm s a n d re in fo rc e m e n ts, a n d w a s im m e d i a te ly in itia te d in to th e s h a d o w w o rld o f A p a c h e w a r. F o r fo u r y e a r s h e c a m p a ig n e d a lm o st c o n tin u o u s ly a g a in s t th e fu g itiv e b a n d s , a b s o r b in g so m e d e fe a ts b u t a lso a c h ie v in g h is sh a re o f v ic to rie s — s u c c e s s fu l o v e r a ll in ro llin g th e A p a c h e s b a c k to th e n o rth . B y 1 7 7 6 c o n d itio n s h a d b e c o m e a lm o st to le ra b le in S o n o ra a n d N u e v a V iz c a y a , b u t in N e w M e x ic o , w h e re m a n y o f th e A p a c h e s h a d r e tr e a te d a n d w h e re th e C o m a n c h e s w e r e as a c tiv e a s e v e r , th e r e w a s no s u r c e a s e fro m th e v io le n c e . O ’C o n o r, in fa ilin g h e a lth fro m th e effo rt, a s k e d to b e r e lie v e d a n d g iv e n a le s s d e m a n d in g p o st. In th is h e w a s r e w a r d e d w ith th e g o v e rn o r sh ip o f G u a te m a la fo r his ste rlin g — if in c o m p le te — se rv ic e s . T h e m o n th a fte r E n g la n d ’ s th irte e n c o lo n ie s fo rm a lly d e c la r e d th e ir s e p a r a te n e s s , S p a in ’s C o u n c il o f th e In d ie s s e p a r a te d th e n o rth e rn te rrito rie s fro m th e re st o f N e w S p a in into th e Provincias

Internas, a s in g le g o v e r n m e n ta l d e p a rtm e n t u n d e r C o m m a n d a n tG e n e r a l T e o d o r o d e C ro ix , w h o w a s to a tte n d first to r e d u c in g th e h o stile In d ia n s . T h e F r e n c h - b o r n C a b a lle r o d e C ro ix h a d s e r v e d u n d e r h is u n c le in v a rio u s c a p a c itie s w h ile th e M a r q u e s , G a lv e z ’s p a w n , w a s v ic e r o y , h a d g o n e b a c k to S p a in w ith th e se n io r d e C r o ix in 1 7 7 2 , a n d n o w in 1 7 7 6 h a d re tu rn e d to th e A m e r ic a s to h e a d u p th e In te rio r P r o v in c e s . It w a s in e v ita b le th a t B u c a r e li a n d C ro ix w o u ld g ra te on o n e a n o th e r a n d c la s h as o fte n a s th e y did. T h e v ic e r o y h a d ju s t lo st c o n tro l o f a lm o st h a lf o f N e w S p a in to th e fo rty -six -y e a r-o ld so ld ie r w ith frie n d s in h ig h p la c e s . C ro ix , fo r h is p a rt, re tu rn e d c o o ln e s s w ith c o o ln e s s d u rin g h is n in e -m o n th “ fa m ilia riz a tio n ” s ta y in M e x ic o C ity ; a n d e v e n b e fo re h e r e a c h e d th e la n d s h e w o u ld a d m in is te r, re p o rts fro m th e v a rio u s g o v e rn o rs o f th e n o rth e rn p r o v in c e s c o n v in c e d h im th a t h e n e e d e d tw o th o u s a n d a d d itio n a l tro o p s to c a rry o u t th e k in g ’s w ill on th e fifte e n h u n d r e d m ile s o f b le e d in g fro n tier. T h e fis c a lly c o n s e r v a tiv e B u c a r e li w a s a p p a lle d a t th e s ix -h u n d re d -th o u sa n d -p e so a n n u a l c o st o f m e e tin g s u c h a r e q u e s t a n d b r u s h e d h im off, s a y in g h e

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w o u ld p r o b a b ly c h a n g e h is m in d o n c e h e a c tu a lly in s p e c te d th e p r o v in c e s th a t O ’C o n o r h a d ta m e d . The

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O ’C o n o r, h e c le a r ly im p lie d , h a d lie d a b o u t th e tru e sta te o f th in g s in th e n orth. A n a tta c k o n O ’C o n o r, B u c a r e li’s a p p o in te e , m a d e B u c a r e li b u rn , b u t w ith C ro ix r e g u la rly a irin g h is d is sa tisfa c tio n s to G a lv e z , th e v ic e r o y c o u ld o n ly d e fe n d O ’ C o n o r b y p o in tin g o u t th a t so m e o fficers p r e s e n tly s e rv in g u n d e r C ro ix h a d file d e n c o u r a g in g r e p o rts. T h e c o m m a n d a n t-g e n e r a l p e r s is te d in h is d e m a n d s for th e tw o th o u s a n d tro o p s w h ic h , e v e n i f t h e y h a d b e e n a v a ila b le , w o u ld n e v e r b e sen t. In F e b r u a r y o f 1 7 7 9 , C ro ix r e c e iv e d a ro y a l o rd e r to c e a s e o ffe n s iv e w a r a g a in s t th e In d ia n s a n d to try to w in th e m o v e r b y g e n tle m e a n s. It w a s a h e a v y b lo w to C ro ix , fo llo w e d b y a n o th e r in S e p te m b e r w h e n G a lv e z in fo rm e d h im th a t S p a in h a d g o n e to w a r w ith E n g la n d . T h a t m e a n t n o r e in fo rc e m e n ts , e v e r , a n d th a t h e w a s on h is ow n . In tru th , C ro ix h a d b e e n p r e tty m u c h o n h is o w n a ll a lo n g . A p p a r e n tly a n a tu ra l c o m p la in e r b u t n o n e th e le s s a n a b le o fficer, h e h a d h a d h is lo c a l s u c c e s s e s a lo n g th e im p o ss ib le b o u n d a r y th a t k n e w fe w s ile n c e s b e t w e e n w a r w h o o p s. H e h a d o r g a n iz e d lo c a l m ilitias a m o n g th e se ttle rs to p ro v id e a d e fe n s iv e c a p a b ility th a t w o u ld fr e e p re s id ia l re g u la rs fo r o ffe n s iv e w a r. A s e a r ly a s N o v e m b e r o f 1 7 7 7 , w h ile E n g lis h m e n d ig e s te d th e d e b a c le o f B u r g o y n e a t S a r a to g a , C ro ix c o n v e n e d th e first o f a se rie s o f w a r c o u n c ils w ith h is fro n tie r c o m m a n d e rs , m a in ly to d e c id e w h a t to d o a b o u t T e x a s a n d N e w M e x ic o . O u t o f th e m e v o lv e d th e r e s u r re ctio n o f a d iv id e -a n d -c o n q u e r p o lic y . T h e A p a c h e b a n d s w e re to b e sp lit u p — th e L ip a n s to b e w a rre d o n a n d th e M e s c a le r o s to b e w o o e d w ith c o n c e s sio n s. W h e r e p o ss ib le , th e S p a n ia r d s w e r e

270

A STA TE OF LESS THAN EN CH A N TM EN T

to a lly th e m s e lv e s w ith th e C o m a n c h e s , w h o w e re th e m s e lv e s to b e is o la te d fro m o th e r trib e s a n d se t a g a in s t th e A p a c h e s , th e ir n a tu r a l p r e y . T h e s tra ta g e m w o rk e d e s p e c ia lly w e ll in T e x a s , la r g e ly d u e to a m a n w h o w a s n o t a S p a n ia rd . W ith th e ir a c q u is i tio n o f L o u is ia n a in 17 6 3 , S p a in in h e rite d fro m F r a n c e A th a n a s e d e M e z ie r e s , a n o ffic e r at N a tc h ito c h e s , old p o st o f th e d a s h in g St. D e n is . I n d e e d , d e M e z ie r e s h a d o n c e b e e n m a rrie d to a d a u g h te r o f S t. D e n is a n d , lik e his fa th e r-in -la w , w a s P a ris-b o rn , e d u c a te d , c u ltiv a te d , s u c c e s s fu l as a tra d e r, a n d p o s s e s s e d o f th a t s a m e u n c a n n y skill in d e a lin g w ith th e re d m an . T h r o u g h d ip lo m a c y , d e M e z ie r e s h a d k e p t th e W ic h ita s a n d T o n k a w a s fro m jo in in g in p e r m a n e n t a llia n c e w ith th e C o m a n c h e s . T o C ro ix h e w a s a n in v a lu a b le a d v is e r w h o re fin e d th e s c h e m e to b r e a k th e p o w e r o f th e e a s te r n A p a c h e s . In 1 7 7 9 , a b o u t to b e r e w a r d e d fo r h is s e r v ic e s w ith th e g o v e rn o rsh ip o f T e x a s , d e M e z ie r e s d ie d a fte r b e in g th ro w n fro m a h o rse. E a r ly th a t s a m e y e a r th e C o m a n c h e s a s s a u lte d th e L ip a n s m e r c ile s s ly , c o stin g th e A p a c h e s th re e h u n d re d o f th e ir n u m b e r a n d s e n d in g th e su rv iv o rs to th e S p a n is h , b e g g in g p e a c e a n d p ro te c tio n . T h e L ip a n h u m ilia tio n w a s a w in d fa ll for th e S p a n ia rd s in th e ir p la n to b r e a k th e p o w e r o f th e e a s te rn A p a c h e s . H o w th e C o m a n c h e s c o u ld s u c c e e d w h e re th e S p a n ia rd s o fte n fa ile d p o in ts u p n o t o n ly th e fig h tin g h e a rt a n d skill o f th e C o m a n c h e s b u t th e la c k o f th e s a m e fo r th e S p a n ia rd s . T h e e ffe c t iv e n e s s o f th e c o m m o n so ld ie r or le a th e r - ja c k e t — so c a lle d for his m u lti-p ly le a th e r c o a t u s e d as a rm o r a g a in s t In d ia n a rro w s — h a d lo n g b e e n d is a d v a n ta g e d b y in ferio r w e a p o n s a n d p o o r tra in in g . C r o ix m a n a g e d to im p ro v e b o th . B u t tro o p s h a d to b e le d , a n d w e ll le d , b y o ffic e rs o f c o u r a g e a n d im a g in a tio n ; o n th e n o rth e rn fro n tie r th e r e w a s a d e a r th o f th e s e , too. F o r tu n a te ly fo r S p a in , C r o ix h a d a t le a s t o n e —J u a n B a u tis ta d e A n z a . A fte r A n z a ’s s e c o n d trip to C a lifo rn ia in 1 7 7 6 , C ro ix p u t h im in c o m m a n d o f th e a r m e d fo r c e s in his n a tiv e S o n o ra . In th e y e a r h e w a s th e r e , h e g a v e fu rth e r p r o o f o f his a b ilitie s b y p u ttin g d o w n a S e r i u p risin g . C le a r ly a c o m e r, in 17 7 8 h e b e c a m e c iv il a n d m ilita ry g o v e r n o r o f N e w M e x ic o , a p p o in te d to th a t o ffice b y th e k in g , n o t b y C ro ix . A n z a im m e d ia te ly in s p e c te d all th e v illa g e s in th e p r o v in c e , r e d e s ig n in g fo rtific a tio n s a n d la y in g p la n s to

271

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Anza goes into modern Colorado to de feat Cuerno Verde and the Comanches late in 1779. Anza breaches Apacheria to link New Mexico and Sonora for the first time, in 1780.

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b rin g th e se ttle rs in to d e fe n s ib le p u e b lo s fro m th e ir s c a tte r e d fie ld s , w h e r e t h e y w e r e e a s y m a rk s fo r A p a c h e a n d C o m a n c h e ra id in g p a rtie s . In h is r e s e ttle m e n t p la n th e g o v e r n o r w a s fr u s tra te d b y th e r e c a lc itr a n t r a n c h e rs , w h o c o m p la in e d to C ro ix a n d a n y b o d y e ls e w h o w o u ld listen . In little e ls e d id A n z a fa il. In th e c o ld A u g u s t o f 1 7 7 9 , h e le d six h u n d r e d so ld ie rs, m ilitia, a n d In d ia n a u x ilia rie s n o rth o u t o f T a o s on a little -u se d trail th ro u g h C o lo r a d o ’s F r o n t R a n g e , to s e e k a n d d e s tro y th e n o to rio u s C o m a n c h e c h ie f C u e r n o V e r d e a n d h is b a n d , w h o h a d b e e n te rro riz in g N e w M e x ic o fo r te n y e a r s fro m

th e ir C o lo r a d o sa n c tu a ry . N e a r m o d e rn P u e b lo , A n z a ’s

fo rc e tr a p p e d th e C o m a n c h e s a n d k ille d G r e e n H o rn a n d his fin e s t w arrio rs, to th e g r e a t r e lie f o f n o rth e rn N e w M e x ic o . A n z a w a s m o re th a n a n e ffic ie n t b lo o d le tte r. T h e fo llo w in g S e p te m b e r h e w e n t o n a m issio n o f m e r c y to th e H o p is, d e c im a te d b y d ro u g h t on th e ir m e s a to p s, a n d o ffe r e d fo o d a n d e s c o r t to th o s e w h o w is h e d to r e s e ttle a lo n g th e R io G r a n d e . A fe w m o n th s la te r th e p r o v e n p a th fin d e r w a s o ff on a d e la y e d p r o je c t — th a t o f fin d in g a trail fro m N e w M e x ic o to S o n o ra , w ith h o p e s o f stim u la tin g n e e d e d tra d e b e t w e e n th e tw o p r o v in c e s a n d b r e a c h in g th e r u g g e d h o m e la n d o f th e fie r c e G ila A p a c h e s , th e m o st e x a s p e r a tin g o f all th e A p a c h e b a n d s . A n z a le ft S a n ta F e on N o v e m b e r 9, 178 0, a n d stru c k s o u th w e s t fro m th e R io G r a n d e a t F r a y C ris to b a l o v e r th e d e s o la te c ra g s o f th e M im b re s a n d C h ir ic a h u a m o u n ta in s, e n te rin g A r iz p e in m id -D e c e m b e r . T h o u g h th e ro u te w o u ld n o t b e th e o n e la te r p r o fita b ly u s e d b y th e S p a n ia r d s th ro u g h th e G ila A p a c h e c o u n try , A n z a h a d a g a in sh o w n h im s e lf m a ste r o f th e p o ss ib le . W h ile A n z a s e r v e d C ro ix w e ll, th e r e v e r s e w a s n o t to b e tru e . M o d e s t s u c c e s s e s a tte n d e d C r o ix ’ s m a n a g e m e n t o f th e fro n tie r fro m T e x a s to S o n o ra . B u t th e c o m m a n d a n t-g e n e r a l h a d n o t g o n e fa rth e r w e st, a n d th a t w a s w h e re d is a ste r o c c u rre d . T h e Y u m a re v o lt in th e su m m e r o f 1 7 8 1 p e r m a n e n tly c u t th e la n d lin k to C a lifo rn ia . C ro ix n e e d e d a s c a p e g o a t a n d fo u n d it in A n z a , w h o , so C ro ix said , h a d m isle d h is su p e rio r b y r e p r e s e n tin g th e Y u m a s a s p e a c e a b le . A c tu a lly , A n z a h a d w a r n e d th a t th e trib e re q u ir e d te n d e r tre a tm e n t, a n d F a th e r G a r c e s , w h o h a d s ta y e d on a t th e C o lo r a d o R iv e r s e ttle m e n t to his m a rty rd o m , re p e a t-

274

A STA TE OF LESS TH A N EN C H A N TM EN T

e d ly a d v is e d C ro ix o f th e d e te rio ra tin g situ a tio n . C u rio u s ly , a fe w m o n th s b e fo r e C ro ix b la c k e n e d A n z a ’s re p u ta tio n , h e h a d a u th o re d a re p o rt p ra isin g A n z a fo r his e x c e p tio n a l gifts. N o m a tter. A n z a ’s c a r e e r w a s c a p p e d . In 178 3 , th e sa m e y e a r th e o th e r g e n e ra l w a r o n th e N o rth A m e r ic a n c o n tin e n t w a s o ffic ia lly c o n c lu d e d in P a ris , C ro ix w a s p ro m o te d to v ic e r o y o f P e ru . S u c c e e d in g him as c o m m a n d a n t-g e n e r a l w a s th e g o v e rn o r o f th e C a lifo rn ia s , F e lip e d e N e v e , w h o jo in e d in th e sla n d e r o f A n z a a n d m e a n t to h a v e h im r e lie v e d o f h is c o m m a n d a n d his s e rv ic e re c o rd c le a n s e d o f h o n o rs. N e v e , h o w e v e r , d ie d a fe w m o n th s a fte r ta k in g th e p o st. A n z a s ta y e d on a s N e w M e x ic o ’s g o v e rn o r fo r a n o th e r fo u r y e a r s , w e a n in g th e N a v a jo s a w a y fro m a n a llia n c e w ith th e G ila A p a c h e s a n d c e m e n tin g tre a tie s w ith th e r e d o u b ta b le C o m a n c h e s th a t g a v e N e w M e x ic o a g e n e ra tio n o f r e la tiv e p e a c e a n d p ro s p e rity . T h e n h e r e tu r n e d to S o n o ra w ith th e le s s e r title o f p ro v is io n a l c o m m a n d e r o f th e p r o v in c e ’s a rm e d fo rc e s a n d c a p ta in o f th e p re sid io o f T u c s o n . H e d ie d w ith in th e y e a r. T h e u rg e is a lw a y s stro n g to sc ra tc h th e p a s t fo r g o o d g u y s a n d b a d g u y s , fo r s u c c e s s e s a n d fa ilu re s , for th o s e w h o m a d e h isto ry a n d th o s e w h o w e r e u n m a d e b y it. N e w S p a in , re s u r g e n t at th e tim e o f th e A m e r ic a n R e v o lu tio n , p r e s e n ts m a n y o p p o rtu n itie s. S o m e h isto ria n s h a v e s in g le d o u t C ro ix fo r b la m e in th e e v e n tu a l fa ilu r e o f S p a in on its fa r n o rth e rn fro n tier; o th ers, in d e fe n s e o f C ro ix , h a v e d is p a r a g e d B u c a r e li as a v isio n le ss b u r e a u c r a t. I f re s p o n s ib ility m u s t fa ll s o m e w h e r e , p e r h a p s it sh o u ld b e o n th e fo r c e fu l b ro w o f J o s e d e G a lv e z , th e a m b itio u s m a n w h o in fo llo w in g h is o w n lig h ts e x p a n d e d a n d th e r e b y le s s e n e d S p a in ’s a l r e a d y w e a k h o ld o n th e A m e r ic a n W e st. Y e t G a lv e z w a s a m a n o f v isio n . H e m a d e th in g s h a p p e n . T h o s e w h o w rite h isto ries te n d to r e m e m b e r m o v e rs a n d s h a k e rs k in d ly , e v e n th o u g h e x te rn a l e v e n ts o fte n in tru d e o n a m a n ’s d re a m a n d r e s h a p e it into a n ig h tm a re . C ro ix , in re p o rtin g on T e x a s in 1 7 8 1 , sa id th a t n o t u n til th e p r e s e n t A n g lo - A m e r ic a n w a r “ is c o n c lu d e d c a n a n y th in g a d v a n ta g e o u s b e d o n e to k e e p th e g r e e d y n a tio n s o f th e In d ia n s o f th e N o rth c o n te n t a n d q u ie t.” T h e c o m m a n d a n t-g e n e r a l c o r r e c tly r e c o g n iz e d th e o th e r w a r a s th e k e y e v e n t. H e sim p ly m is-id e n tifie d th o s e “ g r e e d y n a tio n s .”

275

Chapter 14

the Wonder Worker J o s £ WAS NOT THE

only

GA l v e z . H e h a d a b ro th e r M a tia s , w h o m

h e a p p o in te d v ic e r o y o f N e w S p a in in 178 3 . M a tia s h a d a son, a n d J o s e a n e p h e w , n a m e d B e r n a r d o , a p ro m isin g y o u n g o fficer w h o h a d p e rfo rm e d w e ll a g a in s t th e A p a c h e s in N u e v a V iz c a y a a n d T e x a s fro m 17 7 0 to 1 7 7 2 . B e r n a r d o h a d as a frie n d T e o d o r o d e C ro ix , n e p h e w o f th e M a r q u e s d e C ro ix , B u c a r e li’ s p r e d e c e s s o r as v ic e r o y , w h o w a s, n o t su rp risin g ly , a c lo s e frie n d o f J o s e d e G a lv e z . T h e y m a d e a c o z y little c irc le — a lso a ta le n te d c ircle . P e r h a p s th e m o st ta le n te d o f th e m all w a s B e r n a r d o . A t le a s t A m e r ic a n s w o u ld h a v e re a s o n s for r e m e m b e r in g h im w ith fo n d g ra titu d e , ju s t as th e E n g lis h w e r e to ru e th e d a y th e g a lla n t S p a n ia r d se t fo o t o n L o u is ia n a soil. T h a t fa te fu l d a y b e lo n g e d to th e y e a r 17 7 6 . S c h o o le d in m ilita ry s c ie n c e in F r a n c e

and

s e v e r a l tim e s

w o u n d e d o n S p a in ’ s b a ttle fie ld s , B e r n a r d o d e G a lv e z ro se ro c k e t lik e in th e S p a n is h a rm y , fro m th e ra n k o f lie u te n a n t d u rin g his A p a c h e - fig h tin g d a y s to lie u te n a n t c o lo n e l w h e n h e a rriv e d in N e w O rle a n s to c o m m a n d c o lo n ia l fo rc e s . H e r e m a in e d in th a t d u ty o n ly a m a tte r o f m o n th s b e fo re , n o t y e t th irty y e a r s o f a g e , h e w a s a p p o in te d g o v e r n o r -g e n e r a l o f th e c o lo n y , to s u c c e e d th e retirin g L u is d e U n z a g a y A m e z a g a . H a v in g sp o n so rs in h ig h p la c e s h a d b ro u g h t h im fa r a n d fa st; n o w h e w o u ld h a v e to d ra w on his o w n gifts in ru lin g fe w e r th a n tw e n ty th o u s a n d n o n - S p a n ia rd s in a la n d w ith o u t lim its, w h ile d e s tin y ’s w a r r a g e d e a s t o f th e M iss is sip p i R iv e r . A c tu a lly , w h e n

G a lv e z to o k o v e r, th e in te rn a l situ a tio n in

S p a n is h L o u is ia n a w a s a lm o st sta b le , m u c h im p ro v e d fro m th e

276

T H E W ONDER W ORKER

y e a r s im m e d ia te ly a fte r th e

176 3 tr e a ty tra n sfe r. S o m e h a v e

sa id F r a n c e w a s g la d to p itc h its u s e le s s b u rd e n o ff o n to th e b a c k o f p o o r-co u sin S p a in , a n d th a t th e S p a n ia rd s — n o b o d y ’ s fo o ls — h a d a c c e p te d it w ith th e g r e a te s t re lu c ta n c e , as a so p fo r th e lo ss o f th e ir F lo rid a s to E n g la n d in th e S e v e n Y e a r s ’ W ar. W h y e ls e th e fo u r-y e a r h ia tu s fro m p a p e r p o s s e s s io n to to k e n o c c u p a tio n ? M o re lik e ly S p a in d id w a n t w e s te rn L o u is ia n a , if fo r no o th e r re a s o n th a n to a p p e a s e h e r in e x h a u s tib le n a tio n a l p a ss io n for d e fe n s e — fo r o n e m o re la y e r o f s a v a g e la n d w ith s a v a g e p e o p le s b e tw ix t th e e n e m y a n d M e x ic o . W h a te v e r th e re a s o n , th e p a s s in g o f th e b a to n h a d b e e n fu m b le d , to th e e m b a rra s s m e n t o f b o th S p a in a n d F r a n c e . T h e r e w a s th a t n a s ty e p is o d e in 176 8 w h e n th e la te c o m e r U llo a ta c tle s s ly p r o v o k e d a re b e llio n th a t sa w th e g o v e rn o r a n d h is s h a b b y so ld ie rs u n c e r e m o n io u s ly e v ic te d . T h e n th e fo llo w in g y e a r G e n e r a l A le ja n d r o O ’R e illy a rriv e d in N e w O rle a n s in fo rc e a n d p ro m p tly a rre s te d th e re a d e r s o f ra d ic a l E u r o p e a n w rite rs a n d h a d fiv e o f th e r in g le a d e r s sh o t, th u s e n d in g a m in o rity d re a m o f a C r e o le re p u b lic . T h in g s tu rn e d a ro u n d a n d g o t b e tte r a fte r th a t. O ’R e illy r e la x e d his h o ld o n th e g o v e r n e d a n d tr e a te d th e m ju s tly ; th e p la in tiv e stru m m in g s o f th e g u ita r b e c a m e as p le a s in g a s th e y w e r e fa m ilia r to F r e n c h e a rs on su ltry su m m e r e v e n in g s in old N e w O rle a n s. O ’R e illy le ft in 17 7 0 , a n d th e m a n tle o f a u th o rity fe ll on th e s h o u ld e rs o f th e a g in g c o lo n ia l a d m in istra to r, U n z a g a . A lm o s t im m e d ia te ly U n z a g a fa c e d a w a r s c a r e b r o u g h t on b y a S p a n is h - E n g lis h d is p u te o v e r th e F a lk la n d Isla n d s in th e fa r so u th A tla n tic . B ritish c o n tin g e n c y p la n s c a lle d fo r a n a s s a u lt on S p a n is h L o u is ia n a sh o u ld w a r c o m e , a n d U n z a g a w a s o rd e re d to d e fe n d th e te rrito ry i f h e co u ld ; o th e rw ise h e sh o u ld r e tre a t to M e x ic o . B u t th e d a n g e r p a s s e d , a n d th e e v e n - te m p e r e d g o v e rn o r g o t d o w n to th e b u s in e s s h e w a s b e s t at — co n c ilia tio n . H e w a s c a r e fu l n o t to tre a d on F r e n c h c u sto m s a n d p e rq u is ite s . H e c u s h io n e d th e r a g e o f h a r d -s h e lle d S p a n is h p rie sts, w h o fo u n d th e F r e n c h C a p u c h in s v o lu p tu a rie s re m iss in e v e n th e ir b a s ic r e lig io u s d u tie s . H e lo o k e d th e o th e r w a y fro m th e c o n tra b a n d tr a d e — m u c h o f it w ith E n g lis h sh ip s a n c h o r e d in th e M iss is sip p i — th a t w a s a g a in s t S p a n is h la w b u t v ita l to th e c o lo n y ’s su rv iv a l, c r a c k in g d o w n o n o n ly th e m o st fla g ra n t o ffe n d e rs . U n d e r U n z a g a ’s

277

General Alejandro O’Reilly crushed the French radicals and their dream o f making Louisiana a Creole republic.

e ffic ie n t d ire c tio n a n d to le r a n c e th e c o lo n y b e g a n to g ro w a n d to p ro s p e r as it n e v e r h a d u n d e r F r a n c e . T h e n c a m e th e sp lit — th e b r e a k a w a y o f th e c o lo n ie s to th e e a s t fro m th e ir m o th e r c o u n try , th e d r e a d e d E n g la n d . A n o b s e r v a tio n U n z a g a h a d m a d e fo u r y e a r s e a rlie r to o k o n th e w e ig h t o f p r o p h e c y : “ I f t h e y [A n g lo s o f e ith e r p o litica l b e n t] p o s s e s s th e s e e s ta b lis h m e n ts fro n tin g o n th e k in g d o m o f M e x ic o w ith o u t a n y o th e r in te rp o sitio n th a n th e M iss is sip p i R iv e r , th e y w ill in tro d u c e to u s c o m m e r c e in tim e o f p e a c e a n d a rm ie s in tim e o f w a r .” M o n th s b e fo r e th e A m e r ic a n s d e c la r e d in d e p e n d e n c e , th e re b e ls in fo rm e d S p a in th a t it w o u ld b e in h e r in te re s t to su p p o rt th e m . O th e rw is e , w e n t th e n o n e -to o -s u b tle b la c k m a il, E n g la n d w o u ld sw a llo w th e W e st. U n z a g a fo u n d th e o fficia l p o s tu re o f “ p e r fe c t n e u tr a lity ” (w h ic h w a s, in fa c t, n a k e d ly im p e rfe c t) u n c o m fo rt a b le , e s p e c ia lly a fte r c o n sp irin g in th e s e c r e t s h ip m e n t o f g u n p o w d e r to th e A m e r ic a n s . H e w a s a n o ld m a n w h o w a n te d out. H e w a n te d to go h o m e to M a la g a , a n d h is r e q u e s t w a s g ra n te d . E n te r B e r n a r d o d e G a lv e z , a y o u n g e r m a n a n d a so ld ie r, b e tte r su ite d to m e e tin g th e d a n g e r fro m th e e a s t. G a lv e z p ic k e d u p w h e re U n z a g a le ft o ff in s u p p ly in g th e r e b e ls . It w a s a ro le S p a in as a n a tio n a s s u m e d w ith little e n th u s ia s m , c o m m itte d to

278

T H E W ONDER W ORKER

th e ta s k b e c a u s e F r a n c e w ille d it a n d b e c a u s e P ro te s ta n ts d i v id e d

w e r e p r e fe r a b le

to P ro te s ta n ts u n ite d . C a r lo s a n d his

m in iste rs w e r e u n d e r no illu sio n s. E n g la n d h a d to b e sto p p e d ; b u t th e A m e r ic a n s w e r e th e m s e lv e s n o ise so m e u p sta rts se ttin g th e w o rst p o s s ib le e x a m p le fo r S p a in ’s o w n a w a k e n in g N e w W o rld co lo n ists. W h e n a ll w a s sa id a n d re sa id , S p a in w a s fa c e d w ith a H o b s o n ’s c h o ic e . A t le a s t th a t w a s h o w it lo o k e d at th e ro y a l q u a rte rs in A r a n ju e z , C a r lo s ’ r e tre a t so u th o f M a d rid . B e r n a r d o , th o u g h , d id n o t s e e it th a t w a y . Y o u th fu l a n d a ttu n e d to th e n e w e n lig h te n e d th in k in g , h is p a rtia lity to th e A m e r ic a n s e x c e e d e d th e d ic ta te s o f c o ld -b lo o d e d sta te c ra ft. A m o n g B e r n a r d o ’s in stru ctio n s u p o n a ss u m in g o ffice w a s to w e lc o m e

n o n -S p a n ia r d s

into

his

la n d s,

p r o v id e d

th e y

w e re

C a th o lic a n d w o u ld s w e a r a lle g ia n c e to S p a in . T h e m o tiv e w a s tra n sp a re n t. S p a in la c k e d se ttle rs a n d sh e h a d d ru th e rs fo r th o s e w h o c o u ld b e tru ste d . A fte r th e F r e n c h c e d e d e a s te rn L o u is ia n a to E n g la n d in 17 6 3 , A n g lo s b e g a n p o u rin g into th e lo w e r rive r v a lle y in in tim id a tin g n u m b e rs, m a n y se ttlin g th e m s e lv e s flu sh a g a in s t th e M ississip p i, w h e re th e c o m m e rc ia l a c tio n w a s. W h a t d id L o u is ia n a n s h a v e fa c in g th e m o n th e w e s t sid e o f th e river? A c e n s u s ta k e n b y B e r n a r d o d e G a lv e z in 1 7 7 7 g a v e sta tistica l d im e n s io n to th e S p a n is h d ile m m a : th e r e w e r e no m o re th a n e ig h te e n th o u s a n d n o n -In d ia n s u b je c ts in a ll o f S p a n is h L o u isia n a . H a lf o f th e s e w e r e b la c k sla v e s , a n d m o st o f th e re st w e re F r e n c h m e n , w h o s e lo y a lty — tru e fo r th e m o m e n t — c o u ld n o t b e c o n s id e r e d a b s o lu te . M o r e o v e r , n e a r ly h a lf th a t to ta l w e r e not w e s t o f th e M iss is sip p i a t all, b u t in th e d istrict o f N e w O rle a n s; a n d th o s e a c tu a lly on th e w e s t sid e w e r e c lu s te r e d on th e G e r m a n a n d A c a d ia n co a st, a ro u n d N a tc h ito c h e s a n d in th e n e ig h b o rh o o d o f S a in t L o u is , le a v in g g a p in g h o le s th ro u g h w h ic h A n g lo s c o u ld p e n e tr a te at th e ir p le a s u re . T h e A n g lo p le a s u r e w a s in d is tin g u is h a b le fro m b u s in e s s , a n d it w a s tr a d e th a t p u lle d th e m th ro u g h th e p o ro u s b a rrie r a n d into th e W e st. E a r ly on th e y fo llo w e d th e le a d o f d e a d F r e n c h m e n u p th e M iss o u ri a n d th e A r k a n s a s . T h e y e v e n tr a d e d on th e N e c h e s a n d T r in ity riv e rs, w e ll b e h in d S p a n is h lin e s, d e e p in th e h e a rt o f T e x a s . Y e t th e g r e a te s t in c u rsio n s to o k p la c e in th e fa r n o rth , o u t o f P ra ir ie d u C h ie n a n d a lo n g th e D e s M o in e s a n d M in n e s o ta

279

Friend to Americans, foe to Englishmen, Bernardo de Galvez brought glory to Spain during the Revolutionary War.

riv e rs, th e fu r-tra d e

c o u n try th a t E n g lis h m e n , b u ild in g o n a

F r e n c h b a s e b u t w ith su p e rio r m e r c h a n d is e a n d b u s in e s s a c u m e n , q u ic k ly d o m in a te d .

It w a s n ’t as th o u g h th e

S p a n ia r d s w e re

ig n o ra n t o f w h a t w a s ta k in g p la c e in th e U p p e r M ississip p i, or its ra m ifica tio n s. T h e first g o v e rn o r, th e sh o rt-te rm e d U llo a , se n t C a p t. D o n F r a n c is c o R iu u p riv e r in 1 7 6 7 to b u ild a fo rt at th e m o u th o f th e M isso u ri w ith a tw o fo ld p u r p o s e in m in d : “ T h e first is to k e e p th e s a v a g e s in frie n d s h ip a n d a llia n c e w ith th e c o lo n y ; th e o th e r is to p r e v e n t th e n e ig h b o rin g E n g lis h fro m e n te rin g th e territo ries a n d

d o m a in s o f h is m a je s t y .” T h e

d istin ctio n w a s

s o m e w h a t a rb itra ry , or a t le a s t th e tw o p u r p o s e s m e rg e d . In d ia n s b a rte rin g w ith th e E n g lis h w o u ld n o t b e p r e d is p o s e d to a lly th e m s e lv e s w ith S p a in in a s h o w d o w n — at le a s t n o t in th e Io w a c o u n try a n d n o rth , w h e re S p a n ia r d s w e r e c o n s p ic u o u s ly a b se n t. T h e fa ilu re to k e e p E n g lis h m e n o u t o f th e n o rth d e r iv e d from a sh o rta g e o f m o n e y a n d m a n p o w e r, n o t fro m a n y fla w s in p o lic y . In a ss u m in g co n tro l o f w e s te r n L o u is ia n a , S p a in s h o w e d h e r s e lf e n lig h te n e d a n d fle x ib le . I n s te a d o f e m p lo y in g h e r tra d itio n a l

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m e th o d s o f In d ia n co n tro l — th e m issio n a n d th e p re sid io — sh e fo llo w e d th e F r e n c h le a d in d istrib u tin g p re s e n ts a m o n g th e trib e s to h o ld th e ir fa v o r. In d e e d , sh e m a d e h e a v y u s e o f e x istin g F r e n c h c o n ta c ts in tra d in g w ith th e re d m a n a n d a p p o in te d a b le F r e n c h m e n to h ig h p o sts w ith in th e n e w c o lo n ia l a d m in istra tio n as w e ll — m o v e s th a t w e r e to r e a p m a n y d iv id e n d s. S p a in h a d n e v e r b e e n m u c h o f a b e a v e r - b u y in g n ation . B u t b y lic e n s in g a n d e n c o u r a g in g th e p e ltr y tra d e in th e v ic in ity o f S a in t L o u is a n d S a in te G e n e v ie v e , s h e m a in ta in e d h e r in flu e n c e a lo n g th e M is so u ri R iv e r a s fa r as th e P la tte . T h a t in its e lf w a s m ig h ty fa r for a n a tio n th a t w a s n e v e r a t h o m e on th e G r e a t P la in s, a n a tio n th a t th r o u g h o u t th e R e v o lu tio n a r y W a r a c tu a lly re tire d fro m th e in terio r la n d s o p e n e d b y th e F r e n c h . W h e n B e r n a r d o d e G a lv e z to o k o v e r, th e n e g le c t o f th e F r e n c h W e s t b e c a m e m o re , n o t le ss. T h e g o v e rn o r-g e n e ra l s p e n t th e b u lk o f his tim e in N e w O rle a n s. A c u ltu re d m a n , h e d o u b tle s s ly g a v e in to its c h a rm s — c h a rm s p e c u lia r still to cities th a t a re F r e n c h . C e r ta in ly h e s u r r e n d e r e d to th e c h a rm s o f a b e a u tifu l F r e n c h w id o w , w h o m h e m a rrie d , to th e g re a t j o y o f his F r e n c h s u b je c ts . B u t a s id e fro m th e co m fo rts it o ffe re d , B e r n a r d o h a d th e b e s t o f re a s o n s for b e in g th e re : it w a s th e c o lo n ia l c a p ita l a n d it w a s c lo s e s t to th e d a n g e r — n o t e v e n r e m o v e d fro m it b y so m u c h a s th e M is s is s ip p i’ s b re a d th . A s g u a rd ia n s o f th e W e st, G a lv e z a n d h is o ffice rs a t th e u p r iv e r p o sts c ro w d in g th e riv e r fa c e d e a s t, a b s o r b e d in th e u n fo ld in g d ra m a th a t w o u ld in a fe w y e a r s d ra g th e m in to it. T h e m o rn in g s h a d o w s th e y c a st w e r e lo n g o v e r th e W e st, w h e re tra ils b la z e d b y th e B o u rg m o n ts a n d d u T is n e s w e r e a llo w e d to g ro w o v e r w ith grass. W ith th e o u tb r e a k o f th e R e v o lu tio n a r y W a r, A n g lo - A m e r ic a n in filtra tio n w e s t o f th e riv e r slo w e d . Y e t th e y c ro s s e d it, le ss as o u tla w tra d e rs th a n in a p a th e tic ro le as o ld as w a r it s e lf — as r e fu g e e s . G a lv e z a n d h is a id e s m u st h a v e w o n d e r e d at th e b itte r n e s s b e tw e e n th e tw o fa c tio n s w h o s p o k e a n d lo o k e d a lik e a n d y e t h a d tu rn e d th e c is-M ississip p i la n d s into a b lo o d y h e ll. G a lv e z w a s , a m o n g o th e r th in g s, a h u m a n ita ria n . T h e su ffe rin g in n o c e n ts o f b o th p e rs u a s io n s (th o u g h m o st w e r e lo ya lists) s o u g h t r e fu g e o n S p a in ’s sid e o f th e riv e r, w h e re th e y w e r e tr e a te d w ith th e u tm o st k in d n e s s a n d so lic itu d e .

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T h a t w a s th e g ra c io u s a n d g e n tle sid e o f B e r n a r d o . In m a tte rs o f sta te a n d p o litics, th e y o u n g g o v e rn o r w a s h a rd -n o s e d . H is c o u n tr y ’ s in te re s t a n d h is p e r s o n a l s y m p a th y la y on th e s id e o f th e A m e r ic a n s , a n d so o n a fte r a s s u m in g o ffice , h e b e g a n a b ril lia n t tig h tr o p e a c t on b e h a lf o f “ n e u tr a l S p a in .” T h e r e w a s liv in g in N e w O rle a n s a t th e tim e a w e ll-to -d o Ir is h -A m e ric a n tra d e r n a m e d O liv e r P o llo c k , w h o h a d b e e n a c lo se frie n d o f O ’R e illy . P o llo c k w a s a lso a d e d ic a te d b e lie v e r in th e A m e r ic a n c a u s e , a n d in th e su m m e r o f 1 7 7 6 h e p e r s u a d e d U n z a g a to p a rt w ith tw o sh ip m e n ts o f th e k in g ’s g u n p o w d e r fo r th e in s u r g e n ts ’ u se . W h e n G a lv e z to o k o ffice , P o llo c k , in h is c a p a c ity a s a g e n t for th e c o lo n y o f V irg in ia , fo u n d a k in d re d a n d c o o p e r a tiv e soul. T o g e th e r , w ith P o llo c k sta k in g h is p e r s o n a l fo rtu n e a n d G a lv e z h is n a tio n ’s su rfa c e n e u tra lity , th e y su rre p titio u s ly se n t m u s k e ts a n d p o w d e r a n d b a y o n e ts a n d m e d ic in e s u p th e M iss is sip p i a n d O h io riv e rs to th e r e b e ls — a risk y b u s in e s s th a t d id n o t e s c a p e E n g lis h in te llig e n c e . E n g la n d h a d o th e r re a s o n s to b e u n h a p p y w ith B e r n a r d o . In 1 7 7 7 h e im p le m e n te d n e w tra d e re g u la tio n s a n d sta rte d e n fo rc in g th o s e a lr e a d y o n th e b o o k s a g a in s t sm u g g le rs , w h ic h e ffe c tiv e ly c u t E n g la n d o u t o f th e lo w e r M iss is sip p i R iv e r tra d e . A n e v e n g re a te r p ro v o c a tio n w a s h is o p e n in g o f N e w O rle a n s to A m e r ic a n p r iv a te e r s fo r th e s a le o f sp o ils ta k e n fro m B ritish v e s s e ls . B ritish p ro te sts w e r e d e fle c te d b y th e glib G a lv e z . I f th o s e b u y e r s o f arm s a n d m e d ic in e s w e r e re b e ls , h e said , S p a n is h a u th o ritie s w e r e ig n o ra n t o f th e fa c t. A s fo r sh ip s o n th e rive r, all w e r e fr e e to u se it, b u t no h o stile a c tio n w o u ld b e to le r a te d b y th e k in g . G a lv e z w a s h a rd e r p u t to d e fe n d his a c tio n s d u rin g th e s e c o n d y e a r o f h is a d m in istra tio n . In J a n u a r y 17 7 8 , a h o th e a d e d A m e r i c a n p a trio t n a m e d J a m e s W illin g , c o m m issio n e d b y th e c o m m e r c e c o m m itte e o f th e C o n tin e n ta l C o n g r e s s to strike a t lo y a lis ts o n th e L o w e r M ississip p i, se t o ff in th a t d ire c tio n d o w n th e O h io R iv e r in a n a rm e d b o a t c a lle d th e R attletrap. A t th e riv e rs id e s e ttle m e n ts o f N a tc h e z a n d M a n c h a c , W illin g c a rrie d o u t his co m m issio n w e ll e n o u g h — p e r h a p s too w e ll — lo o tin g a n d p u ttin g th e to rc h to p r o p e rty o w n e d b y th o s e w h o r e fu s e d to ta k e a n “ o a th o f a lle g ia n c e ” to th e A m e r ic a n C o n g r e s s . T h e fo r a y w a s d e s tru c tiv e , a im e d m o re at c o n fis c a tin g p ro p e r ty th a n h a rm in g p e rso n s , a n d in c lu d e d

282

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th e c a p tu r e o f th e B ritish w a rs h ip R e b e c c a b y W illin g a n d o th e r a rm e d r iv e rb o a ts b y

o th e r p a trio t-o p p o rtu n ists. T h e m is c h ie f

d o n e , W illin g a n d th e re st o f th e A m e r ic a n s re tire d in to th e s a n c tu a r y o f S p a n is h L o u is ia n a , w h e re m a n y fa ith fu l E n g lis h s u b je c ts h a d a lso fle d to e s c a p e W illin g ’s terror. G a lv e z s h e lte r e d all, a n d W illin g w a s a llo w e d to a u c tio n his p lu n d e r in N e w O rle a n s. T h e B ritish w e r e in c e n s e d , a n d B ritish a n g e r h a d a w a y o f m a n ife s tin g its e lf in th e a p p e a r a n c e o f w a rs h ip s, as G a lv e z le a r n e d to his d isc o m fo rt in M a r c h o f 1 7 7 8 , w h e n C a p t. J o h n F e r g u s s o n sa ile d u p th e M iss is sip p i in th e frig a te S ylph. A b risk e x c h a n g e o f p o in te d le tte rs e n s u e d . F e r g u s s o n in fo rm e d G a lv e z th a t h e w a s n o t c o m p o rtin g h im s e lf as a n o ffice r o f a n e u tra l p o w e r a n d th a t sa tisfa c tio n w a s e x p e c te d fro m th e g o v e rn o r fo r th e in su lts a n d c o n fis c a tio n s in h is ju risd ic tio n ,

“ to p r e v e n t th e fa ta l c o n s e

q u e n c e s th a t m a y a tte n d y o u r g iv in g m o re c o u n te n a n c e to a la w le ss B a n d itti, th a n y o u s e e m to d o to h is B rita n n ic M a je s t y ’s a n d lie g e S u b je c t s .” G a lv e z w a s in a tick lish sp ot. N e w O rle a n s w a s so p o o rly fo rti fie d a s to b e in d e fe n s ib le , a n d tro o p stre n g th w a s in su ffic ie n t to h o ld b a c k a n y B ritish a tta c k o f c o n s e q u e n c e . T h e o n ly w a y to k e e p th e E n g lis h n a v y o ff th e riv e r w a s to sto p th e m a t B a liz e at th e v e r y m o u th o f th e M ississip p i, or at F o rt S a in t J o h n o n L a k e P o n tc h a rtra in , th e stra te g ic lin k in th e c h a in o f la k e s a n d riv e rs th a t c o n n e c te d w ith th e M iss is sip p i a t M a n c h a c a n d m a d e an isla n d o f N e w O rle a n s. B u t th a t, o f c o u rse , w o u ld b e a n a c t o f w ar, a n d S p a in w a s n o t r e a d y fo r w ar. N e ith e r w a s E n g la n d , G a lv e z c o u ld g a m b le . S o th e y o u n g S p a n ia r d re s o rte d to b lu ff, d iv e r sio n a ry a rg u m e n ts, a n d le g a lis m s. S p a in w a s n o t re s p o n s ib le fo r fo re ig n a c tiv ity on th e E n g lis h sid e o f th e riv e r a b o v e M a n c h a c , h e re m o n stra te d . O n ly b e lo w th a t p o in t, w h e r e C a r lo s I I I h a d co n tro l o v e r th e w h o le riv e r a n d w h e re fig h tin g a n d s e iz u re s — b y e ith e r A m e r ic a n s or E n g lis h m e n — w o u ld n o t b e c o n d o n e d . I f w ro n g s h a d b e e n d o n e in S p a n is h territo ry, S p a n is h ju s tic e w o u ld rig h t th e m , as in d e e d it a lr e a d y h a d , G a lv e z p o in te d ou t, in s e v e r a l in s ta n c e s w h e re lo y a lists h a d h a d th e ir g o o d s r e tu rn e d to th e m . E a r ly in A p ril, F e r g u s s o n s a ile d a w a y , b u t n o t b e fo r e u rg in g B ritish lo y a lists to d e s e r t S p a n is h L o u is ia n a or su ffe r p o s s ib le d ire c o n s e q u e n c e s , a n d e x p re s s in g to G a lv e z his o p in io n th a t

