LCRG Pedagogy Bundle by Laurel School

CENTER FOR RESEARCH ON GIRLS

A SERIES OF RESEARCH AND INFORMATIONAL PUBLICATIONS BY LCRG

Putting the world’s best research to work for girls.

LAUREL SCHOOL OWNERSHIP OF LEARNING This self-assessment tool, developed by Laurel’s Center for Research on Girls, is designed to help each student reflect on her approach in order to individualize her learning. READINESS TO LEARN

NEVER SOMETIMES

OFTEN

ALWAYS

NEVER SOMETIMES

OFTEN

ALWAYS

NEVER SOMETIMES

OFTEN

ALWAYS

NEVER SOMETIMES

OFTEN

ALWAYS

NEVER SOMETIMES

OFTEN

ALWAYS

I arrive at school rested, fed and ready to start the day I know where to sit and what I should be doing I have what I need on hand to complete work I have prepared properly for the day’s learning

TIME MANAGEMENT I start tasks with focus and purpose I stay focused on tasks I figure out the time needed to complete tasks I give my best effort until the task is completed

ENGAGING NEW CONTENT I show enthusiasm for new material I connect previous knowledge to new information I can separate important information from extra details I use a variety of strategies for approaching and mastering new content I use resources provided and follow directions

MEMBERSHIP IN A LEARNING COMMUNITY I share the teacher’s attention I manage frustration and emotions I use my voice to effectively communicate ideas and questions I value contributions of classmates I work cooperatively with peers

METACOGNITION or THINKING ABOUT THINKING I appreciate the connection between effort and outcome I identify areas of confusion and appropriately ask for help I draw on past learning experiences and teacher feedback to improve performance on new tasks I work efficiently and know when more effort is, and is not, required for mastery

continued...

THE OWNERSHIP OF LEARNING

1. Note the top two areas that you need to focus on. Example: 1. identifying areas of confusion and seeking help, 2. managing frustrations and emotions. YES, you must identify TWO areas. Write them down here: _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

2. Next, write one or two SMART goals that will help you improve in the areas you identified that you need to focus on. A SMART goal is A. Specific (e.g. not just “Get an A” or “Do better” but “Use the last five minutes of homework to write down questions for the next day) B. Measurable (e.g. you can clearly tell if improvements have been made) C. Attainable (e.g. something you can achieve in the next few months) D. Realistic (e.g. something that is within reach as you build on your skill level at this point) E. Time-bound (Bear in mind that you will reflect on and, ideally, reach this goal over the next two or three months.) _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

3. Choose at least one area of strength (something you do often/always) from the list above and in two to three sentences, explain how you regularly demonstrate that strength. _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

4. Where did you find satisfaction as a learner last year? What progress did you make that you are most proud of? _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

5. What would you like this year’s teachers and advisors to know about your life at school and at home? What extracurriculars like athletics and other competitive teams, theater, dance, service or other outside of school activities do you plan to spend time on? _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

6. What other details of your life are important to you? _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

CENTER FOR RESEARCH ON GIRLS Putting the world’s best research to work for girls.

Laurel School One Lyman Circle, Shaker Heights, Ohio 44122 216.455.3061 • LaurelSchool.org

LaurelSchool.org/LCRG

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Copyright © 2020 Laurel’s Center for Research on Girls, LaurelSchool.org/LCRG. Please do not duplicate. If you wish to adapt for your own purposes, Laurel’s Center for Research on Girls must be credited and include the website link.

CENTER FOR RESEARCH ON GIRLS

A SERIES OF RESEARCH AND INFORMATIONAL PUBLICATIONS BY LCRG

Putting the world’s best research to work for girls.

PRIMARY SCHOOL OWNERSHIP OF LEARNING The Laurel education is designed to be intellectually and personally challenging in order to develop students who know how to embrace challenges, navigate difficulties and thrive in a variety of conditions. Girls need to know their strengths, learn how to cultivate them and apply them in developmentally appropriate ways. The categories outlined below guide girls through taking care of themselves, looking to others when needed, persevering in the face of difficulty, seeking diverse solutions and deploying their talents in the service of meaningful goals. This self-assessment tool, developed by Laurel’s Center for Research on Girls, is designed to help each student reflect on her approach to school in order to individualize her learning.

READINESS TO LEARN

NEVER SOMETIMES

OFTEN

ALWAYS

NEVER SOMETIMES

OFTEN

ALWAYS

NEVER SOMETIMES

OFTEN

ALWAYS

NEVER SOMETIMES

OFTEN

ALWAYS

NEVER SOMETIMES

OFTEN

ALWAYS

I arrive at school rested, fed and ready to start the day I know where to sit and what I should be doing I have what I need on hand to complete work I recognize the connection between effort and outcome

TIME MANAGEMENT I start tasks with focus and purpose I stay focused on tasks I know how long it takes me to complete different tasks I set aside time to complete my work

ENGAGEMENT I stick with things that are hard I show enthusiasm for new material I connect what I know to new information I determine the difference between main ideas and supporting details

MEMBERSHIP IN A LEARNING COMMUNITY I share the teacher’s attention I manage frustration and regulate emotions I effectively communicate ideas and questions I attend to lessons and activities and contribute in meaningful ways I value classmates’ perspectives and participation

METACOGNITION or THINKING ABOUT THINKING I identify areas of confusion and appropriately ask for help I improve by drawing on past learning experiences and teacher feedback I interpret patterns to shape my understanding I support my conclusions with reasoned thought and relevant evidence

continued...

THE OWNERSHIP OF LEARNING

GOAL-SETTING: In the space below, write down your goals from earlier in the year. _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Reflect on these goals. How have you made progress? How might you level up or adjust your goals at this point in the year? _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Choose at least one area of strength (something you do often/always) from the list above and in two to three sentences, explain how you regularly demonstrate that strength. _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Choose an area of weakness (something you do sometimes/never) and write down your plan to improve in that area. _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

CENTER FOR RESEARCH ON GIRLS Putting the world’s best research to work for girls.

Laurel School One Lyman Circle, Shaker Heights, Ohio 44122 216.455.3061 • LaurelSchool.org

LaurelSchool.org/LCRG

/CRGLaurelSchool

@CRGLaurelSchool

CENTER FOR RESEARCH ON GIRLS

A SERIES OF RESEARCH AND INFORMATIONAL PUBLICATIONS BY LCRG

Putting the world’s best research to work for girls.

MIDDLE SCHOOL OWNERSHIP OF LEARNING This self-assessment tool, developed by Laurel’s Center for Research on Girls, is designed to help each student reflect on her approach in order to individualize her learning. READINESS TO LEARN

NEVER SOMETIMES

OFTEN

ALWAYS

NEVER SOMETIMES

OFTEN

ALWAYS

NEVER SOMETIMES

OFTEN

ALWAYS

NEVER SOMETIMES

OFTEN

ALWAYS

NEVER SOMETIMES

OFTEN

ALWAYS

I arrive at school rested, fed and ready to start the day I know where to sit and what I should be doing I have what I need on hand to complete work I have prepared properly for the day’s learning

TIME MANAGEMENT I start tasks with focus and purpose I stay focused on tasks I figure out the time needed to complete tasks I give my best effort until the task is completed

continued...

Student Signature __________________________________________________________________________________ Advisor Signature __________________________________________________________________________________

CENTER FOR RESEARCH ON GIRLS Putting the world’s best research to work for girls.

Laurel School One Lyman Circle, Shaker Heights, Ohio 44122 216.455.3061 • LaurelSchool.org

LaurelSchool.org/LCRG

/CRGLaurelSchool

@CRGLaurelSchool

CENTER FOR RESEARCH ON GIRLS

A SERIES OF RESEARCH AND INFORMATIONAL PUBLICATIONS BY LCRG

Putting the world’s best research to work for girls.

UPPER SCHOOL OWNERSHIP OF LEARNING The Laurel education is designed to be intellectually and personally challenging in order to develop students who know how to embrace challenges, navigate difficulties and thrive in a variety of conditions. Girls need to know their strengths, learn how to cultivate them and apply them in developmentally appropriate ways. The categories outlined below guide girls through taking care of themselves, looking to others when needed, persevering in the face of difficulty, seeking diverse solutions and deploying their talents in the service of meaningful goals. This self-assessment tool, developed by Laurel’s Center for Research on Girls, is designed to help each student reflect on her approach to school in order to individualize her learning.