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“ N a tio n s . . . p o s s e s s e d o f C o lo n ie s . . . sh o u ld b e c a u tio u s o f se ttin g a p e rn ic io u s e x a m p le in a b e ttin g , fa v o rin g or a ssistin g b y a n y m e a n s . . . su c h S u b je c ts u n ite d in d ire c t a n d o p e n R e b e l lio n .” T h e g o v e r n o r ’s r e lie f o v e r F e r g u s s o n ’ s d e p a rtu re w a s b rief. S o o n tw o m o re E n g lis h frig a te s, c o m m a n d e d b y J o s e p h N u n n , a m a n w ith a re p u ta tio n fo r m e a n n e s s , la y o ff N e w O rle a n s. G a lv e z h e ld his s h a k y , n o t-q u ite -m id d le g ro u n d . A g a in s t W illin g ’s lo u d o b je c tio n s , h e in siste d on a re sto ra tio n o f p riz e s a n d p lu n d e r ta k e n in S p a n is h territo ry. H e a lso e x a c te d a n o a th o f n e u tra lity fro m b o th E n g lis h m e n a n d A m e r ic a n s in N e w O rle a n s — a m o v e th a t p r o m p te d a c h o ru s o f p ro te sts, fro m N u n n , A le x a n d e r M c G illiv ra y , th e B ritish c o m m a n d e r at N a tc h e z , a n d G o v e r n o r C h e s te r o f W e s t F lo rid a . W illin g ’s r a m p a g e th ro u g h th e L o w e r M ississip p i, w h ile in itia lly a s u c c e s s , b a c k fir e d th e fo llo w in g y e a r. H is s e v e r ity to w a rd s B ritis h -le a n in g se ttle rs h a d h a r d e n e d th e m a g a in s t h is c a u s e . W o rse , E n g la n d h a d r e s p o n d e d b y se n d in g h e ftie r g a rriso n s to M a n c h a c a n d N a tc h e z , a n d th e w a rsh ip W est Florida to L a k e P o n tc h a rtra in , sta tio n in g o th e r v e s s e ls o ff th e s u b d e lta to b lo c k a d e r e b e l sh ip p in g u p th e M ississip p i. It w a s all v e r y d e fla tin g to A m e r ic a n h o p e s . It w a s a lso a n o m in o u s se m ic irc le th a t h a d fo rm e d a ro u n d N e w O rle a n s a n d G a lv e z . T h e g o v e rn o r h e ld to a s te a d y c o u rse b e tw e e n th e n a rro w in g sh o a ls. W illin g a n d h is m e n , w h o h a d a b u s e d G a lv e z ’s h o s p ita lity b y s ta y in g on in d e fin ite ly in N e w O rle a n s to e n jo y th e e a s y liv in g a n d in c ite tro u b le a c ro ss th e b o rd e r, w e r e a g ro w in g e m b a r r a s s m e n t. W h e n W illin g b a lk e d at G a lv e z ’s d e c is io n to re tu rn th e p r iz e s ta k e n b y th e A m e r ic a n s in S p a n is h te rrito ry a n d in c o n tra v e n tio n o f S p a n is h n e u tra lity , a n d th e n d e c la r e d th a t th e S p a n ia rd w o u ld h a v e to b e “ a n s w e ra b le to M y M a s te rs th e H o n o r a b le C o n g r e s s fo r th e R e stitu tio n o f th e s e P r iz e s ,” th e g o v e rn o r le t W illin g k n o w th a t his d e c is io n w o u ld re m a in th e sa m e e v e n if th e e n tire A m e r ic a n n a v y p u t in a n a p p e a r a n c e . ( T h e r e w a s n o w a y th a t b lu ff w o u ld b e c a lle d ; w h e r e v e r th e E n g lis h n a v y w a s, th e A m e r ic a n fle e t w o u ld c e rta in ly b e fa r d istan t.) G a lv e z w a s n o t a lo n e in his d islik e o f th e s w a g g e r in g b u lly . A m e r ic a n s w h o k n e w W illin g lik e w is e p e r c e iv e d in th e m a n a n d h is fo llo w e rs a n in o rd in a te lo v e o f p lu n d e rin g m a s k e d in p atrio -

285

LOUISIANA STATE MUSEUM, NEW ORLEANS

R E S U R G E N T S P A IN

Monuments to Spain’s brief presence —the old Spanish cathedral and palace o f N ew Orleans. (From a print, circa 1820.)

tism . A m o n g th e m w a s O liv e r P o llo c k , b y n o w o n th e v e r g e o f p e r s o n a l b a n k r u p tc y (in p a rt from fu n d in g W illin g ’ s “ v a c a t io n ” ), b u t no le ss a rd e n t in h is su p p o rt o f th e n e w n a tio n . H e la u d e d G a lv e z to th e C o n tin e n ta l C o n g r e s s as a tru e frie n d w h o b o ld ly d e fie d E n g lis h p o w e r fo r th e c a u s e a n d w is h e d W illin g , w h o s e c o n d u c t w a s c o u n te rp r o d u c tiv e to A m e r ic a n in te re sts, g o n e from L o u is ia n a . A t last, in S e p te m b e r o f 17 7 8 , W illin g ’s m e n c ro s s e d th e M iss is sip p i to th e w e s t b a n k a n d w e r e le d n o rth a n d s a fe ly b a c k to r e b e l territo ry. A s fo r W illin g h im se lf, h e s u b s e q u e n tly sh ip p e d o u t o f N e w O rle a n s, o n ly to b e c a p tu r e d b y th e B ritish , th e n la te r r e le a s e d in a p riso n e r e x c h a n g e . W illin g ’s d e p a rtu r e d id little to im p ro v e G a lv e z ’ s p o sitio n a n e n t th e B ritish , w h o s e p ro te sts a n d e n c ir c le m e n t c o n tin u e d . N o t to b e o u tsh o u te d , th e g o v e rn o r re g is te r e d c o m p la in ts o f his o w n w ith C h e s te r , h is o p p o s ite n u m b e r in B ritish W e s t F lo rid a : a n E n g lis h co rsa ir w a s in te rfe rin g w ith d o m e stic s h ip p in g o n L a k e P o n tch a rtra in ;

E n g lis h m e n

and

C h ic k a s a w In d ia n a llie s a to p th e

C h ic k a s a w B lu ffs w e r e firin g d o w n o n in n o c e n t tra d e rs a n d tra p p e rs c o m in g d o w n th e M ississip p i; a n d E n g lis h tra d e rs h a d

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c ro s s e d th e riv e r a n d , in v io la tio n o f S p a n is h re g u la tio n s , w e re e n g a g e d in b a rte r w ith th e In d ia n s o f th e S p a n is h W est. T h e le tte r o f g r ie v a n c e s w a s p e rs o n a lly d e liv e r e d to G o v e rn o r C h e s te r in M o b ile b y M a j. J a c in to P a n is, a lo n g w ith gifts o f w in e a n d su g a r. C h e s te r w a s u p to G a lv e z ’s g a m e o f in fla tin g e x c u s e s a n d b ru s h in g a s id e re a l issu e s. L ie u te n a n t B u r d e n , th e p e r p e tr a tor o f th e a lle g e d d e p r e d a tio n s on th e so u th e rn la k e s, w a s u n d e r a n o th e r ’s co n tro l; c o m p la in ts r e a lly sh o u ld b e se n t to h is c o m m a n d e r in J a m a ic a , th o u g h h e , C h e s te r , h a d a s k e d B u r d e n to re fra in fro m h a ra s s in g S p a n is h fish e rm e n . A s fo r th e sta te d sh o o t in g s fro m C h ic k a s a w

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a n o th e r a u th o rity . T h o s e E n g lis h e n c r o a c h e r s on th e S p a n is h W e s t a c tu a lly a n s w e re d to no a u th o rity , b e in g “ B a n d itti, O u tla w s, w h o h a v e fle d fro m J u s tic e , ou t o f so m e o f th e N o rth e rn C o lo n ie s , a n d liv e in a S a v a g e M a n n e r .” T h e e x c h a n g e s w e r e c o u c h e d in e le g a n t p h ra s in g a n d a c c o m p a n ie d b y gifts a n d e la b o ra te c o u rte s ie s. G e n tle m e n p r e s id e d in L o w e r L o u is ia n a a n d B ritish W e st F lo rid a , a n d m u tu a l g e n e ro s ity w a s as m u c h a fa c t o f life as p o litica l d iffe re n c e s . W h e n fa m in e th r e a te n e d W e s t F lo rid a , G a lv e z se n t grain a cro ss th e M ississip p i to th e h u n g ry . W h e n flo o d s d is p o s s e s s e d th e c itiz e n s o f P o in te C o u p e e , th e B ritish o ffe re d s h e lte r to th e n e e d y on th e ir sid e o f th e river. Y e t th e te n sio n b e tw e e n th e tw o im p e ria l riv a ls w a s d ra w n b e y o n d re la x a tio n a lo n g th e riv e r b o u n d a r y th a t s e p a r a te d th e E a s t fro m th e W e st. T h e a ctio n s o f th e A m e r ic a n s h a d o n ly p u s h e d fo rw a rd th e in e v ita b le d a y o f re c k o n in g , a n d it w a s m e r e ly a m a tte r o f tim e b e fo r e th e ta u t riv e r lin e s n a p p e d a n d o p e n e d th e W e s t to E n g la n d or th e E a s t to S p a in .

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tu n ity to strike a b lo w a g a in s t th e D o n s ,” e n th u s e d a le tte r fro m a n E n g lis h o fficial to W illia m H o rn , th e E n g lis h c o m m a n d e r a t N a tc h e z . A n o th e r fro m M a j. E lia s D u n fo rd , th e c o m m a n d e r o f F o r t C h a r lo tte at M o b ile , a d v is e d H o rn to p r e p a r e fo r a n a s s a u lt o n N e w O rle a n s, “ w h ic h it is p o s s ib le w e sh a ll b e e n g a g e d in s h o r tly .” B o th c o m m u n ic a tio n s fe ll in to G a lv e z ’ s h a n d s a n d c o n

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firm e d h is su sp ic io n s. N o w th e g o v e r n o r k n e w th e p a rtic u la rs o f th e p la n n e d in v a s io n — th e d e s c e n t o f a la r g e fo r c e fro m C a n a d a th a t w a s to lin k u p w ith B ritish re g u la rs a n d G e r m a n m e r c e n a r ie s a t N a tc h e z , B a to n R o u g e , a n d M a n c h a c , w h ile a B ritish fle e t fro m P e n s a c o la w o u ld c o m p le te th e stre n g th a t N e w O rle a n s.

p in c e r e ffe c t o n th e S p a n is h

S p a in h a d o th e r a d v a n ta g e s . M a jo r P a n is , w h o v is ite d G o v e r n o r C h e s te r in 17 7 8 w ith G a lv e z ’ s c o m p la in ts, d o u b le d a s a sp y , m a k in g a v is u a l in v e n to r y o f E n g lis h stre n g th in W e s t F lo rid a . T h e la st a n d m o st te llin g a d v a n ta g e w a s in tim in g. F o r o v e r tw o y e a r s th e S p a n ia r d s h a d s h ie d a w a y fro m w a r w ith E n g la n d , a s h a d E n g la n d , w ith g r e a te r r e a s o n , fro m S p a in . W h e n w a r w a s d e c la re d , S p a in d id th e d e c la r in g — fo rm a lly to th e w o rld on J u ly 8, 1 7 7 9 , a b o u t a m o n th a fte r d is c lo sin g h e r in te n tio n o f d o in g so to S p a n is h c o lo n ia l a d m in istra to rs. G a lv e z d id n o t g e t th e w o rd u n til la te , b u t h e w a s a lr e a d y p r e p a rin g fo r th e s h o w d o w n . In J u ly h e c a lle d a w a r ju n t a to d isc u ss th e n o n e -to o -h e a rte n in g sta te o f th e c o lo n y ’s d e fe n s e . T h e E n g lis h b u ild u p e a s t o f th e M iss is sip p i w a s e s tim a te d a b o v e a th o u s a n d , w h ile th e re w e r e o n ly six h u n d r e d re g u la rs — tw o -th ird s o f th e m u n te s te d re cru its — in all S p a n is h L o u is ia n a . T h e m e m b e r s o f th e ju n ta o v e r w h e lm in g ly c o u n s e le d c a u tio n a n d d e fe n s e fo r N e w O rle a n s, th e m e a g e r g a rriso n s o f th e d ista n t o u tp o sts to b e w ritte n o ff as lost. B e r n a r d o liste n e d , b u t h e s h a r e d w ith h is u n c le J o s e a n im p a tie n c e w ith d e lib e r a tin g b o d ie s . W h e n th e n e w s o f a c tu a l w a r r e a c h e d h im , h e k e p t it fro m h is s u b je c ts a n d fro m th e u n in fo rm e d E n g lis h a c ro s s th e riv e r, b u ild in g sm a ll g u n b o a ts a n d b u s y in g h im s e lf w ith a m o b iliz a tio n th a t h a d a ll th e o u tw a rd lo o k o f b e in g d e fe n s iv e . T h e n h e m a d e h is b o ld m o v e . O n A u g u s t 27, I 779> h e le d m o re th a n six h u n d r e d fifty m e n , in c lu d in g a h a n d fu l o f A m e r ic a n s , o u t o f N e w O rle a n s a n d a c ro s s th e M ississip p i, g a th e rin g a d d itio n a l m ilitia a n d v o lu n te e r s on th e G e r m a n a n d A c a d ia n c o a st. O n ly a fte r re c ro s sin g th e riv e r a n d n e a r in g F o rt M a n c h a c d id G a lv e z te ll h is g r e e n a n d e a g e r tro o p s a b o u t w a r h a v in g b e e n d e c la r e d a n d th e ir im m e d ia te m issio n . T h e p o st fe ll to G a lv e z lik e a n o v e rrip e a p p le . It w a s u n d e r m a n n e d b e c a u s e th e E n g lis h h a d e a rlie r p u lle d m a n y m e n o u t to b u ild a b e tte r b a stio n u p riv e r at B a to n R o u g e . W ith little d e la y

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G a lv e z m a r c h e d w ith h is in sp ire d m e n to th e g r e a te r r e d o u b t a n d a m o re m e a n in g fu l te st. C h o o s in g n o t to w a s te his m e n in an a s s a u lt a g a in s t c a n n o n , G a lv e z s e t u p a d iv e rs io n a ry c o m m o tio n u n d e r c o v e r o f n ig h t w h ile q u ie tly d ig g in g a tre n c h to w a rd th e fort, w h e re , u n d e te c te d , h e e m p la c e d a n d p ro te c te d his o w n c a n n o n . The

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p o u n d e d B a to n R o u g e into su b m issio n . T h e s u rre n d e r b y its c o m m a n d e r, L ie u te n a n t C o lo n e l D ic k s o n , w a s a c c e p te d , b u t on c o n d itio n th a t F o rt P a n m u r e at N a tc h e z b e in c lu d e d in th e c a p it u la tio n . D ic k s o n a s s e n te d , a n d th e E n g lis h d e fe n d e r s o f N a tc h e z b e c a m e p riso n e rs o f w a r b e fo r e th e y k n e w th e re w a s a w ar, a n d w ith o u t a n a n g r y sh o t b e in g fired at th em . F o r B e r n a r d o it w a s a g lo rio u s s u c c e s s . T h e th re e c o rn e rs to n e s o f E n g lis h p o w e r in th e lo w e r M iss is sip p i V a lle y w e r e n o w S p a in ’s at a n e g lig ib le co st, a n d so m e six h u n d re d E n g lis h re g u la rs w e re ta k e n to N e w O rle a n s as p riso n e rs — a sta tu s th a t u n d e r th e a lw a y s le n ie n t a n d c h a r ita b le G a lv e z w a s n o t h a lf-b a d d u ty , as w o rd q u ic k ly go t a ro u n d . T h e y o u n g g o v e rn o r-c o m m a n d e r c o u ld not h e lp g lo a tin g to h is su p erio r, D ie g o J o s e p h N a v a rro , th e c a p ta in g e n e r a l in H a v a n a w h o h a d d is c o u ra g e d h im fro m ta k in g a n y ra sh a ctio n : “ I b e lie v e th a t y o u w ill n o t d is a p p r o v e m y re so lu tio n to a tta c k th e m first, ta k in g a d v a n ta g e o f th e ir ig n o ra n c e o f th e d e c la r a tio n o f w ar; fo r if th is o p p o rtu n ity h a d b e e n a llo w e d to p a ss , a n d th e y h a d h a d tim e to p u t th e ir p la n into e x e c u tio n , th e re is no d o u b t th a t th e r e w o u ld h a v e b e e n a v e r y d iffe re n t o u tc o m e fo r o u r a rm s in this p r o v in c e .” W o rld w id e , S p a in m ig h t h a v e b e e n a lig h tw e ig h t m a tc h e d w ith a h e a v y w e ig h t, b u t a t th e tim e E n g la n d w a s d is tra c te d b y too m a n y c h a lle n g e r s , a n d a t th e p la c e — th e lo w e r M iss is sip p i th a t s e p a r a te d h e r fro m N e w S p a in a n d th e W e st — sh e h a d b e e n c a u g h t fla t-fo o te d w ith a strin g o f lig h tn in g -q u ic k ja b s fro m w h ic h sh e w o u ld n e v e r fu lly r e c o v e r . E n g la n d ’ s p la n to p u s h S p a in o u t o f th e n e a r W e s t d id stu m b le a w k w a r d ly fo rw a rd fo r a b r ie f tim e. T h a t w a s in th e S p a n is h Illin o is C o u n try , w h e re a s u c c e s s io n o f lie u te n a n t-g o v e r n o r s

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a tte m p te d to p ro te c t th e n a tio n a l in te re s t w ith se a t-o f-th e -p a n ts d e c is io n s . F e r n a n d o d e L e y b a , a p p o in te d lie u te n a n t-g o v e r n o r in 1 7 7 8 , s id e d w ith th e A m e r ic a n s a n d o p e n ly a id e d G e o r g e R o g e r s

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C la rk , th e A m e r ic a n h e ro o f c a m p a ig n s e a s t o f th e M iss is sip p i. T h a t s a m e y e a r d e L e y b a r e q u e s te d fro m G a lv e z th e a u th o r ity to e s ta b lis h a fo rt w ith tw o h u n d r e d m e n at th e e n tr a n c e to th e D e s M o in e s R iv e r , w h e re E n g lis h m e n w e r e v io la tin g th e b o r d e r w ith im p u n ity . G a lv e z v e to e d th e id e a , p le a d in g a la c k o f a u th o rity a n d m o n e y ; E n g la n d k e p t its le v e r a g e in th e U p p e r M iss is sip p i. In M a y o f 178 0 a B ritish a rm y o f m o stly In d ia n s m a r c h e d d o w n fro m C a n a d a , o n ly to b e s to p p e d a n d r e p u ls e d a t S a in t L o u is , c h ie fly b y F r e n c h d e fe n d e r s . T h e d e fe a t a t S a in t L o u is d a s h e d E n g lis h h o p e s to e x te n d th e w a r in to th e tra n s-M is sissip p i W e st, b u t w e lc o m e as it w a s, S p a in r e m a in e d a b s o r b e d in th e so u th , a lo n g th o s e w a rm -w a te r sh o re s P o n c e d e L e o n a n d d e S o to h a d g iv e n h e r lo n g b e fo r e th e r e w e re

N ortea m erica n os w ith p a le skins. J o s e d e G a lv e z s u c c in c tly s u m m a riz e d th e r o y a l w is h e s in a m e s s a g e to C a p t a in - G e n e r a l N a v a rro in A u g u s t o f 17 7 9 : “ T h e k in g h a s d e te r m in e d th a t th e p rin c ip a l o b je c t o f his fo r c e s in A m e r ic a d u rin g th e w a r a g a in s t th e E n g lis h sh a ll b e to e x p e l th e m fro m th e G u lf o f M e x ic o a n d th e b a n k s o f th e M iss is sip p i w h e re th e ir e s ta b lis h m e n ts a re so p r e ju d ic ia l to ou r c o m m e r c e a n d a lso to th e s e c u rity o f o u r v a lu a b le p o s s e s s io n s .” H is n e p h e w h a d s e e n to th e la tte r w ish b e fo r e th e w a r w a s th re e m o n th s old . N o w h e w a s itch in g to fo llo w th ro u g h on th e fo rm er. T h o u g h tim id b u r e a u cra ts a n d n a v a l o fficers in H a v a n a w o u ld p r o v e a c o n s ta n t d ra g on his a m b itio n s, B e r n a r d o w a s n o t a b o u t to b e s to p p e d b y a n y th in g le ss th a n a r o y a l o rd e r to d e sist, a n d w ith h is u n c le c a llin g th e sh o ts, th a t w o u ld n e v e r c o m e . A fte r th e h u m ilia tio n o f th e E n g lis h o n th e L o w e r M ississip p i, B e r n a r d o b e g a n a s s e m b lin g a sm all fle e t th a t w a s to sail fo r M o b ile w ith 754 m e n , a m e la n g e o f S p a n is h re g u la r so ld ie rs, lo y a l F r e n c h C r e o le s , fr e e b la c k s , a n d A n g lo r e n e g a d e s . O n J a n u a r y 1 1 , 178 0 , th e y e m b a r k e d on a v o y a g e th a t th e w in d s w o u ld n o t h e lp a n d th a t s a n d b a r s a t th e m o u th o f th e ta rg e t b a y w o u ld a rrest. U n d a u n te d , G a lv e z la n d e d h is fo rc e s a n d b e g a n to m o v e on F o rt C h a r lo tte a n d M a j. E lia s D u n fo r d ’s d e fe n d e r s . T h e tw o -w e e k -lo n g s ie g e w a s m a rk e d b y c h iv a lric e x c h a n g e s . G a lv e z se n t D u n fo rd w in e a n d fru it a n d cig a rs a n d flo w e r y c o m p lim e n ts; D u n fo rd s e n t G a lv e z w in e a n d b r e a d a n d m u tto n a n d flo w e ry c o m p lim e n ts. A ll th e w h ile D u n -

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fo rd w a ite d fo r a r e s c u e fo rc e fro m M a j. G e n . J o h n C a m p b e ll at P e n s a c o la th a t w a s slo w in co m in g . G a lv e z , m a d e a w a r e o f th e im m in e n t re lie f, p r e s s e d his a d v a n ta g e a n d b y m e a n s o f tr e n c h in g a g a in r e d u c e d a n E n g lis h fort. D u n fo rd su rre n d e re d h im s e lf a n d m o re th a n tw o h u n d r e d o f his c o u n try m e n to G a lv e z ’s r e n o w n e d m e rc y , a n d on M a r c h 12, S p a n ia rd s to o k u p p o sitio n s in F o rt C h a r lo tte . T h e ta r d y C a m p b e ll re tr e a te d to P e n s a c o la w ith e le v e n h u n d r e d m e n to a w a it th e fo llo w -u p a tta c k S p a in w a s su re to la u n c h . T o his re lie f, th e re w a s n o n e — fo r a w h ile . T h e fa in t h e a r te d C a p t a in - G e n e r a l N a v a r r o h a d fa ile d to se n d re in fo r c e m e n ts fro m H a v a n a , r e c e iv in g a re p rim a n d fro m th e C r o w n fo r it, w h ile B e r n a r d o w a s e le v a te d to th e ra n k o f field m a rsh a l o f S p a n is h fo rc e s in A m e r ic a . C a m p b e ll w a s b r e a th in g m o re e a s ily b y su m m er. T h e S p a n is h a tta c k h a d n o t c o m e , a n d th e p ro te c to r o f P e n s a c o la h a d c a u s e to h o p e fo r r e in fo rc e m e n ts o f his o w n th a t w o u ld a llo w h im to r e ta k e th e lo st te rrito ries “ a n d to a d d L o u is ia n a to B ritish d o m in io n .” T h a t s a m e su m m e r G a lv e z p e r s o n a lly w e n t to H a v a n a to a s s e m b le a n e x p e d itio n a r y fo rc e . T h e o b stru ctio n ists s te p p e d a s id e for h im . Y o u c o u ld n ’t a r g u e w ith s u c c e s s , a n d y o u r e a lly s h o u ld n ’t a r g u e w ith J o s d ’ s n e p h e w . B u t th is tim e it w a s n a tu re ra th e r th a n m a n th a t u p s e t th e g o v e r n o r ’ s p la n to ta k e P e n s a c o la . A h u rri c a n e in m id -O c to b e r stru ck his flo tilla o f sixty-fo u r sh ip s c a rry in g n e a r ly fo u r th o u s a n d tro o p s a n d s c a tte re d th e m all o v e r th e G u lf o f M e x ic o . T h e B ritish r e jo ic e d at th e n e w s , a n d in J a n u a r y o f 1 7 8 1 C a m p b e ll w e n t o n th e o ffe n s iv e , b rie fly , se n d in g a fo rc e o u t to r e c a p tu re M o b ile . T h o u g h g r e a tly o u tn u m b e rin g th e S p a n is h d e fe n d e r s , it w a s m a u le d a n d fe ll b a c k . T h e in itia tiv e q u ic k ly r e v e r te d to G a lv e z . H e w o u ld n o t a b id e b y th e H a v a n a ju n t a ’ s o p in io n th a t th e n e x t try b e d e la y e d u n til a m ild e r s e a s o n . O n F e b r u a r y 13, h e sa ile d a g a in w ith m a n y fe w e r sh ip s a n d m e n , a rra n g in g fo r o th e r S p a n is h fo rc e s fro m N e w O rle a n s a n d M o b ile to jo in h im in th e h u m b lin g o f P e n s a c o la . It w a s th e la r g e s t-s c a le b a ttle G a lv e z w o u ld figh t, in v o lv in g n e a r ly 7,000 m e n on th e S p a n is h sid e b e fo re it w a s o v e r, a n d it w o u ld b e o f th e lo n g e s t d u ra tio n — tw o m o n th s. Y e t th e re su lt w a s th e sa m e . O n M a y 8, a fte r a S p a n is h hit o n a B ritish p o w d e r m a g a z in e , th e E n g lis h ra n u p a w h ite fla g o v e r F o rt G e o r g e a n d G e n e r a l C a m p -

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b e ll e n te r e d in to n e g o tia tio n s o n th e te rm s o f s u rre n d e r. S p a n is h c a s u a ltie s n u m b e r e d o v e r 300; o f th e e n e m y , 1,600 h a d b e e n k ille d or ta k e n , b u t th e m o re g rie v o u s lo ss to th e B ritish w a s a ll o f W e s t F lo rid a . T o th e v a n q u is h e d , G a lv e z w a s h is u s u a l g ra c io u s a n d c o n s id e ra te self. T o h is k in g h e w a s a g o d s e n d , th e m a n w h o m o stly on h is o w n h a d e x p e lle d th e E n g lis h fro m th e G u lf o f M e x ic o , “ w h e re th e y h a v e so p r e ju d ic e d m y v a s s a ls a n d m y r o y a l in te re s t in tim e s b o th o f p e a c e a n d o f w a r ,” a n d fo r th is m o st r e c e n t fe a t h e w a s p ro m o te d to lie u te n a n t g e n e r a l a n d m a d e g o v e rn o r o f W e s t F lo rid a in a d d itio n to L o u is ia n a . T h e w a r w a s n o w w in d in g d o w n b u t n o t q u ite o v e r. W h ile G a lv e z w a s h a m m e rin g at P e n s a c o la , th e r e h a d b e e n a n u p risin g in N a tc h e z b y E n g lis h lo y a lists, m o st o f w h o m h a d b e e n p r e s e n t w h e n th e d istrict fe ll to G a lv e z a n d h a d sw o rn a n o a th to b e a r no arm s a g a in s t S p a in . T h e N a tc h e z se ttle rs w e r e c o n fid e n t th a t th e S p a n is h w o u ld b e tr o u n c e d b y C a m p b e ll, a n d w h e n th e r e v e r s e p r o v e d tru e th e y w e r e in a q u a n d a ry . T h e S p a n is h q u ic k ly c r u s h e d th e re b e llio n a n d c a p tu r e d m a n y o f its in stig a to rs, w h o b y th e ir tr e a c h e r y h a d le g a lly e a r n e d th e m s e lv e s a p la c e o n th e g ib b e t. B u t G a lv e z m e rc ifu lly s p a r e d th e m a n d , w ith th e c o n clu sio n o f th e w a r, r e le a s e d th e m . T h e g e s tu re s w e r e c h a r a c te r istic o f th e y o u n g m a n b e lo v e d b y th e F r e n c h h e g o v e r n e d , r e s p e c te d b y th e E n g lis h m e n h e d e fe a te d , a d m ire d b y th e A m e r i c a n s h e a id e d , a n d v a lu e d b y th e S p a n ia r d s w h o w o u ld h a v e b e e n in a b a d w a y w ith o u t him . B ern ard o

G a lv e z ’ s c a r e e r c o n tin u e d

g lo rio u s, th o u g h it

w o u ld b e sh o rt-liv ed . H e w e n t to S p a in in 178 3 a n d th e fo llo w in g y e a r a rriv e d in H a v a n a w ith th e a d d e d title o f c a p ta in g e n e r a l o f C u b a . T h e r e h e sh o rtly le a r n e d th a t h is fa th e r, M a tia s, h a d d ie d a n d th a t h e w a s to s u c c e e d h im as V ic e r o y o f N e w S p a in . In th e y e a r a n d a h a lf o f h is v ic e r e g e n c y , h e e n d e a r e d h im s e lf to th e M e x ic a n capitalehos b y h is o p e n - h a n d e d g e n e r o s ity in a tim e o f fa m in e , b e fo re d y in g s u d d e n ly in a n e p id e m ic in 178 6 a t th e a g e o f th irty -e ig h t. N e w S p a in m o u rn e d its m a g n a n im o u s m a n . B e r n a r d o d e G a lv e z le ft b e h in d m o re th a n g o o d d e e d s d o n e . T h r o u g h his a c tio n s h e h a d w o n fo r S p a in W e s t F lo r id a a n d a stro n g h a n d at th e p e a c e ta b le , w h e re E n g la n d c o u g h e d u p E a s t

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T H E W ONDER W ORKER

F lo r id a as w e ll. A s fo r th e W e st — th e b u ffe r la n d in te rp o s e d b e tw e e n th e A n g lo - A m e r ic a n s a n d th e P a c ific — it w a s as s e c u r e as it h a d e v e r b e e n . O n e m ig h t a d d th a t it w a s as s e c u r e as it w o u ld e v e r b e . T h e r e h a d b e e n a re a lig n m e n t o f p la y e r s e a s t o f th e M ississip p i, b u t th e g a m e w a s th e sa m e . T h e a g in g C o u n t A r a n d a , C a rlo s I l l ’s a m b a s s a d o r to F r a n c e , d is c e r n e d a n e w d a n g e r in th a t y e a r o f p e a c e , 178 3: T h is fe d e r a l re p u b lic is b o rn a p ig m y . . . .

It h a s re q u ir e d th e

su p p o rt o f tw o s u c h p o w e r fu l sta te s as F r a n c e a n d S p a in to o b ta in its I n d e p e n d e n c e . T h e d a y w ill c o m e w h e n sh e w ill b e a gian t, a c o lo ss u s fo rm id a b le e v e n to th o s e co u n trie s. S h e w ill fo rg e t th e s e r v ic e s sh e r e c e iv e d fro m th e tw o p o w e rs , a n d w ill th in k o n ly o f h e r o w n a g g r a n d iz e m e n t. T h e lib e rty o f c o n s c ie n c e , th e fa c ility o f e s ta b lis h in g a n e w p o p u la tio n u p o n im m e n s e te rrito ry . . . w ill a ttra c t th e a g ric u ltu rists a n d m e c h a n ic s . . . fo r m e n e v e r ru n a fte r fo rtu n e , a n d in a fe w y e a r s w e sh a ll s e e th e ty r a n n ic a l e x is te n c e o f th is v e r y c o lo ss u s o f w h ic h I sp e a k . B e r n a r d o d e G a lv e z m ig h t h a v e b e e n a sa v io r; a n d th e c o u n t w a s at th e v e r y le a s t a p ro p h e t.

293

E x p lo r e d L a n d s

(Settled)

The Anglo-American Presence 1776

uly 12, 1776. The green of England fell away as the three-masted sloop Resolution slipped out of Plymouth Sound into the blue-gray of the English Channel. On deck stood a tall man in gold-trimmed blue coat and tight white knee breeches, watching intently while the hoarse cries of deckhands sang out and farm beasts lowed and bleated loudly from the hold. His face was long and angular, weathered by too many years at sea, its features a curious frieze of kindness, patience, and determination. No doubt he wondered whether he would see his native land again, and no doubt he worried about his wife Elizabeth and their children, of whom he had seen so little. But he was glad to have brine air in his nostrils again and a horizon of water in view, and more than glad to leave his tedious desk job. James Cook was an up-from-the-ranks captain now, promoted after returning from his second triumphant voyage of discovery only the July before. Behind him were three years of sailing the icy waters of the far south, back and forth across the Antarctic Circle before satisfying him self there was no “ lost” continent as had been widely supposed. More to his immediate credit, the seventy-thousand-mile voyage had been made without the loss of a single seaman to the killer scurvy —thanks to the skipper’s insistence on heavy rations of citrus juice, sauerkraut, and fresh greens whenever in port. These achievements set nicely on the earlier ones of his first voyage: the circumnavigation of the two islands of New Zealand in 1769 and 1770, the later mapping of two thousand miles of Australia’s previously unseen east coast, and the sailing through Torres Strait that proved New Guinea an island. England had taken Cook to her heart—“the ablest and most renowned Navigator this or any country hath produced,” he was. With the encomi ums and the promotion came the Copley Gold Medal, the Royal Society’s highest tribute for intellectual achievement, and the cushy appointment as captain general of the Greenwich Hospital. Not bad for a poorly schooled, self-made son of a humble Yorkshire farmhand. But when Cook

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learned the Admiralty was planning a new expedition of discovery, he let it be known that he was available. At a dinner party with Lord Sand wich, first lord of the Admiralty, on February 9,1776, the restless seafarer offered to captain the Resolution and head up yet another girdling of the globe. On the following day his offer was formally accepted, and by June 8, Cook’s sloop was nearly ready for sailing. That night he entertained Lord Sandwich, Sir Hugh Palliser, and assorted “noblemen and gentlemen’’ at a gala dinner on ship, giving his guests a seventeen-gun salute both as they came aboard and upon their departure. Exactly one month later, on July 8, Cook received his secret instructions (which in fact he had helped draft), signed by the Earl of Sandwich and giving words to the king’s wish “that an attempt should be made to find out a northern passage by sea from the Pacific to the Atlantic Ocean.” Since the putative strait had for two hundred years eluded seekers in the north Atlantic, a try from the other side, the little-known north Pacific, was in order—to prove, if nothing else, the fabled Anian’s nonexistence. The instructions were explicit: Cook’s search should begin on the coast of “New Albion” at forty-five degrees north latitude, and he was not to “ touch upon any part of the Spanish dominions on the western continent of America, unless driven thither by some unavoidable acci dent, in which case [he was] to stay no longer there than . . . absolutely necessary, and to be very careful not to give any umbrage or offense to any of the inhabitants or subjects of His Catholic Majesty.”

On its face, the mission was no more demanding for the first mariner of the world than those before. But this time things were different. Cook’s vessel could have stood lengthier repairs after its three years of dodging Antarctic ice floes. Then there was his own disposition, or rather indis position, an intestinal problem, a “billious colick” that had not cleared up from the last voyage and made him irritable. Finally, there was this unsettling business with the colonies —political problems that had noth ing to do with seamanship and discovery. But they were a bother all the same, and the potential for division was there among his own crew, some of whom had been born in America. All in all, it was not the best time to go a-sailing. Captain Cook spent a rather uneventful year crossing the Atlantic and Indian oceans, revisiting old friends in the South Pacific, until in De cember of 1777, with Capt. Charles Clerke of the companion sloop Dis covery, he headed into the mysterious north Pacific. The route he took was direct, a new one, and for that, as in voyages past, he was rewarded with discovery. He found a beautiful archipelago that he named the Sandwich Islands in honor of his friend and sponsor, and the always benevolent and forbearing Cook was hospitably received by the natives,

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who supplied him with pigs and yams and helped him take on fresh water. He thought highly of the Hawaiians, commending them for their “frank, cheerful disposition,” faulting them only for their “ propensity to thieveing.”

On February 2, 1778, the R e s o l u t i o n and D i s c o v e r y continued on their way to the western coast of North America, still enveloped in a shroud of geographers’ conjecture nearly three hundred years after Columbus. A month later, at the latitude of Oregon’s Cape Foulweather, which Cook named for the inclement days to follow, he began his northern run along the coast. The Englishmen rested for a time at Nootka Sound. Here they learned that Spaniards had come before them, and here they conducted a brisk trade for sea-otter skins they did not yet know would be as prized as gold in China. Then it was time to return to duty. For four months Cook nudged the coast for sign of a strait, compelled to sail west again as the shoreline curled outward. He followed the Aleutian arm, then cut north through it and the Bering Strait to nearly sixty-nine degrees be fore the lateness of the season and a barrier of ice turned him back. He doubted there was a Northwest Passage, but he would return the next summer for another try. For winter quarters Cook headed for the island of Hawaii, where his luck and his welcome ran out. He took too long getting provisions. The patience of the natives wore thin. There were frictions, then incidents, culminating in the theft of a cutter from the D i s c o v e r y . Cook’s attempt to retrieve it brought a confrontation that on February 14 erupted into violence and claimed, among other lives, that of the great captain. In his fiftieth year, Cook was stabbed and clubbed to death in the Hawaiian surf as he pleaded for peace between Englishmen and Polynesians. The ill-fated third voyage was resumed without Cook, and six months later without Captain Clerke of the D i s c o v e r y , who succumbed to tubercu losis. Another look for the Northwest Passage fizzled, followed by a long voyage home to England. One significant stop was made on the way back. At Macao those sea-otter pelts so casually acquired in Nootka were a sensation among well-heeled Chinese with an eye to luxury, bringing as much as one hundred Spanish dollars a skin. The crews came close to mutiny when their requests to return to Nootka for more furs were over ruled. But the word spread rapidly among sea traders, and that far and little-known timbered coast would never be so far nor little known again. R e s o l u t i o n and D i s c o v e r y brought home some notable survivors. Among them was William Bligh, later to have his mutiny on the B o u n t y . There was George Vancouver, who in twelve years would carry on the tradition of Cook in exploring America’s northwest coast for England. There was Joseph Billings, an Englishman who sold his services to Russia and later commanded two of the Tsarina’s ships in Unalaska. Then there was John Ledyard, a restless young American in love with adventure

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who later on in Paris, of all places, would fill the head of a fellow Ameri can named Thomas Jefferson with a scheme for exploration of those ob scure lands west of the river Mississippi. The loss of Cook was a loss for the scientific world, but for England it was more bad tidings in a very bad year. The war with the colonies, fresh when Cook left for the Pacific, was stale and dragging on, the outcome uncertain, the prospects dim. Worse, the “enemy” had multiplied — France joining the fray in 1778, Spain in 1779. Now few friends were to be found, thanks to French conniving on the Continent, where Russia, Prussia, Sweden, Denmark, Portugal, and the German states were about to join a pact of “ armed neutrality,” which made it clear that English interference with “free ships carrying free goods” would not be tolerated. Britain, so triumphant after the Treaty of Paris in 1763, Britain with the globe on a leash, had in a brief decade and a half found herself alone, besieged, her empire crumbling. What had gone wrong, and why so soon? In Europe the time-honored principles of statecraft dictate an alliance of the weak against the strong in the interest of equilibrium. The crafty Due de Choiseul, who made the humiliating peace with Britain in 1763, knew that mighty England had a mighty weakness in her North American colonies, in their growing estrangement from the mother country. His successor as foreign minister, the Comte de Vergennes, promoted the split by sending spies to encourage revolt in America while pursuing a diplo macy to part England from potential allies in Europe. It worked. French skullduggery and the stars aside, fault was also to be found in England and her underlings. The obstreperous Americans, whom the England of George III looked on as its own, were not really treated as its own. Politically and economically they were second-class Englishmen, plantation managers ideally, who would follow mercantile orders. Some at home perceived the danger of this policy and its possible consequences, but they were outnumbered by shortsighted merchants and political hacks. With his acid pen, Jonathan Swift had earlier warned against those who “with the spirit of shopkeepers tried to frame rules for the administration of kingdoms.” Men of broad vision were needed to run a great empire, and in England between 1763 and 1783 such men hap pened to be in short supply. London subscribers to the Evening Post who read the delayed reports of reversals at Saratoga and the second battle of Stony Point could only shake their heads in unhappy wonderment and look back with sore nos talgia on what were already known as the good old days of ’63.

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Chapter 15

Snatching Defeat from the Jaw§ of Victory “T here

is s o m e t h i n g a b s u r d

in s u p p o s in g a C o n tin e n t to b e

p e r p e tu a lly g o v e r n e d b y a n is la n d ,” w ro te T h o m a s P a in e in 1776. “ In no in s ta n c e h a th n a tu re m a d e th e sa te llite la r g e r th a n its p rim a ry p la n e t.” C itiz e n T o m r e s te d h is a r g u m e n t o n th e s p o n g y g ro u n d o f “ n a tu ra l la w ,” b u t th e to n e o f C om m on S en se is o n e o f m o ra l o u tra g e — B r ita in ’s d o m in io n o v e r h e r tra n sa tla n tic c o lo n ie s w a s a n o ffe n s e a g a in s t a n y s e lf-r e s p e c tin g ra d ic a l r e p u b lic a n ’s se n sib ilitie s. Still, th e c o re o f his a r g u m e n t re m a in s w h e n slig h tly re p h r a s e d . C ould, n o t sh o u ld , a n isla n d ru le a c o n tin e n t? O r co u ld it e v e n ru le th e v a s t h a lf o f o n e th a t h a d fa lle n in its la p a t th e e n d o f th e S e v e n Y e a r s ’ W a r? C o u ld a m a ritim e n a tio n re lia n t o n se a tra d e h o ld its o w n in th e r e c e s s e s o f a m o stly d a rk c o n tin e n t? W a s n ’t “ g o in g w e s t” g o in g to ruin ? T h a t p o ss ib ility w a s a r g u e d in P a r lia m e n t e v e n b e fo r e th e P a ris tr e a ty w a s s ig n e d in 17 6 3 . W illia m P itt, th e a rc h ite c t o f th e v ic to ry, sa w d a n g e r in th e te rm s o f th e p e a c e : “ S o m e a re fo r k e e p in g C a n a d a ; so m e G u a d e lo u p e ; w h o w ill te ll m e w h ic h I sh a ll b e h a n g e d fo r n o t k e e p in g ? ” B e h in d th e iro n y o f his q u e s tio n p o se d to th e H o u s e o f C o m m o n s w a s th e k n o w le d g e th a t F r a n c e h a d a lr e a d y b e e n strip p e d o f c o lo n ie s a ro u n d th e w o rld , a n d to g e t b o th th e little C a r ib b e a n su g a r isla n d a n d V o lta ir e ’ s b ig b lo c k o f ic e w a s o u t o f th e q u e stio n , u n le s s th e h o stilities w e r e to b e p ro lo n g e d — c e rta in ly n o t w h a t th e w a r -w e a r y m a jo rity w a n te d . S o m e sh re w d h e a d s p o in te d o u t th a t it w a s n e ith e r G u a d e lo u p e n o r C a n a d a th a t w a s m o st d e s ira b le , b u t L o u is ia n a , th e “ W e s t,” w h ic h w a s sa id to b e rich a n d if n o t ta k e n w o u ld le a v e th a t ra w fro n tier e x p o s e d a n d h a rd as e v e r to d e fe n d .

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C a s s a n d r a s o f c o n s e r v a tiv e strip e w a r n e d a g a in s t a b s o rb in g e ith e r C a n a d a or L o u is ia n a . T a k e G u a d e lo u p e w ith its c a n e fie ld s a n d le t th e re st go , th e y said . O th e rw ise E n g la n d w o u ld r e p e a t th e s a m e m ista k e s o f S p a in , b e c o m in g co lo n y -rich a n d tre a su ry -p o o r. M o r e o v e r , w e n t a n o th e r m o re p r e s c ie n t a rg u m e n t, if E n g la n d a c c e p te d L o u is ia n a or C a n a d a , it w o u ld o n ly e n c o u r a g e th e re s tiv e c o lo n ia ls to m o v e w e s t, in c r e a s e th e ir n u m b e rs, b e c o m e stron g, a n d lo s e th e ir d e p e n d e n c e o n th e m o th e rla n d . L e t F r a n c e k e e p h e r c o u n tle s s u n im p ro v e d a c re s. “ A n e ig h b o r th a t k e e p s us in so m e a w e is n o t a lw a y s th e w o rst o f n e ig h b o rs ,” o b s e r v e d W illia m B u r k e in su p p o rt o f th e m in o rity v ie w . B u t th e e x p a n sio n is tic m a jo rity ru le d , le a n in g to w a rd P itt on th is issu e . G o o d im p e ria l s e n s e d ic ta te d a “ ro u n d in g o u t” o f th e h o ld in g s o n th e N o rth A m e r ic a n c o n tin e n t to p r o te c t th o s e v a lu e d c o lo n ie s fro m fo r e ig n th re a ts. T h e m e rc a n tile a rg u m e n t a g a in s t th e a c q u is itio n g o t a m e rc a n tile re b u tta l — b a ld ly s p e c io u s in h in d sigh t. M o r e te rrito ry w o u ld m e a n m o re c h e a p la n d , a n d m o re c h e a p la n d w o u ld m e a n m o re fa rm in g a n d fo re s ta ll th a t d a y w h e n th e c o lo n ists m ig h t b e te m p te d to m a n u fa c tu re in c o m p e titio n w ith E n g la n d . N o t o n ly th a t, a n in c r e a s e in c o lo n ia l p o p u la tio n w o u ld a lso m e a n a g r e a te r n u m b e r o f c o n su m e rs o f E n g lis h g o o d s. T h e n a tio n a l w ill h a d w h a t at first s e e m e d a p e r fe c t d a y in P a ris. F r a n c e g a v e , b u t w ith o u t b u c k lin g . C a n a d a w e n t to E n g la n d , as d id all L o u is ia n a e a s t o f th e M ississip p i e x c e p t th e “ is la n d ” o f N e w O rle a n s. S p a in , a w e ll-th ra s h e d la te c o m e r to th e p e a c e ta b le , h a d to c o u g h u p th e F lo rid a s to fu rth e r ro u n d o u t E n g lis h h o ld in g s, b r ib e d to d o it b y th e D u e d e C h o is e u l w ith th e s e c r e t c e ssio n o f tra n s-M is sissip p i L o u is ia n a to C a rlo s III. E n g la n d w o u ld find th a t o u t a little la te r — a n d th e d isc o m fitin g fa c t th a t th e “ is la n d ” o f N e w O rle a n s, k e y to th e riv e r th a t w a s k e y to th e c o n tin e n t, w a s still in th e B o u r b o n e n e m y ’ s k e e p . S o m e E n g lis h m e n w e r e d e lig h te d w ith C h o is e u l’s T r o ja n h o rse. “ W e a re n o w in th e h e a rt o f th e ir fa v o rite L o u is ia n a , m a ste rs o f all th a t m ig h ty p r o je c t o f u n itin g b y tra ffick , th e la k e s a n d th e O h io , th e s o u rc e s o f S t. L a w r e n c e a n d M ississip p i, a n d o f clo a th in g u n n u m b e r e d n a tio n s w ith ou r m a n u fa c to r ie s ,” e n th u s e d o n e m in iste ria l m in d , w h o v e r y lik e ly h a d his p o u n d s in th e w o o l in d u stry . T r a n s la tio n s o f th e e a r ly F r e n c h w o rk s o n L o u is ia n a w e r e

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T H E D IV IS IB L E E M P IR E

r e a d a v id ly b y p o liticia n s a n d sp e c u la to rs . C h a r le v o ix ’ s J ou rn a l a n d d u P r a t z ’ s H istory o f Louisiana w e r e a v a ila b le in th e 176 0 s. B o s s u ’s T ravels in th e In terior o f N orth A m erica c o u ld b e b o u g h t in E n g lis h tra n sla tio n in 1 7 7 1 . E v e n th e fo rk -to n g u e d B a ro n L a h o n ta n h a d h is lie s re s u r r e c te d fo r E n g lis h m e n . O f c o u rse , n o n e o f th o s e F r e n c h m e n h a d b e e n to L o u is ia n a la te ly , a n d w h a t th e y h a d w ritte n w a s n ’t e x a c tly g o sp e l. W h e n h u n g e r fo r la n d b e c o m e s h u n g e r fo r la n d ’s s a k e , th e re a re p r o b le m s o f d ig e stio n , a n d w h e n y o u c o n q u e r a c o u n try y o u h a v e to d o so m e th in g w ith it. E n g la n d , w h o h a d a lw a y s b e e n m o re in te n t o n th e m y s te rie s b e y o n d th e p o in t o f a s h ip ’ s p ro w th a n w h e re a stre a m or a n In d ia n tra il m ig h t le a d , w a s fo r c e d b y th e n a rro w lo g ic o f im p e ria lism to m o v e fo rw a rd , n o rth w a rd , a n d w e s tw a rd , a fte r 17 6 3 , le a v in g b e h in d th e tid e w a te r a n d th e p ie d m o n t, c ro ssin g th e m o u n ta in s into th e fo re s ts p r im e v a l — a n d ou t o f h e r e le m e n t. T o s e c u r e th e

new

b o u n d a r ie s

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(F r e n c h m e n n o w s e p a r a te d fro m F r a n c e , In d ia n s w h o s e h e a rts Changing the colors: When England occupied Fort de Chartres on the Mississippi, October 10, 1765, she seem ed the winner o f the West.

S N A T C H IN G D E F E A T F R O M T H E JA W S O F V IC T O R Y

h a d b e e n p o is o n e d a g a in s t E n g lis h m e n b y th e ir F r e n c h frien d s, a n d S p a n ia r d s e n s c o n c e d on th e o p p o s ite sid e o f th e d iv id in g river), E n g la n d se n t g a rriso n tro o p s to forts fro m th e S a in t L a w r e n c e to th e G u lf o f M e x ic o , fro m th e A lle g h e n ie s to th e M ississip p i. A lo n g th a t riv e r o f c o m m e r c e re d c o a ts w e r e sta tio n e d a t N a tc h e z , o ld F o r t d e C h a r tr e s , a n d K a s k a s k ia in th e e v e r -a ttr a c tiv e Illin o is C o u n tr y . E n g la n d ’s w e st, o f c o u rse , w a s th e cis-M ississip p i w e st, b u t th e im p e ria l a p p e tite d id n ’t sto p at th e river. M a n y le tte rs a n d m e m o ria ls r e v e a l a n ill-d is g u is e d c o n te m p t fo r S p a in a n d a b e lie f th a t w h e n th e o p p o rtu n ity p r e s e n te d its e lf th e S p a n ia rd s c o u ld b e e a s ily ru n o u t o f th e ir L o u is ia n a a n d th e p o rt o f N e w O rle a n s. I n d e e d , o n e H a r r y G o rd o n , a c a p ta in se n t fro m P h ila d e lp h ia to F o r t d e C h a r tr e s , w ro te in 17 6 6 th a t th e M iss is sip p i fro n tie r forts w e r e th e m s e lv e s u n n e c e s s a r y . T r o o p s fro m N e w Y o r k a n d a s iz e a b le fle e t b a s e d in th e G u lf o f M e x ic o w o u ld b e su ffic ie n t w h e n th e m o m e n t o f d e c is io n c a m e to “ sp it u p o n S p a in .” H e p r e d ic te d th a t C a r lo s w o u ld “ lo se M e x ic o in a tw e lv e m o n th s ’ w a r .” B rita in so o n h a d le g itim a te if h y p o c ritic a l co m p la in ts a g a in s t h e r n e w n e ig h b o r in th e W e st. F r e n c h m e n in S a in t L o u is w e r e still c ro ssin g th e riv e r b o u n d a r y to tra d e w ith th e trib e s o f th e G r e a t L a k e s a n d a lo n g th e Illin o is a n d W a b a s h rive rs. P e lts ta k e n o n E n g lis h la n d w e r e g o in g d o w n th e riv e r to N e w O rle a n s a n d w in d in g u p in M a d rid in s te a d o f in L o n d o n a n d G la s g o w , w h e re t h e y b e lo n g e d . It h a d b e e n e x p e c ta tio n s o f m o n o p o liz in g th e fu r tr a d e th a t g a v e so lid su p p o rt to e x p a n s io n in th e first p la c e . W ith o u t th a t in d u c e m e n t, th e W e s t w a s n o t n e a r ly so a ttra c tiv e . W h ile e ig h te e n th -c e n tu r y E n g lis h m e n sto o d s e c o n d to n o n e in th e p ro m o tio n o f m a ritim e tra d e , it to o k th e m fo u r y e a r s to w ise u p to th e w a y s o f th e fu r tra d e . In th e im p e ria l p la n s in itia te d b y L o rd S h e lb u r n e in 17 6 3 a n d s p e lle d o u t in 176 4 , tra d e rs w e r e to s e t u p th e ir p o sts n e a r E n g lis h s e ttle m e n ts a n d w a it fo r th e I n d ia n s to c o m e to th e m ; it h a d w o rk e d w e ll e n o u g h u p in H u d s o n ’ s B a y — re d m e n h o o fin g a n d p a d d lin g h u n d re d s o f m ile s to g e t th e ir b la n k e ts a n d b a u b le s at th e c o m p a n y sto re. It d id n o t w o rk in th e h e a r tla n d w h e re , fo r a c e n tu r y or m o re , F r e n c h m e n h a d ta k e n th e ir p o r ta b le sto res o n to trib a l la n d s to m a k e th e e x c h a n g e . U n d e r th a t s a m e d e c r e e o f 17 6 4 , tw o In d ia n s u p e r in te n d e n ts w e r e a p p o in te d , o n e fo r th e n o rth a n d o n e fo r th e so u th , a n d all

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tra d e rs w e r e to b e lic e n s e d b y th e C r o w n a n d c o n fin e d to p r e s c rib e d p o sts in o rd e r to p ro te c t th e In d ia n s fro m a b u s e s . L ik e p r e v io u s F r e n c h a tte m p ts a t re g u la tio n , s u c h ru le s p r o v e d u n w o rk a b le . F r e n c h tra d e rs o p e ra tin g fro m S p a n is h L o u is ia n a w e re u n d e r no s u c h re strictio n s, a n d th e y h a d th e c o rn e r on th e traffic. A d ju s tm e n ts w e r e c a lle d fo r a n d m a d e in 1 7 6 7 . T r a d e r s w e re h e n c e fo r th a llo w e d to ro a m as t h e y w ish e d . O th e r a d a p ta tio n s fo llo w e d . F r e n c h m e n in th e Illin o is C o u n try , w h o w e r e m a d e to s w e a r a lle g ia n c e to th e ir n e w p o litic a l m a ste rs, a n d F r e n c h m e n in C a n a d a w e r e a b s o r b e d into th e m id d le a n d lo w e r e c h e lo n s

o f an e ffic ie n t s y s te m

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s h re w d S c o ts m e n at th e to p . E n g lis h g o o d s w e r e s u p e rio r g o o d s, a n d sm art P r o te s ta n t m a n a g e r s k n e w h o w to m a x im iz e pro fits. B u t th e a d d itio n o f F r e n c h co u reu rs d e bois, field m a n a g e r s , a n d c le rk s w a s ju s t w h a t th e b u s in e s s la c k e d : m e n w h o k n e w th e I n d ia n s a n d w e r e to le ra n t o f th e ir w a y s , w h o w e r e m o re re lia b le a n d lo y a l to th e ir su p erio rs a n d le ss g iv e n to c ritic iz in g th a n E n g lis h m e n , m e n w h o w e re p h y s ic a lly to u g h e r a n d b e tte r a b le to tr a v e l into little -k n o w n la n d s w h e re p e lts w e r e in v a r ia b ly c h e a p e r . W ith in te n y e a r s th e im b a la n c e h a d sh ifte d . T h e s u p p ly o f fu rs g o in g d o w n th e M iss is sip p i d w in d le d a s th o s e r e a c h in g M o n tr e a l in c r e a s e d , b o u n d n o t fo r F r a n c e as in d a y s o f y o r e , b u t fo r th e m e rc h a n ts o f L o n d o n . M o s t “ b o rd e r v io la tio n s ” w e r e n o w b y th e “ M o n tre a l p e d d le r s ” a n d th e ir a g e n ts w h o c a m e d o w n fro m C a n a d a a n d c ro s s e d th e riv e r into th e U p p e r M iss is sip p i — th e S p a n is h Illin o is — v ia th e Io w a , T u r k e y , a n d D e s M o in e s riv e rs. T h e p r e m iu m b e a v e r a n d o tter sk in s w e re fo u n d in th e n o rth , a n d it w a s in th e n o rth th a t E n g la n d in g ra tia te d h e r s e lf a m o n g th e S io u x , th e Io w a s , e v e n th e L ittle O s a g e s fro m th e M isso u ri c o u n try . W ith gifts, fla tte ry , a n d b a rg a in p ric e s , sh e so o n h a d S p a in o n th e d e fe n s iv e . T h e S p a n ia r d s d id p u t u p re s is ta n c e . T h e y e n te r e d th e b r ib e r y c o n te st, a n d th o u g h th e ir w a r e s w e r e in ferio r to th o s e o f th e B ritish , th e y m a n a g e d to h o ld th e a lle g ia n c e o f th e S a u k s , th e F o x e s , th e W ic h ita s, a n d th e M isso u ris. In 1 7 6 7 th e y e v e n ra is e d F o rt C a rlo s I I I at th e c o n flu e n c e o f th e M isso u ri a n d M iss is sip p i riv e rs a n d m a n n e d it w ith e ig h te e n tro o p s a n d fiv e c a n n o n . It w a s a lo n e s o m e a n d in e ffe c tiv e statio n , a so lita ry p o in t d w a r fe d b y a u n iv e r s e o f w o o d la n d s a n d p la in s. U p riv e r a t P ra irie d u

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Maj. Robert Rogers had designs on the West. H e also had problem s with his English superiors.

C h ie n , o n a fla t stre tc h o f la n d w h e re th e W isc o n sin R iv e r sp ille d in to th e M iss is sip p i fro m th e e a s t, th e E n g lis h tra d e rs e n jo y e d th e m s e lv e s a s th e y r e a p e d th e ir pro fits. S p rin g a n d fa ll o ffe re d g a m e s a n d ro is te rin g a t th e g re a t r e n d e z v o u s o f tra d e rs a n d re d m e n fro m a ll o v e r. P e te r P o n d , a n A m e r ic a n e y e w itn e s s to th e 1 773-74 g a th e rin g , sa id th e c a m p s o f th e In d ia n s “ e x c e a d e d a m ile a n d a h a lf in le n g th .” S p a in ’s slig h t s w a y a b o v e S a in t L o u is w a s e ro d in g fast. B e s id e s o rd in a ry fu r m e n , E n g la n d h a d a fe w d re a m e rs lo o se on th e la n d s c a p e w h o m L a S a lle a n d th e V e r e n d r y e s w o u ld h a v e r e c o g n iz e d as b ro th e rs u n d e r th e skin. O n e , R o b e r t R o g e r s , c a m e o u t o f th e S e v e n Y e a r s ’ W a r a h e ro , th e d a rin g c o m m a n d e r o f R o g e r s R a n g e r s w h o w a s w ith W o lfe a t th e fa ll o f Q u e b e c a n d la te r a c c e p t e d th e F r e n c h s u rre n d e r o f D e tro it. H e w a s a n a m b itio u s a n d a w e s t-th in k in g m a n . W h e n h e a rriv e d in L o n d o n in 17 6 5 to b a s k in g lo ry a n d p u b lis h h is C on cise A cco u n t o f N orth

A m erica (in w h ic h h e m a d e th e e n c o u ra g in g r e v e la tio n th a t “ th e

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fu rth e r y o u tr a v e l w e s tw a rd , th e m o re m ild a n d te m p e r a te it g r o w s ” ), h e a lso p e titio n e d th e k in g fo r b a c k in g o f a n e x p e d i tion to cro ss th e c o n tin e n t a n d fin d th e P a c ific O c e a n . It w a s N o r th w e s t P a s s a g e tim e a g a in : tim e to lo c a te th a t fa b le d R iv e r o f th e W e s t a n d rid e it righ t o u t to th e b ig b rin y . I n s te a d o f a s u b s id y , th e M a s s a c h u s e tts -b o r n R o g e r s g o t a n a p p o in tm e n t a s c o m m a n d e r o f th e p o st a t M ic h ilim a c k in a c , w h e re h e b e g a n o u tfittin g a n e x p lo ra tio n o n his o w n . T o d o th e le g w o rk , h e ta p p e d tw o fo rm e r o ffic e rs w h o h a d s e r v e d u n d e r h im in th e R a n g e r s —J o n a th a n C a r v e r a n d J a m e s T u t e , b o th N e w E n g la n d co lo n ia ls lik e h im self. E a g e r J o n C a r v e r w a s at P ra irie d u C h ie n in O c to b e r o f 176 6 , m u c h p le a s e d w ith w h a t h e sa w . T h e In d ia n s , h e w a s c o n v in c e d , c o u ld b e w o n o v e r to th e E n g lis h sid e w ith p r e s e n ts a n d c o a x in g , a w a y fro m d is s e m b lin g F r e n c h m e n w h o w e re s c a tte r e d a b o u t a n d p r e a c h in g a F r e n c h re tu rn . C a r v e r th e n tr a v e le d n o rth u p th e M iss is sip p i a n d w e s t u p th e M in n e s o ta , w h e re h e w in te re d in 1 7 6 6 - 6 7 a m o n g th e S io u x . C o m e sp rin g , h e h e a d e d d o w n riv e r to p ic k u p tra d in g g o o d s p ro m is e d b y R o g e r s , o n ly to m e e t C a p t. J a m e s T u t e a n d h is p a rty , w h o m R o g e r s h a d se n t “ to fin d o u t th e g re a t riv e r O u ra g o n th a t ru n s into th e S o u th S e a a n d a N o rth w e s t P a s s a g e if p o s s ib le .” It w a s n o t p o ss ib le . C a r v e r jo in e d T u t e a n d h e a d e d fo r th e p la n n e d w in te r b iv o u a c o n L a k e W in n ip e g , b u t th e trin k e ts T u t e c a rrie d w e re so o n e x h a u s te d in try in g to o u td o th e F r e n c h tra d e rs , a n d th e y d e c id e d th a t th e y sh o u ld go to L a k e S u p e r io r to p ic k u p m o re g o o d s p ro m ise d b y R o g e r s b e fo r e c ro ssin g S io u x co u n try . O f m o re th e re w a s nil. R o g e r s h a d tu m b le d fro m fa v o r a n d w a s sh o rtly to sta n d trial (a n d b e a c q u itte d ) for tre a s o n . H is b a c k e r g o n e , C a r v e r b e g a n h is p a th e tic p r iv a te q u e s t, first to d e a f- e a r e d B o s to n , th e n to L o n d o n w h e re h is T ra vels w a s d o c to re d a n d so ld w id e ly w h ile h e s ta r v e d to d e a th . H is d e s c r ip tion o f fe rtile la n d s a n d sig n s o f c o p p e r a n d le a d p iq u e d th e in te re s t o f a fe w in flu e n tia l m e n , as d id his p a trio tic co m p la in t th a t “ h a d th e E n g lis h m a d e th e m s e lv e s m a ste rs o f th e w e s t sid e o f th e M iss is sip p i w e m ig h t n o w h a v e th e a d v a n ta g e o f [th e fur] tra d e w ith m o re In d ia n s th a n d o u b le th e n u m b e r w e h a v e a righ t in all o u r e x te n s iv e d o m in io n s .” O n e m e m b e r o f P a r lia m e n t w e n t so fa r as to p ro p o s e th a t C a r v e r le a d a p a r ty w e s t to th e P a c ific ,

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b u t th e p a ll o f im p e n d in g w a r in th e c o lo n ie s p u t a n e n d to th a t — a n d to C a r v e r ’s d re a m o f a n in la n d e m p ire . T h e first E n g lis h m a n to g e t a c ro ss th e M iss is sip p i a n d w rite d o w n in d e ta il w h a t h e h a d s e e n w a s in th e rig h t p la c e s b u t a t th e w ro n g tim es. S p a n is h o fficials h a d no w a y o f k n o w in g h o w fa r w e s t E n g lis h m e n h a d g o n e , so th e ir w o rries h a d a lot o f g ro u n d to c o v e r. T e n or m o re E n g lis h v e s s e ls w e r e c o n tin u o u s ly o n th e M iss is sip p i a fte r 1 7 6 3 , o p e ra tin g a s “ flo a tin g s to re s ” fo r S p a n is h p la n te rs a n d s u p p ly in g th e A n g lo s o f M a n c h a c a n d B a to n R o u g e , w h ic h w e r e b id d in g fa ir to e c lip s e N e w O rle a n s as th e first to w n o f th e riv e r. A s o m in o u s as th e fle e t’ s p r e s e n c e m ig h t b e , it w a s n o t ille g a l. W h a t w a s ille g a l w a s th e tre s p a s s in g — th e E n g lis h m e n w h o w e r e s n e a k in g u p th e A r k a n s a s R iv e r , th o s e fro m P ra irie d u C h ie n w h o w e r e m o v in g fr e e ly a b o u t on S p a in ’ s sid e o f th e riv e r, th o s e sa id to b e e v e n fa rth e r n o rth in U p p e r L o u is ia n a tra d in g w ith th e S io u x. T h e a d m in istra to rs o f S p a n is h L o u is ia n a fired o ff le tte rs o f p ro te st, w h ic h B ritish o fficials a rtfu lly d o d g e d . T h o s e E n g lis h m e n o n th e w ro n g sid e o f th e riv e r w e r e th e re w ith o u t a u th o r iz a tio n — a b a d lot o f v a g a b o n d s — little m o re th a n b a n d itti re a lly . In a s e n s e th e o fficial lin e w a s co rrect. S a v e p o s s ib ly fo r C a r v e r , th o s e w h o c ro s s e d th e F a th e r o f W a te rs w e r e n e ith e r P ittite e x p a n s io n ists n o r a fifth co lu m n se n t b y K in g G e o rg e . T h e y w e re fr e e - la n c e h a w k e r s w h o s e p e rs o n a l p o litics, e v e n a fte r 1 7 7 6 , ran a d is ta n t s e c o n d to tu rn in g a p ro fit in th e In d ia n tra d e . A n d y e t, in a ro u n d a b o u t w a y , th o s e gritty P ro te s ta n ts w h o h a d tr a c k e d in to th e tra n s-M ississip p i W e st w e re th e v a n g u a r d o f fo rc e s th a t w o u ld in tim e p u s h S p a in b a c k to w a rd h e r p re c io u s M e x ic o .

H A T W A S T H E GOO D N E W S. F o r e x p a n sio n is ts th e re w a s m u c h

m o re b a d n e w s a tte n d in g th e E n g lis h p lu n g e w e st. H a r d ly w a s th e in k d ry o n th e 17 6 3 P a ris tr e a ty b e fo r e th e O tta w a c h ie f P o n tia c fo r g e d a n a llia n c e o f trib e s a n d stru c k th e n e w in tru d e rs o n th e a n c e s tr a l la n d s. F ro m M ic h ilim a c k in a c to th e u p p e r O h io R iv e r fe ll th e fu r y o f r e d m e n w h o fe lt k e e n ly th e lo ss o f th e ir F r e n c h frie n d s a n d b y n o w h a d th e ir first ta s te o f A n g lo - S a x o n la n d - g r a b b e r s a n d c h ic a n in g tra d e rs. D e tro it a n d F o r t P itt w ith

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sto o d s ie g e s , b u t m o st o th e r n o rth w e s te rn p o sts w e n t u n d e r b e fo re G e n . J e ffr e y A m h e r s t la u n c h e d a c o u n te ra tta c k to su tu re th e to rn fro n tier. N o t u n til E n g lis h tro o p s fin a lly r e a c h e d F o rt d e C h a r tr e s in O c to b e r o f 17 6 5 w a s th e P o n tia c r e b e llio n e n d e d . F o r E n g la n d it h a d b e e n a s o b e r in g w e lc o m e to th e c o re o f th e c o n tin e n t. B r ita in ’s p ro b le m s w e r e la r g e ly p e o p le p ro b le m s : d is u n ity a t hom e;

d is a g re e m e n ts w ith th e A m e r in d in th e tra n s m o n ta n e

w e st; b u t m a in ly d is c o rd in th e th irte e n c o lo n ie s , w h e re th o s e w h o w e r e o n c e p ro u d to c a ll th e m s e lv e s E n g lis h m e n w e r e b e h a v in g lik e a n y th in g b u t. M a n y re a s o n s h a v e b e e n a d v a n c e d for th e A n g lo - A m e r ic a n rift, b u t o n e o f th e e a r lie s t if n o t th e m o st d iv is iv e h a d to d o w ith th e tr a n s - A lle g h e n y W e st: q u ite lite ra lly ,

what to d o w ith it. C o lo n ia l fu r tra d e rs w a n te d fr e e ru n o f th e te r ritory. C o lo n ia l fa rm e rs w e r e e q u a lly d e a d - s e t o n p u s h in g th e In d ia n o ff a n d p u ttin g th e p lo w in. C o lo n ia l s p e c u la to rs (a m o n g th e m s u c h w o rth ie s a s G e o r g e W a sh in g to n , B e n ja m in F ra n k lin , a n d P a tr ic k H e n r y ) s o u g h t to o b ta in a n d h o ld p a r c e ls u n til th e y c o u ld b e , w e ll, su b d iv id e d . E n g lis h p o liticia n s lo o k in g a t th e b ig im p e ria l p ic tu r e c o u ld n ’t a g r e e o n w h a t to do. B u t w h e n w o rd o f P o n t ia c ’s u p risin g r e a c h e d L o n d o n in A u g u s t, o p in io n so o n c r y s ta lliz e d in to th e P r o c la m a tio n o f 17 6 3 , s ig n e d b y G e o r g e I I I o n O c to b e r 7. A s if to s o lv e all th e ir im m e d ia te w e s te r n p ro b le m s w ith o n e stro k e o f th e p e n , th e B ritish fo r b a d e th e co lo n ists to p u r c h a s e a n y la n d or s e ttle a n y w h e re w e s t o f th e A p p a la c h ia n s . In s te a d , th e y w e r e u r g e d to m o v e to th e th r e e “ s a f e ” n e w c o lo n ie s o f E a s t F lo r id a , W e s t F lo rid a , a n d Q u e b e c . A ll th o s e fo re sts, v a lle y s , a n d p la in s b e y o n d th e P r o c la m a tio n L in e w e r e to b e c o n s id e r e d te m p o ra rily th e p r o p e r ty o f th e In d ia n s a n d th e p r e s e r v e o f th e fu r tra d e rs. T h e co lo n ists w e r e o u tra g e d . G e o r g e W a s h in g to n e x p r e s s e d th e ir se n tim e n ts p r e c is e ly w h e n h e sa id th a t h e c o u ld n o t v ie w th e p ro c la m a tio n as a n y th in g m o re th a n a te m p o r a r y so p to th e In d ia n s . “ A n y p e rso n , th e r e fo r e , w h o n e g le c ts th e p r e s e n t o p p o rtu n ity o f h u n tin g o u t g o o d la n d s a n d in so m e m e a s u r e m a rk in g a n d d is tin g u is h in g th e m fo r h is o w n w ill n e v e r re g a in it.” T h e tru th w a s, E n g la n d h e r s e lf r e c o g n iz e d it as o n ly a m o m e n ta ry e x p e d ie n t th a t m ig h t d e la y a w h ile th e in e v ita b le . O f th e A m e ri-

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S N A T C H IN G D E F E A T F R O M T H E JA W S O F V IC T O R Y

c a n s a n d th e im a g in a ry lin e E d m u n d B u r k e w o u ld sa y , “ o v e r th is th e y w o u ld w a n d e r w ith o u t p o ss ib ility o f re stra in t.” H a d E n g la n d m a d e a stick -p o in t o f th e p ro c la m a tio n , th e re m ig h t h a v e b e e n in sta n t u p h e a v a l. B u t sh e d id not. S h e tu rn e d h e r h e a d w h ile th e co lo n ists w e n t th e ir w e s te rn w a y , sh a rp in g In d ia n s o u t o f th e ir la n d s a n d th e n b ra c in g th e m s e lv e s fo r th e fo llo w -u p w a r crie s a n d th e to m a h a w k . T h e r e w a s so m e th in g fa r m o re ra n k lin g th a n c o lo n ia l la n d g ra b b in g in th e E n g lis h m in d . T h a t glo rio u s v ic to ry o f 176 3 h a d n o t c o m e c h e a p . T h e w a g e s o f s u c c e s s h a d b e e n d e b t. B e fo r e th e F r e n c h a n d In d ia n W a r, th e S e v e n Y e a r s ’ W a r (w h a t h isto ria n L a w r e n c e G ip s o n c a lls th e G r e a t W a r for E m p ire ), E n g la n d h a d s p e n t £ 1 1 ,0 0 0 a y e a r to k e e p tro o p s in A m e ric a . W h a t w ith s u b s e q u e n t co sts o f g a rriso n in g th e W e s t a n d k e e p in g o rd e r b e tw e e n a g g r ie v e d In d ia n s a n d th e ir o w n w a n d e r in g s u b je c ts , th a t su m h a d n o w tr e b le d . W o rse , fin a n c in g th e w a r h a d ja c k e d th e n a tio n a l d e b t to a n u m b in g £ 13 0 ,0 0 0 ,0 0 0 , th e y e a r ly p a y m e n t to re tire it ru n n in g to a c o o l £ 4,0 0 0 ,0 0 0 . T h e m o n e y h a d to c o m e fro m s o m e w h e r e , a n d th a t s o m e w h e r e c o u ld n o t b e th e a t-h o m e ta x p a y e r , w h o w a s a lr e a d y p a y in g m a n y tim e s w h a t his tra n sa tla n tic b ro th e r w a s. It w a s tim e to e n d s a lu ta ry n e g le c t, tim e for th o s e a c ro s s th e s e a to s h o u ld e r th e ir fa ir s h a re o f th e b u rd e n , p a r tic u la rly w h e n so m u c h o f th e e x p e n s e w e n t to d e fe n d in g th o s e co lo n ists w h o , as w a s p r o v e d o n c e a g a in in th e P o n tia c tro u b le , w e r e in c a p a b le o f d e fe n d in g th e m s e lv e s . W h a t fo llo w e d fro m th is th in k in g is th e w e ll-k n o w n d ra m a o f s u c c e s s iv e a cts: th e R e v e n u e A c t, th e C u r r e n c y A c t, th e Q u a r te rin g A c t, a n d th e o d io u s S ta m p A c t, w h ic h rile d co lo n ists to a c o n g re s s a n d th e se n d in g o f a p e titio n to k in g a n d P a rlia m e n t. T h e S ta m p A c t w a s r e s c in d e d b u t fo llo w e d b y th e D e c la r a to r y A c t. A n d so on. T h e B ritish w e r e at first p u z z le d b y th e c o lo n is ts ’ re s is ta n c e to w h a t s e e m e d m o re th a n e q u ita b le . W h a t d id th o s e p e o p le w a n t, a n y w a y ? A n d w h a t w a s a m o th e r c o u n try to d o ? M o s tly it d ith e r e d a n d flo u n d e r e d , b u t in 176 8 a m a jo r d e c is io n w a s m a d e r e g a r d in g th e W e s t w h ic h c r a c k e d o p e n th e g a te to c o lo n ia l e x p a n s io n . A y e a r b e fo re , L o rd S h e lb u r n e h a d p r o p o s e d th a t th e e n tire M iss is sip p i V a lle y b e o p e n e d to se ttle m e n t, th a t th e co lo-

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n ie s b e le ft to h a n d le th e ir o w n In d ia n p ro b le m s a n d r e g u la te tra d e , a n d th a t tro o p s in th e W e s t b e r e d u c e d a n d p la c e d a t F o rt P itt, N a tc h e z , F o r t d e C h a r tr e s , a n d a n e w p o st on th e Ib e r v ille R iv e r . In a m a tte r o f m o n th s S h e lb u r n e lo st h is jo b to th e c o n s e r v a tiv e L o rd H illsb o ro u g h , w h o , p a r tly o n a v a ria tio n o f th e g u n s -a n d -b u tte r th e m e , a m e n d e d th e p la n . L e t th e co lo n ists ru n th e fu r tra d e , y e s . B u t n e w c o lo n ie s fo r th e riv e r v a lle y w e r e out; in s te a d th e P r o c la m a tio n L in e o f 176 3 w a s g r u d g in g ly m o v e d s o m e w h a t w e s t. G a rriso n s w o u ld b e s h a r p ly c u rta ile d a n d m a in ta in e d o n ly a t th e stra te g ic G r e a t L a k e s p o sts o f N ia g a r a , D e tro it, a n d M ic h ilim a c k in a c le s t th e F r e n c h g e t a n y id e a s a g a in . G e n . T h o m a s G a g e , c o m m a n d e r o f B ritish tro o p s in A m e r ic a , g a v e th e p o lic y h is b le s s in g : “ L e t th e s a v a g e s e n jo y th e ir d e sa rts in q u ie t. . . . I a m o f o p in io n , in d e p e n d e n t o f th e m o tiv e s o f co m m o n ju s tic e a n d h u m a n ity , th a t th e p rin c ip le s o f in te re s t a n d p o lic y sh o u ld in d u c e u s ra th e r to p r o te c t th a n m o le st th e m . W e r e th e y d ro v e fro m th e ir fo rrests, th e p e ltr y tra d e w o u ld d e c r e a s e , a n d [it is] n o t im p o ss ib le th a t w o rst s a v a g e s w o u ld ta k e r e fu g e in th e m ; for th e y m ig h t th e n b e c o m e th e a s y lu m o f fu g itiv e n e g r o e s , a n d id le v a g a b o n d s , e s c a p e d fro m ju s tic e , w h o in tim e m ig h t b e c o m e fo rm id a b le , a n d su b sist b y ra p in e , a n d p lu n d e r in g .” S u c h s w e e t le m o n s! B e h in d th e h u m a n ita ria n fa c a d e w a s an e c o n o m y m o v e a n d a d e s ire to b e to ta lly rid o f th e d is tre ssin g fro n tie r p ro b le m b y le a v in g it to th e co lo n ia ls, w h o w o u ld n e v e r b e s to p p e d b y a n y lin e d ra w n o n a m a p in W e stm in s te r a n y w a y . A t le a s t th e fu r tra d e w o u ld go on. T h u s w a s a p u llb a c k o f B ritish stre n g th b e g u n , to b e r e lo c a te d on th e s e a b o a r d , w h e re , if th in g s c o n tin u e d as th e y w e r e , th e m e n w o u ld b e n e e d e d . In 17 7 0 a n in c id e n t o c c u rre d th a t c a u s e d th e lion to p a u s e a n d m o m e n ta rily tu rn w ith m e n a c e . A d is p u te b e tw e e n E n g la n d a n d S p a in o v e r th e so u th A tla n tic F a lk la n d Is la n d s th r e a te n e d to b r e a k o u t in g e n e r a l w ar. G e n e r a l G a g e w a s o r d e r e d to p r e p a r e to ta k e N e w O rle a n s. B u t th e th re a t e v a p o r a te d . F o r t d e C h a rtre s a n d F o r t P itt w e r e p e r ro y a l w ish a b a n d o n e d — r e m o v e s th a t w o u ld h a v e a b e a r in g o n a n o th e r w a r, fa r m o re im p o rta n t in its c o n s e q u e n c e s , th a t w a s n o t fa r a w a y . P a r lia m e n ta r y to le r a n c e fo r u n g r a te fu l c o lo n ia ls s tiffe n e d in 17 6 7 . T h e n e w T o w n s h e n d A c ts w e r e re siste d , a n d b ro u g h t on

310

BY ALLAN RAMSAY; COLONIAL WILLIAMSBURG FOUNDATION

G eorge III was not the fool some Whig historians have made him. But neither was he on history’s side.

b o y c o tts a n d , in 17 7 0 , v io le n c e in B o sto n . T h o u g h m o st le v ie s w e r e r e p e a le d , G e o r g e I I I a n d P a r lia m e n t w e re d o g g e d in m a in ta in in g th e rig h t to ta x d ista n t s u b je c ts . A n o d d th in g w a s h a p p e n in g in E n g la n d . T h e p e o p le w h o g a v e th e w o rld fe w ism s, o th e r

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Im p e r ia l p a tie n c e w a s e x h a u s te d . T h e m a lc o n te n ts w e r e to b e b r o u g h t in to lin e. E n g la n d h a s p r o d u c e d as m a n y g re a t a n d g ifte d le a d e r s as th e n e x t n a tio n , b u t n o t b e tw e e n 176 3 a n d 178 3 . O n th e c re s t o f e m p ire , s h e h a d a d e a rth o f th o s e w h o c o u ld d ire c t it. O f c o u rse , th e r e w a s W illia m P itt, b u t th e G r e a t C o m m o n e r w h o b e c a m e L o r d C h a th a m w a s p h y s ic a lly a ilin g a n d s h o w e d it d u rin g his la s t

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S h e lb u r n e , h a d lib e ra l v ie w s on h o w to h a n d le th e co lo n ists a n d th e ir W e st, b u t h e w a s ra r e ly in p o w e r fo r lo n g . T h e n th e re w a s E d m u n d B u r k e , th e O ld W h ig s a g e w h o c h o s e h u m a n ity o v e r p rin c ip le a n d im p a rte d p o litic a l w isd o m to a g e s b e y o n d h is o w n . B u t th e r e w e r e a lso s c a d s o f m id d lin g sorts, m e d io c ritie s w h o

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fa ile d to fo llo w th ro u g h o n th e p o ss ib ilitie s o f ’63. T h e y c o lle c te d in p o litic a l fra g m e n ts — O ld W h ig s, B e d fo r d ite W h ig s, G r e n v ille W h ig s, R o c k in g h a m W h ig s, T o r ie s , a n d “ K in g ’ s F r ie n d s .” W h a t d iv id e d th e m w a s n o t id e o lo g y or p a r ty p la tfo rm s b u t p e r s o n a l a m b itio n a n d o ffice s in th e g o v e r n m e n t th a t b r o u g h t p r e s tig e a n d th e w h iff o f p o w e r. U n d e r th e stre ss o f w h a t to d o w ith A m e r ic a a n d its W e st, m in istries ro se a n d fe ll w ith th e re g u la rity o f a su m m e r th e rm o m e te r in a n a rid la n d . P r e s id in g o v e r it all w a s th e H a n o v e r ia n G e o r g e I I I . R e c e n t sc h o la rs h ip h a s s h o w n h im to b e n e ith e r th e fo o l n o r th e k n a v e th a t W h ig h isto ria n s h a v e m a d e o f h im . N e ith e r w a s h e a k in g fo r h is tim e. T h e c e n te r w a s n o t h o ld in g ; th in g s w e r e sh o rtly to fa ll ap a rt. A d e e p -r o o te d a r r o g a n c e to w a rd A m e r ic a n s stu c k in th e m in d s o f so m e E n g lis h m e n . T h e N e w W o rld h a d , a fte r all, b e e n p e o p le d in p a rt w ith fe lo n s, tarts, d e b to rs , a n d e x p e n d a b le a n d e x p o r ta b le scu m . B e n ja m in F ra n k lin h a d c o n firm e d th is b y o ffe rin g to r e p a y th e h o m e c o u n try fo r th e h u m a n re s o u r c e s it se n t b y e x p o rtin g a sh ip lo a d o f r a ttle s n a k e s . A n d th e n , tw o F r e n c h p h ilo s o p h e rs , th e C o m te d e B u ffo n a n d th e A b b e R a y n a l, h a d r e m a r k e d on h o w E u r o p e a n a n im a ls d e g e n e r a te d on th e o th e r sid e o f th e A t la n tic. O n e c o u ld n ’t h o ld o n e ’ s b r e a th w a itin g on h u m a n g e n iu s to sp rin g from s u c h a b a rb a ric soil. T h e r e w a s a n o th e r c o n te m p o ra ry c ro s s c u rre n t o f th o u g h t th a t b r e d a s e n s e o f fa ta lis m a m o n g so m e E n g lis h m e n . B is h o p B e r k e le y h a d p u t it into a p o te n t q u a tra in w a y b a c k in 1720 : W e s tw a rd th e c o u rse o f e m p ire ta k e s its w a y , T h e first fo u r a c ts a lr e a d y p a st. T h e fifth sh a ll c lo s e th e d ra m a w ith th e d a y , T im e ’s n o b le s t o ffsp rin g is th e last. T o th e d e g r e e th a t m e n b e lie v e d , a n d th e y d id b e lie v e i f s o m e tim e s o n ly v is c e r a lly , it w a s a se lf-fu lfillin g p r o p h e c y . G r e e c e , R o m e , S p a in — t h e y w e r e a ll b e h in d th e n o w -s u p re m e E n g la n d . H a d n a tu re c h o s e n th is tim e to o p e n th e fifth a c t in A m e r ic a ? A n a m u sin g skit p o p u la r in L o n d o n in 1 7 7 4 p o r tr a y e d tw o u r b a n e A m e r ic a n s v isitin g th e q u a in t ru in s o f L o n d o n in th e y e a r 19 7 4 , as e ig h te e n th -c e n tu r y E n g lis h m e n m ig h t h a v e p a id th e ir r e s p e c ts to A th e n s . A m e r ic a k e p t so m e d is tin g u is h e d frie n d s in E n g la n d rig h t u p

312

Benjamin Franklin was in London in early 1774 as agent for seething Massachusetts. The Privy Council was not sympathetic.

to, a n d e v e n th ro u g h , its re b e llio u s w a r. In 1 7 7 6 , G e o r g e G r e n v ille o b s e r v e d to h is a u d ie n c e in th e H o u s e o f C o m m o n s th a t th e “ se d itio u s sp irit o f th e c o lo n ie s o w e s its b irth to fa c tio n s in this H o u s e .” W illia m P itt, th o u g h a n iro n -fiste d im p e ria list, sa w ju s tic e in th e s lo g a n o f no ta x a tio n w ith o u t re p re s e n ta tio n . “ A m e r ic a ,” h e d e c la r e d , “ b e in g n e ith e r r e a lly n o r v irtu a lly r e p r e s e n te d in W e stm in s te r, c a n n o t b e h e ld le g a lly or c o n stitu tio n a lly or r e a s o n a b ly s u b je c t to o b e d ie n c e to a n y m o n e y b ill o f th is k in g d o m .” E d m u n d B u r k e sa id th a t h e d id n o t c h o o s e to d is o w n A m e r ic a or its sp irit b e c a u s e it w a s th e sp irit o f his n a tiv e la n d . “ A n E n g lis h m a n ,” h e sa id “ is th e u n fitte st p e rs o n on e a rth to a r g u e a n o th e r E n g lis h m a n in to s la v e r y .” T h e e ffe te o ld w it H o r a c e

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W a lp o le a lso h a d w a s p is h w o rd s fo r h is c o u n tr y m e n a n d his P a r lia m e n t, w h ic h h e a c c u s e d o f c h ild is h ly “ sm a s h in g a n e m p ire to s e e w h a t it w a s m a d e o f.” Y e t th e a g in g W h ig k e p t a s u p e r cilio u s d is ta n c e . “ O n e h a s g rie fs e n o u g h o f o n e ’s o w n ,” h e w ro te , “ w ith o u t fre ttin g b e c a u s e A m e r ic a h a s e lo p e d w ith a P r e s b y t e r ia n p a r s o n .” It is im p o ss ib le to s a y a t w h a t p o in t th e r u p tu re b e t w e e n E n g la n d a n d h e r c o lo n ie s b e c a m e ir re p a ra b le . B u t i f a g u n w e r e at o n e ’s h e a d to p r o d u c e a n a n s w e r or e ls e , th e n th e Q u e b e c A c t o f 1 7 7 4 w o u ld b e as g o o d a life s a v in g g u e s s as a n y . W h a t it w a s m e a n t to do w a s to rig h t w ro n g s a lr e a d y d o n e . T h e s a m e P r o c la m a tio n o f 17 6 3 th a t tried to ste m th e w e s tw a r d p u s h o f c o lo n ia l p lo w m e n h a d m a d e a b o tc h o f rig h t-ru le in C a n a d a , w h e r e s e v e n ty fiv e th o u s a n d F r e n c h m e n h a d o v e r n ig h t b e c o m e w a rd s o f im p e r ia l E n g la n d . F r e n c h R o m a n C a th o lic s w e r e all b u t lo c k e d o u t o f th e g o v e r n a n c e o f th e ir la n d s. B y re lig io n t h e y w e r e fo r b id d e n to p r a c tic e la w ; a n d th e n e w E n g lis h la w , th e p r o c e e d in g s o f w h ic h w e r e in a la n g u a g e stra n g e to th e m , w a s d iffe r e n t fro m th e la w th e y w e re u s e d to — p a rtic u la rly in its h a rs h tre a tm e n t o f d e b to rs, w h o fo u n d p riso n o n e ’s d e stin a tio n in s te a d o f th e w e s te r n fro n tier. C a r p e tb a g g e r s a rriv e d fro m E n g la n d a n d th e lo w e r c o lo n ie s to a s s u m e p o sitio n s o f a u th o rity . T h e y d id w e ll b y th e m s e lv e s , se iz in g co n tro l o f th e fu r tr a d e a n d re lie v in g th e habitants o f th e little th e y h a d , w ith in a n d so m e tim e s w ith o u t th e n e w E n g lis h la w . T h e a b u s e s w e r e so fla g ra n t th a t J a m e s M u rra y , th e first E n g lis h g o v e rn o r o f C a n a d a , c o m p la in e d to L o rd S h e lb u r n e in 17 6 6 th a t “ th e im p ro p e r c h o ic e a n d th e n u m b e r o f th e civ il o fficers se n t o v e r fro m E n g la n d in c r e a s e d th e d is q u ie tu d e o f th e c o lo n y . I n s te a d o f m e n o f g e n iu s a n d u n ta in te d m o ra ls, th e r e v e r s e w e r e a p p o in te d to th e m o st im p o rta n t o ffice s, u n d e r w h o m it w a s im p o ss ib le to c o m m u n ic a te th o s e im p re ssio n s o f th e d ig n ity o f g o v e r n m e n t b y w h ic h a lo n e m a n k in d c a n b e h e ld to g e th e r in s o c ie ty .” T h e in ju s tic e s in C a n a d a g n a w e d at th e c o n s c ie n c e s o f E n g la n d ’ s m in isters, w h o h e s ita te d to o ffe n d a P r o te s ta n t c o n stitu e n c y . B u t th e m o m e n tu m c o n tin u e d to b u ild until, in J u n e o f 17 7 4 , P a r lia m e n t w ith a ra re d is p la y o f c o u r a g e p a s s e d th e bill in w h ic h a n e n lig h te n e d G e o r g e I I I c o n c u rre d , s a y in g th a t it w a s “ fo u n d e d

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S N A T C H IN G D E F E A T F R O M T H E JAW S O F V IC T O R Y

o n th e c le a re s t p rin c ip le s o f ju s tic e a n d h u m a n ity ; a n d w ill, I d o u b t not, h a v e th e b e s t e ffe c t in q u ie tin g th e m in d s a n d p ro Â m o tin g th e h a p p in e s s o f m y C a n a d ia n s u b je c ts .â&#x20AC;? The

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C a n a d ia n C a th o lic s . It also e x te n d e d th e b o u n d a rie s o f Q u e b e c to th o s e la n d s b e tw e e n th e O h io a n d th e M iss is sip p i w h ic h h a p Â p e n e d to b e , b y th e w a y , g o o d fu r te rrito ry a n d c o n v e n ie n t to M o n tre a l. T h e h o w l fro m th e lo w e r th irte e n c o lo n ie s c ro s s e d an o c e a n . N o w a lo n g -tim e c o lo n ia l w ith b a c k b o n e k n e w w h e re h e stood : w e ll d o w n on th e list o f th e m o st fa v o r e d . W h y e ls e w o u ld th e c h o ic e s t W e s t b e ta k e n fro m fle sh a n d b lo o d a n d b e tu rn e d o v e r to a b u n c h o f c o n te m p tib le F r e n c h P a p is ts w h o h a d b e e n u n til r e c e n tly th e sw o rn e n e m y o f th e m all? A y e a r d o w n th e ro a d w a s B u n k e r H ill. A fte r th a t, th e b r e a k c o u ld n o t b e m e n d e d . E n g la n d , a lo n e a n d b e fu d d le d , h a d lo st h e r b e s t c h a n c e fo r th e tra n s-M is sissip p i W e st. S till h e a v ily in sh a d o w , it a w a ite d a fo u rth im p e ria l cla im a n t.

315

Chapter 16

Intimations of a Destiny T h e G rea t G a tsby r h a p s o d iz e s on w h a t m u st h a v e g o n e th ro u g h th e m in d s o f th e first w h ite m e n w h o se t fo o t on th e e a s t c o a s t o f N o rth A m e r ic a , h o w fo r a fle e tin g m o m e n t th e y w e r e c o n fro n te d w ith a v irg in c o n tin e n t c o m m e n s u ra te w ith th e ir c a p a c ity fo r w o n d e r. H is w o rd s a re m o v in g. B u t it w a s p r o b a b ly n o t w h a t w a s o n th e ir m in d s a t a ll — at F . S c o t t F i t z g e r a l d at th e c lo s e o f

le a s t n o t th e first E n g lis h m e n , for w h o m th e o v e r w h e lm in g fa c t o f life w a s lo n e lin e s s , th e fe e lin g o f b e in g a t th e e n d o f th e e a rth . In th e b e g in n in g th e N e w W o rld w a s a frig h te n in g p la c e . T h e n e w a rriv a ls c lu n g to tid e w a te r w h e re th e y w o r s h ip e d G o d in th e ir u n p o p u la r w a y or b e h a v e d as o b e d ie n t s e c o n d -c la s s c itiz e n s a n d p la y e d th e ir s u b s e r v ie n t ro le in th e m e rc a n tile s c h e m e o f th in g s. T o b a c c o w a s th e first c a s h cro p th e y se n t h o m e to th e ir b e tte rs . In tim e w o u ld b e a d d e d rice a n d in d ig o a n d h e m p a n d “ sh ip s s to re s ” — tim b e r a n d tu rp e n tin e a n d p in e p itc h la c k in g in th e h o m e c o u n try w ith th e p e e r le s s n a v y . L o o k in g to E n g la n d , th e W e s t w a s b e h in d th e m — th e d ire c tio n o f d a rk n e ss, th e d ire c tio n o f terror, a “ D e v il’s d e n ” in th e w o rd s o f M ic h a e l W ig g le s w o rth , w h o d e s c rib e d it in 1662 as A w a s te a n d h o w lin g w ild e rn e ss, W h e r e n o n e in h a b ite d B u t h e llis h fie n d s , a n d b ru tish m e n T h a t d e v ils w o rs h ip p e d . T e r r o r b e c a m e su s p ic io n as th e tr a n s p la n te d E n g lis h m e n — h u m b le fr e e fa rm e rs, in d e n tu re d se rv a n ts , re lig io u s se p a ra tis ts, d e c a y in g g e n tle m e n , a n d a ll-o r-n o th in g g a m b le rs — slo w ly fille d th e litto ral a n d b a c k e d into th e c o n tin e n t. In no w a y d id th e y

316

NATIONAL COWBOY HALL OF FAME AND WESTERN HERITAGE CENTER, OKLAHOMA CITY

“Daniel Boone’s First View o f Kentucky” is the title o f this painting b y William Ranney. Eden would soon becom e a bloody hell.