READINESS TO LEARN: I come to school • Well rested and on time • Prepared for class ] Homework completed ] Materials on hand biggest strength: __________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________ biggest challenge: ________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________

TIME MANAGEMENT: I am

MEMBERSHIP IN A LEARNING COMMUNITY: I strive to • Effectively use resources to grapple with challenging material • Seek out teachers for extra help or explanation when needed • Respect multiple viewpoints and work to see situations from others’ points of view • Engage with disagreement as a conversation, not to shut others down • Manage frustration and regulate emotions biggest strength: __________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________ biggest challenge: ________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________

• Strategic in planning homework and studying ] Take into account the week’s schedule ] Know—and use—places and times that help me focus • Strategic in approaching my work ] Break down big projects into steps and tackle them one at a time ] Preview most effective strategies before beginning a task • Realistic in knowing how long I need for different kinds of tasks

METACOGNITION OR THINKING ABOUT THINKING: I can

biggest strength: __________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________

biggest challenge: ________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________

ENGAGING NEW CONTENT: I am

MOTIVATION AND LEARNING STRATEGIES: I know how to

• Open to new ideas and new approaches to material • Able to connect new information to previous knowledge • Able to distinguish important content from extraneous details. biggest strength: __________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________ biggest challenge: ________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________

• Recognize the connection between effort and outcome • Accept uncertainty and confusion as a necessary part of the learning process • Draw on past learning experiences and teacher feedback to improve performance on new tasks • Work efficiently and know when more effort is, and is not, required for mastery

• Keep motivated when my interest in the material wanes • Minimize my use of ineffective study strategies (highlighting and rereading material) • Maximize my use of effective study strategies (spaced practice and sample testing) • Take effective breaks and get myself restarted biggest strength: __________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________ biggest challenge: ________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________

continued...

THE OWNERSHIP OF LEARNING

GOAL-SETTING: In the space below, write down your academic goals for the current school year: _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Choose at least one area of strength from the list above and in two to three sentences, explain how you regularly demonstrate that strength. _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Choose an area of weakness and write down your plan to improve in that area. _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

CENTER FOR RESEARCH ON GIRLS Putting the world’s best research to work for girls.

Laurel School One Lyman Circle, Shaker Heights, Ohio 44122 216.455.3061 • LaurelSchool.org

LaurelSchool.org/LCRG

/CRGLaurelSchool

@CRGLaurelSchool

CENTER FOR RESEARCH ON GIRLS

BEING EXPECTED TO STEER HER OWN LEARNING

WORKING AT THE EDGE OF HER CURRENT ABILITIES

WORKING COLLABORATIVELY

WORKING INDEPENDENTLY

CHALLENGES

UPPER SCHOOL OWNERSHIP OF LEARNING: CHALLENGES AND SOLUTIONS WHAT SHE MIGHT SAY

WHAT SHE CAN DO

HOW YOU CAN SUPPORT HER

KEY PHRASES

• Feeling isolated • Difficulty sustaining attention/ staying on task • Difficulty sustaining motivation

• ”I miss my friends.” • ”This is easier to do in class.” • ”It’s hard to focus at home.” • ”I don’t feel like doing this.” • ”The best part about school is my friends.”

• Use digital tech to study with friends and check in with teachers. • Work in 25-minute cycles, followed by active 5-minute breaks. • Set mini-goals and have small rewards for meeting them.

• If you can, offer to sit near her and do your own work while she is working. • Offer yourself as a sounding board to help her make a plan. • Provide or help her invent small rewards to enjoy as she meets mini-goals (chocolate, hugs, a walk around the block).

• ”Would it help if I did my work nearby?” • ”Do you want me to listen as you spit-ball a plan for getting it done?” • ”What treat would get you through this?”

• Difficulty communicating with group members • Not being sure who’s responsible for what • Disliking group members • Feeling that not everyone is pulling their weight

• ”Nobody’s getting back to me.” • ”It only gets done if I do it myself.” • ”I can’t stand her.” • ”I don’t know what I’m supposed to be doing.” • ”My group won’t listen to my ideas.”

• Be tactical in her approach: decide which conflicts are worth her time. • For conflicts that are worth it, practice assertion skills: standing up for herself while being respectful of others. • Seek coaching from teacher.

• Give her a place to vent (as adults sometimes do about their own co-workers). • Help her focus on the endgame: learning the material and getting the work done. • Invite her to practice assertive or humorous phrases that she might use to give feedback to groupmates.

• ”Do you want my help of do you just need to vent?” • ”What is your aim here? Keeping score with your classmates or getting it done?” • ”Try out on me what you might say to the girls in your group.”

• Feeling frustrated • Finding the work stressful • Loss of confidence • Losing motivation

• ”This is stupid.” • ”This is too stressful.” • ”I’m so confused.” • ”I can’t do this.”

• Remember that school is supposed to be stressful, just as weight-lifting is supposed to be stressful. There’s no growth without stress. • Appreciate that she’s only learning when uncomfortable. • Get the rest she needs to build her frustration tolerance.

• Let her grapple with the work it’s the only way students gain knowledge. • Don’t rescue her. Instead, remind her of a time when she powered through something difficult to get to a valuable outcome. • Encourage her to take a short break.

• ”It’s not you. It’s hard because it’s hard.” • ”Do you remember how frustrated you felt when learning [fill in blank]? Now it’s easy for you. You’ll get there with this new material, too.” • ”This is hard work. A short break will help.”

• Feeling unsure of where to start • Wanting to be told what needs to be done • Underestimating the value of learning by doing

• ”I don’t know what I’m doing.” • ”I want my teacher to tell me what to do next.” • ”I learn more when the teacher just explains it.”

• Break the work down into steps. If unsure, figure out the first step. • Appreciate that while it is easier to listen to a lecture, more learning happens when students grapple with material on their own.

• Encourage her to take it just one step at a time. • If she’s stuck, encourage her to circle back to the original assignment • Empathize that it is, indeed, easier to memorize than apply. • Ask her if she wants to talk through the problem with you.

• ”You don’t need to know how to do the whole thing—you just need an idea for where to start.” • ”You seem stuck. Would it help to look at the assignment again or work on something else and come back to this?” • “You’re right—regurgitating is easier. But the things you figure out on your own will stay with you.” • “Do you want me to just listen while you talk through the assignment?”

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Laurel School One Lyman Circle, Shaker Heights, Ohio 44122 216.455.3061 • LaurelSchool.org/LCRG

CENTER FOR RESEARCH ON GIRLS

creativity A SERIES OF RESEARCH AND INFORMATIONAL PUBLICATIONS BY LCRG

“Putting the world’s best research to work for girls.”

by Tori Cordiano, Ph.D.

CREATIVITY, PROBLEM SOLVING AND GENDER Creativity is the process of generating solutions and products that are both original and useful.1 There are specific thought and feeling processes involved in creativity. Divergent thinking—a thought process that is an essential component of creativity —involves the ability to generate a variety of solutions to a problem. Research indicates that divergent thinking is a mental skill that is relatively separate from intelligence.2, 3 Emotional components of creativity include access to feeling thoughts and openness to feeling states.4 Although creativity is often associated with artistic endeavors, it is a key component of all sorts of problem solving behaviors. It is both reactive, in that it tackles existing problems and obstacles, and proactive, in that it moves culture forward by generating new ideas and problems to tackle. The creative process requires the integration of processes from the right and left hemispheres of the brain to create work that is both intuitive and logical.5

creativity: CREATIVITY, PROBLEM SOLVING AND GENDER Creative problem solving and divergent thinking can be applied to solving real-life problems. Similar to divergent thinking, good coping allows people to consider many possible solutions to a problem.6

HOW CREATIVITY RELATES TO COPING AND PROBLEM SOLVING Flexibility in thinking is an important facet of creativity.7 Some research has shown that higher scores on measures of divergent thinking are associated with the use of a wider range of coping behaviors when it

Fostering Creativity in Children Creativity is a skill that, like other skills, is strengthened through repeated practice. For children, opportunities to practice creative thinking abound in daily life. Engaging in pretend play, tinkering and daydreaming are all avenues for boosting creativity. Not surprisingly, creativity and children’s pretend play are highly correlated.10 Play is a method for children to practice and develop divergent thinking skills, in that pretend play encourages a free flow of ideas, facilitates the expression and regulation of feelings and involves new combinations of thoughts and ideas. Tinkering with building materials or mechanical objects is another way for children to try out new ideas and change their thinking as obstacles arise. Historically, research has suggested that students experience a “fourth-grade slump” in their creative and divergent thinking.11 Newer research tells a more complicated story: while some children do indeed experience a decrease in divergent thinking, others may actually improve their creative thinking as they develop their abilities to critically judge new ideas.13 As children age, they spend more time engaged in

GENDER DIFFERENCES IN CREATIVITY Research findings on creativity and gender have been somewhat equivocal, although generally, few significant differences have been found between boys’ and girls’ creative abilities.16 One area where gender does appear to play a role is in the way that children are affected by evaluation of their creative products.17 In early adolescence, girls appear more negatively affected when they know their creative work will be evaluated. Specifically, girls appear to lose motivation and

comes to addressing everyday problems and stressful situations. 8, 9 Encouraging children to use divergent thinking and creative problem solving techniques may be an important step in building resiliency and coping skills.

structured educational activities and less time pursuing openended play, exploration and problem-solving. The emphasis on more conventional thinking during middle childhood may result in decreases in the on going development of divergent thinking.13 Based on these findings, researchers suggest that open-ended exploration and inventive pursuits should extend past early childhood in order to continue to grow and strengthen children’s creative abilities. Research indicates that the educational environment can have a positive or negative effect on children’s creativity. CLASSROOMS THAT: • encourage independent work, • create a balance between stimulation and distraction and • provide easy access to problem-solving materials can maximize creativity.14 Research shows that children need ample time and resources to create, and that both sexes benefit from having opportunities to create without having their work evaluated or judged.15

become less creative when they expect to be judged by an “expert.” It is not altogether clear why girls are more affected than boys by outside evaluation of their creative work, but it may be that girls at this age are more attuned to interpersonal communication and the expectations of others. Some research suggests that girls in single-sex schools outperform girls in co-educational schools on creative tasks, perhaps because girls in single-sex schools enjoy more opportunities and support for creative thinking.18

CREATIVITY, PROBLEM SOLVING AND GENDER [endnotes]

Guilford, J.P. (1968). Intelligence, creativity, and their educational implications. San Diego: Knapp.