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S p a n ia r d s w ith th e fu r itch or th e g o ld itch , w h o w a n d e r e d fa r in to th e c o n tin e n t in sm all n u m b e rs. In s te a d , th e y c lu s te r e d a n d , b e fittin g p la n te rs , p u t d o w n roots, th u s b e c o m in g m a n y a n d stro n g in th e ir p ro sa ic w a y . N o w th e W e s t s h o w e d flic k e rs o f ligh t. It w a s w h e r e th e s u p p la n te d n a tiv e A m e r ic a n s w e n t. W h e re th e F r e n c h m e n n o w w e re , it w a s said , a n d b e y o n d th e m w h e re th e u n d e s e r v in g S p a n ia r d s w e r e ru m o re d to b e in y e t a n o th e r o f th e ir E l D o ra d o s . Y e a r s p a s s e d . C h ild r e n w e re b e g o tte n a n d t h e y in tu rn b e g o t. T h e W e s t th a t h a d b e e n th e d ire c tio n o f a tta c k b e c a m e m e r e ly a d ire ctio n , th e n a d ire c tio n to go — w h e re th e r e w a s c h e a p a n d p r o d u c tiv e la n d , a r e fu g e fo r d e b to rs a n d th o s e in n e e d o f a secon d

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n o rth e rn E u r o p e a n s w ith a d u m b ra tio n s o f th e b ib lic a l g a rd e n , o f th e N e w C a n a a n , th e la n d o f m ilk a n d h o n e y . T h e r e w a s a tim e — or p e r h a p s n o t a tim e a t a ll in th e s e n s e o f a

3 17

T H E D IV IS IB L E E M P IR E

fr o z e n m o m e n t, m o n th , y e a r , or e v e n g e n e r a tio n — w h e n th o s e in th e th irte e n c o lo n ie s w e r e no lo n g e r E n g lis h m e n , w h e n t h e y w e r e tra n sfo rm e d in to so m e th in g n e w , a v a ria n t strain . M a y b e it w a s 17 5 0 or th e r e a b o u ts . A t a n y ra te , a p e o p le w h o p ro c la im e d un til th e y e a r 1 7 7 6 th a t t h e y w e r e m is tre a te d lo y a l s u b je c ts o f E n g la n d h a d u n d e r g o n e a m e ta m o rp h o sis th a t e v e n th e m o st s e lf-a w a r e o f th e m c o u ld b a r e ly fa th o m . T h e n a tu ra l e n v ir o n m e n t m a y n o t b e th e s tra itja c k e t th a t so m e w o u ld m a k e it, b u t c e rta in ly la n d fo rm s a n d w o o d s a n d riv e rs a n d w e a th e r a n d soils a n d h o riz o n s h a v e a s h a p in g e ffe c t o n th o s e w h o a re fa m ilia r w ith th e m a n d ig n o ra n t o f th e ir o p p o s ite s. F o r o n e th in g , th e y d e m a n d a d ju s tm e n ts , w a y s o f d o in g th in g s th a t k e e p o n e a ro u n d fo r to m o rro w ’s h u n t or th e n e x t s p rin g ’s p la n tin g . T h e N e w W o rld w a s n o t s a n e a n d se ttle d E n g la n d , m a n ic u re d a n d m e d ie v a l still in its v is ib le re lic s. O n th e c o n tra ry , it w a s, in a w o rd , w ild n e ss , w ith stra n g e b e a s ts a n d tr e e s a n d fo o d p la n ts th a t co u ld b e c u ltiv a te d to o n e ’s s u s te n a n c e . S tr a n g e r still w e re th e a b o rig in a l p e o p le s , so m e tim e frie n d s a n d so m e tim e e n e m ie s w h o , as s u re ly as th e su n s e t in th e w e s t, h a d to b e d is p o s s e s s e d o f th e W e st. Y e t th e y h a d traits a n d w a y s th a t w e re p ic k e d u p a n d a b s o r b e d into th e tissu e o f th e co lo n ists: g e n e ro s ity in sh a rin g w h a t o n e h a d w ith a n o th e r; a r e v e r e n c e for a n e x tr a v a g a n t n a tu re , w h ic h a lie n in flu e n c e s fro m o v e r s e a s in siste d on re d u c in g , s u b d u in g — a ta s k so w e ll-p e rfo rm e d th a t it w o u ld le a v e , lo n g a fte r, gu ilts a n d sca rs. F ro m th e re d m a n a lso cam e

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w h o to o k m u sk e t, k n ife , a n d to m a h a w k w ith th e m to th e fie ld s to d o w h a t th e y h a d to d o b e c a m e p ro fic ie n t in th e ir u s e , a n d so o n th e y w e re u sin g th e m in d e e d s th e y d id n o t h a v e to d o. In th e m id -e ig h te e n th c e n tu r y th e g la c ia l m o v e m e n t w e s t m e lte d a n d r e le a s e d a to rren t. C o m m u n ic a tio n w ith E n g la n d w a s n e v e r b e tte r th a n p o o r. T o c o p e w ith th e d e m a n d s o f a ra w c o n tin en t, th e co lo n ists m a d e do, im p ro v ise d . T h e y b e c a m e selfrelia n t, th e n su re o f th e m s e lv e s , th e n e v e n c o c k y . B e c a u s e th e y h a d c o m e fro m th e m id d le a n d lo w e r c la ss e s , th e y r e s e n te d th o s e w h o p u t o n airs a n d in v o k e d b lo o d lin e s ra th e r th a n th e ir in d iv id u a l re co rd . L ev ellin g w a s th e E n g lis h w o rd fo r th e p h e n o m e n o n , a n d it c ro s s e d e v e n th e in v io la b le lin e s o f th e se x e s; sin c e w o m e n w e re in sh o rt s u p p ly , th e y w e r e m o re v a lu e d a n d h e ld in g r e a te r

318

IN T IM A T IO N S O F A D E S T IN Y

e s te e m th a n th e ir sisters in E n g la n d . T h e n e a r e r to th e fro n tier, th e g r e a te r th e le v e llin g , a n d e v e n in 1 7 7 ° a b o u t a th ird o f all A m e r ic a n s s p e n t at le a s t p a rt o f th e ir liv e s on th e fro n tier. S e p a r a te d fo r so lo n g b y so m u c h w a te r, la n g u a g e w e n t in s e p a r a te d ire ctio n s. A m e r ic a n s b o rro w e d w o rd s fro m th e D u tc h o f N e w A m s te rd a m a n d fro m th e In d ia n s , a n d m a d e u p so m e o f th e ir o w n to d e s c r ib e th e n e w flo ra a n d fa u n a a n d th a t d ire c tio n a g a in — th e “ b a c k w o o d s ,” th e “ b a c k c o u n tr y .” M o r e critica l for w h a t w a s to h a p p e n in 17 7 6 , w o rd s a c q u ir e d d iffe re n t s h a d e s o f m e a n in g on th e tw o sid e s o f th e A tla n tic . “ C o n s titu tio n ” to an E n g lis h m a n m e a n t th e a c c re tio n s o f la w , p r e c e d e n t, a n d p r a c tic e th a t w e r e e lu c id a te d in P a rlia m e n t. T o th e A m e ric a n , “ c o n stitu tio n ” m e a n t a w ritte n d o c u m e n t th a t g o v e r n e d th e re la tio n s o f k in g a n d s u b je c t, a n d th a t a d m itte d no c h a n g e s . O th e r te rm s r e la tin g to g o v e r n m e n t — w h ic h u n d e r a p o lic y o f sa lu ta ry n e g le c t m e a n t th e e v o lu tio n o f s a tisfa c to ry s e lf-g o v e rn m e n t, th a n k y o u — w e r e o p e n to v a r y in g in te rp re ta tio n s. A fte r 17 5 0 co lo n ists sta rte d re fe rrin g to th e m s e lv e s a s A m e r i c a n s ra th e r th a n E n g lis h m e n . W h e n th e y w e n t to visit th e old c o u n try , as th o s e o f m e a n s so m e tim e s d id , th e y fo u n d it stra n g e , c r a m p e d , its p e o p le m o ra lly d e c a d e n t. T h e y r e s e n te d h e a rin g th eir c o u n try re fe rre d to b y E n g lis h m e n as “ o u r” c o u n try . T h e y m is s e d “ h o m e ” a n d its w id e o p e n s p a c e s . A s p ro v in c ia ls, th e y w e r e p le a s e d w ith th e m s e lv e s a n d d id n o t lik e b e in g p a tro n iz e d . W h a t no o n e e ls e k n e w , b u t th e y at le a s t s e n s e d , w a s th a t th e y h a d com e o f age. E n g la n d w a s b e w ild e r e d b y it all. I n d u lg e n c e h a d b e e n re p a id w ith in g ra titu d e , a n d b y th e y e a r 176 8 d is m a y h a d g iv e n w a y to a m o o d o f a n g e r a n d th e ta r d y p u ttin g -d o w n o f th e p a r e n ta l foot. E n o u g h w a s e n o u g h . H a d n ’t E n g la n d ju s t c o n c lu d e d a lo n g w a r o n A m e r ic a ’s b e h a lf? A n d h a d n ’t A m e r ic a n s th ro u g h o u t th a t w a r a c tu a lly tr a d e d w ith th e e n e m y in th e F r e n c h W e s t In d ie s for s u g a r to m a k e th e ir rum , w h ic h th e y to o k to A fr ic a to b a rte r for s la v e s ?

H a d n ’t th e y flo u te d th e N a v ig a tio n A c ts , w h ic h p r o

h ib ite d s u c h c o n d u c t e v e n in p e a c e tim e ? H a d n ’t t h e y s p u rn e d la w s m e a n t to m a in ta in B ritish n a v a l stre n g th , w h ic h a lo n e a s s u r e d th e ir p ro te c tio n ? A s fo r th is “ n o ta x a tio n w ith o u t r e p r e s e n ta tio n ” h y p o c r is y , h a d n ’t th e S o u th C a r o lin a C o m m o n s H o u s e o f

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A s s e m b ly a n d th e V irg in ia H o u s e o f B u r g e s s e s in 17 6 5 sa id no to re p r e s e n ta tio n

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ro u sin g c o lo n y o f M a s s a c h u s e tts in th e y e a r 176 8 tu rn e d u p its n o s e at th e s a m e o ffe r? A s fo r th is in s a tia b le a p p e tite fo r w e s te r n la n d s w h e re t h e y o n ly m a d e tro u b le w ith th e In d ia n s , w h y , if y o u g a v e th e m a m ile t h e y ’d ta k e a riv e r v a lle y ! T h e tim e h a d c o m e to e n d th e p e r m is s iv e n e s s . N o w it w a s tim e to th in k a s a fa m ily — im p e ria lly . F ilia l g r e e d a n d in g ra titu d e w e r e in d is p u ta b ly a p a rt o f it. W h a t h a v e y o u d o n e fo r m e la te ly ? w a s a q u e s tio n im p licit in e v e r y step to w a rd se p a ra tio n . B u t th e h e a rt o f th e m a tte r w e n t d e e p e r th a n th a t. T h e e c o n o m ic s o f E n g la n d w e r e still m e rc a n tile ; th o s e o f h e r c o lo n ie s w e r e

n o t — at le a s t n o t b y vo litio n . M o th e r s u p p lie d

c a p ita l a n d p ro te c tio n , a n d in re tu rn th e w a rd s w e r e to p ro v id e la b o r a n d ra w m a te ria ls a n d , w h e n it c a m e to th a t, a m a r k e t for su rp lu s fin is h e d g o o d s. T h a t w a s th e w a y it w a s a n d h a d b e e n fro m th e b e g in n in g — b e c a u s e it w o rk e d . W e ll, a lm o st w o rk e d . In so m e p la c e s . N o t in N e w E n g la n d , o f c o u rse , w h ic h h a d little th a t E n g la n d la c k e d a n d s e e m e d b e n t o n p ro d u c in g in co m p e titio n . A c a rd in a l p r e c e p t o f th e m e rc a n tile d o g m a w a s th a t th e r e w a s a fin ite a m o u n t o f m o n e y or c o n tro lla b le w e a lth in th e w o rld , a n d th a t c o m p e titio n w ith in a n e x te n d e d n a tio n w a s c o u n te r p r o d u c tiv e . It u p s e t th e b a la n c e o f tr a d e b e tw e e n c o lo n y a n d h o m e , a n d a llo w e d fo re ig n e rs a b ig g e r slic e o f a sm a ll p ie . A d a m S m ith w o u ld s la y th is s e n ile d ra g o n b y sh o w in g th a t th e u n iv e r s e o f b u s in e s s w a s la rg e r th a n s u p p o s e d a n d u n b rid le d c o m p e titio n w a s g o o d , b u t to o la te . T h e W ealth o f Nations first a p p e a r e d in 1 7 7 6 , b u t e v e n if G e o r g e I I I a n d e v e r y m e m b e r o f th e H o u s e o f L o rd s h a d h a d th e tim e to r e a d it, it w o u ld h a v e b e e n too la te . A m e r ic a n s w e r e no lo n g e r c o n te n t as ju n io r p a rtn e rs in th e e n te rp ris e , nor w o u ld th e y e n tru st th e ir w e ll-b e in g to th e c h a n c e o f w h e th e r a sh ip m a d e it fro m E n g la n d a c ro ss th r e e th o u s a n d m ile s o f u n r e lia b le o c e a n . E v e n e c o n o m ic a lly t h e y w e r e a n e w b r e e d . F o u r o u t o f fiv e w e r e fa rm e rs, a n d t h e y h a d m o re th a n h e m p a n d to b a c c o to sell to L o n d o n m e rc h a n ts. T h e y ’d b e c o m e a g ra ria n s on a g ra n d sc a le , a n d w h a t m a d e it g ra n d w a s th e a b u n d a n c e o f g o o d c h e a p la n d th a t th e lo w lie st m a n c o u ld b u y a fte r a fe w y e a r s ’ w o rk in g fo r th e h ig h w a g e s in th e c h ro n ic a lly

320

IN T IM A T IO N S O F A D E S T IN Y

la b o r-sh o rt c o lo n ie s. W ith fe rtile field s a n d fe rtile w o m e n th e re w a s n a tu ra l in c r e a s e , a s te e p ly risin g p o p u la tio n a u g m e n te d b y la n d -h u n g r y im m ig ra n ts, la r g e ly S c o tc h -Iris h a n d G e rm a n s , w h o w o u ld go w e s t to g e t th eirs. A fte r 17 5 0 m o st a ra b le la n d e a s t o f th e m o u n ta in s w a s e ith e r u n d e r c u ltiv a tio n or b e in g h e ld b a c k b y la n d sp e c u la to rs . N o w m o re th a n e v e r w e s t w a s th e d ire c tio n o f m a k in g it, a n d w h e n th e d e fe a te d F r e n c h w e r e m a d e to s u rre n d e r la n d b e y o n d th e A p p a la c h ia n s , w e s t w a s th e o n ly w a y to go. O v e r in E n g la n d , th a t la n d o f cro fte rs a n d c h e a p la b o r, D r. S a m u e l J o h n so n b e little d th e c e s s io n as b e in g o n ly th e “ b a rre n p a rts o f th e c o n tin e n t, th e r e fu s e o f th e e a rlie r a d v e n tu r e r s w h ic h th e

F ren ch , w ho

c a m e last, h a d ta k e n

o n ly a s b e tte r th a n

n o th in g .” T h e le a r n e d d o cto r S a m w a s in this c a s e ill-in fo rm ed , a s a n y illite ra te P r e s b y te r ia n fro n tie rsm a n c o u ld h a v e to ld him . T h e r e w a s la n d o u t th e re , v irg in la n d , a n d it w a n te d tu rn in g . T h e re stra in in g lin e o f th e 17 6 3 p ro c la m a tio n s a g g e d fo r fiv e y e a r s , th e n s n a p p e d a n d all b u t v a p o r iz e d . S e ttle rs h a d b e e n o v e r th e m o u n ta in s b e fo r e th e F r e n c h a n d In d ia n W ar, a n d n o w t h e y w e r e b a c k in g ro w in g n u m b e rs, risk in g e v e n th e d e a th p e n a lty to ro o t th e m s e lv e s o n In d ia n la n d s. B e s id e s th e so lita ry b u c k s k in n e d m e n w h o p ic k e d u p rifle, h o e , a n d fa m ily , a n d stru c k

o u t w e s t, th e r e

w e r e th e m a n y la n d c o m p a n ie s w ith

s p e c u la tiv e c a p ita l, w h ic h c o n tin u o u s ly lo b b ie d w ith th e ir o w n c o lo n ia l g o v e r n m e n ts a n d m a d e u n d e r-th e -ta b le sto c k o ffe rs to E n g la n d ’s p e e r a g e fo r fa v o r a b le h a n d lin g o f th e ir p e titio n s. T h e y w e r e a c o u n te r b a la n c e to th e fu r in te re s ts th a t w is h e d th e W e st le ft a lo n e . M a n y g r e a t fo rtu n e s in th e c o lo n ie s h a d b e e n m a d e in la n d s p e c u la tio n . T h e w e s te r n la n d s c h e m e s w e r e m a n y , a n d a s b a c k e r s th e y h a d m e n o f h ig h e s t r a n k o n b o th sid e s o f th e A tla n tic . T h e O h io C o m p a n y w a s th e o ld e s t o f th e m , d a tin g b a c k to 17 4 7 , w h e n V irg in ia n a b o b s p u t it to g e th e r. It h a d its u p s a n d d o w n s, to b e r e o r g a n iz e d in 1 7 6 9 as th e G r a n d O h io C o m p a n y . P e n n s y lv a n ia n s go t in to th e a c t in th e m id - i7 5 o s w ith th e V a n d a lia C o m p a n y , o f w h ic h B e n ja m in F r a n k lin w a s a le a d in g m e m b e r. T h e r e w a s a lso th e a m b itio u s M iss is sip p i C o m p a n y , w h ic h h a d a m o n g its p rim e m o v e r s n o le s s th a n G e o r g e W a sh in g to n , a n d w h ic h in 17 6 3 s o u g h t p a r c e ls a t th e m o u th o f th e O h io a lo n g th e M iss is sip p i

321

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in p a rtia l p a y m e n t fo r so ld ie rs w h o h a d s e r v e d in th e la te w a r. T h e r e w e r e d o z e n s o f o th e r c o m p a n ie s p u t to g e th e r b e fo re , d u rin g , a n d a fte r th e w a r, a n d so m e th a t n e v e r q u ite g o t p u t to g e th e r — s u c h as th a t o f a P h ila d e lp h ia m e r c h a n t n a m e d S a m u e l H a z a r d . A ll h e w a s p r e p a r e d to a sk fo r w a s th a t te rrito ry w e s t fro m P e n n s y lv a n ia d o w n to S o u th C a r o lin a a n d “ t h e n c e [to] e x te n d o n e h u n d r e d m ile s to th e w e s tw a rd o f th e R iv e r M iss is sip p i; a n d to b e d iv id e d fro m V ir g in ia a n d C a r o lin a b y th e g re a t c h a in o f m o u n ta in s th a t ru n s a lo n g th e c o n tin e n t fro m th e n o rth w e ste rn to th e s o u th w e s te rn p a rts o f A m e r ic a .” H a z a r d in te n d e d to a llo w o n ly P r o te s ta n ts o n h is la n d , w h ic h h a p p e n e d to in c lu d e a fe w h u n d r e d th o u s a n d a c r e s o f th e F r e n c h a n d S p a n is h W e sts . U n fo r tu n a te ly , h e d ro p p e d d e a d ju s t as h e w a s a b o u t to sa il to E n g la n d w ith h is p e titio n , h a v in g e a r n e d h im s e lf a n A fo r e ffo rt a n d a n F in g e o g r a p h y . M o s t o f th e la n d s c h e m e s w e r e b u b b le s — to p o p , c o m e to n o th in g. P o n tia c ’s W a r a n d th e p ro c la m a tio n o f 17 6 3 m a d e E n g la n d go slo w in a p p ro v in g a n y th in g . R e n e w e d h o p e s a n d n e w p e ti tion s c a m e a fte r 17 6 8 , w h e n th e lin e o f s e ttle m e n t w a s m o v e d w e st. B u t th e w h o le B ritish h a n d lin g o f w e s te r n la n d s le ft a b itter ta s te in c o lo n ia l m o u th s. M a s s a c h u s e tts , C o n n e c tic u t, N o rth a n d S o u th C a ro lin a , G e o rg ia , a n d V irg in ia h a d c la im s to th e W e st b a s e d on th e ir o rig in a l s e a -to -s e a c h a rte rs. T h e m o st e x p a n sio n m in d e d w a s p o p u lo u s V irg in ia , th e O ld D o m in io n , w h o s e g o v e r nor, R o b e r t D in w id d ie , w a y b a c k in 1 7 5 5 h a d in fo rm e d E n g la n d ’s B o a r d o f T r a d e : “ V ir g ’a r e s u m e s its a n c ie n t B r e a d th , a n d h a s n o t o th e r L im its to th e W e s t y ’m w ’t its first R o y a l C h a r te r a s s ig n e d to it, a n d y ’t is to th e S o . S e a , in c lu d in g th e I s l’d o f C a lifo r n ia .” W h e th e r w ith p lo ts le g itim a te ly b o u g h t fro m la n d c o m p a n ie s or ille g a lly sta k e d o u t o n th e ir o w n , a flo o d o f se ttle rs le ft th e E a s t a n d a im e d in th e s a m e d ire c tio n C a b e z a d e V a c a h a d tw o a n d a h a lf c e n tu rie s b e fo re , in u n k n o w in g a g r e e m e n t w ith th e S p a n ia rd w h o w ro te , “ W e e v e r h e ld it c e rta in th a t g o in g to th e su n s e t w e m u st fin d w h a t w e d e s ir e .” S o m e e ig h ty P e n n s y lv a n ia n s h e a d e d for N a tc h e z in th e fa r so u th w e st, fo llo w in g th e O h io a n d M is s is sip p i riv e rs. In 17 7 2 , C a p t. A m o s O g d e n b ro u g h t m o re se ttle rs to th e riv e r to w n fro m N e w J e r s e y , w h o w e r e in tu rn jo in e d b y still o th e rs fro m N e w J e r s e y , P e n n s y lv a n ia , a n d N o rth C a ro lin a . T h e

322

THE BETTMANN ARCHIVE

IN T IM A T IO N S O F A D E S T IN Y

A wilderness farm o f the eighteenth century. Such use o f the earth outraged the Indian, who gave up his hunting land grudgingly.

la r g e s t g ro u p , fo u r h u n d r e d fa m ilie s, le ft C o n n e c tic u t in 1 7 7 3 a n d 1 7 7 4 u n d e r th e le a d e r s h ip o f P h in e a s L y m a n . B y 1 7 7 6 tw e n ty fiv e h u n d r e d w h ite s w ith six h u n d r e d s la v e s w e re lo c a te d in th e n e ig h b o rh o o d o f th e W e s t F lo rid a co m m u n itie s o f P e n s a c o la , M o b ile , M a n c h a c , Y a z o o , a n d N a tc h e z , lo o k in g d o w n S p a n is h th ro a ts. It w a s rig h t in k e e p in g w ith E n g lis h im p e ria l p o lic y , a n d it m a d e g o o d m e rc a n tile s e n s e to th o s e w h o b e lie v e d in so u th e rn tro p ic a l c o lo n ie s . T h e b ig p u s h , h o w e v e r , w a s d ire c tly w e s t fro m th e m id d le c o lo n ie s . L a n d p u r c h a s e s fro m In d ia n trib e s, n e g o tia te d b y In Â d ia n

s u p e r in te n d e n ts

but

stro n g ly in flu e n c e d

sp e c u la to r-

lo b b y is ts , h e lp e d p a v e th e w a y . T h e T r e a t y o f H a rd L a b o r w ith th e C h e r o k e e s in 176 8 o p e n e d u p so m e o f b a c k c o u n tr y N o rth C a r o lin a a n d m u c h o f W e s t V irg in ia . In th e sa m e y e a r , th e T r e a t y o f F o r t S ta n w ix sa w th e Iro q u o is se ll o ff d u b io u s c la im s to la n d s in s o u th w e s t N e w Y o r k , w e s te r n P e n n s y lv a n ia , a n d p a rts o f W e s t V irg in ia , K e n tu c k y , a n d T e n n e s s e e . W h e n e v e r y g ra sp in g h a n d w a s d o n e fa s h io n in g th e tre a ty , m u c h o f th e c o m m u n a l h u n tin g

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g ro u n d o f th e p o w e r fu l S h a w n e e s , D e la w a r e s , a n d C h e r o k e e s w a s g o n e . In th e

1 7 7 0 T r e a t y o f L o c h a b e r , V irg in ia p a id o ff th e

C h e r o k e e s fo r a n o th e r b ig b ite o f la n d in w h a t is n o w K e n tu c k y . B e fo r e

lo n g , in th e

e m p lo y o f R ic h a r d H e n d e r s o n o f N o rth

C a ro lin a , D a n ie l B o o n e fo u n d th e fa m o u s sh o rtcu t, h a c k e d out th e W ild e rn e s s R o a d , a n d o p e n e d u p K e n t u c k y to se ttle rs w h o so o n e s ta b lis h e d H a r r o d s b u r g a n d B o o n e s b o r o u g h a n d S a in t A s a p h ’s on g ro u n d th a t C h ie f D r a g g in g C a n o e h a d w a r n e d w o u ld b e “ d a rk a n d b lo o d y .” T h e p ro v o c a tio n s o f w h ite m e n h a s te n e d th a t d a y o f re c k o n in g — or y e a r s o f re c k o n in g , b e c a u s e o n e b a ttle or o n e w a r w o u ld n o t s e ttle th e issu e . T h e first ro u n d w e n t to V irg in ia in 1 7 7 4 in w h a t is c a lle d L o rd D u n m o r e ’s W ar. F ro m th e u p p e r O h io to K e n t u c k y re d m e n a n d w h ite m e n k ille d e a c h o th e r u n til, in O c to b e r, a S h a w n e e fo rc e w a s b e a t e n a t P o in t P le a s a n t a n d th e c h ie fs w e r e m a d e to g iv e u p

PEABODY MUSEUM, HARVARD UNIVERSITY, CAMBRIDGE

Artist G eorge Caleb Bingham titled this “ The Concealed E n em y.” Woodland Indians used white m en’s weapons with red m en’s tactics.

Bingham also painted Boone escorting settlers through the Cumberland Gap. War awaited them west o f the Appalachians.

K e n t u c k y fo r e v e r . F e e lin g e v e r sa fe r, fro n tie rs m e n fo llo w e d th e riv e rs a n d c u t th ro u g h th e g a p s a n d p lo p p e d th e m s e lv e s d o w n in lo n e ly w o o d la n d sta tio n s a ro u n d th e F o rk s o f th e O h io , e a s te rn K e n t u c k y , a n d e v e n e a s te r n T e n n e s s e e . B y 1 7 7 6 b itte r s e e d h a d b e e n s o w n in th e b lu e g r a s s c o u n try , a n d it w o u ld n o t b e lo n g b e fo r e th e first b lo o d y h a r v e s t c a m e in.

M PER IAL-M IN D ED E

n g l is h m e n

h a d th e lo n g e r lo o k w e s t th a n

th o s e fa rm e rs w h o p u t o n e fo o t in fro n t o f th e o th e r a n d c ro sse d

th e e a s te r n m o u n ta in s. T h e W e s t b e y o n d , th e d a rk th re e -fifth s o f th e c o n tin e n t th a t p a ls ie d S p a in h e ld on to, w a s te m p tin g to th o s e w h o w o u ld h a v e a m o n o p o ly o f th e p e ltr y tra d e . B u t th e p u ll fro m th e c o n tin e n ta l c e n te r w a s a lso fe lt b y c e rta in c o lo n ia ls w h o w e r e n e ith e r fro n tie r fa rm e rs n o r L o n d o n fu r m e rc h a n ts. T h e y w e r e fe w , y e t in flu e n tia l — th o s e w h o , in B e r n a r d D e V o t o ’s w o rd s, “ h a d th e u n c o n s c io u s fe e l o f a c o n tin e n t, th e c o n tin e n ta l w ill.”

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John

A d am s,

strip lin g

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fro m

H a r v a r d , r e a d th e fu tu re b e fo r e th e w a r w ith F r a n c e h a d tu rn e d in th e A n g lo s ’ fa v o r:

. . if w e c a n r e m o v e th e tu r b u le n t G a l-

lick s, o u r p e o p le , a c c o r d in g to th e e x a c te s t c o m p u ta tio n s, w ill in a n o th e r c e n tu r y b e c o m e m o re n u m e ro u s th a n E n g la n d itself. S h o u ld th is b e th e c a s e , s in c e w e h a v e , I m a y s a y , all th e n a v a l sto re s o f ou r n a tio n in o u r h a n d s , it w ill b e e a s y to o b ta in th e m a s te r y o f th e s e a s ; a n d th e n th e u n ite d fo r c e o f a ll E u r o p e w ill n o t b e a b le to s u b d u e u s .” T h e e x c lu s iv ity im p lie d in th e p ro n o u n w e r e a d s u n c o n s c io u s ly se d itio u s fo r th a t e a r ly y e a r . O r w a s it a m e re slip o f th e to n g u e ? B e n ja m in F ra n k lin , w h o s p e n t th e y e a r s p rio r to th e R e v o lu tio n in E n g la n d , p ro fe s s in g lo y a lty w h ile lo o k in g o u t fo r h is w e s te rn la n d s c h e m e s a n d w a tc h in g h is to n g u e , w a s so u p s e t b y th e p a s s a g e o f th e S ta m p A c t th a t h e se n t a n im p o litic le tte r to L o rd K a rn e s in 1 7 6 7 on b e h a lf o f h is p u t-u p o n A m e r ic a :

S h e m a y s u ffe r at p r e s e n t u n d e r th e a rb itra ry p o w e r o f this c o u n try ; sh e m a y s u ffe r fo r a w h ile in a s e p a ra tio n fro m it; b u t th e s e a re te m p o ra ry e v ils th a t sh e w ill o u tg ro w . . . . A m e r ic a , a n im m e n s e te rrito ry, fa v o u r e d b y N a tu r e w ith all a d v a n ta g e s o f c lim a te , soil, g r e a t n a v ig a b le riv e rs, a n d la k e s , & m u st b e c o m e a g re a t c o u n try , p o p u lo u s a n d m ig h ty ; a n d s h e w ill in le ss tim e th a n is g e n e r a lly c o n c e iv e d , b e a b le to s h a k e o ff a n y s h a c k le s th a t m a y b e im p o s e d on h e r, a n d p e r h a p s p la c e th e m o n th e im p o se rs.

W h a t F ra n k lin a lso to ld m e rc a n tile E n g lis h m e n , th o u g h th e re is no e v id e n c e th a t t h e y w e r e liste n in g , w a s th a t A m e r ic a n s w e re a n a g ra ria n p e o p le w h o w ith n e w la n d to te n d w o u ld ra ise b o th th e sta tio n o f th e la n d le s s p o o r a n d th e b irth ra te , u n til, w ith in a c e n tu ry , m o re “ E n g lis h m e n ” w o u ld liv e w e s t o f th e A tla n tic th a n in th e S c e p t e r ’ d Isle . F ra n k lin , o f c o u rse , w a s a p r a c tic a l m a n , a n d p ra c tic a l m e n u s u a lly k e e p th e ir fa n ta s ie s u n d e r w ra p s . P o e ts do not. P h ilip F r e n e a u a n d a P r in c e to n c la s s m a te w ro te a p o e m in d ia lo g u e for th e c o m m e n c e m e n t in 1 7 7 1 e n title d “ T h e R is in g G lo ry o f A m e r ic a .”

326

IN T IM A T IO N S O F A D E S T IN Y

W h a t e m p ire s y e t m u st rise, W h a t k in g d o m s, p o w ’rs a n d sta te s w h e re n o w a re s e e n B u t d r e a r y w a s te s a n d a w fu l so litu d e , W h e r e m e la n c h o ly sits w ith e y e fo rlo rn A n d h o p e s th e d a y w h e n B r ita in ’s so n s sh a ll sp re a d D o m in io n to th e n o rth a n d so u th a n d w e s t F a r fro m t h ’ A tla n tic to P a c ific sh o res? T h e r e s p o n s e to th e b u rb lin g q u e r y is no le ss g ra n d io se in visio n : I see, I see A th o u s a n d k in g d o m s r a is ’d, cities a n d m e n N u m ’ro u s as sa n d u p o n th e o c e a n sh o re; T h ’ O h io th e n sh a ll g lid e b y m a n y a to w n O f n o te: a n d w h e re th e M ississip p i stre a m B y fo re sts s h a d e d n o w ru n s w e e p in g on, N a tio n s sh a ll g ro w a n d sta te s n o t le ss in fa m e T h a n G r e e c e a n d R o m e o f o ld . . .

F r e n e a u , w h o b e c a m e a su p er-p a trio t a n d a h a te r o f E n g lis h m e n n o n p a re il, la te r r e v is e d “ B r ita in ’s s o n s ” to r e a d “ w e ,” a n d in 17 8 2 , b e fo r e th e R e v o lu tio n a r y W a r fla m e d out, h e r e tu rn e d to s p e a k o f th e W e st, th is tim e in u n fe tte re d p ro se . A la n d o f in e ffa b le b e a u t y a n d fe c u n d ity it w a s, w ith a th o u s a n d riv e rs f e e d in g th e M ississip p i. T h a t “ P r in c e o f riv e rs ,” h e sa id , m a d e th e N ile n o m o re th a n “ a r iv u le t a n d th e D a n u b e a m e re d itc h .” T h e riv e r is m a s c u lin e a n d c o m in g fro m a n u n k n o w n so u rc e g a th e rs “ his re m o te s t w a te rs, rolls fo rw a rd th ro u g h th e fr o z e n re g io n s o f th e n o rth , a n d s tre tc h in g h is e x te n d e d arm s to th e e a s t a n d w e st, e m b r a c e s th o s e s a v a g e

g ro v e s, as y e t u n in v e s tig a te d b y th e

tra v e lle r , u n s u n g b y th e p o e t, or u n m e a s u r e d b y th e c h a in o f th e g e o m e tr ic ia n ,” b e fo r e h e a d in g fo r th e G u lf o f M e x ic o a n d “ la v in g th e sh o re s o f m a n y fe rtile c o u n trie s in h is p a s s a g e , in h a b ite d b y s a v a g e n a tio n s a s y e t a lm o st u n k n o w n , a n d w ith o u t a n a m e .” F r e n e a u ’s w o rd s r e fle c t th e p r e v a ilin g ig n o r a n c e o f A m e r ic a n s a b o u t w h a t w a s b e y o n d th e M ississip p i, a n d F r e n e a u w a s n o t b e in g q u ite fa ir to F r e n c h m e n a n d S p a n ia r d s w h o h a d b e e n as fa r a s th e R o c k ie s , a n d a lo n g th e P a c ific sh o re. T h e y k n e w th o s e

327

T H E D IV IS IB L E E M P IR E

“ s a v a g e n a tio n s ” a ll too w e ll in so m e c a s e s a n d h a d e v e n g iv e n th e m n a m e s. B u t th e n p a trio tism is p a trio tism , a n d it h a s a rh e to ric o f its o w n . W h a t F r e n e a u g u s h e d a b o u t, T h o m a s H u tc h in s , a s u r v e y o r o f la n d s e x te n d in g w e s t to th e M iss is sip p i w h o w a s la te r a p p o in te d “ G e o g r a p h e r to th e U n ite d S t a t e s ,” p u t in h a rd -b o ile d te rm s. H e v ie w e d th e c o n tin e n t a s a w h o le a n d th e S p a n is h c la im s to th e W e s t as n o h in d r a n c e . “ I f w e w a n t it, I w a rra n t it w ill so o n b e o u rs .” S o w o u ld th e d o m in io n o f th e se a s, so rich a n d s e c u r e w a s th e c o m in g s e a t o f e m p ire . “ N o rth A m e r ic a ,” H u tc h in s p r e d ic te d , “ . . . a s s u r e ly as th e la n d is n o w in b e in g , w ill h e r e a fte r b e tro d b y th e first p e o p le th e w o rld e v e r k n e w .” T h e te rm M a n ife s t D e s tin y w a s n o t c o in e d u n til th e 1840s, w h e n th e U n ite d S ta te s w e n t to w a r w ith M e x ic o , b u t th e r e it w a s, la r g e r th a n lifesiz e a n d s m e llin g ju s t a s s w e e t, w a y b a c k in 178 4 . W o rd s a s id e , n e ith e r F r e n e a u n o r H u tc h in s w e r e la rg e r th a n life -s iz e in d o in g a n y th in g a b o u t th e W e st. B u t b e h in d th e m , a n d fo r th a t m a tte r b e h in d A d a m s a n d F ra n k lin a n d W a s h in g to n (w h o p r e fe r re d a slo w d ig e stio n o f la n d in th a t d ire ctio n ), w a s th e to w e r in g p r e s e n c e o f T h o m a s J e ffe r s o n , th a t w o n d e r fu lly c o m p le x m a n a n d g ifte d d ile tta n te w h o w o u ld m a k e sc ru p u lo u s w e a th e r o b s e r v a tio n s fo r fiv e y e a r s at W illia m sb u rg , c a ta lo g b ird s a n d p la n ts a n d In d ia n trib e s as th o u g h h e w e r e a o n e -m a n e n c y c lo p e d ia , a n d d e m o lis h B u ffo n ’ s c o n te n tio n th a t N e w W o rld life fo rm s w e r e in fe rio r in siz e a n d q u a lity to th o s e o f E u r o p e . H e w o u ld n e v e r go to th e W e st, b u t h e h a d a m in d to e n c o m p a s s it. H e w o u ld b e th e c h ie f a r c h ite c t o f its a c q u is itio n , a n d h e w o u ld le a v e h is m a rk on it a n d on h is n a tio n m o re th a n a n y o th e r o n e m a n . A s a b o y a t his fa th e r ’s S h a d w e ll p la n ta tio n in V ir g in ia ’ s A lb e m a rle C o u n ty , J e ffe r s o n lis te n e d to fa m ily frie n d s te llin g w h a t th e y k n e w o f it — th e in terio r, th e fa r b e y o n d . A N o r th w e s t P a s s a g e m ig h t b e th e re . S u r e ly p ro d ig ie s, w o n d e rs u n s e e n . T h e b o u n d le s s a n d s y s te m a tic c u rio s ity s u c k e d it all in. D o u b tle s s ly h e to o k n o te s. W h e n h e d ra fte d th e D e c la r a tio n o f I n d e p e n d e n c e , h e in c lu d e d a p ro te st a g a in s t th e p ro c la m a tio n o f 17 6 3 th a t trie d to k e e p A m e r ic a n s fro m g o in g in th a t d ire c tio n . In his N otes on Virginia, b e g u n in 1 7 8 1 w h e n h e w a s g o v e rn o r o f th a t b ra h m in c o lo n y , h e im p a rte d

a n a sto n ish in g a c c u m u la tio n

o f in fo rm a tio n :

w h e re

S a n ta F e w a s, h o w fa r S a n ta F e w a s fro m M e x ic o C ity , h o w fa r

328

BY GILBERT STUART; BOWDOIN COLLEGE MUSEUM OF ART, BRUNSWICK, MAINE

O f all Americans, the most west-thinking was Thomas Jefferson.

N e w O rle a n s w a s fro m S a n ta F e , w h a t trib e s liv e d a lo n g th e M isso u ri, w h ic h h e rig h tly th e o riz e d c a m e fro m a h ig h e r a ltitu d e th a n th e M iss is sip p i b e c a u s e it ru s h e d in co ld a n d c r e s te d la te r. In h is c o lle c tin g h e ’d a lso n e tte d so m e m isin fo rm a tio n . H e g u e s s e d th a t th e B lu e R id g e M o u n ta in s w e r e m o st lik e ly th e h ig h e s t in N o rth A m e r ic a . H e a lso p a s s e d a lo n g a h o w le r fro m o n e M r. S ta n le y , w h o c la im e d to h a v e b e e n c a p tu re d b y In d ia n s a n d s h u ttle d w e s t fro m trib e to trib e to b e y o n d th e m o u n ta in s w h e re th e M iss o u ri w a s b o rn . H e r e th e a b o rig in e s re p o rte d re a l liv e e le p h a n ts sto m p in g a ro u n d th e c o u n try to th e n o rth o f th e m . W h ile J e ffe r s o n d is c o u n te d th e p r e s e n c e o f e le p h a n ts in s u c h n o rth e rn la titu d e s , th e p re v io u s e x is te n c e o f m a m m o th s h e k n e w to b e fa c t fro m th e b o n e s fo u n d a t sa ltlick s on b r a n c h e s o f th e T e n n e s s e e R iv e r . J e ffe r s o n h a d so m e o f th o s e v e r y b o n e s in h is p riv a te m u s e u m , h a v in g o b ta in e d th e m d u rin g th e d in o f w a r fro m his frie n d , th e A m e r ic a n h o p e in th e W e st, G e n . G e o r g e R o g e r s C la r k . W h ile b o n e s a n d a n tiq u itie s o c c u p ie d J e ffe r s o n ’s m in d , th e r e w a s a lso ro o m to w o rry a b o u t th e g e o p o litic a l h e re -a n d -n o w . In D e c e m b e r o f 17 8 3 , sh o rtly a fte r h o stilities w ith E n g la n d h a d b e e n c o n c lu d e d , h e w ro te to C la rk : “ I fin d t h e y h a v e s u b s c r ib e d a v e r y la r g e su m o f m o n e y in E n g la n d fo r e x p lo rin g th e c o u n try fro m th e M iss is sip p i to C a li fo rn ia . T h e y p r e te n d it is o n ly to p ro m o te k n o w le d g e . I a m a fra id

329

T H E D IV IS IB L E E M P IR E

th e y h a v e th o u g h ts o f c o lo n iz in g in to th a t q u a rte r. S o m e o f us h a v e b e e n ta lk in g h e r e in a fe e b le w a y o f m a k in g th e a tte m p t to s e a r c h th a t c o u n try b u t I d o u b t w h e th e r w e h a v e e n o u g h o f th a t k in d o f sp irit to ra is e th e m o n e y . H o w w o u ld y o u lik e to le a d s u c h a p a r ty ? ” N o th in g c a m e o f th e E n g lis h d e s ig n or th e o ffe r to C la rk , a n d th e fo llo w in g y e a r J e ffe r s o n w e n t o ff to P a ris , w h e re h e w o u ld s u c c e e d F ra n k lin as m in iste r to F r a n c e , m a k e a h it w ith F r e n c h in te lle c tu a ls , a n d liste n fo r a b e g u ilin g w h ile to a y o u n g A m e r ic a n w ith a w ild d re a m d e a r to b o th th e ir h e a rts. J o h n L e d y a r d w a s b a c k fro m C a p t a in C o o k ’ s la st v o y a g e . H e h a d d e s e r te d th e K in g ’s n a v y b y ju m p in g sh ip o ff L o n g Is la n d a n d h a d w ritte n h is o w n a c c o u n t o f th e jo u r n e y . W ith th e c e r e b r a l V ir g in ia n h e d is c u s s e d th e p r e g n a n t p o ss ib ilitie s o f A m e r ic a ’s fu tu re in th e N o rth w e s t — N o o tk a a n d th e s e a -o tte r sk in s a n d C h in a . . . a n d th e p u re a d v e n tu r e o f it all! T h e m a d y o u n g m a n p la n n e d to m a k e h is w a y a c ro s s th e w a ist o f R u s s ia to th e B e r in g S tra it, a n d s o m e h o w g e t h im s e lf a c ro ss o n a p e ltr y sh ip th a t w o u ld d ro p h im on th e N o rth w e s t C o a s t. T h e n h e w o u ld h ik e a c ro ss N o rth A m e r ic a fro m th e o th e r w a y — w e s t to e ast! J e ffe r s o n c o u ld o n ly h a v e lis te n e d a n d sm ile d a n d n o d d e d at s u c h a fa r fe tc h e d itin e ra ry . L e d y a r d , to a n y o n e ’s e v e r la s tin g w o n d e r, a c tu a lly m a d e it to Y a k u ts k d e e p in S ib e ria , w h e re in 178 8 h e w a s a r r e s te d a s a s p y in im ic a l to C a t h e r in e ’s o w n im p e n d in g e x p a n s io n in th e P a c ific fu r tra d e . D e p o rta tio n w a s h is p u n ish m e n t, a n d w ith in a y e a r h e d ie d in C a ir o w h ile o n y e t a n o th e r h a r e b r a in e d

e x p lo ra tio n , th is tim e into d a r k e s t A fric a . T h e r e

w o u ld b e o th e r c a n d id a te s w h o fa ile d to cro ss J e ffe r s o n ’s c o n tin en t, in c lu d in g th e F r e n c h s p y M ic h a u x , b e fo r e , y e a r s la ter, M e r r iw e th e r L e w is a n d W illia m C la rk , th e y o u n g e s t b ro th e r o f fe llo w V irg in ia n G e o r g e R o g e r s C la rk , d id th e th ird p r e s id e n t’s b id d in g . T h a t, o f c o u rse , w a s in th e fu tu re , a t th e d a w n o f th e n in e te e n th a n d A m e r ic a ’s c e n tu ry , lo n g a fte r th o s e re v o lu tio n a ry d a y s w h e n a h a n d fu l o f m e n tu rn e d th e w o rld u p s id e d o w n . T h e e v e n sm a lle r h a n d fu l o f m e n w h o b e tw e e n th e fa ll o f Q u e b e c a n d th e su rre n d e r a t Y o r k to w n sa w th e W e s t in th e ir fu tu re w e r e m a in ly o f th e e lite . N e ith e r J e ffe r s o n , p r e e m in e n t a m o n g th e m , n o r A d a m s n o r F ra n k lin n o r W a s h in g to n w o u ld e v e r

330

IN T IM A T IO N S O F A D E S T IN Y

w a tc h A u g u s t cu m u li b u ild on th e fa r h o riz o n o f th e su b -h u m id b u ffa lo p la in s. B u t J e ffe r s o n w o u ld h a v e h e a rd a b o u t it. H e w a s th e b rid g e . O n ly h e o f th e fo u r o f th e m a d o p te d as his o w n th e e g a lita r ia n u n w a s h e d on th e fro n tier. T h e y w e r e h is k in d o f p e o p le — in th e a b stra c t, o f c o u rse , n o t as ta b le m a te s a t M o n tice llo . T h e y w e re la n d tillers, so c ia lly a n d p h y s ic a lly m o b ile , selfre lia n t in d iv id u a ls w h o

c o u ld c o o p e r a te w ith o n e a n o th e r in

ra is in g a b a rn or b rin g in g in th e corn , b u t w h o re m a in e d lo v e rs o f lib e rty w ith r a d ic a l re p u b lic a n in clin atio n s. T h e y w e re th e b la d e e d g e o f th e th ru st w e st. T h o s e o n th e M iss is sip p i sid e o f th e e a s te rn m o u n ta in s a lso h a d sh o rtco m in g s. T h e y te n d e d to b e sh iftless a n d d iso rd e rly , b ig o te d a n d ra n d o m ly v io le n t. M o re o v e r, as in d e p e n d e n c e s w e lle d fro m a p a s s in g th o u g h t to a c o m p u ls iv e n e e d on th e e a s te rn s e a b o a r d , th o s e in th e h in te rla n d s w e r e la r g e ly u n a ffe c te d . D o w n so u th , in th e b a c k w o o d s o f G e o rg ia a n d in th e W e s t F lo rid a se ttle m e n ts fro n tin g S p a n is h L o u is ia n a , th e p o litica l m a k e u p w a s d e c id e d ly lo y a list. T h o s e fa rth e r n o rth , in th e v a lle y s o f T e n n e s s e e a n d K e n tu c k y , a n d a lo n g th e b e a u tifu l b a n k s o f th e O h io a n d its trib u ta rie s, th o u g h W h ig s o f a ty p e w ith th e ir w o o d la n d d e m o c ra c ie s , h a d le s s o f a b e e f w ith B rita in th a n w ith th e o ld c o lo n ie s. It w a s th e r e th a t t h e y w e r e u n d e r r e p re s e n te d a n d n e g le c te d . T h e r e in s e ttle d c o m fo rt liv e d th e b ig -m o n e y w h e e le r - d e a le r s in w e s te rn la n d s w h o , no frie n d s o f th e p o o r m a n , w e re a fte r h is p ie c e o f th e b o u n tifu l in terio r g a rd e n . T h e p o p u la tio n o f th e c o lo n ie s in 1 7 7 6 sto o d in e x c e s s o f 2.5 m illio n , w e ll o v e r a h a lf-m illio n o f th e m o c c u p ie d w ith ro llin g back

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S c o tc h -Ir is h a n d G e r m a n s w h o h a d c o m e in th e first p a rt o f th e e ig h te e n th o ccu rred

c e n tu ry . A n o th e r in fu sio n o f th o s e h a r d y p e o p le s

b e tw e e n

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1773, w h en

cro p fa ilu re s b e s e t

E u r o p e ; Irish , Ita lia n s, G r e e k s , S c o ts, a n d M in o rc a n s a lso a r r iv e d th e n in m o d e s t n u m b e rs. A m e r ic a , th e la n d o f o p p o rtu n ity , w a s b e g in n in g to w o rk its m a g ic . A m e r ic a , th e m e ltin g po t, h o w e v e r , w a s still a p h e n o m e n o n fo r th e fu tu re . T h e m a jo rity o f th e c o lo n ists — b y e stim a te s , b e tw e e n 65 a n d 70 p e r c e n t — tr a c e d th e ir d e s c e n t fro m E n g la n d , a n d a fte r th e c lo se o f th e F r e n c h a n d I n d ia n W a r t h e y e n jo y e d m o re s e c u r ity a n d p ro s p e rity th a n th e y

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e v e r h a d b e fo re . N e v e r th e le s s , th e y w e r e r e a d y to c lo s e th e ir ja w s o n th e h a n d th a t h a d fe d th e m . R e v o lu tio n s a re la u n c h e d b y th o s e w ith a p p e tite s th a t h a v e b e e n w h e tte d w ith o u t b e in g s a te d , n o t b y h u n g r y m e n sc ra tc h in g fo r th e ir d a ily b r e a d . F o r re v o lu tio n s to s u c c e e d , th e r e c a n n o t b e o n e c a u s e ; it ta k e s m a n y m e n o f a rd o r to p u ll it off, a n d ra r e ly if e v e r d o th e y a g r e e o n w h a t is w o rth th e ir p a ss io n . O n ly w h e n a su ffic ie n t n u m b e r e s p o u s in g d iv e r s e c a u s e s id e n tify a c o m m o n fo e or fru stra to r d o th e y g e t to g e th e r a n d d o th e d e e d . T h a t h a p p e n e d in 17 7 6 . T h e r e w e r e th e r a d ic a l d e m a g o g u e s lik e T o m P a in e a n d J a m e s O tis, w h o d e c r ie d in ju s tic e o n th e g r a n d e s t s c a le a n d , s p e a k in g in th e n a m e o f m a n k in d , u r g e d tu rn in g e v e r y th in g o v e r a n d start in g a n e w . T h e y w e r e a fa c to r, b u t “ th e ir ” re v o lu tio n w o u ld ta k e p la c e th irte e n y e a r s la te r in F r a n c e . T h e r e w e r e m e rc h a n ts , w elloff, b u t w a n tin g to b e b e tte r-o ff, w h o r e g a r d e d B ritish m e rc a n tile re stra in ts as in to le ra b le . In e c o n o m ic s t h e y w e r e laissez fa ire, a n d th e y w e r e a p o te n t fa c to r. T h e r e w e r e A n g lo p h o b e s , w h o w a n te d to s e e th e m ig h ty h u m b le d . T h e r e w e r e A n g lo s w h o w e r e P u rita n s or fro m P u rita n sto c k a n d o b je c te d to a n e s ta b lis h e d c h u rc h th a t h a d n o t c le a n s e d its e lf o f P a p is t tra p p in g s a n d s h a re d th e b e d o f k in g s; th e y w e r e stro n g in N e w E n g la n d a n d in th e W e st, a d e c is iv e fa c to r in th e o u tc o m e . T h e r e w e re ja c k a ls , d o w n -a n d -o u t n e ’e r-d o -w e lls w h o a lw a y s sa w c h a o s a s th e b e s t c lim a te in w h ic h to b e tte r th e ir p e r s o n a l fo rtu n e s; t h e y w e r e a fa c to r e x c r u c ia tin g ly fa m ilia r to lo y a lists, w h o p a id d e a r ly fo r w h a t, h a d th e w a r e n d e d d iffe re n tly , w e r e v irtu e s. T h e r e w e r e th e le g a lis ts, th o s e s e lf-g o v e rn in g a n d se lf-su ffic ie n t m e n w h o sa w a w a y w a r d P a r lia m e n t m o re th a n a k in g s u b v e rtin g a co n stitu tio n a n d d ic ta tin g to co lo n ists as th o u g h t h e y w e re c h ild re n . T h e y h a d r e a d M o n te s q u ie u a n d V o lta ir e a n d , a b o v e all, E n g la n d ’s o w n J o h n L o c k e , w h o b e lie v e d th a t lib e rty w a s a b irth rig h t a n d g o v e r n m e n t a c o m p a c t b e tw e e n th e ru le rs a n d th e ru le d . T h e y te n d e d to b e id o la te rs o f N e w to n a n d s c ie n c e , d e ists in a re lig io n o f o p tim ism . T h e y w e r e o u r F o u n d in g F a th e r s , th e d o m in a n t fa c to r in a re v o lu tio n th a t w a s e s s e n tia lly c o n s e r v a tiv e . A n d th e re w e r e a fe w fro m all ru n g s w h o s e n s e d th a t t h e y w e r e on th e b rin k o f o w n in g a c o n tin e n t a n d a n e x c lu s iv e d e stin y .