Guilford, J.P. (1968).

Runco, M. A. (2004). Creativity. Annual Review of Psychology, 55, 657-687.

Russ, S.W. (2004). Play in child development and psychotherapy. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Katz, A. (1997). Creativity in the cerebral hemispheres. In Creativity Research Handbook, ed. M.A. Runco, pp. 203-206. Cresskill, NJ: Hampton Press.

Russ (2004).

Runco (2004).

Russ (2004).

Russ, S.W. (1988). Primary process thinking, divergent thinking, and coping in children. Journal of Personality Assessment, 52, 539-548.

Russ (2004).

Torrance, E.P. (1968). A longitudinal examination of the fourth-grade slump in creativity. Gifted Child Quarterly, 12, 195-199.

Charles, R.E., & Runco, M.A. (2000-2001). Developmental trends in the evaluative and divergent thinking of children. Creativity Research Journal, 13, 417-437.

Charles & Runco (2000-2001).

Runco (2004).

Ryan, R.M., & Deci, E.L. (2000). Intrinsic and extrinsic motivations: Classic definitions and new directions. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 25, 54-67.

Baer, J., & Kaufman, J.C. (2008). Gender differences in creativity. Journal of Creative Behavior, 42, 75-105.

Baer, J. (1997). Gender differences in the effects of anticipated evaluation on creativity. Creativity Research Journal, 10, 25-31.

McVey, J.A. (2004). Single-sex schooling and girls’ gender-role identity and creativity. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Fordham University.

Beghetto, R. A. & Kaufman, J.C. (Eds.) (2010). Nurturing creativity in the classroom. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Runco, M.A. (1991). Divergent thinking. Norwood, NJ: Ablex.

http://www.centerforchildhoodcreativity.org

Singer, D.G., & Singer, J.L. (2001). Make-believe games and activities for imaginative play: A book for parents, teachers, and the young children in their lives. Washington, DC: Magination Press.

Linn, S. (2008). The case for make believe. New York: The New Press.

The Museum of Modern Art (2010). Make art mistakes: A creativity sketchbook. San Francisco, CA: Chronicle Books.

Portis, A. (2007). Not a box. New York: HarperCollins Children’s Books.

CENTER FOR RESEARCH ON GIRLS Putting the world’s best research to work for girls.

LaurelSchool.org/LCRG

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creativity: CREATIVITY, PROBLEM SOLVING AND GENDER

RESOURCES FOR TEACHERS Books NURTURING CREATIVITY IN THE CLASSROOM19 This volume, edited by Ronald A. Beghetto and James C. Kaufman, contains essays by leading scholars in the fields of creativity and education. The essays address the importance of cultivating creativity in the classroom and provide realistic suggestions for how to do so within the constraints of a standard curriculum.

DIVERGENT THINKING20 This book by Mark Runco, a clinical psychologist and leader in the field of creativity and divergent thinking, reviews the research on educational implications for creativity, and provides ways for teachers to enhance creativity in the classroom.

RESOURCES FOR PARENTS Online Resource CENTER FOR CHILDHOOD CREATIVITY21 The online presence for the Center for Childhood Creativity at the Bay Area Discovery Museum offers a host of tips for parents and research on creativity. www.centerforchildhoodcreativity.org

Downloadable Documents ORIGINAL RESEARCH: PRETEND PLAY AND ADAPTIVE FUNCTIONING Researchers from Case Western Reserve University collaborated with Laurel School’s Center for Research on Girls to study the relationship between creativity in children’s play and adaptive skills, such as coping, emotion regulation and adjustment. http://laurelschool.org/about/documents/CRG_PLAYSTUDY.pdf

Books MAKE-BELIEVE GAMES AND ACTIVITIES FOR IMAGINATIVE PLAY: A BOOK FOR PARENTS, TEACHERS, AND THE YOUNG CHILDREN IN THEIR LIVES22 Leaders in the field of childhood imagination and creativity, Dorothy and Jerome Singer provide background on the importance of creativity and imagination in young children. The book includes over 100 activities for parents, teachers and caregivers to engage in with young children.

THE CASE FOR MAKE BELIEVE23 Child psychologist Susan Linn describes the science and importance of children’s pretend play, and addresses threats to protected time for pretend play in a commercialized society.

RESOURCES FOR STUDENTS Books MOMA MAKE ART MISTAKES: AN INSPIRED SKETCHBOOK FOR EVERYONE24 This sketchbook published by the Museum of Modern Art invites children to “look at the world around them and take chances expressing what they see.” Appropriate for children age eight and above.

NOT A BOX25 This storybook by Antoinette Portis inspires children to use their imaginations to invent endless, entertaining ways to play pretend.

growth mindset

CENTER FOR RESEARCH ON GIRLS

A SERIES OF RESEARCH AND INFORMATIONAL PUBLICATIONS BY LCRG

“Putting the world’s best research to work for girls.”

by Lisa Damour, Ph.D.

TEACHING GIRLS TO ADOPT A GROWTH MINDSET

Fixed and growth mindset—terms developed by Carol Dweck, Ph.D.— describe two categories of belief about ability. Students with a fixed mindset believe that their mental abilities are static and that their intelligence and abilities cannot be altered with effort. In contrast, students with a growth mindset believe that their intelligence and abilities can be expanded with effort. Research evidence demonstrates that students with a growth mindset academically outperform their fixed mindset peers.1 Some research evidence indicates that girls are more likely than boys to have a fixed mindset, especially in mathematics.2 Despite actually performing as well as boys in math courses, girls doubt their ability to develop their math skills when faced with difficult material; this fixed mindset in female mathematics students appears to contribute to the substantial gender gap in mathematics engagement that emerges during and after middle school.3

growth mindset: TEACHING GIRLS TO ADOPT A GROWTH MINDSET

Growth mindset is based on the belief that your basic qualities are things you can cultivate through your efforts... research evidence indicates that students can be taught to adopt a growth mindset. WHY STUDENTS WITH A GROWTH MINDSET OUTPERFORM THEIR FIXED MINDSET PEERS According to Carol Dweck, having a fixed mindset “creates an urgency to prove yourself over and over. If you only have a certain amount of intelligence, a certain personality, and a certain moral character – well, then you had better prove you have a healthy dose of them. It simply wouldn’t do to look or feel deficient in these most basic characteristics.”4 On the other hand, students with a growth mindset believe that “the hand you’re dealt is just the starting point for development. This growth mindset is based on the belief that your basic qualities are things you can cultivate through your efforts. Although people may differ in every which way – in their initial talents and aptitudes, interests, or temperaments – everyone can change and grow through application and experience.” 5 The differences between these two mindsets have profound implications for how students approach academic challenges and academic setbacks – two arenas that essentially dictate a student’s ultimate academic achievement. The chart below, based on Dweck’s work, summarizes how having a fixed or growth mindset shapes how students approach a wide variety of factors they confront at school.6 The presence of a growth or fixed mindset seems to be especially crucial during the middle school years, a time when the work becomes more demanding, grades take on

greater salience and teachers can be perceived as less supportive. Indeed, research demonstrates that seventh graders with a growth mindset see their grades improve over a two-year period of middle school, while students with a fixed mindset see no such improvement.7

TEACHING STUDENTS TO ADOPT A GROWTH MINDSET* Thankfully, research evidence indicates that students can be taught to adopt a growth mindset and that doing so results in increased motivation, as well as higher grades and test scores.8 One study tested the effects of giving a group of seventh grade students eight 25-minutes lessons aimed at promoting a growth mindset. During these lessons “the key message was that learning changes the brain by forming new connections, and that students are in charge of this process.”9 The researchers found that the students who were taught about the malleability of intelligence went on to demonstrate higher levels of academic motivation and achievement than peers who did not learn about the malleability of intelligence. Programs to help students develop a growth mindset have also found that college students who are taught about neural plasticity and the malleability of human intelligence reported increased enjoyment of the academic process, greater academic engagement and higher grade point averages than college students who did not receive these lessons.10

FIXED MINDSET THINKING

GROWTH MINDSET THINKING*

ACHIEVEMENT…

means proving you’re smart.

means that you’re learning and stretching.

BEING SMART…

means that you’re making no mistakes.

means that you’re confronting a challenge and making progress.

A SETBACK OR MISTAKE…

leads to loss of confidence.

indicates an area for growth.