332

Chapter 17

The War and the West T

d e c is iv e

and

rem em bered

battles

o f th e R e v o lu tio n a r y

W a r w e r e fo u g h t o n th e A tla n tic slo p e , p r e c is e ly w h e re E n g la n d w a n te d h e r c o lo n ists a n d w h e re , w ith F r e n c h a s s is ta n c e , th o s e co lo n ists w o n th e ir in d e p e n d e n c e fro m a n E n g la n d le ss d e fe a te d th a n a w a r e b y th e a u tu m n o f 1 7 8 1 th a t v ic to ry w a s u n a tta in a b le . B u t th e w a r d id n ’t sto p th e re . It s p r e a d n o rth to th e u n c e rta in g ro u n d b e tw e e n N e w Y o r k a n d C a n a d a ; it flo w e d o v e r th e m o u n ta in s to th e n e a r W e s t o f th e C a ro lin a b a c k c o u n tr y a n d th e v a l le y s o f th e u p p e r O h io . It e v e n fo u n d its w a y fa rth e r w e s t a lo n g th e M iss is sip p i R iv e r . W h e n m e n b e c o m e sick o f a n y w a r, th e y s a y it is a m a d n e s s , th a t it m a k e s no s e n s e . T h e w a r in th e W e s t w a s th a t w a y e a rly . W h ile u n ifo rm e d m e n w e r e m a rc h in g w ith p re c is io n a n d p u rp o s e in N e w J e r s e y a n d P e n n s y lv a n ia , fo llo w in g p r e s c r ib e d m a n e u v e r s a n d lis te n in g fo r th e c o m m a n d to fire th e “ p e r fe c t v o lle y ,” th e b a c k w o o d s v e rs io n r a g e d on a sm a lle r s c a le , a tr a v e s ty o f w h a t w a s a c c e p t e d in c iv iliz e d clim e s, th o u g h s u c h q u a in t c h iv a lric s u rv iv a ls

“ o a th s o f a lle g ia n c e ” a n d p a ro le c o e x is te d w ith

g u e rilla ta c tic s a n d th e m u rd e r o f in n o c e n ts. F r o m th e first, th e w e s te rn w a r la c k e d c o h e r e n c e . C o lo n ia ls m ig h t b e p a trio ts, lo y a lis ts, or n e u tra ls, or m ig h t sh ift p o sitio n w h e n th e ir liv e s w e r e at sta k e . B ritish o ffice rs m ig h t b e u n ite d in th e ir lo y a lty to E n g la n d , b u t o f no o n e m in d o n h o w to p r o s e c u te th e w a r. In d ia n s o f m a n y trib e s w e r e fo r c e d to c h o o s e sid e s on th e b a s is o f sh o rt-ra n g e b la n d is h m e n ts or lo n g -ru n c o n s id e r a tio n s o f w h o w o u ld w in a n d h o w trib a l la n d s a n d s u r v iv a l w o u ld b e a ffe c te d .

333

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B e fo r e w a r w a s fo r m a liz e d w ith a d e c la ra tio n , th e A m e r ic a n s h a d h o p e d to k e e p th e In d ia n s a c ro ss th e m o u n ta in s n e u tra l, a n d th e y s e n t a g e n ts w e s t to m a k e a g r e e m e n ts . N e v e r w a s th in k in g m o re w ish fu l. A s a lw a y s , th e A m e r in d w a s a n a n v il to w h ite m e n ’ s h a m m e rs . B u t h e h a d le a r n e d so m e th in g in his lo n g a s s o c ia tio n w ith th e m . E n g lis h m e n w e r e n o t all th a t lik a b le a s a ru le , b u t th e y c a m e to tr a d e a n d w ith th e b e s t g o o d s. T h e A m e r ic a n s — k n o w n to th e m v a r io u s ly as th e B o s to n ia n s , th e L o n g K n iv e s , or th e d irt-e a te rs — c a m e a fte r th e e a rth , to c le a r it a n d p la n t w a s te fu lly on th e d o m a in o f h u n te rs. T h a t th e e n m ity w a s d e e p - s e a te d a n d m u tu a l is b o r n e o u t b y th e w o rd s o f B e n ja m in F ra n k lin , a g o o d a n d c iv iliz e d m a n o fte n c a lle d th e m o st ty p ic a l A m e r ic a n o f h is tim e. A fte r w itn e ss in g th e tu m u lt o f a n o c tu rn a l m a ss In d ia n d ru n k , h e c y n ic a lly o b s e r v e d th a t “ if it b e th e d e s ig n o f P r o v i d e n c e to e x tirp a te th e s e s a v a g e s in o rd e r to m a k e ro o m fo r th e c u ltiv a to rs o f th e e a rth ; it s e e m s n o t im p r o b a b le th a t ru m m a y b e th e a p p o in te d m e a n s . It h a s a lr e a d y a n n ih ila te d all th e trib es w h o fo rm e rly in h a b ite d a ll th e s e a c o a s t.” It c a m e as no su rp rise th a t m o st o f th e trib e s in th e n e a r W e st w e n t o v e r to th e s id e o f B rita in , so m e so o n e r, so m e la te r. In th e S o u th th e C h e r o k e e s d id so e a r ly a n d to o k a d ru b b in g fro m th e c o lo n ia ls in 17 7 6 . T h e C r e e k s a n d C h o c ta w s w e r e a lso e n liste d b u t w e n t into m o re e ffe c tiv e a c tio n la te r. In th e O ld N o rth w e s t th e O tta w a s, th e W y a n d o ts , a n d th e M ia m is w e r e r e a d y a llie s o f th e E n g lis h . In th e m id d le , th e fo rm id a b le S h a w n e e s a n d th e in d e c is iv e D e la w a r e s k e p t o u t o f th e fr a y u n til s e n s e le s s b u tc h e rin g s o f in n o c e n t s q u a w s a n d c h ild re n b y fro n tie r y a h o o s p itte d th e m , too, a g a in s t se ttle rs in w e s te rn P e n n s y lv a n ia a n d K e n tu c k y . In th is d e g e n e r a te w e s te r n w a r, ste a lth a n d s a v a g e r y w e r e th e ru le , a n d g a in s w e r e m e a s u r e d n o t in te rrito ry s e iz e d a n d h e ld , b u t in c a b in s a n d lo d g e s b u r n e d , b u s h e ls o f co rn d e s tro y e d , liv e s to c k w a n to n ly k ille d , p riso n e rs a n d sc a lp s ta k e n . T h e b e a u tifu l O h io R iv e r V a lle y w a s tra n sfo rm e d in to a s c e n e o f u g lin e ss, th e “ E d e n o f K e n t u c k y ” into a p u r g a to r y w h e re in d iv id u a l se ttle rs fle d th e ir p r iv a te g a rd e n s a n d w e r e b o ttle d u p in fe tid statio n s. T h e B ritish h a d b e e n c a u g h t s h o rth a n d e d in th e N o rth w e s t w h e n w a r e ru p te d . O n ly fiv e h u n d r e d re g u la rs w e r e g a rris o n e d in th e

stro n g h o ld s

at N ia g a r a , D e tro it, a n d M ic h ilim a c k in a c .

334

â&#x20AC;&#x153; The Death o f Jane M cC reaâ&#x20AC;? was based on an actual incident used as propaganda b y the rebels. The innocent girl was scalped while going to join her soldier sweetheart.

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R e b e l military hopes in the West were in the capable hands o f George Rogers Clark, but shortages o f men and arms mostly tied them.

N e v e r th e le s s , th e y w e r e w e ll p la c e d a t th e stra te g ic G r e a t L a k e s , w h e re th e y p r o te c te d th e fu r tr a d e a n d w e r e p ro v is io n e d w ith re la tiv e e a s e v ia th e S a in t L a w r e n c e w a te r sy ste m . L a c k in g h e r o w n m e n , B rita in e m p lo y e d sta n d -in s, In d ia n s fo r th e m o st p art, w h o re q u ire d a lib e ra l d o le o f p r e s e n ts a n d so m e e d u c a tio n in h o w th e re d m a n ’s in te re s t c o in c id e d w ith th e k in g ’s a c ro ss th e o c e a n . E v e n h a rd -b o ile d c a r e e r o ffice rs h a d d iffic u lty a d ju s tin g to th is b a s ta r d iz e d s ty le o f w a r. T h o u g h a B ritish o ffice r or tw o m ig h t le a d a p a r ty o f In d ia n s o n th e ir g o ry so rties, th e y h a d th e ir h a n d s fu ll re stra in in g th e re d m e n fro m ta k in g sc a lp s a n d to r tu rin g c a p tiv e s . A s ic k e n in g b u s in e s s this b o u n ty h u n tin g — m a d e m o re so w h e n th e ra n d o m s c a lp in g s in c lu d e d as v ic tim s lo y a lis t fa m ilie s try in g to m a k e th e ir w a y to B ritish territo ry. T h e w a r w a s fa te d to s p r e a d to th e fa rth e r W e s t w ith th e e n tr a n c e o f S p a in into th e c o n te s t in J u ly 1 7 7 9 . A fe w re b e ls , h o w e v e r , g a v e fa te a h e a lth y s h o v e b y o p e n in g h o stilities e a rly , e v e n p r e m a tu re ly . T h e r e w a s J a m e s W illin g , th e r a s c a l c o m m a n d e r o f

336

T H E W AR AND T H E W EST

th e R a ttlesn a k e, w h o te rro riz e d lo y a lists on th e lo w e r M iss is sip p i in 17 7 8 a n d e s ta b lis h e d p lu n d e r as th e first o b je c tiv e o f b a ttle . H e a d a n d s h o u ld e rs a b o v e W illin g w a s G e o r g e R o g e r s C la r k , A m e r ic a ’s “ H e ro o f th e W e s t,” w h o th e n as n o w h a d his d e tra c to rs, b u t m o re th a n a n y o th e r m a n on th e s c e n e fu rth e re d A m e r ic a n c la im s to n o rth w e ste rn la n d s. C la r k w a s a n o th e r e x p a n sio n -m in d e d V irg in ia n , a r e d h e a d e d m a jo r o f th e m ilitia w ith a co m m o n w e a k n e s s fo r tip p lin g a n d an u n c o m m o n g ift fo r c o m m a n d . H a v in g g o n e to K e n tu c k y in 17 7 3 to fo u n d a se ttle m e n t, h e w a s b a c k in W illia m sb u rg la te in 1 7 7 7 to p u s h a d a rin g p la n fo r ta k in g th e Illin o is C o u n try , w h e re , his sp ie s to ld h im , th e fe rtile p la in s h a d b e e n v irtu a lly a b a n d o n e d b y B ritish tro o p s. C la r k ’s m o tiv e s a n d his a c h ie v e m e n ts h a v e b e e n a r g u e d p ro a n d con . W h a t c a n n o t b e a r g u e d is th a t G o v e r n o r P a tr ic k

H e n ry , T h o m a s J e ffe rs o n , a n d o th e rs w ith clo u t

b e lie v e d in h im a n d a p p r o v e d his p la n . H e w a s p ro m o te d to lie u te n a n t c o lo n e l in th e V irg in ia m ilitia a n d a u th o riz e d to ra ise fiv e h u n d r e d m e n fo r th e a v o w e d p u rp o s e o f d e fe n d in g K e n tu c k y ; s e c r e tly h is o rd e rs w e r e to ta k e th e Illin ois C o u n tr y for V irg in ia . B u t C la r k n e v e r go t his fiv e h u n d re d m e n . A ll h e c o u ld m u ste r w a s 17 8 , m o stly trie d b u t p o o rly p ro v isio n e d fro n tier fig h te rs s e r v in g a th re e -m o n th e n listm e n t fo r a p ro m ise o f th re e h u n d re d w e s te r n a c r e s e a c h if th e y w e re s u c c e ss fu l. T h e V irg in ia r e d h e a d w a s a m a n to m a k e do, a b e lie v e r in self, d o u b tle s s ly w a rm e d , a s w e r e h is b a c k e r s , b y th e fre sh flu sh o f v ic to ry a t S a r a to g a a n d o p tim istic a b o u t p ic k in g u p g o o d la n d fo r h is o w n e n ric h m e n t. H is “ d a s h ” th ro u g h th e W e s t b e g a n in M a y o f 17 7 8 w h e n th e little fo r c e r o w e d d o w n th e O h io fro m F o rt P itt, g e ttin g w o rd e n ro u te th a t F r a n c e h a d d e c la r e d w a r a g a in s t E n g la n d . T h e n e w s w a s e s p e c ia lly w e lc o m e d b y C la rk . N o w h e c o u ld h o p e for a k in d ly re c e p tio n at h is d e stin a tio n , w h ic h h e h a d n e v e r se e n . K a s k a s k ia fe ll to C la r k ’s b u c k s k in n e d b a tta lio n o n J u ly 4, 17 7 8 , w ith o u t a sh o t fro m a flin tlo ck rifle. T h e to w n ’s fiv e h u n d re d F r e n c h m e n w e r e u tte rly su rp rised , n o n e so c o m p le te ly as P h ilip p e F r a n c o is d e R a s te l, C h e v a lie r d e R o c h e b la v e , th e u n p o p u la r B r itis h -a p p o in te d c o m m a n d e r o f th e p o st, fro m w h ic h th e E n g lish h a d w ith d ra w n th e ir re g u la rs in 1 7 7 6 to s h a v e e x p e n s e s . R o c h e b la v e h a d b e e n c o m m a n d a n t o f S a in te G e n e v ie v e a fte r

337

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th e S e v e n Y e a r s ’ W a r, b u t h e h a d no s to m a c h fo r S p a n ia r d s a n d la te r w e n t o v e r th e riv e r a n d to th e E n g lis h , w h o fo u n d h im tru st w o rth y a n d d ilig e n t in th e ir in te re sts. C la r k p a c k e d h im o ff to a V irg in ia p riso n . W ith th e re m a in in g F r e n c h m e n , w h o h a d sw o rn a p ro fo rm a o a th o f a lle g ia n c e to B rita in a n d w e r e te rrifie d o f th e r a g g e d , u n k e m p t A m e r ic a n tro o p s, C la r k w a s m a g n a n im o u s . T h o u g h a c o n q u e ro r, h e b ro u g h t fre e d o m , h e a s s u re d th e m , a n d a lso th e m e s s a g e th a t th e ir F r a n c e n o w sid e d w ith th e r e b e ls in a ju s t c a u s e . A s fo r th e ir re lig io n , th e y w e r e fr e e to p r a c tic e it a s th e y w is h e d . A ll th e y h a d to d o w a s s w e a r a n o a th o f a lle g ia n c e to his g o v e rn m e n t. T h e c h a rism a tic C la r k w a s d e lig h te d w ith th e re sp o n se : “ In a fe w m in u te s th e s c e n e o f m o u rn in g a n d d istre ss w a s tu rn e d to a n e x c e s s o f jo y , n o th in g e ls e s e e n or h e a r d — a d o rn in g th e stre e ts w ith flo w e rs a n d p a v ilia n s o f d iffe re n t co lo u rs, c o m p le a tin g th e ir h a p p in e s s b y sin g in g e t c .” T h e n e a r b y se ttle m e n ts o f P ra irie d u R o c h e r a n d S a in t P h ilip p e a n d C a h o k ia m e e k ly su b m itte d to C la r k ’ s e q u a b le te rm s. T h e E n g lis h Illin o is C o u n tr y w ith its n e a r ly o n e th o u s a n d F r e n c h m e n w a s n o w th e A m e r ic a n Illin o is C o u n tr y — at le a s t te m p o ra rily . C la r k d id n o t h a v e , a n d n e v e r w o u ld h a v e , th e m e n or th e m o n e y to h o ld w h a te v e r la n d h e h a d w o n w ith a sh o w o f fo r c e a n d m e lio ratin g s p e e c h e s . W h a t h e d id w in th a t w a s la stin g a n d m o re b e n e fic ia l to his c o lo n y a n d th e n e w C o n g r e s s w e r e th e h e a rts o f p ro m in e n t m e n in th e A m e r ic a n B o tto m . F a th e r P ie r r e G ib a u lt, th e v illa g e p rie st a t K a s k a s k ia , w a s o n e w h o to o k C la r k at h is w o rd a n d C la r k ’ s c a u s e a s his o w n . T e n d a y s a fte r c e le b r a tin g th e A m e r ic a n ta k e o v e r , h e jo u r n e y e d to V in c e n n e s , still n o m in a lly u n d e r B ritish co n tro l, to p a s s th e w o rd q u ie tly a m o n g F r e n c h m e n th a t b rig h te r d a y s h a d c o m e . W h e n C la r k d is p a tc h e d a to k e n fo rc e u n d e r C a p t. L e o n a r d H e lm to F o rt S a c k v ille , th e y fo u n d an A m e r ic a n fla g fly in g o v e r th a t stra te g ic W a b a s h post. A p a ir o f w e ll-o ff m e rc h a n ts a lso sw u n g C la r k ’s w a y : G a b r ie l C e r r e o f K a s k a s k ia lib e ra lly s u p p lie d h is tro o p s, w h ile F ra n c is V ig o , a n Ita lia n tra d e r o p e ra tin g fro m S a in t L o u is w ith w h o m C la r k

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338

T H E WAR AND T H E W E ST

c ro s s e d th e riv e r to v isit th e S p a n ia r d a n d his fa m ily a t th e o f fic ia l’ s r e s id e n c e . “ C o lo n e l C la r k m erits th e b e s t a tte n tio n s o f all th e p e o p le in h is ju ris d ic tio n , w h o a re in d e b te d to h im fo r his a ffa b ility , c le m e n c y , a n d u p rig h t a d m in istra tio n o f ju s t ic e ,” d e L e y b a r e p o r te d to B e r n a r d o d e G a lv e z , his su p e rio r a t N e w O rle a n s. C la r k h a d a n e q u a lly h ig h o p in io n o f d e L e y b a , w ritin g th a t “ h e o m ite d n o th in g in h is P o w e r to p r o v e h is A tta c h m e n t to th e A m e r ic a n s w ith s u c h o p e n n e s s as le ft no ro o m fo r d o u b t; a s I w a s n e v e r b e fo r e in C o m p y . o f a n y S p a n is h g en t. I w a s m u c h su rp ris e d in m y e x p e c ta tio n s ; fo r in s te a d o f fin d in g th a t r e s e r v e th o u g h t p e c u lia r to th a t N a tio n , I h e r e sa w n o t th e le a s t sy m p to m s o f it.” D e L e y b a s e a le d th e frie n d s h ip w ith a c o m m itm e n t th a t la te r e v e n ts w o u ld m a k e slig h tly rid ic u lo u s. “ H e h a s o ffe r e d m e ,” C la r k w ro te to G o v e r n o r P a tr ic k H e n r y , “ all th e fo rc e h e c o u ld ra is e , in c a s e o f a n a tta c k b y In d ia n s fro m D e tro it, as th e re is n o w n o d a n g e r fro m a n y o th e r q u a r te r .” T h u s d id th e w a r g e n tly c ro w d th e riv e r th a t d ra in e d h a lf a c o n tin e n t. T h e r e w a s so m e th in g a b s u rd a n d iro n ic a b o u t h o w it b e g a n a n d h o w it w o u ld e n d a n d th e n a tu re o f th e p a rtie s to th e s h a d o w y co n flict. L a n d th a t w a s In d ia n la n d b y a n y b u t th e im p e r ia l m e a s u r e w a s b e in g c o n te n d e d fo r b y E n g lis h m e n a n d A m e r ic a n s a n d , in th e su m m e r o f 1 7 7 9 , b y S p a n ia rd s as w e ll. B u t n e x t to th e a to m iz e d A m e rin d , th e m o st p le n tifu l fo lk sp rin k le d o v e r th e im m e n s e a n d in d iffe re n t v a lle y w e re F r e n c h m e n . F o r o v e r a d e c a d e t h e y h a d b e e n o r p h a n e d b y im p e ria l F r a n c e , w h ic h , e v e n a fte r d e c la r in g fo r th e A m e r ic a n s , g a v e a s s u r a n c e s it w o u ld n o t re c la im a n y fo rm e r la n d s e a s t o f th e M ississip p i. S o th e

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p a r a d o x ic a l d im e n sio n . F r e n c h m e n m ig h t h o ld th e b a la n c e o f p o w e r , b u t w ith no sin g le fla g to ra lly ro u n d , th e y to o k sid e s as c ir c u m s ta n c e s d e c r e e d , a n d th e b a ttle ro ste rs o f riv a l fo rc e s w e re h e a v ily w e ig h te d w ith F r e n c h su rn a m e s. S o m e fo u g h t fo r E n g la n d ; th e y w e r e o v e r w h e lm in g ly C a n a d ia n s a n d , a s lik e ly a s not, h a d a sta k e in th e fu r tra d e . S o m e w e r e firm ly w ith th e A m e r ic a n s b e c a u s e th e y h a te d E n g la n d or h a d r e p u b li c a n p ro c liv itie s . O th e rs, a lm o st all o f th e m w e s t o f th e M is s is sip p i, w h e r e t h e y h a d b e e n b e fo r e th e d e fe a t o f 176 3 or w h e re t h e y h a d fle d so o n a fte r, w e r e lo y a l to S p a in , in w h o s e c u s to d y

339

THE MAKING OF A STALEMATE

George Rogers Clark sweeps the Illinois Country for the Americans, French-occupied Kaskaskia surrendering to him, July 4, 1778. -----------------Henry Hamilton retakes Vincennes for Britain against token opposition in December, 1778. <•••••••••

In a daring winter campaign, Clark takes Vincennes and Hamilton, February 25, 1779.

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British armed and led Indians from Ohio continually batter Americans on Upper Ohio (*indicates major American de feats.) Greatest Anglo/Indian victories came late in war, neutralizing Clark’s successes farther west.

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Massive British thrust (though largely composed of Indian mercenaries) led by Emmanuel Hesse descends the Missis sippi River to take St. Louis but is repulsed, May 26, 1780. Meager Spanish force reinforces St. Louis from Ste. Genevieve.

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Joint Spanish-American force led by Col. John Montgomery vainly pursues Hesse’s retreating army, burns Sauk villages on the Rock River.

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Spanish force under Capt. Eugene Pouree captures British Fort St. Joseph and holds it a day (February 12, 1781).

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American army under Col. William Crawford is thrashed by combined Indian/English force in the valley of the upper Sandusky River in the spring of 1782. George Rogers Clark (repeating a punitive campaign of 1780) assaults and burns the Shawnee strongholds of Chillicothe and Piqua in November, 1782, the last battle of the Revolu tionary War.

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th e y h a d b e e n a b r u p tly d u m p e d . S till o th e rs, in c lu d in g m a n y in th e Illin o is C o u n try , trie d to s ta y o u t o f th e w a y o f th e c o m b a ta n ts, sw e a rin g o a th s o f a lle g ia n c e to w h a te v e r d is h e v e lle d b a n d c a m e tro m p in g into to w n , a n d w ith a G a llic sh ru g o f th e s h o u ld e rs re v e r s e d th e m s e lv e s th e n e x t tim e it h a p p e n e d . A ll t h e y re a lly w a n te d w a s to b e le ft in p e a c e to do a little p la n tin g , a little h u n t in g , a little tra d in g — a n y th in g th a t d id n ’t r e q u ire too m u c h h a rd w o rk a n d a llo w e d th e m a m e rry so c ia l life. B ritish o fficers w h o w e r e re s p o n s ib le fo r p r o s e c u tin g th e w a r in th e W e s t w e r e le ft sm a rtin g b y C la r k ’s c le a n s w e e p o f th e Illin o is C o u n try . It d id little to u n ite th e m , th o u g h . F rictio n s b e tw e e n C a n a d ia n g o v e rn o r G u y C a r le to n a n d so m e o f h is s u b o rd in a te o fficers c o m m a n d in g th e w e s te r n p o sts, a n d d is a g r e e m e n t w ith L o rd G e o r g e G e rm a in , s e c r e ta r y o f sta te fo r th e c o lo n ie s, k e p t a fo rth rig h t m ilita ry p o lic y fro m je llin g . E v e n a fte r C a r le to n w a s s u c c e e d e d b y G e n . F r e d e r ic k H a ld im a n d in 17 7 8 , th a t p o lic y w a s u n d u ly c a u tio u s , d e fe n s iv e e v e n w h e n b rig h t o ffe n s iv e o p p o rtu n itie s d id c o m e a lo n g .

342

T H E W AR AND T H E W EST

O n e B ritish o ffice r sto o d a p a rt fro m th e re st. H e n r y H a m ilto n , lie u te n a n t g o v e rn o r o f D e tro it, w a s n ’t tim id. H e w a s im p e tu o u s. A y e a r b e fo re C la r k ’ s strike, H a m ilto n h a d p ro p o s e d a su rp rise a tta c k o n S p a n is h s e ttle m e n ts th a t w o u ld n o t le t u p u n til N e w O rle a n s w a s ta k e n , b u t G o v e r n o r C a r le to n q u a s h e d it. N o w , u p o n h e a r in g o f C la r k ’s u n c o n te s te d triu m p h s, H a m ilto n w a s sp o ilin g fo r a figh t. R e ta k in g th e Illin o is C o u n tr y p o s e d no p a rtic u la r p r o b le m a c c o r d in g to th e in te llig e n c e h e h a d g a th e re d : “ T h e S p a n ia rd s a re fe e b le a n d h a te d b y th e F r e n c h , th e F r e n c h a re fick le a n d h a v e n o m a n o f c a p a c ity to a d v is e or le a d th e m , th e R e b e ls a re e n te r p r iz in g a n d b r a v e , b u t w a n t r e s o u rc e s , a n d th e In d ia n s c a n h a v e th e ir r e s o u r c e s b u t fro m th e E n g lis h if w e a c t w ith o u t lo ss [of] tim e .” G e n e r a l H a ld im a n d se n t h is v a g u e b le s s in g to th e p la n . K n o w n to th e A m e r ic a n s as “ th e H a ir - B u y e r G e n e r a l” for his a lle g e d p a y o ffs fo r r e b e l sc a lp s, H a m ilto n g a th e r e d a fo rc e o f 16 0 -o d d w h ite s (m o st o f th e m F r e n c h ) a n d b e g a n c o lle c tin g h u n d re d s o f In d ia n s a lo n g th e ro u te o f h is d ifficu lt s e v e n ty - o n e - d a y m a rc h . C la r k h a d m e a n w h ile w ith d ra w n h is d w in d lin g fo rc e s fro m th e W a b a s h , le a v in g C a p t a in H e lm a n d th re e V irg in ia n s a t V in c e n n e s a n d a re m in d e r to n e w ly A m e r ic a n iz e d F r e n c h m e n to b e b r a v e a n d tru e to th e ir o a th . H a m ilto n h a d a m a s s e d a fo rc e o f fiv e h u n d r e d b y D e c e m b e r 17 , w h e n h e re to o k V in c e n n e s w ith e a s e . T h e F r e n c h in h a b ita n ts th a t h a d n o t fle d q u a ile d . T h e y sw o re a n o th e r o a th to b e h a v e a s lo y a l s u b je c ts o f th e k in g o f E n g la n d ; H a m ilto n p r iv a te ly lib e le d th e m a s a b u n c h o f in d o le n t d ru n k s a n d to o k h is p le a s u r e fro m h a u lin g d o w n a n d sto m p in g o n th e th ir te e n stars a n d re d a n d w h ite strip e s o f th e r e b e l flag. H a m ilto n h a d a so u n d s tra te g y in m in d . H e in te n d e d to b u ild a fo rt w h e r e th e O h io a n d th e M iss is sip p i jo in e d to sto p traffic b e t w e e n th e S p a n ia r d s a n d th e ir n e w frie n d s, to c le a n o u t th e Illin o is o f in s u rg e n ts , a n d r e c o u p th e M iss is sip p i tra d e , a n d th e n in th e sp rin g to d r iv e so u th a n d lin k u p w ith B ritish fo rc e s fro m P e n s a c o la a n d s q u e e z e th e life o u t o f th e r e b e l W e st. B u t th e g e n e r a l’s r e a c h e x c e e d e d h is g ra sp . T h e w in te r m a rc h h a d ta x e d h is m e n , a n d th e In d ia n s h a d to b e r e le a s e d to d o th e ir sp rin g p la n tin g . S o h e c u rta ile d o p e ra tio n s fo r a tim e, c o n te n tin g h im s e lf b y s e n d in g m e s s e n g e r s to J o h n S tu a rt, th e s u p e r in te n d e n t o f I n d ia n a ffa irs fo r th e S o u th e r n D e p a rtm e n t, to e n list th e C r e e k s

343

T H E D I V IS IB L E E M P I R E

in th e c o m in g sp rin g o ffe n s iv e , to ro ta te a p a r ty on th e O h io to in te rd ic t r e b e l c o m m u n ic a tio n s, a n d to b u s y h im s e lf w ith r e fu rb is h in g th e d e fe n s e s o f F o rt S a c k v ille a t V in c e n n e s , w h ic h w e r e in sa d d isre p a ir. T h e d ia ry o f o n e o f H a m ilto n ’s lie u te n a n ts , J a c o b S c h ie fflin , c o n te n d s th a t fro m th e tim e h is c o m m a n d e r le ft D e tro it, h e fu lly in te n d e d to p re s s on to N e w O rle a n s a n d ru n B e r n a r d o d e G a lv e z a n d h is m in io n s o ff th e c o n tin e n t. T h is s e e m s too a m b itio u s e v e n fo r th e h e a d s tr o n g H a m ilto n , th o u g h th e id e a d id still tu g a t his m in d , a n d o n J a n u a r y 24, 1 7 7 9 , w h ile still d ig g in g in a t V in c e n n e s , h e p u t it in w ritin g: “ T h o u g h I h a v e n o d o u b t th is m in u te o f th e e x is te n c e o f a S p a n is h as w e ll a s a F r e n c h w a r, y e t I h a v e , as y e t, n o a c c o u n ts b y w h ic h I m a y v e n tu r e to a c t o n th e o ffe n s iv e a g a in s t th e s u b je c ts o f S p a in , w h ic h I a r d e n tly d e s ire , a s th e re w o u ld b e so little d iffic u lty o f p u s h in g th e m e n tir e ly o ff th e M is s is s ip p i.” H a m ilto n w a s in d o u b le error. W a r w ith S p a in w a s n o t y e t a re a lity , a n d w h e n it b e c a m e so six m o n th s la te r, th e “ H a ir - B u y e r ” w o u ld b e lo n g g o n e , r e c e iv in g ro u g h h a n d lin g in a V ir g in ia priso n . H a m ilto n a lso e rre d in r e le a s in g o n e o f th e c a p tiv e s ta k e n at V in c e n n e s , a tra d e r fro m w h o m h e h a d e x a c te d a p ro m ise to s a y n o th in g to th e r e b e ls o n h is w a y h o m e to S a in t L o u is . T h e m a n w a s F r a n c is V ig o , C la r k ’s frie n d . V ig o p r e s e r v e d h is h o n o r b y g o in g to S a in t L o u is first, b u t th e n h e c ro s s e d th e M iss is sip p i a n d to ld C la r k all. T h e A m e r ic a n h a d all th e in stin cts o f a n a c c o m p lis h e d g a m b le r. T h o u g h his m e n w e re fe w a n d p o o rly e q u ip p e d , h e s e n s e d a tid e a t its flo o d , a n d fo rtu n e i f h e a c te d w ith o u t d e la y . N o c a m p a ig n o f th e R e v o lu tio n a r y W a r e x c e e d e d C la r k ’s c a p tu re o f V in c e n n e s fo r p u re h e ro ic s. H e le d h is 172 m e n , n e a rly h a lf o f th e m F r e n c h re cru its, fro m K a s k a s k ia a c ro s s 180 m ile s o f p ra irie tu rn e d to q u a g m ir e b y h e a v y w in te r rain s. H e h a d b o a ts b u ilt to fe rry h is m e n a c ro ss th e sw o lle n W a b a s h a n d e x h o rte d h is fo llo w e rs , w h o h a d g o n e d a y s w ith o u t fo o d , w ith sh o u ts a n d la u g h te r. G r e a tly o u tn u m b e r e d if th e F r e n c h v illa g e rs s ta y e d w ith H a m ilto n , C la r k first se n t a m e s s a g e to th e to w n th a t a p p e a le d to “ tru e c itiz e n s ” w h o w e r e “ w illin g to e n jo y th e lib e rty I b rin g y o u ” to k e e p to th e ir h o u s e s . A s fo r th o s e w h o w a n te d to fig h t for th e H a ir - B u y e r G e n e r a l, w e ll, th e y w o u ld h a v e to a n s w e r to his tro o p s, o f w h ic h , h e le ft th e c le a r a n d fa ls e im p re ssio n , th e re w e re

344

THE FALL OF FORT SACKVILLE" BY F. C. YOHN; INDIANA HISTORICAL BUREAU

The Americans’ greatest victory in the West came when Hamilton gave over Fort Sackville to the daring Clark on February 25, 1779.

m a n y . It w o rk e d . It w o r k e d so w e ll th a t H a m ilto n w a s u n a w a r e o f d a n g e r u n til b a lls b e g a n th u d d in g in to th e w a lls o f F o rt S a c k v ille . B ritish c a n n o n w e n t sile n t a s r e b e l s h a rp sh o o te rs fired fro m im p r o v is e d b re a s tw o rk s . H a m ilto n h e ld o u t o n e n ig h t a n d m o st o f th e fo llo w in g d a y , a n d th e n on F e b r u a r y 25, 17 7 9 , h e s u rre n d e re d a n a m p ly s to c k e d fo rt a n d s e v e n ty - n in e o fficers a n d m e n — n e a r ly h a lf B ritish re g u la rs . S u c h a s p le n d id v ic to ry ! A s th e n e w s s p r e a d it b e c a m e a sh o t in th e r a is e d a rm fo r all A m e r ic a n s fig h tin g fo r lib e rty a n d a c a u s e o f e x c e s s iv e g lo o m fo r B ritish o ffice rs in th e W e st. O f c o u rse , th a t r a is e d a rm h a r b o r e d le ss th a n e n o u g h m u s c le to d o w h a t C la r k k n e w h a d to b e d o n e : to ta k e D e tro it. T h a t w a s th e p ro p o f all B ritish s tre n g th in th e W e st, a n d if it fe ll, so w o u ld all th e G r e a t L a k e s d o m in o e s . T h e p r o s p e c t w a s o n e in w h ic h , C la r k said , his “ v e r y so u l w a s w r a p t.” H e h a d th e im p e rtin e n c e , a n d w h a t tu rn e d o u t to b e th e s u b tle w isd o m , o f ta u n tin g th e c o m m a n d a n t at D e tro it, C a p t. R ic h a r d L e r n o u lt, w ith a m e s s a g e c a rrie d b y th o s e a t V in c e n n e s h e h a d fr e e d . H e w a s g la d to h e a r th a t D e tro it w a s

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fu ll o f h u m a n b e a v e r s e r e c tin g ra m p a rts a g a in s t h is c o m in g o f fe n s iv e , “ a s it s a v e s th e A m e r ic a n s so m e e x p e n s e s in b u ild in g .” T h e r e w a s a sid e b e n e fit to th e V in c e n n e s v ic to r y th a t C la r k c o u ld w e ll sa v o r: th e In d ia n s , w h o a lw a y s r e s p e c te d fo rc e , n o w h a d to h a v e s e c o n d th o u g h ts a b o u t c lo s e d e a lin g s w ith th e E n glish . H e h a d c o n s is te n tly b e e n a h a rd lin e r to w a rd th e w a v e r in g trib es. T h e g iv in g o f gifts w a s a w a s te o f s c a r c e g o o d s. T h e d is p la y o f fe a r or in d e c is io n o n ly in v ite d a ss a u lt. N o w , w ith th e u p p e r h a n d , h e m e t w ith c h ie fs o f th e re g io n a n d b o a s te d o f h is p o w e r. H e p r o ffe r e d th e ca rro t o f p e a c e b u t w a v e d th e stick o f w a r. D e je c t e d o fficers a t D e tro it a n d M ic h ilim a c k in a c b r a c e d th e m s e lv e s fo r a tta c k s th e y fe lt c o u ld n o t b e w ith sto o d . T h e ir a w e o f C la r k w o u ld n e v e r a g a in a llo w th e m to c o n d u c t th e w a r w ith a n y th in g r e s e m b lin g fu ll c o n fid e n c e . A s b rig h t as th e w e s te rn p ic tu re lo o k e d in th e sp rin g o f 17 7 9 , C la r k w o u ld n e v e r ta s te th e u ltim a te triu m p h o f ta k in g D e tro it, a n d A m e r ic a n m ilita ry fo rtu n e s in th e W e st, w h ic h h a d p e a k e d a t V in c e n n e s , r e c e d e d s h a rp ly th ro u g h th e d u ra tio n o f th e w ar. Illn e s s p la g u e d C la r k ’ s m e n , a n d th e fiv e h u n d r e d re in fo rc e m e n ts sa id to b e on th e ir w a y fro m V irg in ia n e v e r sh o w e d . H e h a d no c h o ic e b u t to h o ld on a s b e s t h e co u ld . H is v ic to r y h a d o n ly e n c o u r a g e d m o re se ttle rs to stre a m in to K e n tu c k y , a n d t h e y o n ly e n c o u r a g e d m o re d e v a s ta tio n fro m In d ia n ra id e rs o u t o f th e B ritish -co n tro lle d n o rth . In S e p te m b e r o f 17 7 9 , C la r k w ith d re w fro m th e c o n q u e r e d Illin o is C o u n try , r e c e n tly m a d e a c o u n ty o f V irg in ia , a n d e s ta b lis h e d h is h e a d q u a r te r s at th e c e n tr a lly situ a te d F a lls o f th e O hio. B e h in d him , C la r k le ft J o h n T o d d , Jr., th e c iv il m a g is tra te a p p o in te d

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C a h o k ia w ith o rd ers to a c c u m u la te sto res fo r a c a m p a ig n a g a in s t D e tro it th e fo llo w in g y e a r. T h e sm a rm y b ro th e rlin e s s o f M a y , w h e n th e F r e n c h w e re p e rm itte d to e le c t th e ir o w n ju d g e s a n d s h a re w ith th e c itiz e n s o f V irg in ia “ in th e b le s s in g o f a fr e e a n d e q u a l in d e p e n d e n c e ,” w a s c o ld as a b lu e n o rth e r b y D e c e m b e r . Y a n k e e h u c k s te rs q u ic k ly s h o w e d u p to d o w h a t t h e y d id b e st, a n d th e A m e r ic a n tro o p s (th o se w h o h a d n ’t d e s e rte d ) w e r e n o t too sc ru p u lo u s a b o u t h o w th e y go t th e ir su p p lie s . T h e d a sh in g a n d h o n o ra b le fig u re stru ck b y C la r k h a d fe w im ita to rs a m o n g

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th e A m e r ic a n s w h o s ta y e d in th e A m e r ic a n B o tto m as if it w e r e th e ir o w n — as in d e e d it w a s to re m a in . A s id e fro m th e d iffe r e n c e s in la n g u a g e , re lig io n , a n d m o res, th e h a rd m a tte r o f m o n e y , h a rd m o n e y , w id e n e d th e b r e a c h b e tw e e n th e tw o p e o p le s . O liv e r P o llo c k , th e Iris h m a n so d e v o te d to th e p a trio tic c a u s e a n d w h o h a d fin a n c e d C la r k ’ s o p e ra tio n s fro m N e w O rle a n s, fo u n d his p e r s o n a l fo rtu n e a n d c re d it e x h a u s te d b y J u ly o f 1 7 7 9 . T h a t le ft C o n tin e n ta l c u rre n c y , w h ic h h a d b e e n r e p r e s e n te d to th e F r e n c h in h a b ita n ts as r e d e e m a b le at fa c e v a lu e in silv er. W ith th e c u r r e n c y d e p r e c ia te d in th e E a s t to tw e lv e c e n ts o n th e d o lla r, a s u d d e n d e lu g e o f p a p e r in u n d a te d th e Illin o is C o u n tr y . F r e n c h m e rc h a n ts a n d tra d e rs w a n te d n o th in g to d o w ith it, in sistin g th a t p e lts b e th e m e d iu m o f e x c h a n g e , a s h a d b e e n e a rlie r a g r e e d . M a g is tra te T o d d r e fu s e d , a n d h a v in g no ra re m e ta ls to b a c k th e w o rth le ss p a p e r , h e ra ttle d th e ste e l in h is s c a b b a r d in ste a d . C la r k ’ s d is c o n te n t c o u ld n o t m a tc h th a t o f th e F r e n c h habitants’ , b u t it, to o , w a s g ro w in g . W ith h is p la n s fo r D e tro it s h e lv e d , h e tu rn e d h is a tte n tio n in th e sp rin g o f 178 0 to a n o ld p r o je c t c lo se to h is h e a r t — a fo rt a t th e m o u th o f th e O h io . T h e r e w a s a c ry in g n e e d fo r it. T h e B ritish , h e h e a rd , w e re g a th e rin g stre n g th a n d g e a r in g u p to r e ta k e th e Illin o is C o u n try ; a fo rt w o u ld a lso s e rv e as a r e m in d e r to S p a in o f w h o o w n e d th a t riv e rb a n k , le s t sh e e n te rta in a n y id e a s a b o u t a d d in g to h e r h o ld in g s. T h o m a s J e f fe rso n , s u c c e s s o r to P a tr ic k H e n r y a s g o v e rn o r o f V irg in ia , d i r e c te d h is frie n d to b u ild th e p o s t b u t a p p e n d e d a c a u tio n b y n o w p a in fu lly fa m ilia r to C la rk : “ T h e le s s y o u d e p e n d fo r su p p lie s fro m th is q u a r te r th e le s s w ill y o u b e d is a p p o in te d b y th o s e im p e d im e n ts w h ic h d is ta n c e a n d a p re c a rio u s fo re ig n C o m m e r c e th ro w s in o u r w a y .” In M a y o f 178 0 , C la r k lo c a te d h is F o rt J e f fe r s o n fiv e m ile s b e lo w th e m o u th o f th e O h io , g iv in g it a sm all g a rriso n a n d in tro d u c in g a fe w se ttle rs. In th e fa c e o f In d ia n a tta c k s , h u n g e r , a n d d e se rtio n s , it w o u ld n o t b e lo n g fo r th e w e s te r n w o rld . C la r k w a s rig h t a b o u t th e B ritish . T h e y w e r e c o m in g in th e sp rin g o f 178 0 , fu lly r e c o v e r e d fro m th e V in c e n n e s s e tb a c k a n d a b r ie f s e iz u r e o f th e tre m b le s . T h e s c a tte r e d a n d p o o rly fin a n c e d r e b e ls h a d lo st th e in itia tiv e ; th o s e lo y a l to G e o r g e I I I h a d fo r