FAILURE…

leads to humiliation.

means that you’re not yet fulfilling potential.

EFFORT…

shouldn’t be required if you’re smart and takes away excuses for failure.

is the path to mastery that makes you smarter. You get out what you put in.

SUCCESS…

is defined as being the best and is based on talent.

is defined as working hard to become your best and is based on motivation.

A BAD GRADE…

means it’s time to give up.

means it’s time to work harder.

FEEDBACK…

is threatening, as it provides good or bad news about precious traits.

is welcomed, as it provides useful direction toward areas to work on.

THE NEED TO ASK FOR HELP…

indicates a weakness or deficiency which should not be admitted.

is a useful strategy for growth.

STEREOTYPE THREAT…

is high due to fears of confirming negative stereotype.

is low; a stereotype is simply someone else’s inaccurate view of their abilities.

TALENTED PEERS…

become grounds for feeling threatened and jealous.

are a source of inspiration.

TEACHING GIRLS TO ADOPT A GROWTH MINDSET

[endnotes]

RHenderson, V., & Dweck, C. S. (1991). Adolescence and achievement. In S. Feldman & G. Elliott (Eds.), At the threshold: Adolescent development (pp.197-216). Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Hong, Y., Chiu, C., Dweck, C. S., Lin, D. M., & Wan, W. (1999). Implicit theories, attributions, and coping: A meaning system approach. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 77(3), 588-599. 2

Lloyd, J. E. V., Walsh, J., & Yailagh, M. S. (2005). Sex differences in performance attributions, self-efficacy, and achievement in mathematics: If I’m so smart, why don’t I know it?. Canadian Journal of Education, 28(3), 384-408.

Dweck, C. S. (2006a). Is math a gift? Beliefs that put females at risk. In S. J. Ceci & W. Williams (Eds.), Why aren’t more women in science? Top researchers debate the evidence (pp. 47-55). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

Dweck, C.S. (2006b). Mindset: The new psychology of success. New York: Ballantine Books, 6.

Dweck (2006b), 7.

Dweck (2006b).

Blackwell, L. S., Trzesniewski, K. & Dweck, C. S. (2007). Implicit theories of intelligence predict achievement across an adolescent transition: A longitudinal study and an intervention. Child Development, 78, 246-263.

Utman, C. H. (1997). Performance effects of motivational state: A meta-analysis. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 1(2), 170-182.

Blackwell (2007), 254.

Aronson, J., Fried, C. B., & Good, C. (2002). Reducing the effects of stereotype threat on African American college students by shaping theories of intelligence. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 38(2), 113-125. Good, C., Aronson, J., & Inzlicht, M. (2003). Improving adolescents’ standardized test performance: An intervention to reduce the effects of stereotype threat. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 24(6), 645-662.

Dweck (2006b).

CENTER FOR RESEARCH ON GIRLS Putting the world’s best research to work for girls.

LaurelSchool.org/LCRG

/CRGLaurelSchool

@CRGLaurelSchool

growth mindset: TEACHING GIRLS TO ADOPT A GROWTH MINDSET

RESOURCES FOR TEACHERS Book MINDSET: THE NEW PSYCHOLOGY OF SUCCESS Dweck, C.S. (2006). Mindset: The new psychology of success. New York: Ballantine Books. Carol Dweck’s seminal book summarizes her years of research and includes techniques to help children develop a growth mindset.

Online MINDSETWORKS The online home of the “growth mindset revolution” provides resources for parents and educators, including growth mindset programming and case studies. https://www.mindsetworks.com

THE POWER OF BELIEVING YOU CAN IMPROVE Carol Dweck’s 2014 TED talk introduces viewers to the concepts of growth and fixed mindset and the power of growth mindset to strengthen motivation and achievement. https://www.ted.com/talks/carol_dweck_the_power_of_believing_that_you_can_improve

BOOSTING ACHIEVEMENT WITH MESSAGES THAT MOTIVATE This brief, highly-readable article by Carol Dweck provides an engaging and accessible introduction to the research on growth and fixed mindsets. http://www.cea-ace.ca/sites/cea-ace.ca/files/EdCan-2007-v47-n2-Dweck.pdf

Downloadable Powerpoint BRAIN TRAINING Teach students about neural plasticity using this engaging PowerPoint presentation developed by Laurel School’s Center for Research on Girls (LCRG). http://www.laurelschool.org/LCRGcurricula

Downloadable Documents BRAIN BOWL Host a Brain Bowl to reinforce the content of LCRG’s Brain Training lesson (PowerPoint available as noted above). Use these quiz questions, also developed by LCRG, to engage students in a “Jeopardy” style game a few weeks after the Brain Training lesson. Instructors can create a “Jeopardy” game using a chalk board, poster-board, note cards, or any other of a wide variety of materials. The quiz questions can also be loaded into an online “Jeopardy” game available at www.coderedsupport.com/jeopardy. http://www.laurelschool.org/LCRGcurricula

TEACHING TO PROMOTE A GROWTH MINDSET This one-page document developed by LCRG provides several examples of how teachers’ feedback, attitude and orientation toward student behavior can promote a growth mindset. http://www.laurelschool.org/LCRGcurricula

RESOURCES FOR PARENTS Book MINDSET: THE NEW PSYCHOLOGY OF SUCCESS Parents will enjoy Carol Dweck’s book Mindset: The new psychology of success11 about how children can be taught to develop a growth mindset. Mindset provides parents with a variety of tools to foster their children’s motivation, love of challenges and resilience.

purpose

CENTER FOR RESEARCH ON GIRLS

A SERIES OF RESEARCH AND INFORMATIONAL PUBLICATIONS BY LCRG

“Putting the world’s best research to work for girls.”

by Tori S. Cordiano, Ph.D.

PURPOSE AND RESILIENCE Purpose is “a stable and generalized intention to accomplish something that is at once meaningful to the self and of consequence to the world beyond the self.” 1 Although purpose involves setting and striving toward long-term goals, these goals extend beyond the self and include a desire to make a difference in the world. The construct of purpose operates independently from intellectual ability2, race/ethnicity and socioeconomic status.3 Sense of purpose evolves as children age; although younger children are less able to identify long-term purpose, they are still able to set short-term goals related to purpose, such as participating in a classroom service project or practicing their role in a gradewide performance.4 Beginning in adolescence, children are better able to conceptualize long-term goals and to develop a sense of self within the bigger picture of the world.

purpose: PURPOSE AND RESILIENCE ...research on children and adolescents links the development of purpose to a host of psychological, emotional and social benefits.

MEASURING PURPOSE One way that purpose has been conceptualized in the research is through engagement in volunteering and other forms of service to society. Another way of measuring purpose is through the use of questionnaires and rating forms. Measures of purpose ask questions related to a person’s sense of fulfillment, goal-setting and achievement and areas of interest and passion.5

Service learning projects provide an opportunity for students to act on purpose-related goals through service to the broader community. Research on service learning indicates that the most beneficial programs challenge students, give them real responsibilities and involve them in decision-making and planning.16, 17 It is also important for programs to designate time for reflection on purpose and the experience of volunteering.18

BENEFITS OF PURPOSE FOR CHILDREN AND ADOLESCENTS Although purpose has been studied less in children than in adults, the available research on children and adolescents links the development of purpose to a host of psychological, emotional and social benefits. Purpose can help adolescents with developing a sense of identity.6 Having a strong sense of purpose has been found to increase coping by motivating children to manage stressors that threaten to interfere with their commitment to purpose-related goals.7 Purpose can strengthen students’ commitment to their academic work8, improve academic achievement9 and contribute to a stronger sense of intrinsic work value and community involvement.10 Many adolescents engage in service, with estimates as high as half of all high school students completing some volunteer work.11 Researchers have linked volunteering with positive identity development during adolescence. Specifically, volunteering can challenge and stretch students’ perceptions of what they can do and broaden their sense of connection to others in society.12 Compared to other extracurricular activities, those that involve service toward others are associated with positive educational paths and less risky behavior in adolescents.13

FOSTERING PURPOSE IN CHILDREN Opportunities for helping children and adolescents develop a strong sense of purpose exist at home, at school and through extracurricular activities. At home, parents can influence their children’s volunteering by modeling personal involvement in the community and providing warm reinforcement of children’s involvement in extracurricular activities.14 Teachers can foster the development of purpose across subjects by providing opportunities for students to: • take moral action • discuss current events • become involved in student government • apply their knowledge of the broader world to service learning projects.15

The power of “sparks” A particularly interesting area of research looks at the relationship between children’s “sparks” — their areas of deep passion and interest — and their overall wellbeing.19 These sparks are another way of conceptualizing a sense of purpose. When children discover sparks, feel empowered to pursue them, and are encouraged by adults to do so, there are lasting benefits for academic achievement and social-emotional development. Importantly, there are also lasting benefits for the broader society. When children feel that their passions and interests are valued and important, they in turn want to use those interests to contribute to society through higher rates of volunteering and civic engagement.