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th e m o m e n t a n o n e -to o -firm h o ld o n it. W ith S p a in n o w a d e c la r e d a d v e r s a r y , it w a s tim e to d u st o ff th e g ra n d o ld p la n th a t w o u ld w in b o th sid e s o f th e M iss is sip p i — th e c o n te s te d e a s t a n d th e S p a n is h w e s t — a n d o p e n th e w a y to M e x ic o itself. T h e r e w a s o n ly o n e la rg e a n d n a s ty fly in th e o in tm en t: th e p la n h a d c a lle d fo r a fa r-re a c h in g p in c e r m o v e m e n t, a fo r c e fro m C a n a d a c o m in g d o w n riv e r to lin k u p w ith G e n . J o h n C a m p b e ll’s s e a b o rn e fo rc e th a t w a s to e n te r th e M iss is sip p i a n d k n o c k o v e r N e w O rle a n s. T h a t w a s n o lo n g e r fe a s ib le . T h e lig h tn in g a c tio n s o f B e r n a r d o d e G a lv e z b a d ly m a u le d th e s o u th e rn arm o f th e p in c e r so o n a fte r th e sta te o f w a r w a s fo rm a liz e d . M a n c h a c a n d B a to n R o u g e on th e lo w e r M iss is sip p i a n d M o b ile o n th e G u lf C o a s t h a d fa lle n to th e y o u n g S p a n ia r d in q u ic k s u c c e s s io n , a n d G e n e r a l C a m p b e ll w a s p e n n e d u p in P e n s a c o la , su ffe rin g fro m a n a c u te la c k o f sh ip s a n d fo rtitu d e . T h e c a m p a ig n n e v e r th e le s s w e n t fo rw a rd o n th e n o rth e rn fro n t, w h e re S p a in w a s sic k ly th in a n d th e A m e r ic a n s w e r e in d isa rra y . T h e sp rin g o ffe n s iv e o f 178 0 w a s th re e -p ro n g e d . A d iv e rs io n a ry b o d y o f o n e h u n d r e d fifty w h ite s a n d a th o u s a n d In d ia n s u n d e r C o l. H e n r y B ird le ft D e tro it in e a r ly M a y fo r th e F a lls o f th e O hio to “ a m u s e C la r k .” A n o th e r g ro u p o f In d ia n s a n d C a n a d ia n s r e n d e z v o u s e d at C h ic a g o u n d e r C a p t. C h a r le s L a n g la d e to w o rk th e ir w a y d o w n th e Illin o is R iv e r to w a rd th e A m e r ic a n B o tto m . B u t th e m a in fo rc e , e s tim a te d b y th e S p a n is h a t 1,200 a n d offi c ia lly p u t at 750 b y th e E n g lis h , c ro sse d th e u p p e r M iss is sip p i in M a r c h a n d m a d e th e F a r W e s t fo r th e first a n d o n ly tim e d u rin g th e R e v o lu tio n a r y W a r a fu ll-fle d g e d b a ttle g ro u n d . T h e e n d -a ro u n d w a s th e b ra in c h ild o f P a tr ic k S in c la ir, th e lie u te n a n t g o v e rn o r o f M ic h ilim a c k in a c , w h o b e lie v e d h e w a s ta k in g d e a d a im on a n e a s y victo ry . T h e a c tu a l le a d e r o f th e e x p e d itio n w a s E m m a n u e l H e s s e , a fo rm e r m ilita ry o ffice r tu rn e d tra d e r. S o m e w h e r e a ro u n d th re e -fo u rth s o f th e p o ly g lo t m o tle y w as

com p osed

o f M e n o m in e e s , W in n e b a g o e s ,

Sauks,

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O tta w a s, a n d — th e r u b ic u n d h a rd c o re p e r e n n ia lly fr ie n d ly to th e B ritish — th e S io u x , le d b y th e g re a t c h ie f W a b a s h a . F o r th e o c c a s io n th e B ritish d re s s e d h im in s c a rle t m ilita ry ra im e n t a n d e le v a te d h im to th e ra n k o f c a p ta in . T h e co m p o sitio n o f th e a rm y w a s an e x a m p le w rit la rg e o f th e e s s e n tia l n a tu re o f w a r in th e

348

T H E WAR AND T H E W EST

W e s t a n d th e m e th o d s th e E n g lis h stra te g ists u s e d in w a g in g it. T h e H e s s e c o n tin g e n t g o t o ff to a p r o d u c tiv e start. A d e ta c h m e n t u n d e r L t. A le x a n d e r K a y c a p tu r e d a n a rm e d S p a n is h b o a t a n d its c r e w o f tw e lv e a t th e m o u th o f I o w a ’s T u r k e y R iv e r . T h e n K a y tu rn e d so m e tw e n ty m ile s to th e s o u th e a s t a n d su rp rise d a g ro u p o f le a d m in e rs n e a r p r e s e n t- d a y D u b u q u e . “ S e v e n te e n S p a n is h & R e b e l P r is o n e r s ” w e r e ta k e n , a lo n g w ith fifty to n s o f le a d o re, sto re s o f fu rs, to b a c c o , a n d rum . S in c la ir w a s e la te d b y th e re su lts, b u t a p p a r e n tly o n e or m o re o f th e m in e rs e s c a p e d a n d p a d d le d d o w n th e M is s is s ip p i to s p r e a d th e a la rm , th o u g h fe a r h a d a lr e a d y s u r fa c e d in S a in t L o u is a n d S a in te G e n e v ie v e in a n tic ip a tio n o f a n a tta ck . L ie u te n a n t G o v e r n o r d e L e y b a , m o rta lly ill a n d p e ssim istic a b o u t d e fe n d in g S a in t L o u is , h a d n e v e r th e le s s b e g u n fo rtify in g th e to w n m o n th s b e fo re . F iv e c a n n o n fro m a b a n d o n e d F o rt C a r los I I I a t th e m o u th o f th e M iss o u ri w e r e r e m o v e d to S a in t L o u is. H is a p p e a l to th e e ig h t h u n d r e d p o o r a n d m o stly F r e n c h in h a b i ta n ts fo r d o n a tio n s n e tte d h im six h u n d r e d p ia ste rs, w ith w h ic h h e h o p e d to b u ild fo u r d e fe n s iv e to w e rs. A s th e B ritish fo rc e d re w c lo se r, d e L e y b a s u m m o n e d L t. D o n F r a n c is c o C a r ta b o n a a n d h is sm a ll fo r c e fro m S a in te G e n e v ie v e to jo in him . C a r ta b o n a a rriv e d o n M a y 13 , a n d w h e n th e chasseurs c a m e in fro m th e fie ld s , th e d e fe n d e r s n u m b e r e d 29 re g u la rs a n d 281 v o lu n te e r m ilitia, in c lu d in g a c o u p le w ith A n g lo - S a x o n n a m e s. O n ly o n e d e fe n s iv e to w e r w a s b u ilt, o n th e w e s t sid e o f to w n , w h e re th e fiv e c a n n o n w e r e in sta lle d . T r e n c h e s w e r e d u g on th e n o rth a n d so u th p e r im e te r s a n d m a n n e d . T h e te rrifie d w o m e n a n d c h ild re n w e r e h e r d e d in to th e g o v e r n o r ’s h o u s e a n d p u t u n d e r th e p ro te c tio n o f L ie u te n a n t C a r ta b o n a a n d tw e n ty m en . A t 1:00 P .M . o n th e tw e n ty -six th o f M a y , 178 0 , H e s s e ’s m o n g re l a rm y d a r k e n e d th e n o rth e rn h o rizo n , firin g th e ir p ie c e s a n d fillin g th e air w ith b lo o d c u r d lin g c rie s. F o r th e n e x t tw o h o u rs, S a in t L o u is to o k th e fu ll fu r y o f a fro n tie r a ssa u lt, a n d h e ld . T h e a tta c k e r s h a d n o t e x p e c t e d to fin d a to w e r, a to p w h ic h th e a ilin g d e L e y b a sto o d , n o r fire fro m c a n n o n w h ic h h e d ire c te d . T h e v a lo r o f th o s e in th e tr e n c h e s a lso c a m e as a su rp rise. T h e s e w e r e n o t th e e a s y p ic k in g s a d v e r tis e d . H e s s e ’s fo r c e b r o k e o ff th e e n g a g e m e n t to w a n d e r a n d s a v a g e

349

HAROLD OWENS AND MISSOURI STATE CAPITOL, JEFFERSON CITY

T H E D IV IS IB L E E M P IR E

The war crossed the Mississippi in force on M a y 26, 1780, when a British-led army o f Indians was repulsed at Spanish St. Louis.

th e c o u n try s id e , d is m e m b e rin g a n d d is e m b o w e lin g fa rm e rs a n d fa rm a n im a ls w h e re th e y fo u n d th e m . S p a n is h o fficia ls in la te r d e c la ra tio n s w o u ld b itte rly d e n o u n c e th e a tro citie s, w h ic h , w h e n w id e ly k n o w n , w o u ld e a rn B rita in th e c o n te m p t o f th e m undo

filosofico. A s fo r c a s u a ltie s s u ffe re d , S p a in ’ s ta lly o f 21 d e a d , 7 w o u n d e d , a n d 25 m a d e p riso n e rs a c tu a lly ra n le ss th a n a B rit ish re p o rt th a t liste d 70 k ille d , 34 ta k e n p riso n e r, a n d 43 s c a lp e d . A g a in s t this, H e s s e lo st o n ly th r e e m e n w ith tw o w o u n d e d , w h ic h ra is e d a n e m b a rra s s in g q u e stio n : W h y d id h e re tre a t? S in c la ir w a s b e s id e h im se lf, b u t h e d id n o t la c k fo r a lib is. T h e p e rfid io u s S a u k s h a d d e s e r te d at a critic a l tim e, a n d m a n y o f th e e rstw h ile F r e n c h - C a n a d ia n tra d e rs h a d b e e n g u ilty o f tr e a c h e r y , so w in g d is u n ity a n d c o n d o n in g c o w a r d ic e a m o n g th e In d ia n s th e y le d . W a it till n e x t y e a r , S in c la ir w a rn e d . It w o u ld b e d o n e c o m e A p ril, b u t o n ly w ith th e d e p e n d a b le S io u x u n d e r arm s this tim e. T h e r e w a s p r o b a b ly a n o th e r re a s o n fo r H e s s e ’s in g lo rio u s r e tre a t. I m m e d ia te ly a fte r w ith d ra w in g fro m S a in t L o u is , h e h a d m a r c h e d to th e M iss is sip p i w h e re th e Illin o is e m p tie d its w a te rs, e x p e c tin g to jo in th e su p p o rtiv e co lu m n o f C a p ta in L a n g la d e for

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a n o th e r go a t d e L e y b a ’ s m a k e s h ift c ita d e l. L a n g la d e h a d b e e n th e r e a n d h a d p r e p a r e d to r e d u c e C a h o k ia ju s t h o u rs b e fo re S a in t L o u is to o k its b a tte rin g . B u t to his d is m a y , h e fo u n d h im s e lf c o n fro n tin g n o n e o th e r th a n G e o r g e R o g e r s C la rk ! T h e tig e r w a s n o t a t th e F a lls o f th e O h io w h e r e h e w a s s u p p o s e d to b e . H e w a s lo o se in th e W e st! A fte r a b r ie f sk irm ish , L a n g la d e m a d e a h a s ty d e p a rtu r e fo r h o m e . H e s s e ’ s In d ia n s d o u b tle s s ly le a r n e d th a t C la r k w a s in th e v ic in ity ; th a t w a s c u e e n o u g h to c le a r o u t o f th e te rrito ry — fa st. I n d e e d , C la r k im m e d ia te ly o r g a n iz e d a n a rm y o f p u rsu it, n u m b e r in g m o re th a n th r e e h u n d re d A m e r ic a n s , Illi n o is F r e n c h m e n , a n d S p a n ia r d s fro m S a in t L o u is , a n d n a m e d C o l. J o h n M o n tg o m e r y to h e a d it. M o n tg o m e r y s e t o ff u p th e M is s is s ip p i a n d m a r c h e d o v e r la n d to S a u k a n d F o x v illa g e s on th e R o c k R iv e r , fa ilin g to o v e r ta k e a n y o f th e ra id e rs. S o , fo llo w in g th e sta n d a rd fro n tie r o p e ra tin g p r o c e d u r e , h e p u t th e to rch to th e d e s e r te d S a u k a n d F o x v illa g e s in ste a d . B y th e s u m m e r o f 178 0 th e w a r in th e W e s t w a s m a rk e d b y e x h a u s tio n , a ttritio n , a n d in d e c isio n , a n d s e e m e d in c a p a b le o f b e in g w o n b y a n y o n e . G o v e r n o r d e L e y b a d ie d o f h is illn e ss on J u n e 28. T h a t le ft th e in h a b ita n ts o f S p a in ’ s W e s t te m p o ra rily le a d e r le s s w h ile still n u rs in g th e w o u n d s w ro u g h t b y th e B ritish o ffe n s iv e . R u m o r s th a t th e E n g lis h w o u ld so o n b e b a c k c irc u la te d d a ily . F ift e e n h u n d r e d B ritish a n d In d ia n s w e r e o n th e ir w a y fro m D e tro it. T w o th o u s a n d F r e n c h m e n a n d In d ia n s w e r e c o m in g to a n n ih ila te th e m all. E ig h t h u n d r e d S io u x h a d g o n e w e s t to e n list th e M is s o u ri R iv e r trib e s to w r e a k th e ir fie n d ish v e n g e a n c e o n S a in t L o u is . T h e s a v a g e s h a d e v e n to ld th e E n g lis h h o w to r e a c h S a n ta F e e a s ily b y w a y o f th e P la tte ; n o t e v e n M e x ic o w a s s e c u r e a n y m o re . T e r r ifie d b y s u c h ta lk , th e m o stly F r e n c h in h a b ita n ts o f S p a n is h U p p e r L o u is ia n a p le a d e d w ith G o v e r n o r G a lv e z fo r p ro te c tio n . B a rr in g th a t, th e y w a rn e d , t h e y w o u ld h a v e to e v a c u a t e th e to w n . A c r o s s th e riv e r C la r k b e g a n h is slo w a n d p ie c e m e a l w ith d r a w a l fro m th e W e s t h e h a d w o n . W h ile h e w a s g o n e , h is F o rt J e ffe r s o n h a d k n o w n six d a y s a n d six n ig h ts o f d e m o n s tra tiv e d is p le a s u r e fro m C h ic k a s a w a n d C h o c t a w w a rrio rs o f th e so u th , w h o h a d n o t b e e n a d v is e d o f th is e n c r o a c h m e n t on th e ir h u n tin g g ro u n d s. B y th e fo llo w in g J u n e it w o u ld b e g iv e n u p , so m e o f its

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h u n g r y se ttle rs d riftin g into th e Illin o is C o u n tr y to th e le ss d e m o n stra tiv e d is p le a s u r e o f F r e n c h m e n . T h e a b a n d o n m e n t o f F o rt J e ffe r s o n w o u ld ra n k d o w n th e list o f p e r s o n a l w o rrie s fo r C la r k w h e n it h a p p e n e d . M o re A m e r ic a n s h a d c ro s s e d th e m o u n ta in s into th e O h io V a lle y b y th e fa te fu l su m m e r o f 178 0 th a n e v e r b e fo re . B u t th a t o n ly m e a n t m o re tro u b le in K e n t u c k y a n d its e n v iro n s, b e c a u s e

th e trib e s n o rth o f th e O h io , m a n ip u la te d

e x p e r tly b y th e B ritish , w e r e m o re u n ite d a n d h o stile th a n e v e r , h a v in g it p r e tty m u c h th e ir o w n w a y d u rin g 1 7 8 1 . C la r k a g a in s e ttle d h im s e lf a t th e F a lls o f th e O h io , c lo s e r to w h e re h e w a s n e e d e d , a n d o rd e re d m o st o f h is m e n o u t o f th e Illin o is p o sts. In m a n y w a y s th e A m e r ic a n s w e r e th e ir o w n w o rst e n e m ie s . O ffice rs a n d m e rc h a n ts c o n s p ire d in stic k in g m o n e y le s s V irg in ia w ith b ills to b e p a id in silv e r sh e d id n o t h a v e . L a n d sh a rk s, g ra fters, a n d c u r r e n c y sp e c u la to rs p r a c tic e d th e ir se lf-s e rv in g arts w h ile th e n e w W e s t s e e m e d to c ru m b le a ro u n d th e ir h e a d s . D is g ru n tle d a n d u n p a id so ld ie rs d e s e r te d . W id o w s a n d o rp h a n s w e r e m a d e d a ily in K e n tu c k y a n d w e s te rn P e n n s y lv a n ia as In d ia n a tta c k s in c r e a s e d in fr e q u e n c y a n d fe ro c ity . A lth o u g h G o v e r n o r J e ffe r s o n a n d , a fte r 17 7 9 , e v e n G e n e r a l W a sh in g to n to o k a n a c tiv e in te re s t in e x te n d in g th e w a r in th e W e st, th e re w e r e n e v e r e n o u g h tro o p s a n d g u n s to go a ro u n d . F ie ld - g r a d e o fficers v ie d w ith e a c h o th e r for th e g lo ry o f c ru sh in g th e s a v a g e s or — th a t d e e d o f d e e d s — c a p tu rin g D etro it. S o m e c a m e o u t o f th e E a s t, u n u s e d to w a r as it w a s w a g e d in th e W e st, a n d w a lk e d into a m b u s c a d e s , h a d th e ir fo rc e s c u t to p ie c e s , a n d if t h e y w e re u n lu c k y e n o u g h to b e ta k e n p riso n e r, le a r n e d in o n e g h a stly le ss o n h o w th e re d m e n d e a lt w ith th e e n e m y . C la r k w a s a le s s e r fa c to r th a n h e h a d h o p e d to b e . H e w a s m a d e a g e n e r a l b y V irg in ia , b u t th e tro o p s a n d e q u ip m e n t h e w a s p ro m is e d n e v e r s e e m e d to a rriv e at th e sa m e tim e, w e r e s id e tra c k e d e ls e w h e re , or w e r e n o n e x iste n t. H e p e r s e v e r e d as th e w e s te rn a n c h o r o f K e n tu c k y , o f g r e a te s t u s e to th e in fa n t n a tio n as a p a p e r tig e r a lw a y s on th e v e r g e o f b e a r d in g th e w e a k e n e d lion a w a y fro m his d e n . T h a t ra d ia n t v isio n o f D e tro it p ro stra te n e v e r le ft C la rk , b u t th e b e s t h e w o u ld d o w a s to in v a d e , in N o v e m b e r o f 178 2 , th e S c io to R iv e r v illa g e s o f th e r e d o u b ta b le S h a w n e e s — “ th e first in a t a b a ttle , th e la st at a tr e a ty ” — w h ic h n e tte d h im

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fe w

k ille d

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p riso n e rs

a m o n g th e fle e in g in h a b ita n ts.

N e v e r th e le s s , C h illic o th e a n d fiv e o th e r to w n s w e r e b u r n e d to th e g ro u n d in th e la st b a ttle o f th e R e v o lu tio n a r y W ar. T h e y e a r s 178 0 to 178 2 h a d s e e m in g ly e v e r y re a s o n to b e ste rlin g y e a r s fo r th e B ritish in th e N o rth w e st. T h e re b e ls w e r e in g e n e r a l re tr e a t a lo n g th e fro n t b e fo r e In d ia n s a lm o st so lid ly w ith th e B ritish . Y e t th e s a m e In d ia n s w h o c o u ld te rro riz e th e e n e m y fro m F o r t P itt to S a in t L o u is h a d to b e k e p t in p re s e n ts , and

G e n e r a l H a ld im a n d h a d d iffic u lty b a la n c in g , or a t le a s t

ju s tify in g , th e b o o k s. A fte r th e lu c k le s s H a m ilto n , no B ritish o ffice r a p p r o a c h e d C la r k in im a g in a tio n a n d th e w illin g n e ss to risk d e fe a t fo r v ic to ry . A s a c o n s e q u e n c e , C la r k w a s e n d o w e d b y th e m a n d th e ir h ire d g u n s w ith a re p u ta tio n b e y o n d w h a t h e h a d e a r n e d — a m a n to a v o id a n d , b e c a u s e c o n sta n t ru m o r h a d h im c o m in g th e ir w a y , to o v e r - d e fe n d a g a in st. T h e tru ly d e fla tin g n e w s r e a c h e d H a ld im a n d ’s su b o rd in a te s in th e W e s t in A p r il o f 178 2 : C o rn w a llis h a d s u r r e n d e r e d h is a rm y a t Y o r k to w n . A s ja r r in g as th a t w a s in itself, it m e a n t h e lp th a t m ig h t h a v e c o m e fro m M o n tr e a l w o u ld b e d iv e r te d to w e a k e n e d B ritis h fo r c e s in N e w Y o r k . S in c e p e a c e ta lk s w e r e sa id to b e u n d e r w a y , th e b e s t th in g to do w a s sh o re u p a n d s ta v e off, a n d m a k e th e

G r e a t L a k e s fo rts o f D e tro it a n d M ic h ilim a c k in a c

d o u b le -s a fe . G e n e r a l H a ld im a n d d id n o t in te n d to g iv e th e re b e ls a n y c la im s b y c o n q u e s t to th e p rim e fu r co u n try . In th e fin a l y e a r s o f th e b lo o d y sta le m a te , o n ly o n e m a n in th e W e s t im p r o v e d h is c o u n tr y ’s sta tu s. F r a n c is c o C r u z a t in h e rite d p a n ic a n d d e s p a ir w h e n h e to o k o v e r fo r th e d e c e a s e d d e L e y b a in S e p t e m b e r o f 178 0 . H e h a d s e r v e d a te rm a s lie u te n a n t g o v e rn o r o f u p p e r L o u is ia n a b e fo r e d e L e y b a a n d h a d b e e n b e lo v e d b y its p e o p le . N o w h e w a s b a c k in S a in t L o u is to b rin g s a n ity a n d so m e n e w th in k in g . U n lik e d e L e y b a , h e d id n o t c a re fo r C la r k or th e A m e r ic a n s . T h o u g h h e p u t o n a p le a s a n t fa c e in d e a lin g s w ith th e m , h e d id n o t tru st th e m . A ll h e h a d to d o w a s lo o k a c ro ss th e riv e r a t th e Illin o is F r e n c h — C la r k ’ s c a t’ s-p a w s — w h o h a d b e e n le a c h e d fro m a n d le ft to fe n d fo r th e m s e lv e s if a n d w h e n th e B ritis h c a m e a g a in . T h e ir tr e a tm e n t h a d b e e n c o n te m p tib le a n d w o u ld n o t b e r e p e a t e d w e s t o f th e riv e r — n o t i f h e h a d a n y th in g to d o w ith it. A n d h e m a d e it h is b u s in e s s to d o all h e c o u ld a b o u t

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it. U n d e r h is d ire c tio n S a in t L o u is s p ro u te d a n e ig h te e n -fo o t-h ig h s to c k a d e w ith six-in ch w a lls to g r e e t th o s e B ritish w h o h a d p ro m is e d to re tu rn in 1 7 8 1 . S p ie s w e r e s e n t d e e p into e n e m y te rrito ry to k e e p C r u z a t p o s te d . H e d is trib u te d gifts to th e In d ia n s a s fr e e ly as h is lim ite d r e s o u r c e s w o u ld a llo w , a n d w h ile h e w a s n e v e r a b le to m a tc h th e “ e n e m y [who] sc a tte rs p r e s e n ts b y h a n d fu ls a m o n g th e s e b a r b a ro u s tr ib e s ,” y e t b y th e sp rin g o f 178 2 h e h a d m o re th a n a h u n d r e d trib e s c o m in g to S a in t L o u is fo r h a n d o u ts a n d S p a n is h p ro te c tio n . T h e B ritish re tu rn r e m a in e d a ru m o r. C r u z a t in s u re d a g a in s t its b e c o m in g a re a lity in F e b r u a r y o f 1 7 8 1 , w h e n h e b o rro w e d a p a g e fro m G e o r g e R o g e r s C la r k ’ s b o o k . F iv e s c o r e m e n , e v e n ly d iv id e d b e tw e e n re d a n d w h ite , w e r e d is p a tc h e d u n d e r th e le a d e rsh ip o f C a p t. E u g e n e P o u r e e e a s tw a r d in to th e w in te r h e a rt o f d is p u te d te rrito ry th a t e v e n C la r k h a d n e v e r se e n . O n F e b r u a r y 12 , 1 7 8 1 , C r u z a t ’s m e n d is a rm e d th e sm all B ritish g a rriso n at F o r t S a in t J o s e p h e a s t o f L a k e M ic h ig a n a n d h e ld it fo r tw e n ty fo u r h o u rs, ta k in g n in e p riso n e rs, b u rn in g sto re s, a n d ra isin g th e S p a n is h

e n s ig n

o v e r w h a t w a s fo rm a lly p ro c la im e d

S p a n is h

territo ry. S p a in in M ic h ig a n ? C r u z a t ’ s p u r p o s e b e h in d th e w ild c a t ra id w a s to d e s tr o y p ro v isio n s sla te d fo r u s e in th e a n tic ip a te d a tta c k o n h is S a in t L o u is a n d to c o w In d ia n s le a n in g to w a rd th e B ritish . T h e q u ix o tic h o istin g o f th e S p a n is h fla g a lso g a v e his n a tio n a n e x tra th r o w a w a y c a rd at th e p e a c e ta b le . T h e w a r in th e W e s t a n s w e r e d to no lo g ic. W h y sh o u ld th e p e a c e ?

FLEETING TWENTY YEARS after the glorious year of 176 3 , E n g la n d w a s b a c k in P a ris , lo o k in g a c ro s s th e d ip lo m a tic ta b le at th e fa m ilia r fa c e s w ith th e ir fix e d grin s a n d fle x ib le in sin c e rity . H o w m u c h h a d c h a n g e d ! S o m e o f th o s e fa m ilia r fa c e s h a d b e e n kin , c o u n try c o u sin s. Y e s , m u c h h a d c h a n g e d . O f w h a te v e r sta tu re w e r e th o s e p a trio ts w h o fo u g h t th e d a y - b y d a y n a ta l w a r, t h e y w e r e d w a r fe d b y a trio o f m e n w h o w o n th e first p e a c e in d a z z lin g fa s h io n a n d w o u ld c a s t lo n g s h a d o w s a c ro s s th e co n tin e n t. T h e r e w a s th e b e a m in g , b e n e v o le n t B e n ja m in F ra n k lin — th e P la to n ic A m e r ic a n w ith th e in te rn a tio n a l re p u ta tio n as sc ie n tist a n d s a g e , w h o s e a g ile in te llig e n c e g u id e d

354

" Franklin Urging the Claims o f the American Colonies Before Louis X V I,” b y G eorge Peter Alexander Healy, circa 1847.

th e n e g o tia tio n s . T h e r e w a s J o h n A d a m s , a s so u n d o f m in d as N e w E n g la n d ’ s r o c k y m a n tle , te s ty a n d a b r a s iv e , w h o h a d th e e ffr o n te r y to p la in ly sta te to th e C o m te d e V e r g e n n e s th a t F r a n c e n e e d e d A m e r ic a a s m u c h au contraire. F in a lly , y o u n g J o h n J a y o f N e w Y o r k , a le g a l b e a g le , his su s p ic io u s n o se d e te c tin g e v e r y fo u l s c e n t e m a n a tin g fro m E u r o p e ’ s ro tte n d ip lo m a tic c h a m b e rs . N o n e w a s w h a t y o u w o u ld c a ll a n in n o c e n t a b r o a d in 178 3 . E a c h h a d c ro s s e d th e A tla n tic y e a r s b e fo re e v e n th e p re lim in a ry s e ttle m e n ts w e r e s ig n e d . F r a n k lin h a d s p e n t y e a r s in L o n d o n as a c o lo n ia l lo b b y is t b e fo r e b e in g se n t to F r a n c e in 1 7 7 6 to r e p r e s e n t th e b r e a k a w a y c o lo n ie s . A d a m s a rriv e d in 17 7 8 , first u p se ttin g th e F r e n c h w ith h is o b s tin a c y , th e n w a n g lin g lo a n s fro m th e N e th e r la n d s , o n e o f th e fiv e c o m m issio n e rs a p p o in te d b y th e C o n tin e n ta l C o n g r e s s in 1 7 8 1 to c o n c lu d e th e p e a c e . J a y a lig h te d in S p a in in J a n u a r y o f 178 0 , h a t in h a n d , p le a d in g fo r m o n e y a n d h e lp fro m th e C o u n t F lo r id a b la n c a , th e a r c h c o n s e r v a tiv e p rin

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c ip a l m in iste r w h o w a s in h is so u l m o re s ta u n c h a n e n e m y o f th e y o u n g re p u b lic th a n a n y B rito n . T h e r e a re a lw a y s tw o c o n c u r r e n t w a rs: th e o n e fo u g h t o n th e la n d a n d o n th e se a , a n d th e o n e fo u g h t b y d ip lo m a ts fa r fro m th e s c e n e o f strife. T h u s it h a d b e e n n e c e s s a r y to s e n d e n v o y s to E u r o p e a s so o n as h o stilities s e e m e d c e rta in . H o w e ls e c o u ld th e A m e r ic a n s p ro te c t th e ir in te re s t? H o w e ls e b e a p a r ty to th o s e p re lim in a ry sp a rrin g s, th e fe e lin g -o u t p h a s e w h e n a m b a s s a d o r s k e p t a b r e a s t o f w h a t th e ir o p p o s ite n u m b e r s w o u ld se ttle fo r at a g iv e n tim e? In 1 7 7 9 , F lo r id a b la n c a h a d trie d to b la c k m a il E n g la n d into h a n d in g o v e r G ib ra lta r b y p ro m isin g to s ta y o u t o f th e w a r th a t fa m ily -m e m b e r F r a n c e w a s d e s p e r a te ly try in g to g e t h e r into. W h e n E n g la n d b a lk e d , sh e e n te r e d th e w a r, n o t as a frie n d o f th o s e r a b b le w h o th r e a te n e d h e r w e s te r n c o lo n ie s in N o rth A m e r ic a , n o t w illin g ly at th e b id d in g o f th e B o u r b o n r e l a tiv e , w h o a lso s h o w e d la te n t r e p u b lic a n te n d e n c ie s , b u t fo r h e r self. S h e w a n te d to ta l p o s s e s s io n o f th e G u lf C o a s t a n d — in w a r if n o t in p e a c e — G ib ra lta r. In fo rm a l e x c h a n g e s w ith B rita in , S p a in p e r s is te n tly r e fe r r e d to th e th irte e n a s “ c o lo n ie s ,” n o t as th e in d e p e n d e n t sta te s t h e y in siste d t h e y w e re . W h a t is o fte n fo rg o tte n is th a t th e U n ite d S ta te s d id n o t sp rin g fu ll g ro w n fro m th e e a r o f a n c ie n t A th e n s a s a c h a m p io n o f d e m o c r a c y a n d ju s tic e . T h e r e p r e s e n ta tiv e s o f th e C o n tin e n ta l C o n g re ss in E u r o p e th ro u g h th e w a r y e a r s le a r n e d all a b o u t th e c o ld sh o u ld e r, O ld W o rld hauteu r, th e in te rm in a b le w a it in th e b u r e a u c ra tic a n te ro o m . E n e m ie s o f E n g la n d d id n o t e m b r a c e r e b e llio u s so n s o f E n g la n d , s a v e fo r a sm a ll sc a tte rin g o f b o o k w o rm lib e ra ls o u tsid e d ip lo m a tic c irc le s w h o sa w so m e th in g m e s s ia n ic in m e n w h o p le d g e d th e ir liv e s, p ro p e rty , a n d s a c r e d h o n o r in re sistin g th e o p p re s s io n o f k in g s. C a th e r in e II o f R u s s ia , p a c k a g e r o f th e 178 0 P a c t o f A r m e d N e u tr a lity th a t p la c e d E n g la n d in u n s p e c ifie d p e ril if sh e d id n o t r e s p e c t th e fr e e tra n sp o rt o f n o n -c o n tra b a n d in n e u tr a l b o t to m s, h a d no in te re s t in A m e r ic a n s or th e ir c a u s e . T h e k in g d o m s o f D e n m a r k , S w e d e n , a n d P o rtu g a l, a n d th e G e r m a n s ta te s d e c id e d ly d is a p p r o v e d o f th o s e w h o w o u ld ta m p e r w ith th e d iv in e righ t o f k in g s. F r e d e r ic k o f P r u s s ia , s h a b b ily tr e a te d b y E n g la n d in th e S e v e n Y e a r s ’ W ar, w a s a m u s e d to s e e h is fa ith le ss a lly on

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T H E WAR AND T H E W E ST

Charles Gravier, Comte de Vergennes, did not play fair with his American â&#x20AC;&#x153;friends,â&#x20AC;? nor did they with him.

th e ra c k , b u t th a t d id n o t k e e p h im fro m re fu s in g to r e c e iv e th e A m e r ic a n A r th u r L e e . W h e n B ritish a g e n ts sto le L e e â&#x20AC;&#x2122;s o fficial p a p e r s , F r e d e r ic k d id n o th in g . L e e fa r e d n o b e tte r in th a t lair o f th e s p id e r o f E u r o p e â&#x20AC;&#x201D; A u s tria . N o t o n ly w o u ld th e C o u r t r e fu s e to r e c o g n iz e th e in d e p e n d e n c e o f th e c o lo n ie s, it w o u ld n o t e v e n le t th e fr ie n d ly F r e n c h a m b a s s a d o r in tro d u c e L e e . O n ly in F r a n c e d id A m e r ic a n s h a v e m a n y tru e frie n d s. F ro m th e r e , a t le a s t, th e in te llig e n ts ia a n d th e o rd in a ry m a n o n th e P a r is s tre e t lo o k e d w e s t, n o t e a s t, a n d sa w a n e w d a w n b re a k in g , fe e lin g fo r th e first tim e b o n d s o f th e h e a rt th a t th e le a d e r s o f th e r e s p e c tiv e n a tio n s, th e n a n d e v e r a fte r, w o u ld b e re lu c ta n t to ad m it. V e r g e n n e s w a s n o t o n e o f th o s e a d m irin g F r e n c h m e n , h o w e v e r . H e b e lo n g e d to th e a n cien reg im e, n o p ro m o te r o f lib erte, le t a lo n e eg a lite a n d fra tern ite. C r ip p lin g B rita in w a s his o v e rrid in g a im , a n d to d o th a t h e h a d to d ra w h e a v ily o n his c o n s id e r a b le skills in b o tto m -d ra w e r d ip lo m a c y . H e h a d e n g in e e r e d th e T r e a t y

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BY JOSEPH WRIGHT; THE NEW-YORK HISTORICAL SOCIETY

A N ew Yorker o f Huguenot stock, young John Jay was rebuffed in Spain and smelled betrayal in France.

o f A llia n c e w ith th e A m e r ic a n s , w h ic h m u tu a lly p le d g e d th a t n e ith e r n a tio n w o u ld c e a s e h o stilities a n d c o n c lu d e a s e p a r a te p e a c e w ith o u t th e p a r tn e r ’ s c o n se n t, a n d th a t th e in d e p e n d e n c e o f th e A m e r ic a n c o lo n ie s w a s a b s o lu te — a p o in t u p o n w h ic h b o th w e r e a g r e e d fo r c o m p le te ly d iffe re n t re a s o n s. F o r V e r g e n n e s th a t w a s n o t e n o u g h . H e w a n te d S p a in in th e fra y , too, n e e d in g h e r n a v y to r e a c h p a rity w ith E n g lis h s e a stre n g th . T h a t w a s not e a s y , n o t w ith th e to u g h F lo r id a b la n c a m a n a g in g C a r lo s ’s a ffa irs o f sta te . T h e s e c r e t C o n v e n tio n o f A r a n ju e z , s ig n e d b y th e tw o m e m b e rs o f th e F a m ily C o m p a c t on A p ril 12 , 1 7 7 9 , r e fle c te d m o re th e stu b b o rn S p a n is h c o u n t’ s w ill th a n th e fa c ile F r e n c h c o u n t’ s w ish e s. Y e s , S p a in w o u ld go to w a r, b u t on th e sid e o f F r a n c e , n o t th e r e b e llio u s p ro v in c ia ls — or w h a te v e r th e y w e re now

c a llin g th e m s e lv e s . U n d e r n o c irc u m s ta n c e

w o u ld th e ir

in d e p e n d e n c e b e r e c o g n iz e d . T h e p ric e fo r th is? G ib ra lta r, o f c o u rse , a n d no p e a c e w a s p o s s ib le u n til d e liv e r e d . F r a n c e ’s g o o d o ffice s a lso w e r e w a n te d in s a fe g u a r d in g S p a in ’s in te re s ts in th e

358

T H E WAR A ND T H E W E ST

M iss is sip p i V a lle y , th e A m e r ic a n W e st, w h e re r e b e l a c tiv ity w a s a s w o rriso m e a s th e ir d a m n a b le in s is te n c e o n u sin g th e river. V e r g e n n e s m u st h a v e b la n c h e d , m a y b e s w a llo w e d o n c e . T h e W e s t — y e s , w e ll, h e w o u ld s e e w h a t c o u ld b e d o n e to le n d a h a n d o u t th e re . W h e n J a y a rriv e d in in h o s p ita b le S p a in , his a n te n n a p ic k e d up b a d v ib ra tio n s . S o m e th in g w a s u p b e tw e e n th e B o u r b o n p air, so m e th in g th a t V e r g e n n e s h a d n o t d iv u lg e d to th e C o n tin e n ta l C o n g r e s s . A tu m o r o f d istru st to o k h o ld o n th e F ranco-A rr^ prican a llia n c e , a n d in th e y e a r 178 0 , w h e n th e w a r n e w s w a s Hot p le a sa n t, it g re w . H e a d lin e - h u n tin g C a th e r in e o f R u s s ia a n d th e M a c h ia v e llia n K a u n itz o f A u s tria fo u n d th e ir o ffe r o f m e d ia tio n , o f a p p ly in g s w e e t re a s o n to th is E u r o p e a n u n p le a s a n tn e s s , not u n p a la ta b le to F r a n c e . G r e a t B rita in w o u ld se ttle w ith h e r c o l o n ie s s e p a r a te ly , o f c o u rs e , a n d fo llo w th e fo rm u la o f uti possi

detis (“ k e e p w h a t y o u h a v e ” ). W h a t B rita in h a d w a s N e w Y o r k C ity a n d L o n g Is la n d , p a rts o f N e w E n g la n d , b ig p ie c e s o f in te rio r N o rth a n d S o u th C a ro lin a , a lm o st all o f G e o rg ia , a n d th e G r e a t L a k e s c o u n try . T h o s e b e lo n g in g to th e E u r o p e a n fa m ily w o u ld c o n v e n e in V ie n n a a n d r e s o lv e th e re th e la rg e r d iffe re n c e s . V e r g e n n e s w a s s e t to go, w ith a s s u r a n c e s to th e A m e r ic a n s th a t h e w o u ld lo o k to th e ir in te re s ts fo r th e m ; b u t A d a m s , th e a c c r e d it e d A m e r ic a n p le n ip o te n tia ry , sa w a se llo u t. N o th in g d o in g. B rita in w o u ld h a v e to w ith d ra w a ll h e r tro o p s fro m th e c o l o n ie s b e fo r e th e r e c o u ld b e a n y tru c e . A d a m s a n d J a y w e re s e p a r a te ly c o m in g to th e s a m e c o n c lu sio n : E u r o p e w a s c o rru p t a n d F r a n c e n o t to b e tru ste d . In fa c t, E n g la n d w a s in no m o o d to go to V ie n n a or w ith d ra w a n y th in g in 178 0 or d e e p in to 1 7 8 1 , u n til O c to b e r a n d Y o rk to w n , a fte r w h ic h L o r d N o r th ’s m in istry c o lla p s e d a n d E n g lis h m e n w e re g e n e r a lly in th e m a rk e t fo r p e a c e at th e b e s t p ric e . F ra n k lin r e c e iv e d o v e r tu r e s in th e sp rin g o f 178 2 fro m th e p h o e n ix L o rd S h e lb u r n e , rise n a g a in to p o w e r fro m th e a sh e s . W o u ld th e A m e r ic a n s e n te r ta in a p r iv a te s e ttle m e n t? O n e k e p t in th e fa m ily , so to s p e a k ? Y e s , t h e y w o u ld . N o th in g s e e m e d m o re p ro p e r to S h e l b u r n e a t th e m o m e n t th a n to d riv e a w e d g e b e tw e e n E n g la n d ’s e rra n t so n s a n d p e rfid io u s G a u l. T h e e a r n e s t m e e tin g s b e g u n in P a ris in S e p te m b e r o f 1782

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b e tw e e n

th e

A m e r ic a n s

and

S h e lb u r n e ’s

d e le g a te

R ic h a r d

O s w a ld h a v e b e e n c a lle d u n e th ic a l a n d w o rs e b y so m e . T h e F r e n c h A llia n c e fo r b a d e a n y s e p a r a te p e a c e w ith B rita in . Y e t it w o u ld b e no a c t o f m e r c y to a b s o lv e J a y , A d a m s , a n d F ra n k lin fro m s e e k in g th e ir o w n a c c o rd s. V e r g e n n e s ’ s tw o m in iste rs liv in g in A m e r ic a d u rin g th e w a r, A le x a n d r e G e r a r d a n d h is s u c c e s s o r, th e C h e v a lie r d e la L u z e r n e , h a d w ith b r ib e r y a n d s w e e t ta lk s u b v e r te d th e g u llib le C o n tin e n ta l C o n g r e s s in to w e a k e n in g th e h a n d s o f its a ll-to o -c a p a b le c o m m issio n e rs a b ro a d ; F r a n c e c o u ld b e tru ste d to m a n a g e A m e r ic a n a ffa irs w a s th e u n h e e d e d w isd o m se n t to F ra n k lin , A d a m s , a n d J a y . T h o s e sa m e F r e n c h m in isters a d v is e d A m e r ic a n s to c u rb th e ir territo rial a p p e tite s , p r e p a rin g th e m in a g e n e r a l w a y to d o w ith o u t th o s e w e s te r n la n d s to w h ic h S p a in h a d p r e fe r e n tia l righ ts, b y c o n q u e s t if n o th in g e ls e . A s p e a c e d re w n e a r, th e c o llu s io n o f S p a in a n d F r a n c e b e c a m e o m in o u sly c le a r. In th e su m m e r o f 1782, J a y h a d in fo rm a l m e e t in g s in P a r is w ith th e S p a n is h a m b a s s a d o r, th e C o u n t A ra n d a , a n d V e r g e n n e s ’s s e c re ta ry , J o s e p h M a tth ia s G e r a r d d e R a y n e v a l. T h e m a p w a s s p r e a d out. T h e lin e s w e r e d ra w n . A ll S p a in w a n te d w a s W e s t F lo rid a , th e e a s t sid e o f th e M iss is sip p i all th e w a y to th e O h io , la n d n o rth w e st o f L a k e E r i e — ju s t a b o u t e v e r y th in g th a t w o u ld “ c o o p u s u p w ith in th e A lle g h e n y M o u n ta in s ,” as B e n ja m in F ra n k lin p u t it. J a y b ro k e o ff d iscu ssio n s. V e r g e n n e s h a d his h a n d s fu ll try in g to p la c a te h is tw o p o la r a llie s, b u t in fa v o r in g S p a in in th e A m e r ic a n W e st, h e w a s fo llo w in g th e p ra g m a tic w isd o m o f p rio r F r e n c h d ip lo m a c y . H e w a n te d A m e r ic a in d e p e n d e n t o f B rita in a ll righ t, b u t h e a lso w a n te d it k e p t sm all, fe e b le , d e p e n d e n t on F r a n c e . A s d e ft a ju g g le r as V e r g e n n e s w a s , h e sim p ly h a d too m a n y b a lls in th e air. E a r ly in S e p te m b e r h e s e n t R a y n e v a l on a s e c r e t m issio n to L o n d o n , w h e re th e B ritish w e r e in fo rm e d th a t F r a n c e fe lt A m e r ic a n d e m a n d s fo r a s e ttle m e n t w e r e e x c e s s iv e , o p e n in g th e d o o r to p r iv a te a rra n g e m e n ts th a t th e U n ite d S ta te s n e e d n e v e r b e told a b o u t. J a y go t w in d o f it. H e s m e lle d a n o th e r rat. W ith A d a m s re s o lu te ly b e h in d h im a n d F ra n k lin fo llo w in g a fte r h is z e a lo u s ju n io rs, th e trio e x tric a te d th e m s e lv e s fro m th e ta n g le d sk e in o f d e c e p tio n a n d d o u b le cro ss. W ith fe w q u a lm s , t h e y e n te r e d into d ire c t n e g o tia tio n s w ith th e E n g lis h in V e r g e n n e s ’s c a p ita l.

360

T H E W AR AND T H E W EST

L ik e th e S p a n ia r d s ’ te rm s, w h a t th e A m e r ic a n s e ith e r a s k e d fo r or d e m a n d e d r o b b e d th e w o rd m o d esty o f m e a n in g . T h e y w a n te d C a n a d a , in d e m n ific a tio n fo r A m e r ic a n s w h o h a d lo st p r o p e r ty in th e w a r, fa v o r a b le tr a d e c o n s id e ra tio n s fro m w e a lth y m o th e r, a n d so m e fo rm o f o fficia l a p o lo g y fo r “ d is tr e s s in g ” th e c o lo n ie s th a t w o u ld h e lp h e a l th e la te w o u n d s . W h a t th e q u o n d a m c o lo n ie s in s is te d u p o n w a s o n ly slig h tly le s s a d re a m : first, o f c o u rs e ,

th e

g ra n tin g

o f u n q u a lifie d

in d e p e n d e n c e ;

th e n th e

w ith d ra w a l o f B ritish tro o p s fro m th e la n d s o f th e th irte e n c o l o n ie s, th e rig h t to fish th e c o d lo d e o ff N e w fo u n d la n d , a g u a r a n te e o f fr e e n a v ig a tio n o f th e M ississip p i, a n d th e c is-M ississip p i W e s t all th e w a y to th e c ru m b lin g b a n k s o f th a t riv e r a n d so u th a lo n g it to th irty -o n e d e g r e e s , th e b o u n d a r y o f W e s t F lo rid a , w h ic h B rita in m ig h t k e e p if S p a in d id n o t d e m a n d it b y rig h t o f c o n q u e s t. O n e s u s p e c ts t h e y w o u ld h a v e a s k e d fo r th e m o o n its e lf i f t h e y th o u g h t it w a s d r a in e d b y th e F a th e r o f W a te rs. In th e p re lim in a rie s o f p e a c e s ig n e d o n N o v e m b e r 30, 178 2 , th e r e p u b lic a n p u p g o t le ss th a n it b a r k e d fo r, b u t m u c h m o re th a n it h a d r e a s o n to e x p e c t. I n d e p e n d e n c e w a s g ra n te d . B lu r r e d fish in g “ lib e r tie s ” w e r e e x te n d e d . T h e p ro m ise o f a to ta l m ili ta r y w ith d r a w a l w a s m a d e , if n o t im m e d ia te ly im p le m e n te d . T h e b o u n d a r y o n th e n o rth w a s r o u g h ly th e la k e -a n d -riv e r b o r d e r o f to d a y th a t s tr e tc h e d all th e w a y to th e L a k e o f th e W o o d s. A b o v e a ll th e n e w n a tio n g o t its W e st — th e W e st p a rtly w o n b y S p a in in b a ttle , th e W e st p a r tly w o n a n d th e n a b a n d o n e d b y G e o r g e R o g e r s C la r k , th e W e st p a r tly in th e s e c u r e h o ld o f G e n e r a l H a ld im a n d a n d h is fro n tie r fo rt c o m m a n d e rs . V e r g e n n e s c h id e d F r a n k lin fo r th is b r e a c h o f fa ith . T h e o ld fo x fro m

P h ila d e lp h ia

a d m itte d g u ilt to a m in o r in d is c re tio n b u t

p o in te d o u t th a t th is s e p a r a te p e a c e w a s in th e p re lim in a ry s ta g e — c o n tin g e n t u p o n a g e n e r a l a g r e e m e n t a m o n g all th e b e llig e re n ts . H e r e g r e tte d a n y slig h t h a rm th a t m ig h t h a v e b e e n d o n e . W ith a c o y n e s s th a t th e F r e n c h c y n ic h a d to re lish , h e a d d e d : “ T h e E n g lis h , I ju s t n o w le a rn , fla tte r th e m s e lv e s t h e y h a v e a lr e a d y d iv id e d u s. I h o p e th is little m is u n d e rs ta n d in g w ill th e r e fo r e b e k e p t a s e c r e t a n d th a t t h e y w ill fin d th e m s e lv e s to ta lly m is ta k e n .” V e r g e n n e s to o k it a ll in strid e. H e w a s a w a r e o f w h a t w a s tra n sp irin g u n d e r h is n o se . H e h a d o n e g o o d re a s o n to e n c o u r a g e

361

The winners, from left: Jay, Adams, Franklin, H enry Laurens, FrankÂ linâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s grandson. The English signers would not sit for Benjamin Vkest.

it b y ig n o rin g it a fte r th e n e w s c a m e th a t th e lo n g -a w a ite d F ra n c o H is p a n ic a s s a u lt o n G ib ra lta r h a d fa ile d . T h e B ritish ro ck h a d h e ld . W a s n â&#x20AC;&#x2122;t th e n th e p r iv a te A m e r ic a n s e ttle m e n t a p ro d to S p a in to a c c e p t le ss th a n F lo r id a b la n c a

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d r a g g in g o u t this w a r, w h ic h lik e m o st w a rs h a d e m p tie d th e B o u r b o n tre a s u rie s ? E u r o p e r e s o lv e d its q u a rre l on S e p te m b e r 3, 178 3 , a n d th e A n g lo - A m e r ic a n p re lim in a ry tr e a ty b e c a m e a p a rt o f th e g e n e r a l se ttle m e n t. T h e im p e ria l O ld W o rld w e n t th ro u g h its h a c k n e y e d ritu a l o f p e tty re d istrib u tio n . S p a in go t E a s t a n d W e s t F lo rid a , th e isla n d o f M in o rc a , a n d th e re strictio n o f B ritish h a rd w o o d h a rv e s ts to th e c o a s t o f H o n d u ra s. F r a n c e g o t T o b a g o , a re sto ra tio n o f th e >

m in u te S a in t L a w r e n c e G u lf isla n d s o f S a in t P ie r r e a n d M iq u e lo n , sla v e -ru n n in g co n tro l in S e n e g a l, a n d d a m n e d little in In d ia .