GENDER AND PURPOSE Most of the research on purpose and gender focuses on volunteering and service. While some studies indicate that young females are more likely to volunteer than young males20, others have not found significant gender differences in rates of volunteering.21 Interestingly, some research suggests that an ethical emphasis on caring for others plays a role in who decides to volunteer. Females and those who identify with a female gender role orientation appear more likely to embody this “ethic of care”22 which translates into higher rates of volunteering among these groups.23 Research on volunteering within families has found that girls are more likely to begin volunteer work when their mothers are involved in volunteering.24

PURPOSE AND RESILIENCE [endnotes]

Damon, W., Menon, J., & Bronk, K.C. (2003). The development of purpose during adolescence. Applied Developmental Science, 7, 119-128, p.121.

Bronk, K.C., Finch, W.H., & Talib, T.L., (2010). Purpose in life among high ability adolescents. High Ability Studies, 21, 133-145.

Scales, P.C., Benson, P.L., & Roehlkepartain, E.C. (2011). Adolescent Thriving: The Role of Sparks, Relationships, and Empowerment. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 40, 263277.

Van Dyke, C.J., & Elias, M.J. (2007). How forgiveness, purpose, and religiosity are related to the mental health and well-being of youth: A review of the literature. Mental Health, Religion, and Culture, 10, 395-415.

Bundick, M., Andrews, M., Jones, A., Mariano, J.M., Bronk, K.C., & Damon, W. (2006). Revised youth purpose survey. Unpublished instrument, Stanford Center on Adolescence, Stanford CA.

Bronk, K.C. (2011). The role of purpose in life in healthy identity formation: A grounded model. New Directions for Youth Development, 132, 31-44.

Van Dyke & Elias. (2007).

Bronk, Finch, & Talib. (2010).

Koshy, S.I., & Mariano, J.M. (2011). Promoting youth purpose: A review of the literature. New Directions for Youth Development, 132, 13-29.

Van Dyke & Elias. (2007).

Schmidt, J.A., Shumow, L., & Kackar, H. (2007). Adolescents’ participation in service activities and its impact on academic, behavioral, and civic outcomes. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 36, 127-140.

Yates, M., & Youniss, J. (1996). A developmental perspective on community service in adolescence. Social Development, 5, 85-111.

Eccles, J.S., & Barber, B.L. (1999). Student council, volunteering, basketball, or marching band: What kind of extracurricular involvement matters? Journal of Adolescent Research, 14, 10-43.

Fletcher, A.C., Elder, G.H., & Mekos, D. (2000). Parental influences on adolescent involvement in community activities. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 10, 29-48.

Koshy & Mariano. (2011).

Morgan, W., & Streb, M. (2001). Building citizenship: How student voice in service-learning develops civic values. Social Science Quarterly, 82, 154-169.

Stukas, A.A., Clary, E.G., & Snyder, M. (1999). Service learning: Who benefits and why. Social Policy Report: Society for Research on Child Development, 13, 1-19.

Leming, J.S. (2001). Integrating a structured ethical reflection program curriculum into high school community service experiences: Impact on students’ sociomoral development. Adolescence, 36, 33-45.

Scales, Benson, & Roehlkepartain. (2011).

Keith, A., Nelson, B., Schlabach, C., & Thompson, D. (1990). The relationship between parental employment and three measures of early adolescent responsibility: Family-related, personal, and social. Journal of Early Adolescence, 10, 399-415.

van Goethem, A.A.J., van Hoof, A., van Hoof, M.A.G., Raaijmakers, A.W., Boom, J., & de Castro, B.O. (2012). The role of adolescents’ morality and identity in volunteering. Age ] and gender differences in a process model. Journal of Adolescence, 35, 509-520.

Gilligan, C. (1982). In a Different Voice: Psychological theory and women’s development. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.

Karniol, R., Grosz, E., & Schorr, I. (2003). Caring, gender role orientation, and volunteering. Sex Roles, 49, 11-19.

Mustillo, S., Wilson, J., & Lynch, S.M. (2004). Legacy volunteering: A test of two theories of intergenerational transmission. Journal of Marriage and Family, 66, 530-541.

Benson, P.L., Galbraith, J.A., & Espeland, P. (2012). What Kids Need to Succeed: Proven, practical ways to raise good kids. Minneapolis: Free Spirit Press.

Damon, W. (2008). The Path to Purpose. New York: Free Press.

Weissbourd, R. (2009). The Parents We Mean to Be: How well-intentioned adults undermine children’s moral and emotional development. New York: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt.

http://www.habitat.org/youthprograms/

Muth, J.J. (2002). The Three Questions. New York: Scholastic Press.

Lundsten, A., Anton, C., & Wilber, L. (2011). Lend a Hand: Girl-sized ways of helping others. Middleton, WI: American Girl Publishing.

Lewis, B. (2009). The Kid’s Guide to ServiceProjects. Minneapolis: Free Spirit Press.

purpose: PURPOSE AND RESILIENCE

RESOURCES FOR TEACHERS Book WHAT KIDS NEED TO SUCCEED25 A guide for teachers, parents and other adults to help children find their passions and achieve their goals, by psychologist Peter Benson.

RESOURCES FOR PARENTS Books THE PATH TO PURPOSE26 A guide for parents and teachers to help children and teens find purpose and fulfill their potential, based on the empirical work of Stanford psychologist William Damon.

THE PARENTS WE MEAN TO BE27 A resource for parents on guiding children’s moral development, based on the empirical work of Harvard psychologist Richard Weissbourd.

RESOURCES FOR CHILDREN Online Resource http://www.habitat.org/youthprograms/28 Provides developmentally-appropriate opportunities for children, as well as teachers and parents, to become involved with Habitat for Humanity.

Books THE THREE QUESTIONS29 A retelling of a short story by Tolstoy that ponders questions related to purpose and compassion.

LEND A HAND: GIRL-SIZED WAYS OF HELPING OTHERS30 A guide for girls ages 9 and up on how to make large and small differences in the world around them, from the American Girl library.

THE KID’S GUIDE TO SERVICE PROJECTS31 The most recent edition of a best-selling guide for children and teens to begin their own small or large service projects.

CENTER FOR RESEARCH ON GIRLS Putting the world’s best research to work for girls.

LaurelSchool.org/LCRG

/CRGLaurelSchool

@CRGLaurelSchool

test anxiety

CENTER FOR RESEARCH ON GIRLS

A SERIES OF RESEARCH AND INFORMATIONAL PUBLICATIONS BY LCRG

“Putting the world’s best research to work for girls.”

by Tori Cordiano, Ph.D. and Lisa Damour, Ph.D.

GIRLS AND TEST ANXIETY Many girls experience intense text anxiety despite strong performance in class, on homework and even on tests. Girls suffer from test anxiety more than boys do1, perhaps because girls have been found to feel more threatened in situations where they are being evaluated.2 Test anxiety comes with real consequences: girls dread assessments, doubt their own abilities and ultimately underperform on tests. Even when compared to boys who suffer from test anxiety, research finds that girls experience higher levels of test anxiety and that their scores suffer more.3 Test anxiety often causes uncomfortable symptoms such as racing heart, trouble concentrating and difficulty recalling and applying relevant material. When girls experience these symptoms, they often turn to ineffective test-taking techniques: they give up and start filling in answers randomly, or they exert too much energy on the test by anxiously double-checking and changing answers. Either way, their scores go down.

test anxiety: GIRLS AND TEST ANXIETY Effective study strategies allow girls to engage with the material instead of simply reviewing what they’ve learned.

CAUSES OF TEST ANXIETY

INEFFECTIVE STUDY SKILLS

MISINTERPRETING NORMAL ANXIETY

Test anxiety can result from inadequate test preparation. Girls may spend hours studying for tests, but the common strategy of re-reading notes and texts is actually inefficient and ineffective.13

A certain amount of anxiety is normal and helpful at key moments. In testing situations, mild anxiety has been found to increase motivation and improve test results.4 Test scores only drop when anxiety becomes too intense and panic symptoms — racing heart, negative thoughts and “brain freeze” — take over.

• NORMALIZING ANXIETY: Rather than treating all anxiety as harmful, girls benefit from knowing that some anxiety should be expected and can actually enhance performance.5 Help your daughter to appreciate that being a little bit nervous will help her “get her game on” so that she can go in and “beat the test.”

STEREOTYPE THREAT A phenomenon known as stereotype threat can trigger anxiety in situations where girls worry that their test performance might confirm a negative stereotype. For example, girls sometimes underperform on math tests simply because they are worried that their scores might support the inaccurate idea that they are weaker than boys at math.6 Individuals experiencing stereotype threat become anxious in performance situations. Their anxiety can manifest in increased blood pressure7, “brain freeze”8, or giving up on the test or second guessing answers.9 When girls are unaware of the phenomenon of stereotype threat, they blame themselves for their anxiety (e.g., “This test is too hard for me.” or “I must not be as prepared as I thought I was!”). As their anxiety goes up, their test performance goes down.