T H E W AR AND T H E W EST

E n g la n d h e ld on to G ib ra lta r a n d C a n a d a . E t c e te r a , e t c e te ra . U n d e r this m u lti-c o n tin e n ta l te n t o f c o lo n y -s w a p p in g a n d a c c o m m o d a tio n , a n e w n a tio n h a d b e e n d e liv e r e d on th e fe rtile e a rth o f N o rth A m e r ic a . C o n c e iv e d in E u r o p e , it fa irly s q u a w le d its in d e p e n d e n c e , p o rte n d in g a b r e a k w ith a p a s t th a t d a te d to th e R e n a is s a n c e . T h in g s w o u ld n e v e r b e th e sa m e , as w a s p r o p h e s ie d b y L o n d o n ’s M orning P ost in D e c e m b e r o f 178 2 , ju s t a fte r th e p re lim in a ry a rtic le s o f p e a c e w e r e sig n e d : A s so o n a s th e T h ir te e n C o lo n ie s a re e s ta b lis h e d in th e fo rm o f

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a s e p a r a te sta te , te n s o f th o u s a n d s w ill e m ig ra te fro m all p a rts o f E u r o p e a n d r e p a ir th e lo ss e s o f th e w a r w ith a ra p id in c r e a s e o f p o p u la tio n . T h e p rid e o f e m p ire w ill a w a k e n , a n d c o n q u e s ts w ill b e m u ltip lie d . . . . F lo r id a a n d all th e S p a n is h p o ss e ssio n s on th e b a n k s o f th e M iss is sip p i w ill fa ll b e fo r e th e m ; a n d as th e y in c r e a s e in p o w e r, th a t p o w e r w ill r e a c h th e lim its o f th e S o u th e rn O c e a n s , a n d d is p o s s e s s th e E u r o p e a n s o f e v e r y h o ld u p o n th e g r e a t c o n tin e n t o f A m e r ic a . L a L u z e r n e o b s e r v e d m o re s u c c in c tly to V e r g e n n e s th a t “ th e A m e r ic a n s in p u s h in g th e ir p o s s e s s io n s a s fa r as th e L a k e o f th e W o o d s, a re p r e p a r in g fo r th e ir re m o te p o s te rity a c o m m u n ic a tio n w ith th e P a c if ic .” Y e s , a n d th e p o s te r ity w a s n o t so v e r y re m o te . M o m e n ta rily w e a k , p o o r, d is u n ite d , th e im p e ria l in fa n t still h a d life a n d ro o m to g ro w a n d a d ire c tio n to go — w h ic h w a s w e st. F o r w h a t w a s in th e ru n o f tim e n o m o re th a n a p ro tra c te d m o m e n t, th e ch ild p a u s e d to g u lp o n e d e e p b r e a th b e fo r e p lu n g in g into th e s h a d o w o f its c o n tin e n t.

363

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Epilogue T he M e x ic a n poet O ctavio P az d e s c r ib e s h isto ry a s h a v in g a ll th e r e a lity o f a n ig h tm a re a n d c re d its th e ro m a n tic sid e o f m a n w ith try in g to m a k e s e n s e o f w h a t m a k e s no s e n s e . T h e id e a is d is tu rb in g . M a n m u st b e lie v e in a p a s t th a t h a s at le a s t so m e se m b la n c e o f o rd e r a n d m e a n in g , if fo r no o th e r re a s o n th a n to im a g in e h e k n o w s h im s e lf a n d w h e r e h e h a s b e e n . T h e ta n g le d sto ry o f th e A m e r ic a n W e s t d u rin g th e tw e n ty y e a r s fo llo w in g th e c lo s e o f th e R e v o lu tio n a r y W a r te m p ts o n e to a g r e e w ith P a z . T h e r e is a n ig h tm a re q u a lity to th e e v e n ts o f th o s e tw o d e c a d e s . T h e w a r h a d s e ttle d n o th in g a b o u t th e e v e n tu a l o w n e r s h ip o f th e tra n s-M is sissip p i la n d s; it h a d o n ly c o m p lic a te d th in g s b y c re a tin g a n e w n a tio n to c h a lle n g e th e th re e O ld W o rld c o n te n d e r s fo r th e p riz e . O n c e m o re , th e M iss is sip p i V a ll e y b e c a m e th e s ta g e fo r th e so u n d a n d th e fu ry , th e se ttin g fo r a m u d d le o f tra n s ie n t s c h e m e s a n d d re a m s , c o n s p ira c ie s a n d b e tr a y a ls , p lo ts a n d c o u n te rp lo ts w ith b e w ild e r in g su b p lo ts. Y e t th r o u g h it all, th e s h a d o w w a s slo w ly liftin g fro m th e d a rk th re e -fifth s o f th e c o n tin e n t as w h ite m e n o f v a rio u s n a tio n s a n d m o tiv e s b e g a n to c lo s e in o n th e m y ste ry . S p a n ia r d s o n th e P a c ific c o a s t e x p lo r e d th e in la n d v a lle y s o f C a lifo rn ia . N e w M e x ic o at lo n g la s t w a s e n jo y in g a m a rg in a l p e a c e a n d p ro sp e rity . T h e trails b la z e d b y th e F r e n c h in to th e d e p th s o f th e so u th e rn p la in s w e re b e in g r e o p e n e d u n d e r S p a n is h a u s p ic e s , a n d P e d r o V ia l in 179 2 a n d 17 9 3 tr a v e r s e d w h a t, tw o g e n e ra tio n s la te r, w o u ld r o u g h ly c o n fo rm to th e A m e r ic a n s ’ S a n ta F e T ra il. T o th e n o rth , w h e re th e M is s o u ri R iv e r c o m e s d o w n fro m th e Y e llo w s to n e , S p a in se n t tr a d e r s to c o m p e te w ith B ritish in te re s ts in th e h a r v e s t o f fu rs.

D ecem b er 20, 1803: N ew flag over N ew Orleans; the way west is opened.

S H A D O W O F A C O N T IN E N T

B rita in h a d b e e n h u m b le d b y th e w a r th a t d iv e s te d h e r o f th irte e n N o rth A m e r ic a n c o lo n ie s , b u t to n o w h e r e n e a r th e e x te n t th a t h e r m u ltitu d in o u s e n e m ie s m ig h t h a v e w is h e d . A la te c o m e r to th e n o tio n o f w e s tw a r d e x p a n s io n , E n g la n d n o w p u r s u e d it a c ro ss C a n a d a w ith a c e le r ity r e m in is c e n t o f th e e a r ly F r e n c h e x p lo re rs, th e e c o n o m ic e d g e in p e ltr y as w e ll as c u rio s ity h e r c o n s ta n t

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d re a m c o m e tru e in th e su m m e r o f 17 9 3 w h e n h e tr a v e le d th e P e a c e , F r a s e r , a n d B e lla C o o la riv e rs a n d ta s te d th e sa lt o f P a c ific tid e s. T h e fu ll b r e a d th o f th e c o n tin e n t h a d at la st b e e n c ro sse d ; th e w e s te r n s e a h a d b e e n r e a c h e d . A m e r ic a n s , u n ite d b y th e te rm b u t d iv id e d b y m u c h e ls e , also pushed

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o w n e d , or th o u g h t t h e y o w n e d , b y th e tr e a ty o f p e a c e s ig n e d in P a ris in 178 3 ; th e r e s is ta n c e o f In d ia n s , S p a n ia rd s , a n d E n g lis h m e n m e r e ly s lo w e d th e ir p ro g re s s. A s a u g u r ie s fo r th e fu tu re , th e re w e r e th o s e fe w w h o c ro s s e d th e d iv id in g riv e r a n d b e c a m e h o rs e tra d e rs in T e x a s , fu r tra d e rs a lo n g th e M isso u ri, sa n itize d se ttle rs (or so S p a in h o p e d w h e n sh e r e lu c ta n tly in v ite d th e m ) in s u c h p la c e s a s N e w M a d rid , ju s t b e lo w th e O h io , a n d ju s t w e s t o f th e M ississip p i. T o fin d th a t th e p u ll o f th e W e s t w e n t d e e p , to th e v e r y b o w e ls o f th e n e w n a tio n ’ s n e w m e n , o n e n e e d lo o k n o fa r th e r th a n D a n ie l B o o n e . T h e a p o th e o s is o f th e fro n tie rsm a n , th e m a n w h o h a d h a c k e d o u t th e W ild e rn e s s R o a d , th e co o n sk in c a p p e d p ro to ty p ic a l A m e r ic a n w ith th e c o m p u ls iv e n e e d for fe w n e ig h b o rs a n d a m p le e lb o w ro o m , re s e ttle d in S p a n is h M isso u ri a n d w o u ld tr a v e l as fa r as th e R o c k ie s b e fo re h e d ie d . O f c o u rse , w h a t B o o n e a n d m a n y a S p a n is h a n d E n g lis h J o h n n y -c o m e la te ly sa w o f th e W e s t h a d a lr e a d y b e e n se e n , k n o w n , a n d a p p r e c ia te d b y F r e n c h m e n b e fo r e th em . T h e su rn a m e s o f w h ite m e n in th e W e s t a fte r 1 7 7 6 w e r e m o re th a n e v e r a p rin to u t o f th e la rg e r in te rn a tio n a l s tru g g le fo r its o w n e rsh ip . A s b e fo re , th e fa te o f th e A m e r ic a n W e s t w a s b e in g d e te rm in e d e ls e w h e r e , b y w e ll-d re s s e d m e n in c iv iliz a tio n ’s w ella p p o in te d

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366

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w h ic h s e e m e d to a m a n o n fo o t or h o r s e b a c k to go o n fo re v e r. O n p a p e r it all b e lo n g e d to S p a in u n til 18 0 1. B u t th a t w a s on p a p e r , a n d S p a in w a s g e n e r a lly k n o w n b y th o s e w h o p e r io d ic a lly r e v is e d d e e d s o f im p e ria l o w n e rsh ip to b e on th e ru n . A s lo n g as C a r lo s I I I w a s o n th e th ro n e , S p a in d id n o t la c k a b le m in isters, b u t c ir c u m s ta n c e a s s ig n e d th e m im p o ss ib le ta sk s, a se rie s o f h o ld in g a c tio n s a g a in s t p rim e fo e s w h o fro m y e a r to y e a r w e r e n e v e r th e s a m e . I m m e d ia te ly a fte r th e R e v o lu tio n a r y W a r th e e n e m y w a s id e n tifie d a s A m e r ic a n . S o S p a in d e c id e d in 178 4 to e c o n o m ic a lly s tra n g le th e h a lf-m illio n A m e r ic a n s th e n liv in g w e s t o f th e A p p a la c h ia n s b y c lo sin g th e M iss is sip p i to th e ir sh ip p in g . T h e trib e s o f th e lo w e r M is s is s ip p i w e r e a rm e d a n d e n c o u r a g e d to w a r o n th e a p p r o a c h in g tid e o f A m e r ic a n settlers. S p ie s w e r e p a id w e ll to w e a n fr u s tra te d w e s te r n e r s a w a y fro m th e ir e a s te rn c o u n try m e n . B u t th e tim e c a m e w h e n S p a in ’ s fe a rs w e re tra n sfe rre d fro m A m e r ic a n s to E n g lis h m e n . A fte r C o o k ’s c r e w d e liv e r e d th a t first h a u l o f s e a -o tte r p e lts to C h in a , th e n o rth w e st c o a s t o f A m e r ic a b e c a m e a p o p u la r sp o t fo r p ro fit-s e e k in g m e rc h a n tm e n . E n g lis h , P o r tu g u e s e , R u s s ia n , a n d A m e r ic a n sh ip s b e g a n p u ttin g in to a c o a s t th a t w a s rig h tly , i f v a g u e ly , S p a in ’ s, b y v irtu e o f h e r e x p lo r a tion s o f it in 1 7 7 4 a n d 1 7 7 5 . In 178 9 a S p a n is h o ffice r a t N o o tk a S o u n d s e iz e d tw o B ritish sh ip s a n d se n t th e m a n d th e ir c re w s to d e ta in m e n t in M e x ic o . S p a n is h tr e a tm e n t o f th e E n g lis h in tru d e rs w a s a c tu a lly sc ru p u lo u s if n o t k id -g lo v e d , b u t E n g la n d w e n t into a jin g o is tic fr e n z y o v e r th e “ b r u ta litie s ” c o n ju r e d u p b y p a m p h le te e r s . In fa c t, first m in iste r P itt a n d h is lo y a l o p p o sitio n w e r e in a p u g n a c io u s m o o d a n d p r e p a r e d to b r o w b e a t S p a in o u t o f e v e r y th in g t h e y c o u ld . T h e u ltim a tu m w a s s e n t th a t S p a in c o u rte d w a r if s h e d id o th e r th a n g r o v e l a t L o n d o n ’s b o o ts b y a d m ittin g th a t th e n o r th w e s t c o a s t w a s o p e n to a n y o n e w ith th e sh ip s to g e t th e r e , a n d th a t sh e fu rth e r c o n c e d e th e p re p o s te ro u s n o tio n th a t o c c u p a tio n , n o t d is c o v e r y , w a s th e b a s is o f territo rial cla im s. T h e a s tu te C o u n t F lo r id a b la n c a p o in te d o u t th a t u n d e r s u c h a p r in c ip le E n g la n d ’ s o w n d is c o v e r ie s in th e S o u th P a c ific w e re v u ln e r a b le a n d th a t a n y n a tio n ’ s u n o c c u p ie d c o a s t w a s fa ir g a m e fo r a n o th e r. B u t h e d e a lt fro m a p o sitio n o f w e a k n e s s . C a r lo s I I I h a d d ie d in 178 8 , s u c c e e d e d b y a re tirin g a n d tim id C a r lo s IV , w h o s e m e d d le s o m e q u e e n a ttra c te d a h o st o f in e p t co u rtie rs. T h e

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w o rld w a s c h a n g in g to o fa s t fo r w e a r y S p a in . W h e n s h e tu rn e d to F r a n c e fo r h e lp a g a in s t E n g la n d , in k e e p in g w ith th e F a m ily C o m p a c t, it w a s n o t fo rth c o m in g . T h e B a s tille h a d b e e n sto rm e d in 178 9 . L o u is X V I w a s h im s e lf re tre n c h in g ; h e s e n t h is re g re ts . S p a in , a s F lo r id a b la n c a r e a liz e d b e fo r e h e w a s s a c k e d b y his in ferio rs, w a s o n h e r o w n a n d b a d ly in n e e d o f a tra n sfu sio n . J o h n B u ll b u llie d S p a in in to sig n in g th e N o o tk a C o n v e n tio n o f O c to b e r 179 0 , in w h ic h S p a in y ie ld e d a lm o st e v e r y th in g E n g la n d w a n te d a n d a lm o st n o th in g sh e d e s e r v e d . S p a in , E n g la n d , a n d th e w o rld h a d g o n e to th e b rin k o f w a r; S p a in h a d b lin k e d a n d ta k e n a g ia n t ste p b a c k w a r d in to th e tw ilig h t o f h e r lo n g im p e ria l d a y . B rita in h a d se ttle d a sc o re w ith S p a in at N o o tk a fo r sid in g a g a in s t h e r in th e la te w a r. F ro m

h e r stro n g h o ld in fu r-rich

C a n a d a , E n g lis h tra d e rs c o n tin u e d to ro a m S p a n is h te rrito ry w e s t o f th e M iss is sip p i a n d n o rth o f th e M isso u ri. In th e E a s t sh e k e p t a co ld , u n c o m p ro m isin g e y e on h e r e rstw h ile co lo n ists. A ll h a d n o t b e e n fo rg iv e n . T h e p ro d ig a l so n s w o u ld b e m a d e to c ra w l b a c k h o m e , a n d E n g lis h p o lic y w a s c a lc u la te d to m a k e life m ise rÂ a b le for th e m if th e y d id not. A m e r ic a n sh ip p in g w a s h a r a s s e d on th e h ig h se a s. In th e O ld N o rth w e st, B ritish a g e n ts se t th e In d ia n s a g a in s t A m e r ic a n se ttle rs, a n d B rita in h e ld fa s t to th e G r e a t L a k e s fo rts o f N ia g a r a , D e tro it, a n d M ic h ilim a c k in a c in c o n tra v e n tio n o f th e P a ris a c c o rd s. F r a il a n d frie n d le s s , a n in fa n t A m e r ic a b id e d its tim e in a p e rilÂ o us w o rld , slo w ly g a th e rin g stre n g th . T h e o rig in a l c o lo n ie s w ith c la im s to la n d o v e r th e m o u n ta in s b e g a n su rre n d e rin g th e m in 178 0, a n d w ith th e p a s s a g e o f th e N o rth w e s t O r d in a n c e o f 1787* a fo rm u la w a s fo u n d th a t w o u ld a d m it n e w sta te s to th e sic k ly c o n fe d e r a c y , w h ic h in 178 9 , w ith th e ra tific a tio n o f th e C o n s titu Â tion , b e c a m e o n e n a tio n w ith o n e m ilita ry fo rc e a n d a c h a n c e to s u rv iv e th e c ra d le . T h e n e w n a tio n â&#x20AC;&#x2122; s W e s t r e m a in e d an o p e n w o u n d . In d ia n w a rs r a g e d w ith a n in te n sity g r e a te r th a n b e fo re , a n d S p a n is h a n d E n g lis h a g e n ts c ir c u la te d a m o n g th e re stle ss se ttle rs, fa n n in g s e p a ra tis t se n tim e n t a m o n g th e sh o rt-te m p e re d lo n g -rifle-to ters, w h o d e m a n d e d th e righ t to u s e th e M iss is sip p i to se ll th e ir w h is k e y , w h e a t, a n d sa lt p o rk , a n d b e lie v e d e a s te r n e r s g e n e r a lly o u t o f s y m p a th y w ith th e ir w a n ts. It w a s a tim e to b e th a n k fu l fo r

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sm a ll fa v o r s , c h ie f o f w h ic h w a s th a t S p a in o w n e d th e W e st. Y e t e v e n h e r e th e r e w a s w o rry . “ M y f e a r ,” w ro te J e ffe r s o n to a frie n d in 17 8 6 , “ is th a t th e y a re too fe e b le to h o ld it til ou r p o p u la tio n c a n b e su ffic ie n tly a d v a n c e d to g a in it fro m th e m p ie c e b y p ie c e .” T h e N o o tk a c o n fro n ta tio n b e t w e e n S p a in a n d E n g la n d h a d p r e s e n te d th e A m e r ic a n s w ith b o th a n o p p o rtu n ity a n d a c a u s e fo r fu rth e r c o n c e rn . V a r io u s o p tio n s w e r e d is c u s s e d . P r e s id e n t W a s h in g to n fa v o r e d n e u tra lity at all co sts. S e c r e ta r y o f S ta te J e ffe r s o n v ie w e d n e u tra lity a s a c lu b w ith w h ic h to w rin g c o n c e s sio n s in th e W e s t — th e o p e n in g o f th e M iss is sip p i b y S p a in or th e e v a c u a tio n o f th e G r e a t L a k e s fo rts b y E n g la n d . A le x a n d e r H a m ilto n , s e c r e ta r y o f th e tr e a s u r y a n d th e fo re m o s t o f A m e r ic a n a n g lo p h ile s , c o u n s e le d a g a in s t a n a llia n c e w ith S p a in — a c e rta in lo s e r — a n d a d v is e d in s te a d jo in in g w ith B rita in in c h a s in g S p a in a ll th e w a y to M e x ic o . H e h a d it on g o o d a u th o rity th a t E n g la n d w a s p r e p a r in g to la u n c h a n a tta c k fro m C a n a d a d o w n th e M is s is sip p i V a lle y ; sin c e th e U n ite d S ta te s w a s p o w e r le s s to sto p this v io la tio n o f its w e s te r n te rrito ry, it m ig h t as w e ll a lig n its e lf w ith a w in n e r a n d s a v e fa c e i f n o th in g e ls e . T h e r e w a s m u c h lo g ic to H a m ilto n ’s p la n . B u t it w o u ld a lso le a v e a p o w e rfu l B rita in in th e W e st, a re v o ltin g p r o s p e c t to th e r e p u b lic a n -m in d e d J e ffe rso n . T h e w a r s c a r e e v a p o r a te d w ith th e N o o tk a C o n v e n tio n , a n d th e A m e r ic a n s g a in e d little fro m th e crisis, th a n k s in p a rt to th e in d is c r e e t H a m ilto n ,

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A m e r ic a n n e u tr a lity w a s a s s u r e d a n d th e r e b y d a s h e d w h a t b a r g a in in g p o w e r th e y o u n g re p u b lic h a d . Y e t , a n im p o rta n t le s s o n h a d b e e n le a r n e d : E u r o p e ’s tro u b le s w e r e A m e r ic a ’ s b le ss in g s . W h e n e v e n ts o n th e C o n tin e n t d is tra c te d th e G r e a t P o w e rs , it w a s tim e fo r a s tu d io u s ly n e u tra l U n ite d S ta te s to g ra b w h a t little it c o u ld . It m ig h t b e h u m ilia tin g to p la y th e ja c k a l a t th e q u a rre ls o f lio n s, b u t s u r v iv a l m e a n t d o in g ju s t th a t, a n d th o s e w h o p r e s id e d o v e r th e d e s tin ie s o f th e n e w n a tio n — W a sh in g to n , J o h n A d a m s , J e ffe r s o n — p la y e d it w e ll. T h e s u p r e m e e v e n t, th e d istra ctio n o f d istra ctio n s, h a d b e g u n in P a r is in 17 8 9 a n d th e r e a fte r slo w ly g a in e d its a w e s o m e m o m e n tu m . A s th e N o o tk a crisis w a s co o lin g , th e o n g o in g F r e n c h R e v o lu tio n e n te r e d a w h ite -h o t p h a s e . In P a ris th e tu m b rils w e r e ro llin g , a lo n g w ith a ris to cra tic h e a d s , a n d in 17 9 3 a n u n s ta b le b u t

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tru c u le n t F r a n c e d e c la r e d w a r o n E n g la n d a n d S p a in , a s w e ll as H o lla n d . T h o u g h th e re v o lu tio n a rie s h a d d ra w n fro m th e e x p e r i e n c e o f E n g lis h - s p e a k in g N o rth A m e r ic a n s , th e ir b r e a k fro m th e p a s t w a s fa r m o re d ra stic. T h e G iro n d ists s p o k e fo r all m a n k in d a n d m a d e it c le a r th a t th e to p p lin g o f k in g s w a s a n ite m o f exp o rt. It w a s a n e r v o u s tim e fo r E u r o p e ’ s m o n a rc h ie s , a tim e to fe a r F r a n c e a n d to p a r e e n e m ie s to a m in im u m . T h e U n ite d S ta te s c o u ld b e c o u n te d a s th e o n ly p o s s ib le frie n d o f F r a n c e . I n d e e d , th e J e ffe r s o n ia n fa c tio n h a d lo u d ly c h e e r e d th e b lo o d s ta in e d fr e e d o m fig h te rs w h o w e r e p u rify in g th e ir la n d a n d a d v a n c in g th e rig h ts o f m a n . B u t th e o p p o s itio n F e d e r a lis ts w e r e a t th e h e lm . W a s h in g to n a n d A d a m s w e r e h o rrifie d a t th e e x c e s s e s o f th e re v o lu tio n a n d s te e r e d a c o u rs e o f c a r e fu l n e u tr a l ity, w h ile A m e r ic a n d ip lo m a ts m a d e th e ro u n d s. In th e a u tu m n o f 179 4 , J o h n J a y s e c u r e d a tr e a ty w ith E n g la n d th a t w a s a s d a m n e d a t h o m e a s th e 178 3 tr e a ty h a d b e e n p ra ise d . H e fa ile d to g e t B rita in to q u it se iz in g A m e r ic a n sh ip p in g , b u t h e d id k e e p th e p e a c e , o b ta in in g so m e tra d in g c o n c e s s io n s a n d th e p ro m ise th a t B rita in w o u ld v a c a t e th e G r e a t L a k e s forts sh e h a d p ro m ise d to le a v e in 178 3 . H a d n o t F r a n c e b e e n on a te a r, h e w o u ld p r o b a b ly n e v e r h a v e g o t th a t m u ch . M o re fa v o r a b le d ip lo m a tic fa llo u t c a m e th e A m e r ic a n w a y th e fo llo w in g y e a r w h e n S p a in p u lle d o u t o f th e w a r a g a in s t F r a n c e a n d p r e p a r e d to re jo in h e r n o lo n g e r r e c o g n iz a b le b e d m a te . S in c e s u c h a m o v e w a s su re to in cu r th e w ra th o f B rita in , S p a in w a s o b lig e d to m e n d o th e r fe n c e s . S o in O c to b e r o f 17 9 5 th e h a p le ss S p a n ia rd s c o n c lu d e d a tr e a ty w ith T h o m a s P in c k n e y th a t g a v e th e A m e r ic a n s fr e e ru n o f th e M ississip p i, r e n e w a b le p riv ile g e s o f d e p o s it fo r th e ir w a re s in N e w O rle a n s, a h o ld p u t on In d ia n w a r p a rtie s , a n d a so u th e rn r e a d ju s tm e n t o f th e W e st F lo r id a b o u n d a r y to th e th irty-first p a r a lle l — e v e r y th in g , in short, th a t th e A m e r ic a n s c o u ld h a v e a s k e d for. Im p r o v e d re la tio n s w ith E n g la n d a n d S p a in w e r e o ffs e t b y a d e te rio ra tio n o f th o s e w ith F r a n c e . C itiz e n E d m o n d G e n e t h a d c o m e to A m e r ic a in 179 3 as m in iste r p le n ip o te n tia r y o f th e F r e n c h re p u b lic . T h e h o th e a d e d y o u n g m a n h a d b a r e ly to u c h e d la n d w h e n h e to o k to th e stre e ts a n d in c ite d ra d ic a l r e p u b lic a n s to a ctio n . H e w a s p r e p a r e d to fin a n c e w ith F r e n c h fu n d s a n A m e ri-

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c a n a tta c k on S p a n is h F lo rid a a n d L o u is ia n a , a n d s u n d ry o th e r m is c h ie fs a g a in s t th e v ile m o n a rc h ie s . B u t G e n e t w a s a s to n is h in g ly la c k in g in ta c t. W h e n P r e s id e n t W a s h in g to n in fo rm e d h im h e m e a n t th e U n ite d S ta te s to re m a in n e u tra l, th e fie ry F r e n c h m a n th r e a te n e d to go o v e r h is h e a d to th e p e o p le w ith his c a s e . T h a t w a s m o re th a n A m e r ic a n s w e re w illin g to to le ra te . T h e p e n d u lu m o f o p in io n w a s a lr e a d y sw in g in g a w a y fro m F r a n c e . T h e R e ig n o f T e r r o r w a s too re d fo r m o st A m e r ic a n ta s te s , a n d G e n e t ’s u n s p e a k a b le c o n d u c t re s u lte d in A m e r ic a n p ro te sts to F r a n c e a n d th e d ism issa l o f G e n e t fro m h is p o st. T h e r e w a s a n o th e r o m in o u s tu rn to th e F r e n c h R e v o lu tio n th a t d is tu rb e d A m e r ic a n s lo o k in g w e s tw a rd . P a r is ia n p a trio ts m ig h t lo u d ly c ry th e ir d e v o tio n to lib erte, egalite, a n d fra tern ite, b u t th e a b stra c tio n s w e r e n o t to in te rfe re w ith th e h o ld in g o f o v e r s e a s c o lo n ie s . W h e r e a s th e c o rru p t ancien reg im e o f th e k in g s L o u is h a d d e a lt its e lf o u t o f im p e ria l stru g g le fo r th e A m e r ic a n W e st, th e r e p u b lic a n s o f F r a n c e d e a lt th e m s e lv e s righ t b a c k in a g a in a fte r 17 9 3 . T h e y w a n te d w e s te r n L o u is ia n a b a c k , a n d a fte r S p a in r e jo in e d th e u n h a p p y fa m ily in 179 6 , sh e sta rte d fe e lin g th e h e a t. F r e n c h m o tiv e s b e c a m e c le a re r w ith th e a rriv a l in A m e r ic a o f F r e n c h a g e n ts , m o st n o ta b ly G e n . V ic to r C o llo t, w h o flo a te d th e M iss is sip p i R iv e r in 179 6 , ta k in g e x te n s iv e n o te s a n d m a k in g e la b o r a te m a p s w ith a n e y e to fu tu re o w n e rsh ip . C o llo t d id n o t go u n d e te c te d in th a t c o n fu s in g p la c e a t th a t c o n fu sin g tim e; th e F r e n c h s p y w a s w a tc h e d c lo s e ly b y S p a n is h sp ie s, E n g lis h sp ie s, and

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a d m ire r o f F r a n c e , tu rn e d a w a y fro m h is o ld frie n d n o w th a t his o th e r lo v e , th e W e st, h a d c o m e b e tw e e n th e m . By

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tr e a ty w ith E n g la n d w a s rig h tly c o n s tru e d b y th e F r e n c h a s a sla p in th e fa c e . A fte r J u ly o f th a t y e a r m o re th a n th r e e h u n d re d A m e r i c a n sh ip s h a d b e e n ta k e n b y th e F r e n c h fle e t, a n d a n A m e r ic a n m issio n to

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A ffa ir. T h e p o p u la r c la m o r fo r r e v e n g e o n F r a n c e w a s c o u r a g e o u s ly ig n o r e d b y P r e s id e n t J o h n A d a m s , w h o , lik e W a s h in g to n b e fo r e h im a n d J e ffe r s o n a fte r h im , s a w w isd o m in sw a llo w in g h a r d a n d w a itin g fo r a b rig h te r d a y . T h a t d a y w a s n o t fa r off. N a p o le o n B o n a p a r te h a d c o m e to

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p o w e r in F r a n c e . T h e first c o n su l b r o u g h t o rd e r to th e c h a o tic r e p u b lic , r e n e w e d p ro w e s s to th e F r e n c h a rm y , a n d h e a d a c h e s to F r a n c e ’s m a n y e n e m ie s . H e r frie n d s d id n o t fa r e m u c h b e tte r w ith th e fo r c e fu l C o r s ic a n . In O c to b e r o f 1800, F r a n c e c a lle d in its m a rk e r fro m fa d in g S p a in . A t S a n Ild e fo n s o a s e c r e t tr e a ty re tu rn e d w e s te r n L o u is ia n a to its p r e v io u s o w n e rs , w ith B o n a p a r te ’ s a s s u r a n c e s th a t o n ly F r a n c e c o u ld p u t m u s c le in th a t b u ffe r p ro te c tin g th e S p a n is h fa r th e r w e s t a n d M e x ic o to th e so u th , a n d th a t F r a n c e w o u ld n e v e r g iv e it a w a y to a n o th e r. In e x c h a n g e , C a r lo s I V w a s to g e t th e th ro n e o f T u s c a n y fo r his n e e d y so n -in -law . N a p o le o n w a n te d L o u is ia n a th e w a y h e w a n te d a n y th in g th a t b e lo n g e d to so m e o n e e ls e , b u t h e a lso h a d p la n s fo r it. It w a s to b e th e p ro v id e r, th e g ra n a ry , fo r th e p r o fita b le F r e n c h isla n d s o f th e C a r ib b e a n , p a r tic u la rly S a n to D o m in g o , ju s t as so o n as o rd er w a s re s to re d th e r e a n d th e r e b e llio u s s la v e s le d b y th e se lf-s ty le d b la c k B o n a p a r te , T o u s s a in t L ’O u v e r tu r e , w e r e b r o u g h t in to lin e. B u t e v e n as B o n a p a r te w a s fin a liz in g th e s e c r e t tr e a ty th a t w o u ld p u t F r a n c e b a c k in th e A m e r ic a n W e st, A m e r ic a n p o litics to o k a n a b ru p t c h a n g e in d ire ctio n . A d a m s a n d th e F e d e r a lis ts w e re v o te d o u t o f p o w e r, a n d b y th e b a r e s t o f m a rg in s T h o m a s J e ffe r s o n b e c a m e th e th ird p r e s id e n t o f th e U n ite d S ta te s . R u m o rs o f L o u is ia n a ’s c h a n g e o f h a n d s w e r e c irc u la tin g fr e e ly a n d p o s e d fo r J e ffe r s o n h is first crisis. A w e a k e n e d S p a in o n th e w e s te rn fla n k w a s b a d e n o u g h . A p u is s a n t F r a n c e w ith e m p ire in m in d w a s in c a lc u la b ly w o rs e a n d , as su ch , u n a c c e p ta b le . In d ire c t e v i d e n c e th a t F r a n c e w a s , in d e e d , th e c lo s e t o w n e r o f L o u is ia n a fe ll sw iftly in to p a tte rn . In O c to b e r 18 0 1, N a p o le o n c o n c lu d e d a te m p o ra ry p e a c e o f c o n v e n ie n c e w ith B rita in a fte r s e v e n y e a r s o f w a r to fr e e th e s e a s fo r a n e x p e d itio n to q u a s h th e b la c k u p risin g in S a n to D o m in g o . T h e u p s ta rt e x -s la v e T o u s s a in t w a s ta k e n so o n e n o u g h , b u t h is m ilitan t fo llo w e rs p u t o n a sh o w o f r e s is ta n c e th a t a s to u n d e d th e F r e n c h e x p e d itio n a r y fo rc e , a n d b e fo re v ic to r y w a s w ith in r e a c h , th e d r e a d y e llo w fe v e r m a d e its grim a p p e a r a n c e a n d m o re th a n th irty -fiv e th o u s a n d F r e n c h m e n , in c lu d in g th e ir c o m m a n d e r, G e n e r a l L e c le r c , h a d s u c c u m b e d . M e a n w h ile , th r e e th o u s a n d F r e n c h tro o p s a n d c iv il a d m in istra to rs b e g a n a s s e m b lin g in H o lla n d w ith o rd e rs to p r o c e e d to L o u is ia n a

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a s so o n as th e w in te r ic e m e lte d a n d p e rm itte d a tra n sa tla n tic sa ilin g . T h e in te rn a tio n a l b o il w a s c o m in g ra p id ly to a h e a d . J e ffe r s o n fr e tte d a n d e n te r e d th e b lu ffe r s ’ g a m e . W h e n S p a n is h o fficia ls still s ta tio n e d in L o u is ia n a r e v o k e d A m e r ic a n p r iv ile g e s o f d e p o s it in N e w O rle a n s in th e a u tu m n o f 178 2 (so m e h a v e m a in ta in e d it w a s p u r e ly a lo c a l d e cisio n , o th e rs th a t M a d rid o r d e r e d it, still o th e rs th a t it w a s a t F r e n c h in stig atio n ), tran sA p p a la c h ia n w e s te r n e r s w e r e r e a d y to sh o o t th e ir w a y to th a t p o rt or s e c e d e , w h ic h e v e r w o u ld r e la x th e s tra n g le h o ld o n th e ir riv e r a n d th e ir liv e lih o o d s . J e ffe r s o n g in g e rly w a lk e d th e m id d le , u rg in g p a tie n c e to h is w e s te r n w a rd s w h ile le ttin g N a p o le o n k n o w th a t h is tr ig g e r - h a p p y w e s te r n e r s w e r e o n a fr a y e d le a s h a n d a b o u t to ta k e N e w O rle a n s fro m w h o m e v e r h a d title to it. In M a r c h o f 1803 h e s e n t s p e c ia l e n v o y J a m e s M o n ro e to jo in R o b e r t L iv in g s to n e in P a r is to b u y th e p o rt th a t w o u ld p r e s e r v e th e u n io n . T h e p a ir h a d m o n e y in th e ir p o c k e ts a n d t h e y w e r e r e a d y to s p e n d it: te n m illio n d o lla rs fo r N e w O rle a n s a n d h o w e v e r m u c h o f W e s t F lo r id a t h e y c o u ld w a n g le . T h e y e a r 1803 w a s th e b e s t o f tim e s to b e a n A m e r ic a n in P a ris , w h e r e th e d e s tin y o f th e W e s t a g a in r e n d e z v o u s e d p r e c is e ly o n a tw e n ty - y e a r s c h e d u le , a s it h a d in 17 6 3 a n d 178 3. N a p o le o n w a s m o m e n ta rily d e s p e r a te . T h e fia s c o in S a n to D o m in g o h a d r e n d e r e d L o u is ia n a s u p e r flu o u s fo r th e tim e b e in g . M a n y m o re th o u s a n d flo w e rs o f th e F r e n c h a rm y w o u ld h a v e to w ilt in a tro p ic h e ll to p u t th e p o w e r o f F r a n c e b a c k in th e N e w W o rld . W ith a n o th e r w a r a g a in s t E n g la n d in e v ita b le a n d a m a tte r o f m o n th s a w a y , th e first c o n s u l d e c id e d to c u t h is lo ss e s. H e s u d d e n ly d ir e c te d B a r b e - M a r b o is , m in iste r o f th e tre a s u ry , a n d th e m a s te r fu l T a lle y r a n d to s e e w h a t th e A m e r ic a n s m ig h t p a y fo r all o f L o u is ia n a . T a lle y r a n d ’s o ffh a n d in q u iry a s to n is h e d th e h a rd o f-h e a rin g L iv in g s to n e , b u t h e a v id ly d is c u s s e d it w ith M o n ro e w h e n th e la tte r a rriv e d in P a ris tw o d a y s la te r. C o u ld th is b e tru e ? A ll o f L o u is ia n a ! T h e A m e r ic a n s ru s h e d to p a y m e n t — fifte e n m illio n d o lla rs fo r all o f L o u is ia n a (tw o -a n d -a -h a lf m illio n m o re th a n F r a n c e w a s p r e p a r e d to se ttle for) — a n d th e b a r g a in w a s s e a le d . F o r e ig n m in iste r T a lle y r a n d w a s a re lu c ta n t p a r ty to th e sa le . H e s a w w isd o m in a v o id in g w a r w ith E n g la n d a n d h o ld in g o n to

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S H A D O W O F A C O N T IN E N T

L o u is ia n a . B u t N a p o le o n p la y e d a ra sh g a m e , a c a rd a t a tim e. E n g la n d w o u ld fo r c e w a r w h e th e r F r a n c e w a n te d it or not, h e a rg u e d . L o u is ia n a w o u ld b e in d e fe n s ib le w h e n B rita in c u t th e se a -la n e s . M o r e o v e r , th e fifte e n m illio n d o lla rs w o u ld c o m e in h a n d y to fin a n c e a p la n n e d c ro s s -c h a n n e l in v a s io n o f th e a n c ie n t e n e m y ’s h o m e la n d in th e im m in e n t w ar. I f th a t sh o u ld fa il, w e ll, at le a s t th e U n ite d S ta te s , a fe llo w r e p u b lic , w o u ld b e lo o s e d on la n d s th a t E n g la n d w a n te d . E n g la n d p e r fo r c e w o u ld h a v e to co m m it a rm ie s to p ro te c t h e r h o ld in g s in N o rth A m e r ic a , a rm ie s th a t c o u ld n o t b e d e p lo y e d in E u r o p e . B e y o n d th a t, th e r e w a s th e c y n ic a l im p lic a tio n th a t, sh o u ld F r a n c e p re v a il, th e w o rld w o u ld b e h e rs, in c lu d in g th e A m e r ic a n W e st. T r e a tie s , a fte r all, w e re o n ly tid e -m e -o v e rs u n til a rm ie s d e te r m in e d w h o g o t w h a t. B r ita in ’s sp ie s m a d e h e r p r iv y to th e n e g o tia tio n s in P a ris , a n d sh e w a s n o t a v e r s e to liv in g w ith F r a n c e o u t o f N o rth A m e r ic a a g a in . A s fo r S p a in , th e t r e a c h e r y w a s b e y o n d h e r r a g e , a n d th e loss o f th e re st o f h e r W e s t le ss th a n tw e n ty y e a r s a w a y . O n ly a fte r th e s ig n a tu re s w e r e d ry d id L iv in g s to n e a sk T a lle y ra n d w h a t th e b o u n d a rie s o f L o u is ia n a w e re . “ Y o u m u st ta k e it a s w e r e c e iv e d it,” w a s th e fo re ig n m in iste r’ s e n ig m a tic re sp o n s e . T h e su b tle im p lic a tio n s w e re n o t lo st on th e w ise: th e e x te n t o f th e A m e r ic a n W e s t w a s fo r th e A m e r ic a n s to d e c id e , a t th e e x p e n s e o f E n g la n d a n d S p a in o n e c o u ld b e su re. “ Y o u h a v e m a d e a n o b le b a r g a in fo r y o u r s e lv e s ,” sa id T a lle y r a n d , “ a n d I s u p p o s e y o u w ill m a k e th e m o st o f it.” T h o u g h th e re w e r e still d a rk d a y s a h e a d , a n d trials th a t w o u ld try th e ir so u ls, th e A m e r ic a n s w e r e le g a lly a c ro ss th e F a th e r o f W a te rs. A n d m a k e th e m o st o f it th e y m o st e m p h a tic a lly w o u ld .

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B ibliography

In researching the early history of the American West, the writer is faced with a few problems by no means unique but nevertheless troublesome. Those who went west of the Mississippi before the nineteenth century were not AngloAmericans who left records in English that have since been gathered in muse ums and libraries. They were “foreign ers,” and that is perhaps why general histories of the pre-American West are so few. We weren’t there yet, and they didn’t go out of their way to supply us with records. This is especially true of the Amerind, by far the most numerous of eighteenthcentury westerners, who left no written records at all. Consequently, I have relied heavily on the splendid work of anthropologists and ethnologists with an interest in reconstructing the Indian past and on the relatively few firsthand con temporary accounts of contacts between white man and red. Anthropologists using new scientific measuring tools have steadily pushed backward in time man’s presence on earth and in the New World. The appli cation of those techniques coupled with some rather basic deductions, has pointed to early man knowing more, doing more, and being more than has heretofore been thought possible. It is tempting (and not so very much out of line) to believe that the same holds for more recent men —particularly French m en —when they penetrated the transMississippi lands in the seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries. The scarcity of French material on the West is due to a number of factors. The first who came were mostly illiterate. Even when not, they were usually there illegally, and it was in their self-interest to cover their tracks. Beyond that, it is likely that valu able documents (in French and Spanish) are still gathering dust in Old World collections, museums, and archives, untranslated and, for all purposes, lost. O f the contemporary French litera ture available, I found the books of Jean-Bernard Bossu and Le Page du Pratz especially revealing of what life was like in eighteenth-century Louisi

ana. The French in the Mississippi Valley and Frenchmen and French Ways, both edited by John Francis McDermott, are invaluable to understanding the prob lems, failures, and achievements of France in the American heartland. Henri Folmer’s works are most helpful in trac ing some of the early penetrations into the western plains, while William J. Eccles’ France in America is the best recent overview of the French New World experience. The early Spaniards (bless their com pulsive, meticulous record-keeping ways) have been far more generous with us. I have relied very heavily on the volumi nous works and translations of Herbert E. Bolton, which remain indispensable. His renowned student, John Walton Caughey, fills in the void of Lower Lou isiana during the Revolutionary War, while Abraham P. Nasatir has been my primary authority on events in the Upper Mississippi Valley in the late eighteenth century. The translations of documents by A. B. Thomas have been favored in treating eighteenth-century New Mexico; Warren L. Cook’s recent Flood Tide o f Empire is both a readable and comprehensive treatment of Spanish ac tivity in the north Pacific. There is understandably a much larger literature on the English and Americans in the Colonial and Revolutionary peri ods, yet here, too, that dealing with the West few had reached is skimpy. Gen erally, works listed here are limited to those that treat western lands and events just prior to, during, and after the Revolutionary War. The bibliography is broken down to correspond with the major parts of the book. This is for the convenience of the general reader and the scholar, and is admittedly somewhat arbitrary, for many books and articles span two or more sec tions of the whole. Of the total entries, a sizeable number are journal articles. This seemed obligatory because so much good material of narrow focus reposes in the scholarly quarterlies, seldom referred to in popular histories. Where there is a difference of opinion among historians (e.g., the route of the

375

explorer Claude du Tisne, the same for the brothers Verendrye, whether La Salle on his ill-fated last voyage missed the Mississippi delta or fully intended a land fall in modern Texas), I have taken sides not on the basis of hard evidence, which is lacking, but on what simply seems to me to have been more likely.

Finally, many more sources were con sulted than there was space to list here. I have included only those that seemed most basic, engaging, and relevant to the scope of the book. Selectivity, of course, justly invites protest over omis sions. I can only hope that those omissions were all by choice, not neglect.

GENERAL AND BACKGROUND Brebner, John B. Explorers o f North Amer ica, 1492-1806. New York: Macmillan, 1933. Cheyney, E. P. The European Background o f American History, 1300-1600. New York: Harper & Bros., 1904. Dorn, Walter L. Competition for Empire, 1740-1763. New York: Harper & Bros., 1940. Gorshoy, Leo. From Despotism to Revolu tion. New York: Harper & Bros., 1944.

Pratz, Le Page du. The History o f Louisiana. London: T. Becket, 1774. Purchas, Samuel. Purchas His Pilgrimes. 4vols. London: W. Stansby, 1625. Turner, Robert K. “ Coxe’s A Description of Carolana.” Virginia Univ. Bibliographical Society’s Studies in Bibliography, 19561957, pp. 252-255. Tyler, S. Lyman. “ The Myth of the Lake of Copala and Land of Teguayo.” Utah His torical Quarterly, X X, 313-329. Wagner, Henry R. “ Apocryphal Voyages to the Northwest Coast of America.” Pro

PA R T I: FANTASYLAND Carver, Jonathan. Travels through the Inter ior Parts o f North America in the Years 1766, 1767 and 1768. 3d ed. London: C. Dilly, 1781. Cline, Gloria G. Exploring the Great Basin.