• REDUCING THE EFFECTS OF STEREOTYPE THREAT: Interventions that teach girls about the concept of stereotype threat can shield girls from its negative effects.10 Providing girls with situational (as opposed to stereotype-based) explanations for the anxiety they experience in test situations may also reduce the negative effects of stereotype threat.11 For example, teachers and parents can offer explanations such as, “You may feel nervous because you are taking the test in a classroom you don’t usually use.” Finally, offering positive stereotypes, such as “Girls get better grades than boys,” or providing examples of high-achieving women can also reduce the effects of stereotype threat.12

• STUDYING MORE EFFECTIVELY: Effective study strategies allow girls to engage with the material instead of simply reviewing what they’ve learned. Girls can move from unhelpful, passive studying techniques to effective, active techniques by taking practice tests that mimic the test they’re preparing for (e.g., writing a practice essay for an essay test, doing practice math problems for a math test), asking a parent to quiz her on test material, writing and answering her own practice questions that require her to retrieve information from memory14 or discussing the material with a friend. Research also finds that girls benefit when they break study sessions into short sessions over several days or weeks leading up to the test15 and mix different types of problems together, rather than working on one type of problem repeatedly (a practice known as “interleaving”).16

Coping with Test Anxiety Coping skills can be used to address the irrational thoughts that accompany test anxiety (e.g., “I don’t know what I’m doing!” “I’m going to fail this test.”) and to manage the physical effects of nervousness. Interventions targeting self-efficacy — a girl’s sense of confidence and preparedness for the test — can curb test anxiety.17 Just before and during a test, girls may benefit from using what psychologists call “self-talk” to tell themselves, “I know how to solve these problems,” or “I am prepared for this test.” Girls can also use relaxation techniques such as diaphragmatic breathing, progressive muscle relaxation and visualization to reduce anxiety.18 Ideally, girls should practice these skills before the test at a time when they are calm, so they are able to use the skills effectively during testing situations.

GIRLS AND TEST ANXIETY [endnotes]

Cassady, J.C. & Johnson, R.E. (2002). Cognitive test anxiety and academic performance. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 27, 270-295.

Arch, E.C. (1987). Differential responses of females and males to evaluative stress: anxiety, self-esteem, efficacy and willingness to participate. In R. Schwarzer, H.M. Van der Ploeg, & C.D. Spielberger (Eds.), Advances in test anxiety research, Vol. 5 (97-106). Berwyn, PA: Swets North America.

Devine, A., Fawcett, K., Szucs, D., & Dowker, A. (2012). Gender differences in math anxiety and the relation to math performance while controlling for test anxiety. Behavioral and Brain Functions, 8, 1-9.

Gregor, A. (2005). Examination anxiety: live with it, control it, or make it work for you? School Psychology International, 26, 617-635.

Keeley, J., Zayac, R., & Correia, C. (2008). Curvilinear relationships between statistics anxiety and performance among undergraduate students: evidence for optimal anxiety. Statistics Education Research Journal, 7, 4-15.

Spencer, S.J., Steele, C.M., & Quinn, D.M. (1999). Stereotype threat and women’s math performance. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 35, 4-28.

Osborne, J.W. (2007). Linking stereotype threat and anxiety. Educational Psychology, 27, 135-154.

Schmader, T. & Johns, M. (2003). Converging evidence that stereotype threat reduces working memory capacity. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 85, 440-452.

Steele, C.M. & Aronson, J. (1995). Stereotype threat and the intellectual test performance of African Americans. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 69, 797-811.

Johns, M., Schmader, T., & Martens, A. (2005). Knowing is half the battle: teaching stereotype threat as a means of improving women’s math performance. Psychological Science, 16, 175-179.

Ben-Zeev, T., Fein, S., & Inzlivht, M. (2005). Arousal and stereotype threat. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 41, 174-181.

McGlone, M.S., & Aronson, J. (2007). Forewarning and forearming stereotype-threatened students. Communication Education, 56, 119-133.

Dunlosky, J., Rawson, K.A., Marsh, E.J., Nathan, M.J., & Willingham, D.T. (2013). Improving students’ learning with effective techniques. Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 14, 4-58.

Roediger, H.L., & Karpicke, J.D. (2006). The power of testing memory: basic research and implications for educational practice. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 1, 181-210.

Rohrer, D., & Pashler, H. (2007). Increasing retention time without increasing study time. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 16, 183-186.

Taylor, K., & Rohrer, D. (2010). The effects of interleaved practice. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 24, 837-848.

Segool, N.K., von der Embse, N.P., Mata, A.D., & Gallant, J. (2014). Cognitive behavioral model of test anxiety in a high-stakes context: an exploratory study. School Mental Health, 6, 50-61.

von der Embse, N.P., Barterian, J., & Segool, N. (2013). Test anxiety interventions for children and adolescents: A systematic review of treatment studies from 2000-2010. Psychology in the Schools, 50, 57-71.

Dawson, P., & Guare, R. (2009). Smart but Scattered. New York: Guilford Press.

Moss, W.L., & Deluca-Acconi, R. (2013). School made easier: A kid’s guide to study strategies and anxiety-busting tools. Washington, DC: Magination Press.

CENTER FOR RESEARCH ON GIRLS Putting the world’s best research to work for girls.

LaurelSchool.org/LCRG

/CRGLaurelSchool

@CRGLaurelSchool

test anxiety: GIRLS AND TEST ANXIETY

RESOURCES FOR TEACHERS Online Resource LCRG GUIDE FOR TEACHERS: SHIELDING STUDENTS FROM STEREOTYPE THREAT This LCRG research summary presents important information to help teachers understand and address stereotype threat in the classroom. http://www.laurelschool.org/LCRGcurricula

RESOURCES FOR PARENTS Online Resource LCRG RESEARCH BRIEF ON STEREOTYPE THREAT This LCRG research monograph summarizes important information about stereotype threat, including why it occurs and how to combat its negative effects. http://www.laurelschool.org/LCRGresearchbriefs

GIRL VS. TEST In this Education Week article, LCRG Director Dr. Lisa Damour describes how healthy aggression can be a girl’s best friend when it comes to taking tests. http://www.edweek.org/ew/articles/2011/09/28/05damour.h31.html

Book SMART BUT SCATTERED Written by psychologist Dr. Peg Dawson and neuropsychologist Dr. Richard Guare, this guide 19 introduces parents to executive skills, such as organization and emotional control, that can be harnessed to maximize students’ performance and reduce school-related anxiety.

Original Research GIRLS, STRESS AND WELL-BEING Researchers from Boston College and Boston University collaborated with Laurel School’s Center for Research on Girls to study the factors that contribute to and alleviate stress in high-achieving girls. http://www.laurelschool.org/LCRGoriginalresearch

RESOURCES FOR STUDENTS Online Resource ETS GUIDE TO REDUCING TEST ANXIETY This guide produced by ETS, the testing company responsible for the GRE and Praxis Test Series, is designed to help students identify signs of test anxiety and utilize effective test-taking techniques and strategies to manage anxiety during assessments. http://www.ets.org/s/praxis/pdf/reducing_test_anxiety.pdf

Book SCHOOL MADE EASIER Written by Dr. Wendy Moss, a clinical psychologist, and Robin DeLuca-Acconi, a licensed clinical social worker, School Made Easier 20 (for children ages 8-13) is designed to help students understand test anxiety, develop better study and organizational habits and learn techniques to manage academic stress.

CENTER FOR RESEARCH ON GIRLS

education A SERIES OF RESEARCH AND INFORMATIONAL PUBLICATIONS BY LCRG

“Putting the world’s best research to work for girls.”

by Dr. Tori Cordiano, Dr. Lisa Damour and Dr. Kelly Winkelhake

EXPERIENTIAL LEARNING: WHAT THE RESEARCH SHOWS Experiential learning has been broadly defined as “any learning that supports students in applying their knowledge and conceptual understanding to real-world problems.”i The principles of experiential learning dovetail with pedagogical practices known to work especially well for girls. Specifically, research demonstrates that girls are drawn to programming that is collaborativeii and grounded in real-world concerns.iii PLACE-BASED LEARNING Place-based learning, or place-based education, is the pedagogical approach focused on strengthening the relationship between students and their local communities. It has been described as “the process of using the local community and environment as a starting point to teach concepts in language arts, mathematics, social studies, science and other subjects.” iv Place-based learning also emphasizes the mutual benefits of local, hands-on learning experiences for both students and communities and is rooted in the “geology, ecology, sociology, politics, and other dynamics of [a particular] place.” v Much of place-based education focuses on outdoor learning experiences that encourage students to “become part of the community, rather than a passive observer of it.”vi Place-based education is thought to increase students’ intrinsic motivation by helping them see the relevance of what they are learning.vii Indeed, a review of 40 environment-based school programs showed improvements in standardized test scores across subjects, as well as increased enthusiasm for problem-solving.viii Early returns on immersive outdoor education for younger students have relied on case studies and qualitative research. To date, findings suggest that child-led learning in a nature classroom strengthens:

• Social and physical skills • Literacy skills • STEM skills • Motivation, concentration and confidence ix, x

education: EXPERIENTIAL LEARNING: WHAT THE RESEARCH SHOWS

ACTIVE LEARNING Active learning can be defined generally as “any instructional method that engages students in the learning process.”xi General characteristics of active learning include students being involved in higher-order thinking and actively taking part in the learning process rather than only listening. Active learning is a strategy that allows the learner to have more control over her learning xii and can lead to “improved learning gains”xiii as a result of her active engagement.