Norman: Univ. of Oklahoma Press, 1963. Coxe, Daniel, Esq. A Description o f the English Province o f Carolana. Reprinted by the Sutro Branch of the California State Library. Occasional Papers Report Series no. 11, San Francisco, February 1940. Crouse, Nellis M. In Quest o f the Western Ocean. New York: Wm. Morrow & Co., 1928. Deacon, Richard. Madoc and the Discovery o f America: Some New Light on an Old Controversy. London: Muller, 1967.

Espinosa, Jose Manuel. “ The Legend of Sierra Azul.” New Mexico Historical Review, IX, 113-158. Gilbert, Sir Humphrey. A Discourse o f a Discoverie for a New Passage to Cataia.

London: Henry Middleton, 1576. Hale, Edward Everett. The Queen o f Cali

ceedings o f the American Antiquarian Soci ety, 41, pt. 1, 179-234.

Wagner, Henry R. “ Some Imaginary Cali fornia Geography.” Proceedings o f the Amer ican Antiquarian Society, X X X V I, pt. 1, 83-129. Wheat, Carl I. Mapping the Trans-Mississippi West, 1540-1861. 6 vols. San Francisco: Insti tute of Historical Cartography, 1957-1963.

PA R T II: AN INDIAN SUMMER Brandon, William. The American Heritage Book o f Indians. New York: American Heri tage, 1961. Catlin, George. Letters and Notes on the Manners, Customs, and Condition o f the North American Indians. 2 vols. New York:

Tosswill & Meyers, 1841. Ewers, John C. The Blackfeet: Raiders on the Northwestern Plains. Norman: Univ. of Oklahoma Press, 1958. Ewers, John C. Indian Life on the Upper Missouri. Norman: Univ. of Oklahoma Press, 1968. Forbes, Jack D. Apache, Navaho and Span iard. Norman: Univ. of Oklahoma Press, 1960. Forbes, Jack D. Native Americans o f Cali fornia and Nevada. Heraldsburg, Calif.: Naturegraph Publishers, 1969. Forbes, Jack D. Warriors o f the Colorado:

fornia . . . from the Sergas o f Esplandian.

San Francisco: Colt Press, 1945. Hammond, George P., and Rey, Agapito, trans. Expedition into New Mexico Made by Antonio de Espejo, 1582-1583 . . . . Los Angeles: Quivira Society, 1929. Hammond, George P. “ The Search for the Fabulous in the Settlement of the Southwest” Utah Historical Quarterly, XXIV, 1-19. Hennepin, Louis, A New Discovery o f a Vast Country in America. Ed. by Reuben G. Thwaites, 2 vols. Chicago: McClurg, 1903. Lahontan, Louis Armand de Lorn d ’Arce, Baron de. New Voyages to North-America. Ed. by Reuben G. Thwaites. 2 vols. Chicago: McClurg, 1905. Nunn, George E. Origin o f the Strait o f Anian Concept. Philadelphia: privately printed, 1929.

The Yumas o f the Quechan Nation and their Neighbors. Norman: Univ. of Oklahoma

Press, 1965. Gunther, Erna. Indian Life on the Northwest Coast o f North America . . . . Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press, 1972. Hagan, William T. American Indians. Chi cago: Univ. of Chicago Press, 1961.

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PART III: TH E FAILURE OF FRANCE Belting, Natalie Maree. Kaskaskia Under the French Regime. Urbana: Univ. of Illinois Press, 1948. Bossu, Jean-Bernard. Travels in the Interior o f North America 1751-62. Trans, and ed. by Seymour Feiler. Norman: Univ. of Oklahoma Press, 1962. Caldwell, Norman Ward. The French in the Mississippi Valley, 1740-1750. Urbana: Univ. of Illinois Press, 1941. Charlevoix, Pierre Frangois-Xavier de. His

Haines, Francis. The N ez Perces: Tribesmen o f the Columbia Plateau. Norman: Univ. of Oklahoma Press, 1955. Heizer, Robert F., and Mills, John E. The Four Ages o f Tsurai. A Documentary His tory o f the Indian Village on Trinidad Bay.

Berkeley: Univ. o f California Press, 1952. Heizer, Robert F., and Whipple, M. A., eds. The California Indians, A Source Book. 2d rev. ed. Berkeley: Univ. of California Press, 1971. Hodge, Frederick W., ed. Handbook o f Amer ican Indians North o f Mexico. 2 vols. Wash ington: Govt. Printing Office, 1912. Hoebel, Edward A. The Cheyennes: Indians o f the Great Plains. New York: Holt, Rine hart, 1960. Hyde, George E. Pawnee Indians. Denver: Univ. of Denver Press, 1951. Kroeber, Alfred L. Handbook o f the Indians o f California. Washington: Govt. Printing Office, 1925. Leacock, Eleanor B., and Lurie, Nancy O., eds. North American Indians in Historical Perspective. New York: Random House, 1971. Lowie, Robert H. The Crow Indians. New York: Farrar Rinehart, 1935. Mathews, John Joseph. The Osages: Children o f the Middle Wafers. Norman: Univ. of Oklahoma Press, 1961. Newcomb, William Wilmon, Jr. The Indians

tory and General Description o f New France.

Trans, with notes by John G. Shea. 6 vols. New York: 1900. Charlevoix, Pierre Francois-Xavier de. Let ters to the Duchess o f Lesdiguiqres . . . . London: R. Goadby, 1763. Crouse, Nellis M. La Verendrye: Fur Trader and Explorer. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell Univ. Press, 1956. Delanglez, Jean. The French Jesuits in Lower Louisiana (1700-1763). Washington: Catholic Univ. of America, 1935. Eccles, William J. France in America. New York: Harper & Row, 1972. Folmer, Henri. “ Contraband Trade Between Louisiana and New Mexico in the Eighteenth Century,” New Mexico Historical Review, XVI, 249-274. Folmer, Henri, trans. and ed. “ De Bourgmont’s Expedition to the Padoucas in 1724.” Colorado Magazine, XIV, 121-128. Folmer, Henri. “ Etienne Veniard de Bourgmont in the Missouri Country.” Missouri Historical Review, XXX V I, 279-298. Folmer, Henri. Franco-Spanish Rivalry in North America, 1564-1763. Glendale, Calif.: Arthur H. Clark, 1953. Folmer, Henri, trans. and ed. “ The Mallet Expedition of 1739 through Nebraska, Kansas and Colorado to Santa Fe.” Colorado Maga zine, XVI, 161-172. Lemaitre, Georges E. Beaumarchais. New York: Knopf, 1949. Lewis, Anna. “ Du Tisne’s Expedition into Oklahoma, 1719.” Chronicles o f Oklahoma, III, no. 4. Lewis, Anna. “ La Harpe’s First Expedition in Oklahoma, 1718-1719.” Chronicles o f Oklahoma, II, no. 4. Lyon, E. Wilson. Louisiana in French Diplo macy, 1759-1804. Norman: Univ. of Oklahoma Press, 1934. McDermott, John Francis, ed. The French in the Mississippi Valley. Urbana: Univ. of Illinois Press, 1965. McDermott, John Francis, ed. Frenchmen and French Ways in the Mississippi Valley. Urbana: Univ. of Illinois Press, 1969. McDermott, John Francis, ed. Old Cahokia. St. Louis: St. Louis Historical Documents Foundation, 1949. Morton, Arthur S. A History o f the Canadian

o f Texas: From Prehistoric to Modern Times.

Austin: Univ. of Texas Press, 1961. Roe, Frank Gilbert. The Indian and the Horse. Norman: Univ. of Oklahoma Press, 1965. Spicer, Edward H. Cycles o f Conquest: The Impact o f Spain, Mexico, and the United States on the Indians o f the Southwest.

Tucson: Univ. of Arizona Press, 1962. Steward, Julian Haynes. Aboriginal and Historical Groups o f the Ute Indians o f Utah.

New York: Garland, 1974. Steward, Julian Haynes.

Basin-Plateau Aboriginal Sociopolitical Groups. Washing

ton: Govt. Printing Office, 1938. Teit, James A. The Salishan Tribes o f the Western Plateaus. Ed. by Franz Boas. Wash ington: Govt. Printing Office, 1930. Underhill, Ruth M. The Navajos. 4th rev. ed. Norman: Univ. o f Oklahoma Press, 1967. Underhill, Ruth M. R ed Man’s America: A History o f Indians in the United States. Chi cago: Univ. of Chicago Press, 1953. Unrau, William E. The Kansa Indians. A History o f the

Wind People, 1673—1873.

Norman: Univ. of Oklahoma Press, 1971. Wallace, Ernest, and Hoebel, E. Adamson. The Comanches: Lords o f the Southern Plains. Norman: Univ. of Oklahoma Press,

1952. Wissler, Clark. Indians o f the United States. Rev. ed. by Lucy Wales Kluckhohn. Garden City: Doubleday, 1966.

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erning New Mexico, 1794.” New Mexico Historical Review, XXIV, 236-254. Cutter, Donald C., ed. The California Coast: A Bilingual Edition o f Documents from the Sutro Collection. Norman: Univ. of Oklahoma

West to 1870-71. Toronto: T. Nelson & Sons, 1939. Penicaut, Andre. Fleur de Lys and Calumet. Ed. by Richebourg G. McWilliams. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State Univ. Press, 1953. Phares, Ross. Cavalier in the Wilderness:

Press, 1969. Dominguez, Fr. Francisco Atanasio. The Missions o f New Mexico . . . . Trans, and ann. by Eleanor B. Adams and Fr. Angelico Chavez. Albuquerque: Univ. of New Mexico Press, 1956.

The Story o f the Explorer and Trader, Louis Juchereau de St. Denis. Baton Rouge: Lou

isiana State Univ. Press, 1952. Priestley, Herbert I. France OverseasThrough the Old Regime; A Study o f European Expan sion. New York: D. Appleton-Century, 1939.

Dunn, William E. “ The Apache Mission on the San Saba River.” Southwestern Historical Quarterly, XVII, 379-414. Dunn, William E. “ Spanish Reaction Against the French Advance Toward New Mexico, 1717-1727.” Mississippi Valley Historical Review, II, 348-362. Garces, Francisco. On the Trail o f a Spanish

Verendrye, Pierre Gaultier de Varennes de la. Letters . . . . Trans, and ed. by Lawrence J. Burpee. Toronto: Champlain Society, 1927. PA R T IV: RESURGENT SPAIN Bancroft, Hubert Howe. Works. 39 vols. San Francisco: A. L. Bancroft, 1882-1890. Bannon, John Francis, ed. Bolton and the Spanish Borderlands. Norman: Univ. of Oklahoma Press, 1964. Bobb, Bernard E. The Viceregency o f Antonio

Pioneer: Diary and Itinerary o f Francisco Garces . . . . Trans, by Elliott Coues. 2 vols.

New York: F.P. Harper, 1900. Hammond, George P., and Rey, Agapito, ed. and trans. Don Juan de Ohate, Colonizer of New Mexico, 1595-1628. Albuquerque: Univ. of New Mexico Press, 1953. Houck, Louis. A History o f Missouri from the

Maria Bucareli in New Spain, 17 7 1-17 7 9 .

Austin: Univ. of Texas Press, 1962. Bolton, Herbert E., ed. Anza’s California Expeditions. 5 vols. Berkeley: Univ. of Cali fornia Press, 1930. Bolton, Herbert E., trans. and ed. Athanase

Earliest Exploration and Settlement Until the Admission o f the State into the Union. 3 vols.

de Mezieres and the Louisiana-Texas Fron tier, 1768-1780. 2 vols. Cleveland: Arthur H.

Chicago: R. R. Donnelley & Sons, 1908. Houck, Louis, ed. The Spanish Regime in

Clark, 1914. Bolton, Herbert E. The Mission as a Frontier

Missouri: A Collection o f Papers and Docu ments . . . . 2 vols. Chicago: R. R. Donnelley

Institution in the Spanish-American Colonies.

& Sons, 1909. James, James Alton. “ Spanish Influence in the West during the American Revolution.” Mississippi Valley Historical Review, IV, 193-208. Jones, Oakah L., Jr. Pueblo Warriors and Spanish Conquest. Norman: Univ. of Okla homa, 1966. Kinnaird, Lawrence, ed. The Frontiers of

El Paso: Texas Western College Press for Academic Reprints, 1960. Bolton, Herbert E., and Stephens, H. Morse, eds. The Pacific Ocean in History. New York: Macmillan, 1917. Bolton, Herbert E. The Spanish Borderlands: A Chronicle o f Old Florida and the South west. New Haven: Yale Univ. Press, 1921. Bolton, Herbert E., ed. Spanish Exploration in the Southwest, 1542-1706. New York:

New Spain: Nicolas de Lafora’s Description, 1766-1768. Berkeley: Quivira Society, 1958. Kinnaird, Lawrence, ed. Spain in the Missis sippi Valley, 1765-1794: Translations of Materials in the Spanish Archives in the Bancroft Library. Washington: Govt. Print

Scribner’s Sons, 1930. Bolton, Herbert E. Texas in the Middle Eigh teenth Century: Studies in Spanish Colonial History and Administration. Berkeley: Univ.

of California Press, 1915. Caughey, John Walton. Bernardo de Galvez in Louisiana, 1776-1783. Berkeley: Univ. of California Press, 1934. Caughey, John Walton. History o f the Pacific Coast. Los Angeles: privately printed, 1933. Chapman, Charles E. The Founding o f Span

ing Office, 1946. Palou, Fr. Francisco, O.F.M. Historical Mem oirs o f New California. Ed. by Herbert E. Bolton. 4 vols. Berkeley: Univ. of California Press, 1926. Priestley, Herbert I. Jose de GAlvez: VisitorGeneral o f New Spain (176 5-1771). Berke ley: Univ. of California Press, 1916. Simmons, Marc, Spanish Government in New Mexico. Albuquerque: Univ. of New Mexico Press, 1968. Tamaron y Romeral, Pedro. Bishop Tamardn’s Visitation o f New Mexico, 1760. Ed. by Eleanor B. Adams. Albuquerque: Historical Society of New Mexico, 1954. Thomas, Alfred B., trans. and ed. After

ish California: The Northwestward Expan sion o f New Spain, 1687-1783. New York:

Macmillan, 1916. Chapman, Charles E. A History o f California: The Spanish Period. New York: Macmillan, 1921. Cook, Warren L. Flood Tide o f Empire: Spain and the Pacific Northwest, 1543-1819. New Haven: Yale Univ. Press, 1973. Concha, Fernando de la. “Advice on Gov

Coronado: Spanish Exploration Northeast of

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the Anglo-American West. 2 vols. Los Angeles:

New Mexico, 1696-1727 . . . . Norman: Univ.

Lancaster Press, 1932. Harlow, Vincent T. The Founding o f the Second British Empire, 1763-1793, 2 vols. New York: Longmans, Green, 1952-1964. Hemphill, W. Edwin. “ The Jeffersonian Back ground of the Louisiana Purchase.” Missis sippi Valley Historical Review, XXII, 177190. Hinkhouse, Fred J. The Preliminaries o f the

of Oklahoma Press, 1935. Thomas, Alfred B., trans. and ed. Forgotten Frontiers: A Study o f the Spanish Indian Policy o f Don Juan Bautista de Anza . . . .

Norman: Univ. of Oklahoma Press, 1932. Thomas, Alfred B. “ Massacre of the Villasur Expedition at the Forks of the Platte Rivers, August 12, 1720.” Nebraska History, VII, 68-81. Thomas, Alfred B., ed. The Plains Indians

American Revolution as Seen in the English Press, 176 3-1775. New York: Columbia Univ.

and New Mexico, 175 1-17 7 8 : A Collection o f Documents . . . . Albuquerque: Univ. of

Press, 1926. Hutchins, Thomas. An Historical Narrative

New Mexico Press, 1940. Thomas, Alfred B., trans. and ed. Teodoro

and Topographical Description o f Louisiana and West-Florida. Gainesville: Univ. of Flor

de Croix and the Northern Frontier o f New Spain . . . . Norman: Umv. of Oklahoma

ida Press, 1968. James, James Alton, ed. George Rogers Clark Papers, 17 7 1-17 8 1. Springfield: Trustees of the Illinois State Historical Library, 1912. James, James Alton. The Life o f George Rog ers Clark. Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press, 1928. James, James Alton. “ Louisiana as a Factor in American Diplomacy, 1795-1800.” Missis sippi Valley Historical Review, I, 44-56. James, James Alton. Oliver Pollock: The Life and Times o f an Unknown Patriot. New York: D. Appleton-Century, 1937. James, James Alton. “ The Significance of the Attack on St. Louis, 1780.” Proceedings

Press, 1941. PA R T V: TH E DIVISIBLE EMPIRE Abernethy, Thomas P. Western Lands and the American Revolution. New York: D. Appleton-Century Co., 1937. Adams, John. The Works o f John Adams. Ed. by Charles Francis Adams, 10 vols. Boston: Little, Brown, 1850-1865. Alden, John R. A History o f the American Revolution. New York: Knopf, 1969. Alvord, Clarence W. The Mississippi Valley in British Politics. 2 vols. New York: Russell fit Russell, 1959. Alvord, Clarence W. The Illinois Country, 1673-1818. Chicago: McClurg, 1922. Barnhart, John D. Henry Hamilton and

o f the Mississippi Valley Historical Society Association, II, 208-217. Jefferson, Thomas. Notes on the State o f Virginia. Ed. with intro, and notes by William

George Rogers Clark in the American R evo lution. Crawfordsville, Ind.: R. E. Banta, 1951. Bemis, Samuel Flagg. The Diplomacy o f the American Revolution. New York: D. Apple

Peden. Chapel Hill: Univ. of North Carolina Press, 1955. Jefferson, Thomas. The Writings o f Thomas Jefferson. Ed. by Andrew A. Lipscomb. 20 vols. Washington, 1905. Johansen, Dorothy O., and Gates, Charles M.

ton-Century, 1935. Billington, Ray Allen. Westward Expansion: A History o f the American Frontier. 3d ed. New York: Macmillan, 1967. Burpee, Lawrence J., ed. “ The Journal of Antony Hendry (Henday), 1754-1755.” Pro

Empire o f the Columbia: A History o f the Pacific Northwest. 2d ed. New York: Harper

8s Row, 1967. LaFargue, Andre. “ The Louisiana Purchase: The French Viewpoint.” Louisiana Historical Quarterly, X XIII, 107-117. Morgan, Edmund S., ed. The American R ev

ceedings and Transactions o f the Royal Society o f Canada. 3d ser., 1907, Sec. II.

Caughey, John Walton “ Willing’s Expedition Down the Mississippi, 1778.” Louisiana His torical Quarterly, XV, 5-36. Cook, Captain James, and King, Captain James. A Voyage to the Pacific in 1 776, 1777, 1778, 1779, and 1780. 4 vols. London: J. Stockdale, 1784. Degler, Carl Neuman. Out o f Our Past: The Forces That Shaped Modern America. New York: Harper 6s Row, 1959. Franklin, Benjamin. The Writings o f Benja min Franklin. Collected and ed. with a life and intro, by Albert H. Smyth. 10 vols. New York: Macmillan, 1907. Gates, Charles M., ed. Five Fur Traders o f the Northwest . . . . St. Paul: Minnesota Historical Society, 1963. Hammond, George P., Hackett, Charles W., and Mecham, J. Lloyd, eds. New Spain and

olution: Two

Centuries o f Interpretation.

Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1965. Nasatir, Abraham P. “ The Anglo-Spanish Frontier in the Illinois Country During the American Revolution, 1779-1783.” Journal o f the Illinois State Historical Society, XXI, 291-358. Nasatir, Abraham P. “ The Anglo-Spanish Frontier on the Upper Mississippi, 17861796.” Iowa Journal o f History and Politics, X X IX , 155-232. Nasatir, Abraham P. “ Anglo-Spanish Rivalry on the Upper Missouri, 1790-1804.” Missis sippi Valley Historical Review, XVI, nos. 3 and 4. Nasatir, Abraham P., ed. Before Lewis and Clark: Documents Illustrating the History

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o f the Missouri, 1785-1804. 2 vols. St. Louis:

Captain James Cook in the Pacific . . . .N ew York: American Heritage, 1958. Rogers, Robert. A Concise Account o f North America. London: Private printing, 1765; New York: Johnson Reprint, 1966. Rossiter, Clinton. The First American R ev

St. Louis Historical Documents Foundation, 1952. Nasatir, Abraham P. “ Ducharme’s Invasion o f Missouri: An Incident in the AngloAmerican Rivalry for the Indian Trade of Upper Louisiana.” Missouri Historical R e view, XXIV, nos. 1, 2, and 3. Parish, John Carl. The Persistence o f the Western

Movement,

and

Other

olution: The American Colonies on the Eve o f Independence. New York: Harcourt, Brace

& World, 1956. Smith, Henry Nash. Virgin Land: The Ameri can West as Symbol and Myth. Cambridge: Harvard Univ. Press, 1950. Sosin, Jack M. The Revolutionary Frontier, 1763-1783. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1967. Sosin, Jack M. Whitehall and the Wilderness. Lincoln: Univ. of Nebraska Press, 1961.

Essays.

Berkeley: Univ. of California Press, 1943. Parker, John. The Great Lakes and the Great Rivers: Jonathan Carver’s Dream o f Empire.

Lansing: Historical Society of Michigan, 1965. Peckham, Howard H. Pontiac and the Indian Uprising. Princeton Univ. Press, 1947. Price, A. Grenville, ed. The Explorations o f

Ii\dex (Page numbers in italics indicate illustrations.) Acaanibas, 73-74, 76 Accau, Michael, 78, 80 Acoma, 37, 46, 124, 127, 134 Adams, John Quincy, 223, 326, 328, 330, 355, 359360, 262, 370-372 Aguayo, Marques San Miguel de, 196 Alarcon, Hernando de, 15, 20-21 (map), 56, 136 Alaska, 68, 252 American Bottom, 187 American Revolution, 134, 281, 333-354 Colonial opinion and, 331-332 peace negotiations, 354-363 Americans and the American land scape, 317-318 growth of patriotism among, 326-328 land speculation among, 321-326 movement toward inde pendence, 319-320 relations with Indians, 122, 318, 324-325 Anasazi Indians, 127, 141 Anian, Strait of, 17, 57-58, 61-62, 64-70, 82, 249, 297 Anza, Juan Bautista de, 135, 137, 241, 242-246, 271-276, 272-273 (map) Apache Indians, 41, 110, 119, 128, 130-134, 147, 150, 153 (map), 205, 235, 242, 261, 268-269

Carlana, 122 Cosninas, 49 Faraone, 267 Gila, 267, 275 Jicarilla, 267 Lipan, 261, 267, 270, 271 Mescalero, 267, 270 Natag6, 267 Paloma, 122 “ Western” , 131-134 Aranda, Count, 230, 293, 360 Arapaho Indians, 119, 153 (map) Arikara Indians, 121, 153 (map) Arkansas River, 71, 179 (map), 197, 199 (map), 204 Arouet, Francois Marie (Voltaire)", 169, 215, 300, 332 Ascension, Antonio de la, 39, 58 Aztecs, 38, 39, 42, 96, 115 Bad Bread Mutiny, 178 Bancroft, Hubert H., 130 Bannock Indians, 151, 153 (map) Baton Rouge, 283 (map), 289, 307 Bazares, 20-21 (map) Beauharnois, Charles de la Boische, Marquis de, 206, 209-211 Beaumarchais, Pierre Augustin Caron de, 166, 222 Bella Coola Indians, 155 Bering, Vitus, 68 Bering Strait, 92, 110 Bienville, Jean Baptiste LeMoyne, Sieur de, 170, 171, 174, 178, 182, 190, 197, 198, 204 Biloxi, 171-172, 174-175

380

Black slaves, 174, 175, 178 Blackfoot Indians, 119, 151, 153 (map) Boone, Daniel, 317, 324, 325, 366 Bossu, Jean-Bernard, 93, 302 Bourgmont, fctienne Veniard, Sieur de, 199 (map), 200-203, 206, 281 Briggs, Henry, 58, 64 Buache, Philippe, 68-69, 70 Buache de la Neuville, Philippe, 69-70 Bucareli y Ursua, Antonio Maria, 239-255 passim, 268-270, 275 Buffalo, 38, 72, 111, 11 6 117, 121, 123, 151 Buffon, Georges Louis Leclerc, Comte de, 312, 328 Burke, Edmund, 309, 311, 313 Cabeza de Vaca, Alvar Nunez, 20-21 (map), 33-35, 322 Cabrillo, Juan Rodriguez, 16, 20-21 (map), 143 Cadillac, Antoine de la Mothe, 172, 176, 190, 192 Calafia (mythical princess), 56-57, 60 California 54-61, 137-138, 228, 274 Alta, 135, 232, 234-255 Baja, 60, 64, 144 Indian cultures of, 138145, 139, 157 settlement by Spanish, 146, 365 Campbell, John, 283 (map), 291-292, 348 Canada, 73, 99 and American indepen dence, 361-362 under England, 168-169, 300-314

under France, 223-224 Capuchins, 11, 188, 277 Carabajal, 20-21 (map) Carleton, Guy, 342-343 Carlos II of Spain, 45 Carlos III of Spain, 137, 168-169, 230-232, 239, 244, 254-255, 279, 284, 301, 367-368 Carlos IV of Spain, 367-368 Cartier, Jacques, 31 Carmelites, 39, 58 Carver, Jonathan, 100, 100105, 115, 306-307 Catherine II of Russia, 231232, 356, 359 Catlin, George, 119 Cattle, 129, 130 see also Sheep Cayuse Indians, 153 (map), 154 Champlain, Samuel de, 19 Charlevoix, Pierre Francois, 88, 174-175, 223, 302 Cherokee Indians, 153 (map), 323-324, 334 Chester, Governor of West Florida, 285-287 Cheyenne Indians, 111, 112, 153 (map) Chicagou Indians, 203 Chickasaw Indians, 153 (map), 181, 286 Chippewa Indians, 119, 153 (map), 163, 206 Chirikov, Alexi, 68 Chitimacha Indians, 153 (map), 187 Chocktaw Indians, 153 (map),, 182, 334 Choiseul, Etienne Frangois, Due de, 168, 214, 217, 218, 220, 221, 299 Chumash Indians, 111, 140, 141, 144, 153 (map) Cibola, 35, 36, 38, 51, 53, 130 Cicuic, 51-52 Clark, George R., 289, 329330, 336, 337-338, 340341 (map), 342-348, 351-354 Clark, William, 155, 159, 330 Clerke, Charles, 297-298 Cocomaricopa Indians, 136, 153 (map) Colonialism, philosophy of, 11-12

Colorado River, 15, 136, 138, 266-267 Columbia River, 154-157, 252 Comanche Indians, 41, 97, 115, 118-120, 124, 128, 131, 147, 153 (map), 201-202, 204-205, 261, 266, 269, 271, 272-273 (map), 274-275 Company o f the Indies, 172, 181, 183, 197 Convention o f Aranjuez, 358 Cook, James, 69, 158, 160, 161-162, 254-255, 296,

330, 367 Cop ala, 38-41, 44 Coronado, Francisco Vasquez de, 15, 17, 20-21 (map), 36, 38, 51, 130, 256, 257 Coxe, Daniel, 26, 94-95 Coxe, Daniel the Younger, 95-96 Cree Indians, 153 (map), 163, 206 Creek Indians, 97, 153 (map), 334 Crespi, Juan, 145, 235, 236, 250 Croix, Carlos Francisco de, 234, 239, 246, 248 Croix, Teodoro de, 246-247, 255, 269-270, 274-276 Crow Indians, 119, 153 (map) Crozat, Antoine, 172, 176, 190 Cruzat, Francisco, 353-354 Cuerno Verde, Comanche chief, 272-273 (map), 274 Dakota Indians, 110, 153 (map) Declaration of Indepen足 dence, 328 Dee, John, 62 Delaware Indians, 153 (map), 162, 324, 334, 340-341 (map) de Leyba, Fernando, 289290, 338-339, 349, 353 Delgado, Carlos, 42, 49 Delisle, Guillaume, 59-60 de Soto, Hernando, 14-15, 15, 20-21 (map) DeVoto, Bernard, 325 Diaz, Melchior, 20-21 (map), 136 Diderot, Denis, 215 Dieguenos Indians, 139, 153 (map), 244 Disease, 121, 129, 177 Dobbs, Arthur, 67-68 Dogs, 111, 120 Dominguez, Francisco Atanasio, 147, 260-261, 265, 267, 272-273 (map) Donnaconna, Chief, 31 Dorantes, Andres, 34, 35 Drake, Francis, 16, 17, 93, 94, 143 du Gay, Picard, 78, 80 Dulhut (Duluth), Sieur Greysolon, 78 Dunford, Elias, 290-291 Du Pratz, Antoine Simon Le Page, 88-91, 93, 177, 302 du Tisnd, Charles Claude, 198, 199 (map), 200203, 206, 281 Elizabeth I of England, 62, 64 England, attitudes toward New World, 316-319

381

in California, 240 in C anada,314-315 North American explora足 tions, 25-26, 62-65, 67-69 relations with Indians, 114, 122, 340-341 (map) in trans-Mississippi West, 93-96, 100-105 see also Louisiana, English in Escalante, Silvestre Velez de, 43, 147-148, 148, 265, 267, 272-273 (map) Espejo, Antonio de, 20-21 (map), 38 Esplandian, 57 Estdvanico, 36 Europeans, and American indepen足 dence, 356-357 attitudes toward the land, 109-110 relations with the Indians, 111-112, 113-123 Fabry de la Bruyere, 199 (map), 204 Fages, Pedro, 144, 236-238, 240, 246, 248 Falls of Saint Anthony, 101 , 101-102 Family Compact, 168, 358, 368 Fergusson, John, 284-285 Ferrelo, 20-21 (map) Fine River, 90-91 Flathead Indians, 119, 151, 153 (map), 154 Florida, 14, 168, 277, 285287, 292, 301, 323, 360, 370-371, 373 Floridablanca, Count, 355356, 358, 361, 367-368 Font, Pedro, 136, ISOMO, 244 Fonte, Bartholomew de, 65-67, 105 Fort de Chartres, 179 (map), 302 Fort Detroit, 345, 346, 352, 368 Fort Jefferson, 351-352 Fort Michilimackinac, 101102, 348, 353, 368 Fort Niagara, 340-341 (map), 368 Fort Pitt, 310 Fort Sackville, 345 Fox Indians, 22, 118, 153 (map), 304, 348, 351 France, and the American Revo足 lution, 337, 344 explorations in North America, 19-25, 68-70 in Louisiana, 99-100, 168-225, 179 (map), 372 relations with the Indians, 114, 121-122, 180, 189-190 Franciscans, 11, 40, 41-42, 49, 130, 259

Franklin, Benjamin, 67, 308, 312, 313, 321, 326, 328, 330, 334, 354-355, 355, 359-361, 362 Frederick II of Prussia, 167, 215, 356 French and Indian War, 99, 122, 167, 331 see also Seven Years’ War French Revolution, 369-371 Freneau, Philip, 326-327 Frontenac, Comte Louis de Baude, 23, 83-84 Fuca, Juan de, see Valerianos Apostolos Fur trade, 19, 22, 23, 26, 182-184, 280-281, 303304, 308, 310, 314-315, 321, 325, 330, 339, 347, 365, 367 Gdlvez, Bernardo de, 276, 278-293, 283 (map), 339, 344, 348 Galvez, Jos6 de, 232-241, 246-247, 254, 269-270, 275, 288 Gdlvez, Matias, 276 Garces, Francisco, 109, 136-138, 146-147, 241-244, 248, 264-267, 272-273 (map), 274 Gastaldi, Giacomo, 52, 61 Gen6t, Edmond, 370-371 George III of England, 105, 107, 311, 312, 314 Germans as immigrants, 173, 321, 331 Gila River, 129, 136 Gilbert, Sir Humphrey, 62, 63 Gold, 11, 74, 109 see also Metals Gomara, Francisco Lopez de, 51-52 Gosiute Indians, 110, 149, 153 (map) Graef, Joannes G., 82-83 Gran Quivira, see Quivira Grand Ohio Company, 321 Great Basin, 146-155 Great Lakes, 71, 336, 370 Great Plains, 151 see also Indians, Plains Great Salt Lake, 92 Groseilliers, Mddard Chouart, Sieur de, 22, 26, 191 Guns and Indian culture, 118-119 Hagaazen, King of Acaanibas, 73 Hakluyt, Richard, 62, 63 Haldimand, Frederick, 342343, 353 Hamilton, Alexander, 369 Hamilton, Henry, 340-341 (map), 342, 343, 345, 353 Havasupai Indians, 129, 153 (map) Hazard, Samuel, 322

Heceta, Bruno de, 251-254 Hennepin, Louis, 76-83, 77, 79, 81, 87, 93, 102, 104 Henry, Patrick, 308, 337, 347 Hesse, Emmanuel, 340-341 (map), 348-351 Hopi Indians, 17, 48-49, 97, 108-109, 125, 128, 153 (map), 264, 266, 274 Horses and Plains cultures, 114, 114-121, 125-126, 133, 150-151, 268 Hudson, Henry, 65, 69 Hudson Bay, 68-69, 82 Hudson’s Bay Company, 67 Huron Indians, 22, 334 Iberville, Pierre LeMoyne, Sieur d’, 26, 170, 171, 182 Illinois Country, 183-187, 198, 202, 289, 303-304, 336338, 342-343, 346-347 Indians, Algonkin, 110, 141, 155 and American character, 318 and American Revolution 333-336, 346, 348, 350 Athapascan, 110, 130, 133, 141 attitudes toward land, 109- 110 Caddoan, 110, 123, 153 (map) Californian, 139, 138-145 cultural diversity among, 110-

111

diseases and, 121, 129, 177 and Europeans, 83, 104, 111-123 Hokans, 141 as informants to explorers, 92-93 Jewish origins of, 82 of Pacific Northwest, 154, 154-163 Penukan,141 Penutian, 155 Plains, 89, 113-123, 134 population estimates, 140 Pythagorean origins of, 86 Salishan, 155 Shoshonian, 115, 119, 125, 141, 146, 148, 150 Siouan, 110 Tanoan, 125 Welsh origins of, 96-99 Yuki, 141, 153 (map) see also individual tribes Iowa Indians, 153 (map), 304 Iroquois Indians, 23, 26, 83, 153 (map), 182 Jay, John, 355, 358, 359360, 370-371 Jefferson, Thomas, 30-31, 299, 328-331, 337, 347, 352, 369-372 Jeffrey, Thomas, 105 Jesuits, 11, 19, 42, 49, 78, 130, 136, 186-188

382

Jolliet, Louis, 22, 71 Kansa Indians, 15, 51, 90, 121, 123, 153 (map), 201, 202 Kaskaskia, 179 (map), 199 (map), 337, 338, 340341 (map) Kentucky, 324-325, 352 Kino, Eusebio, 48, 58-59, 129-130, 130, 136 Kiowa Indians, 119, 153 (map) Kroeber, Alfred L., 139, 140, 145 Kuksu cults, 142 Kutenai Indians, 119, 151, 153 (map) Kwakiutl Indians, 155, 156 La Galissoni6re, RollandMichel Barron, Comte de, 184 La Harpe, Benard de, 194195, 196-198, 199 (map), 206 Lahontan, Baron de, 83-88, 90, 92, 93, 104, 322 La Salle, Robert Cavelier, Sieur de, 23-27, 40, 41, 71, 73, 75, 76-78, 8081, 88, 167, 182, 197198, 211 Lasuen, Fermin, 145, 248 La Verendrye, Frangois, 199 (map), 208, 209 La Verendrye, JeanBaptiste, 207 La Verendrye, La Jemeraye, 207 La Verendrye, Louis-Joseph, 199 (map), 208, 209 La Verendrye, Sieur de, Pierre Gaultier de Varennes, 206-211 Law, John, 172-177, 183 Ledyard, John, 298, 330 LeMoyne brothers, 170, 172, 190 Antoine, Sieur de Chateaugu6, 170 Joseph, Sieur de Serigny, 170 see also Bienville, Jean Baptiste LeMoyne, Sieur de; Iberville, Pierre LeMoyne Sieur d’ Lewis, Meriwether, 155, 159, 330 Liguest, Pierre de Laclede, 212, 213 Livingstone, Robert, 373-374 Locke, John, 332 Lok, Michael, 62, 63-64 Long River (mythical), 8485, 84-88 Lord Dunmore’s War, 324-325 Los Adaes, 192-197 Los Angeles, founding of, 247 Louis XIV of France, 27, 40, 45, 78, 172, 213

Louis XV of France, 168, 172, 213-214, 216, 220, 224 Louis X VI of France, 221, 355 Louisiana, in American Revolution, 338 English in, 279-280, 283 (map), 300-310 exploration of, 14, 27 French in, 99-100, 168225, 372 Purchase, 30, 373-374 Spanish in, 231, 276293, 371 under United States, 373-374 Mackenzie, Alexander, 366 Madoc, Prince, 96-99, 207 Maize cultivation, 125, 12 6 127, 133, 138 Malaspina, Alejandro, 70 Mallet brothers, 199 (map), 203-204, 206 Mandan Indians, 97-99, 120, 121, 153 (map), 207-208 Marquette, Jacques, 22, 71, 181, 182, 198 McGillivray, Alexander, 285 Mendinueta y Musquiz, Pedro Fermm de, 258, 265 Mendoza, Antonin de, 35-36 Metals, 30, 33-49, 89, 176177, 256 see also Gold Miami Indians, 22, 153 (map), 340-341 (map) Miera y Pacheco, Don Bernardo, 43, 266 Miscegenation, 184 Mission settlements, 134, 142, 143-146, 240, 245 (map), 247-248, 248 Mississippi Company, 321 Mississippi River, 22-27, 40, 71, 73, 76, 80-82, 82, 84, 89, 95, 173, 179 (map), 181, 185, 199 (map), 232, 327, 349, 367, 368, 370 Mississippi Valley, 309, 365 Missouri Indians, 153 (map), 202-203, 304 Missouri River, 71, 89-91, 95, 97, 121, 179 (map), 185, 198, 199 (map) Miwok Indians, 143, 153 (map) Mobile, 283 (map), 291 Mobile Bay, 171, 283 (map) Modoc Indians, 97, 153 (map) Mojave Indians, 138, 146, 153 (map) Moncacht-Ape (mythical Indian), 90-91, 99 Monroe, James, 373 Montalvo, Garci Ordonez de, 56-57 Monterey, 235-238, 242,

272-273 (map) Monterey Bay, 144 Mourelle de la Rua, Francisco Antonio, 252-254

Napoleon I of France, 223, 371-374 Narvaez, Panfilo de, 14, 20-21 (map), 33 Natchez, 180-181, 283 (map) Natchitoches, 190 192, 196, 198 Navajo Indians, 97, 128, 131134, 150, 153 (map), 275 Navigation Acts, 319 Netherlands, 13-14, 355 Neve, Felipe de, 246-248, 275 New Albion, 17, 93, 105, 297 New Mexico, 231, 246, 255264, 270, 272-273 (map), 274, 365 New Orleans, 168, 174, 177, 179 (map), 199 (map), 217, 220, 279, 284-288, 303, 307, 310, 344, 365, 370, 373 Nez Perce Indians, 151-155, 153 (map) Niza, Marcos de, 36, 51 Nootka Convention of 1790, 368-369 Nootka Indians, 153 (map), 155, 157 Nootka Sound, 161, 298, 330, 367 Northwest Passage, 60, 61, 62-70, 92, 249, 285, 306, 328, 330 Oâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;Conor, Don Hugo, 268-270 Ohio Company, 321 Olleyquotequibe, see Palma, Salvador Onate, Juan de, 17-19, 2021 (map), 39, 44, 58, 136, 256 Oâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;Reilly, Don Alejandro, 220, 277, 278, 282 Osage Indians, 97, 121, 153 (map), 162, 200, 202 Ottawa Indians, 22, 153 (map), 162, 332, 348 Pacific Northwest, Indian cultures, 141, 155-163 Paine, Thomas, 300, 331 Paiute Indians, 43, 92, 150, 153 (map) Palma, Salvador, 135-138, 242 Palma, Ygnacio, 135, 137 Palou, Francisco, 145, 228 Palouse Indians, 154 Panamint Indians, 146, 147, 153 (map) Papago Indians, 110, 130, 153 (map), 267 Pawnee Indians, 72, 110, 115, 119, 153 (map), 200 Peace o f Paris, see Treaty of Paris

383

Penalosa, Don Diego de, 40, 44, 66-67 Perez, Juan Josb, 236, 249251 Philip II of Spain, 17, 229 Pima Indians, 110, 129-130, 153 (map), 234 Pimeria, Alta, 129 Pinon nuts, 140 Pinus monophylla, 149 see also Pinon nuts Pitt, William, 300, 311, 313 Pitt, William the Elder, 167 Platte River, 71, 199 (map) Pollock, Oliver, 282, 286 Ponce de Leon, 14 Pond, Peter, 119, 305 Pontchartrain, Jerome Phelypeaux, 74-76, 172, 186 Pontiac, Ottawa chief, 162163 Pontiac Rebellion, 307, 322 Pope, 26, 124 Portol6, Gaspar de, 236, 238 Portugal, 13 Posadas, Alonso de, 40-41, 44-45 Potawatomi Indians, 22, 153 (map) Potlatch, 156 Proclamation of 1763, 308, 310, 314, 322, 328 Provincias Internas, 246, 255, 269 Pueblo Indians, 17, 26, 37, 124-130, 133-134, 141, 153 (map) Pueblos, 245 (map) Pueblo Uprising of 1680, 40, 112, 124, 126 Purchas, Samuel, 58, 64 Quadra, Don Juan Francisco de la Bodega y, 143144, 251-255 Quebec, 19, 22 Quebec Act, 314-315 Quivira, 37 38-41, 44-45, 51-53, 61, 105 Radisson, Sieur Pierre Esprit, 22, 26, 191 Raleigh, Sir Walter, 62 Ramon, Don Diego, 191-192 Raynal, Abb6, 312 Recollect Order, 76, 79 Red River, 89, 179 (map), 199 (map) Rio Grande del Norte, 124, 199 (map), 262-263 (map) Rio Grande Valley, 132 Rivera y Moncada, Fernando de, 236, 244-247 Rocheblave, Chevalier de, 337-338 Roderique Hortalez et Cie, 167, 222 Rogers, Robert, 101-102, 305, 306

Rogers’ Rangers, 101, 305 Rubi, Marques de, 267-269 Russia, 68, 231-234, 238240, 249, 251, 253-255, 267, 330 Sagean, Mathieu, 73-76 St. Denis, Louis Juchereau de, 190-196, 199 (map), 206, 271 Saint Lawrence River, 71 Saint Louis, 212, 214, 340341 (map), 349-351, 353-354 Salmon, 154-156 Salt Lake, 87-88 San Antonio de Padua Mission, 144, 268 San Carlos Borromeo de Carmelo Mission, 248 San Diego Bay, 16 San Diego de Alcala Mission, 143, 144 San Francisco Bay, 141, 238 San Francisco de Asis Mission, 144, 145, 190, 228, 244 San Gabriel Arcangel Mission, 144, 147, 240, 247 San Juan Capistrano Mission, 247 San Luis Obispo de Tolosa Mission, 144, 247 San Pedro River, 129, 132 San Xavier del Bac Mission, 130 Santa Barbara Channel, 16 Santa Fe Trail, 365 Sauk Indians, 22, 118, 153 (map), 304, 340-341 (map), 348, 350, 351 Scots immigrants, 321, 331 Sea otter, 298, 304, 330, 367 see also Fur trade Sedelmayr, Jacobo, 42, 136 Seminarians, 186-188 Seneca Indians, 97 Seri Indians, 234, 235, 242, 271 Serra, Junipero, 142, 142145, 231, 236-238, 240, 242, 247, 248 Seven Years’ War, 167, 212, 214, 217, 224, 277, 300, 309, 337, 356 see also French and Indian War Shawnee Indians, 97, 153 (map), 162, 324-325, 334, 340-341 (map), 352 Sheep, 134 Shelburne, Lord, 303, 309-

311, 314, 359 Shoshoni Indians, 119, 149, 151, 153 (map) Sierra Azul, 44-49 Silver, see Metals Sinclair, Patrick, 348, 350 Sioux Indians, 78-79, 80, 82, 102, 104-105, 112, 121, 153 (map), 163, 207-208, 304, 306, 307, 340-341 (map), 348, 350 Dakota, 119 Smith, Adam, 12, 320 Sobaipuri Indians, 130, 132 Spain, and the American Revolution, 336, 344, 348, 356, 361 explorations in North America, 13, 13-19, 20-21 (map), 253 and the French and Indian War, 166-170 in Louisiana, 217-225, 303-304, 307, 351, 358359, 367 mission settlements, 142146, 240, 247-248 in New Mexico, 231, 246, 255-264, 270, 274, 365 and the Pacific Coast, 367 and the Plains Indians, 130-133 and pueblo culture, 125131, 133-134 relations with the Indians, 113-114, 122 in the Southwest, 17501776, 262-263 (map) Stamp Act, 326 Talleyrand-Perigord, Charles Maurice de, 373-374 Tamaron y Romeral, Pedro, 259-260 Taos, 128, 134, 190, 260 Teguayo, 39-44, 49, 66 Tello, Jose Espinosa y, 144 Tewa Indians, 111, 124 Texas, 14, 24, 231, 246, 261, 268, 270-271, 274 Theatro Naval Hydrographico, 65

Tiguex, 51-52 Tlingit Indians, 155, 157 Todd, John, 346-347 Toloache cults, 142 Tonkawa Indians, 119, 122, 153 (map), 267, 271 Tonty, Henri de, 23, 73, 187 Travels Through the Interior Parts o f North America, 102-104

Treaty of Hard Labor, 323 Treaty of Paris, 145, 299, 307 Treaty of Tordesillas, 232 Ulloa, Antonio de, 217-218, 219, i n

Ulloa, Francisco de, 15, 20-21 (map) Unzaga y Amezaga, Luis de, 276-278 Ute Indians, 41, 119, 128, 134, 147, 150, 153 (map) Valerianos, Apostolos, 6364, 67 Vandalia Company, 321 Vargas, Don Diego de, 26, 41, 46-48, 126, 133 Vaudreuil-Cavagnal, Marquis de, 178, 204 Vergennes, Comte de, 166, 220-222, 299, 355, 357, 359-361, 363 Vigo, Francis, 338, 344 Vincennes, 340-341 (map), 343-347 Virginia, expansionist claims, 322, 346 Vizcaino, Sebastihn, 19, 39, 57-58, 235-238 Voltaire, see Arouet, Frangois Marie Wabasha, Sioux chief, 348 Washington, George, 308, 328, 330, 352, 369-370 Wealth o f Nations, 12, 320 Welsh, claims in New World, 9699 origins of Indians, 97 Wichita Indians, 153 (map), 267, 271, 304 Wigglesworth, Michael, 316 Willing, James, 282-286, 336 Winnebago Indians, 105, 153 (map), 348 XYZ Affair, 371 Yankton Indians, 119-120, 153 (map) Yurok Indians, 143, 153 (map), 157 Yuma Indians, 108, 135138, 153 (map), 244, 247, 274 Zaltieri, Bolognino, 61 Zarate-Salmeron, Geronimo, 39, 44 Zuni Indians, 36, 37, 124, 125, 128, 131-133, 153 (map), 265

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That is the importance of this exciting book, which casts new light on the entire Colonial period and on this vital area which was soon to become the Heartland, the West, and the Far West of the new nation. In spite of its sweeping scope and rich variety, this epic nar rative flows easily. Larry Meyer weaves the complex strands together with such insight that the grand historical pattern stands out in clear relief. And he recreates the characters and events of the past so vividly that his pages read as entertainingly as a novel.

Larry L. Meyer was formerly editor-in-chief of Westways maga zine and editorial director for Colorado magazine. He now dedicates his full time to writing. His deep interest in western history is reflected in many of the more than one hundred maga zine articles he has written. He has also served on the board of directors of the California Historical Society and is an active member of the Western History Association.

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