THE PROBLEM-BASED LEARNING CYCLE Problem Scenario

Formulate and Analyze Problem

Identify Facts

While educators have long used active learning practices within their classrooms, recent research has provided details on the benefits of such approaches. Research finds that active learning improves students’ attitudes, thinking and writing xivand can help students develop a deep understanding of the concepts being studied.xv

Generate Hypotheses

Self-Directed Learning

ID Knowledge Deficiencies

Active learning has been a common strategy and an area of study within the nursing education field for several decades. Nurses and doctors taught through active learning methods outpaced traditional students on measures of content mastery and speed of course completion.xvi, xvii

Apply New Knowledge

PROBLEM-BASED LEARNING Problem-based learning describes a pedagogical approach first pioneered three decades ago in medical education. Medical students are taught, in part, using clinical cases that require inquiry, critical thinking, application of knowledge and problem-solving skills.xviiiAccordingly, problem-based learning has been defined as “finding solutions to authentic problems through in-depth investigation.” xix Teachers act as coaches who prompt students to ask questions rather than providing information and answers. Problem-based learning is now used widely at every educational level. Research has found that, compared to traditional learning methods, project-based learning results in the same level of factual knowledge,xx greater problem-solving skills and better ability to transfer knowledge to new situations.xxi Though the approach has been found to be successful at many educational levels, some adaptations may be in order for younger students. For example, a study of sixth-grade students compared problem-based learning to traditional learning on a unit that involved designing artificial lungs.xxii Students in the problem-based learning group outpaced the students in the traditional learning group on both short-answer tests and a drawing task, yet they also were found to have some gaps in their understanding. The researchers concluded that younger students, especially those in classrooms comprising a broad range of abilities, might benefit from a mix of direct instruction and problem-based approaches.

Abstraction From Hmelo-Silver, C.E. (2004).

SERVICE LEARNING Through service-learning, students provide meaningful service to others while engaging in a learning process that connects their service experience to an academic curriculum.xxiii Many schools have long required students to earn service hours as part of their graduation standards, but service-learning integrates this requirement with classroom content. Studies show positive outcomes for students engaged in service-learning, most commonly in the areas of: “attitudes toward self, attitudes toward school and learning, civic engagement, social skills, and academic achievement,”xxiv with even greater outcomes associated with the practice of frequent student reflection. A recent study involving over 6,000 middle-school students from 20 different schools describes the impact of service-learning after students participated in 17 different STEM service-learning projects. Results from this study show gains in academic achievement, academic engagement, civic responsibility and resiliency. Further, “one Alabama and one Georgia school each reported 20% increases in one year on criterion-referenced tests in science and reading.” xxv

EXPERIENTIAL LEARNING: WHAT THE RESEARCH SHOWS [endnotes]

https://facultyinnovate.utexas.edu/teaching/strategies/overview/experiential-learning Retrieved on January 6, 2017. Cohoon, J. M. (2008). Just get over it or just get on with it. Retaining women in undergraduate computing. In J.M. Cohoon, & W. Aspray (Eds.), Women and Information Technology (205-238). Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press.

iii

Lightbody, P., Siann, G., Tait, L., & Walsh, D. (1997). A fulfilling career? Factors which influence women’s choice of profession. Educational Studies, 23, 25-37.

Sobel, D. (2004). Place-based education: Connecting classrooms and communities. Great Barrington, MA: The Orion Society, p.7.

Woodhouse, J.L. & Knapp, C.E. (2000-12-00). Place-based curriculum and instruction: Outdoor and environmental education approaches. ERIC Digest, p.4.

Sobel, D. (2004), p. iii.

vii

Powers, A.L. (2004). An evaluation of four place-based education programs. The Journal of Environmental Education, 35, 17-32.

viii

Lieberman, G.A. & Hoody, L.L. (1998). Closing the achievement gap: Using the environment as an integrating context for learning. San Diego: State Education and Environment Roundtable.

Veselack, E.M., Cain-Chang, L., & Miller, D.L. (2011). Young Children develop foundational skills through child-initiated experiences in a Nature Explorer classroom: A single case study. La Canada, California. Growing with Nature, p.87.

O’Brien, L., & Murray, R. (2006). A marvellous opportunity for children to learn: a participatory evaluation of Forest School in England and Wales. Forest Research, Farnham, England.

Prince, M. (2004). Does active learning work? A review of the research. Journal of Engineering Education, 93(3), 223-231.

xii

Bransford, J. D., Brown, A. L., & Cocking, R. R. (Eds.), (1999). How people learn: Brain, mind, experience, and school. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.

xiii

Redish, E., Saul, J., & Steinberg, R. (1997). On the Effectiveness of Active-Engagement Microcomputer-Based Laboratories. American Journal of Physics, 65(1), p.45.

xiv

Bonwell, C.C., & Eison, J.A. (1991). Active Learning: Creating Excitement in the Classroom, ASHEERIC Higher Education Report, 1, George Washington University, Washington, DC.

Wiggins, G., & McTighe, J. (1998). Understanding by Design, Merrill Education/ASCD College Textbook Series, ASCD, Alexandria, Virginia.

xvi

Boctor, L. (2013). Active-learning strategies: the use of a game to reinforce learning in nursing education. A case study. Nurse education in practice, 13(2), 96-100.

xvii

Schmidt, H. G., Cohen-Schotanus, J., & Arends, L. R. (2009). Impact of problem-based, active learning on graduation rates for 10 generations of Dutch medical students. Medical Education, 43(3), p.211.

xviii

Barrows, H. S. (1996). Problem-based learning in medicine and beyond: A brief overview. In L. Wilkerson & W. Gijselaers (Eds.), Bringing problem-based learning to higher education: Theory and practice. New Directions For Teaching and Learning Series, (68), (3-11). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

xix

Wurdinger, S.D., & Carlson, J.A. (2010). Teaching for Experiential Learning. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, p. 10.

Dochy, F., Segers, M., Van den Bossche, P., & Gijbels, D. (2003). Effects of problem-based learning: A meta-analysis. Learning and Instruction, 13, 533–568.

xxi

Hmelo-Silver, C.E. (2004). Problem-based learning: What and how do students learn? Educational Psychology Review, 16, 235-266.

xxii

Hmelo, C. E., Holton, D., & Kolodner, J. L. (2000). Designing to learn about complex systems. The Journal of the Learning Sciences, 9, 247–298.

xxiii

Wyss, V. L., & Tai, R. H. (2012). Service learning in high school biology and college major choice. College Student Journal, 46(2), 459-464.

xxiv

Celio, C. I., Durlak, J., & Dymnicki, A. (2011). A Meta-analysis of the Impact of Service-Learning on Students. Journal of Experiential Education, 34(2), p. 165.

xxv

Newman, J. L., Dantzler, J., & Coleman, A. N. (2015). Science in Action: How Middle School Students Are Changing Their World Through STEM Service-Learning Projects. Theory Into Practice, 54(1), p. 52.

xxvi

Sobel, D., Bailie, P., Finch, K., Kenny, E., & Stires, A. (2015). Nature preschools and forest kindergartens: The handbook for outdoor learning. St. Paul, MN: Redleaf Press.

xxvii

http://promiseofplace.org Retrieved on January 22, 2017.

xxviii

http://www.ourcurriculummatters.com/index.php Retrieved on January 22, 2017.

xxix

https://nylc.org/standards/ Retrieved on January 16, 2017.

xxx

Wiggins, G., & McTighe, J. (2005). Understanding by design. Alexandria, VA: Assn. for Supervision & Curriculum Development.

xxxi

Little, T., & Ellison, K. (2015). Loving learning: How progressive education can save America’s schools. New York, NY: W.W. Norton & Company.

CENTER FOR RESEARCH ON GIRLS Putting the world’s best research to work for girls.

LaurelSchool.org/LCRG

education: EXPERIENTIAL LEARNING: WHAT THE RESEARCH SHOWS

OUTDOOR PRE-PRIMARY EDUCATION

CAPSTONE EXPERIENCE

Laurel School launched the Outdoor Pre-Primary program in the fall of 2015, offering young girls and boys a unique opportunity for experiential learning in their earliest school days. Laurel’s rural Butler Campus, with its 140 acres of woodland and waterways, provides the perfect setting for placebased learning. A recent research collaboration between LCRG and Case Western Reserve University seeks to compare the immersive, Outdoor PrePrimary with Laurel’s traditional Pre-Primary program. Over the course of the 2015-2016 academic year, researchers collected data from teachers, parents and students in the areas of kindergarten readiness, social skills, general behavior/social-emotional skills, attitudes toward school and nature and pretend play. Results from the study indicate that children in both programs were equally prepared for kindergarten and showed similar development of play and social skills over the course of the school year.

Laurel School offers the Capstone Experience, a multidisciplinary approach to experiential learning that unfolds throughout the Upper School years. Capstone Candidates select and pursue a specific Research Focus in one of four areas: civic engagement, entrepreneurship, global studies or STEAM. With guidance from mentors and the support of their peers, students engage in regular intellectual discussion, relevant internships and focused travel toward the end goal of completing and presenting on their Research Focus. LCRG is studying how Capstone may affect students’ sense of purpose throughout their Upper School years, with the goal of better understanding this important aspect of resilience during adolescence.

RESOURCES FOR PARENTS AND EDUCATORS NATURE PRESCHOOLS AND FOREST KINDERGARTENS: THE HANDBOOK FOR OUTDOOR LEARNING xxvi Geared toward educators and school administrators, this handbook provides guidance regarding curriculum, structure and best practices for nature education.

PROMISE OF PLACE xxvii and OUR CURRICULUM MATTERS xxviii These websites both provide helpful information for educators and parents interested in learning more about place-based education, including curriculum design and links to other resources. links: www.promiseofplace.org and www.ourcurriculummatters.com

NATIONAL YOUTH LEADERSHIP COUNCIL K-12 SERVICE-LEARNING STANDARDS FOR QUALITY PRACTICE xxix In 2008, the National Youth Leadership Council (NYLC) released evidence-based standards and accompanying indicators for the use of K-12 educators to ensure high-quality service-learning practice with their own classrooms. links: htts://nylc.org/standards/

UNDERSTANDING BY DESIGN xxx This book serves as a guide for educators in designing curriculum, assessment and instruction.

LOVING LEARNING: HOW PROGRESSIVE EDUCATION CAN SAVE AMERICA’S SCHOOLS xxxi This book explores the ways in which experiential learning can take shape at any grade level.

CENTER FOR RESEARCH ON GIRLS Putting the world’s best research to work for girls.

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CENTER FOR RESEARCH ON GIRLS

stereotype threat A SERIES OF RESEARCH AND INFORMATIONAL PUBLICATIONS BY LCRG

“Putting the world’s best research to work for girls.”

by Lisa Damour, Ph.D.

SHIELDING STUDENTS FROM STEREOTYPE THREAT The term stereotype threat describes the condition of being at risk of confirming a negative stereotype about a group to which one belongs. This phenomenon was recognized by psychologists who demonstrated that the mere existence of a negative stereotype can suppress the academic performance of members of the negatively stereotyped group.1 Researchers have since found that stereotype threat can suppress the performance of women taking mathematics tests due to widely-held, inaccurate beliefs that women are not as capable as men in mathematics.2 In light of the far-reaching implications of stereotype threat for numerous negatively-stereotyped groups, over 300 experiments on the causes, consequences and moderators of stereotype threat have been published in the academic literature since 1995. While this research brief highlights studies related to girls and mathematics, the concepts described can and should also be applied to any student who labors under a negative stereotype.

stereotype threat: SHIELDING STUDENTS FROM STEREOTYPE THREAT Girls who care deeply about math and doing well on math tests are more likely to be affected by stereotype threat. THE DISCOVERY OF STEREOTYPE THREAT In the first study of stereotype threat, college students in groups made up of African-American and white research participants were asked to complete difficult problems from the Graduate Record Exam. Participants in the first group were told that they were being tested on their “reading and verbal abilities” while participants in the second group were told that the researchers were investigating the “psychological factors involved in solving verbal problems.” 3 In other words, the participants in the first group were given a prompt designed to stimulate the negative stereotype that African-American students

are less intelligent than white students, while the participants in the second group were given a prompt completely unrelated to the negative stereotype about intelligence. The researchers found that, when controlling for ability by taking the students’ SAT scores into account, the African-American students in the first group significantly underperformed relative to the white students, while the AfricanAmerican students in the second group had the same scores as the white students. Their results clearly indicated the power of a negative stereotype to suppress performance.

The conditions that create Stereotype Threat Given that negative stereotypes exist for members of every social, racial, ethnic, religious and/or gender group, stereotypes can threaten anyone. Yet not every member of a negatively stereotyped group is equally affected by stereotype threat. Both individual and situational factors have been found to increase the likelihood that a person will underperform when faced with the risk of confirming a negative stereotype. • Individuals who are strongly invested in the domain in which they are being evaluated are more likely to suffer the effects of stereotype threat. In other words, girls who care deeply about math and doing well on math tests are more likely to be affected by stereotype threat than girls who have no particular investment in the subject.4 •

Individuals who are strongly committed to their group identity are more likely to suffer from the effects of stereotype threat; girls who are highly identified with their gender identity, or minority students with strong racial or ethnic identifications are more likely to have their performance undermined by stereotype threat.5

•

Stereotype threat is most robust in situations that include a variable that “triggers” the stereotype.

• • • •

One study found that women underperformed on analytical test questions from the Graduate Record Exam when they were led to believe that the experimenter administering the exam was sexist.6 Other studies have found that women are more likely to underperform on math tests when testing alongside men; as the number of men in the room increased, so did the female underperformance.7 Remarkably, stereotypes can be activated by a factor as subtle as a demographic question about one’s gender or race. Danaher and Crandall determined that 4700 more girls a year would receive AP calculus credit if the question that asks about the student’s gender were moved to the back of the test.8

Tests that are explicitly framed as ability tests, or difficult tests, are most likely to heighten stereotype threat.9 In other words, tests typically credited with providing a “pure” measure of ability, such as the SAT, are likely to heighten the effects of stereotype threat. Further, a test must be sufficiently difficult to raise the specter of stereotype threat because individuals do not worry about confirming or disconfirming negative stereotypes when faced with easy questions. Stereotype threat only becomes a factor when people are asked to test the limits of their abilities.10

Taken together, these factors point to the reality that high-stakes testing, such as the SAT or ACT examinations, create a “perfect stereotype threat storm” for highly motivated female math students, especially students from all-girls schools who may feel particularly identified with their female status. Typically, the SAT and ACT are taken alongside male students, ask for demographic information at the beginning of the test, are believed by students to be truly diagnostic of math ability and ask most students to work at the outer limits of their abilities.

HOW STEREOTYPE THREAT SUPPRESSES PERFORMANCE

REDUCING THE NEGATIVE EFFECTS OF STEREOTYPE THREAT

Investigations find that individuals experiencing stereotype threat suffer from emotional, physiological and cognitive interferences with their ability to perform at optimal levels. Stereotype threat has been found to increase anxiety,11 heart rate variability12 and blood pressure.13 With regard to cognitive functioning, stereotype threat reduces working memory (the ability to hold in mind and manipulate information),14 lowers performance expectations15 and causes some people to reduce their effort 16 while causing others to unhelpfully increase their effort (e.g., spending too much time on questions, revisiting and changing test answers).17 In other words, people who are experiencing stereotype threat are likely to experience heightened anxiety. However, being unaware of the phenomenon of stereotype threat, they attribute their anxiety to personal or situational factors (e.g., “This test is too hard for me.” or “I must not have studied enough.”)

Interventions that teach students about the phenomenon of stereotype threat have been found to reduce its impact on stereotyped groups.18 The effects of stereotype threat can also be reduced by providing students with situational (as opposed to stereotype-based) explanations for anxiety experienced in evaluative situations.19 Providing students with alternate, positive stereotypes effectively offsets the negative effects of stereotype threat20 while an emphasis on high standards and reassurance that the student is capable of meeting the standards insulates students from the effects of stereotype threat.21 Studies focusing specifically on female math students have found that self-affirmation – the act of reflecting on a valued, personal attribute – effectively shields students from stereotype threat when taking math tests.22 Teaching female math students about women who have achieved high levels of success in math has also been found to reduce

which only raise their anxiety levels and contribute to “going blank” or panicking while taking a test.

the effects of stereotype threat.23 Not surprisingly, efforts to limit or eliminate variables that are likely to “trigger” negative stereotypes during test-taking situations are also an important part of shielding students from stereotype threat.24

SHIELDING STUDENTS FROM STEREOTYPE THREAT [endnotes]

Steele, C. M., & Aronson, J. (1995). Stereotype threat and the intellectual test performance of African Americans. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 69(5), 797-811.

Spencer, S. J., Steele, C. M., & Quinn, D. M. (1999). Stereotype threat and women’s math performance. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 35(1), 4-28.

Steele (1995), 799.

Aronson, J., Lustina, M. J., Good, C., Keough, K., Steele, C. M., & Brown, J. (1999). When white men can’t do math: Necessary and sufficient factors in stereotype threat. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 35(1), 29-46.

Marx, D. M., Stapel, D. A., & Muller, D. (2005). We Can Do It: The interplay of construal orientation and social comparisons under threat. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 88(3), 432-446.

Adams, G., Garcia, D. M., Purdie-Vaughns,V., & Steele, C. M. (2006). The detrimental effects of a suggestion of sexism in an instruction situation. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 42(5), 602-615.

Inzlicht, M., & Ben-Zeev, T. (2000). A threatening intellectual environment: Why females are susceptible to experiencing problem-solving deficits in the presence of males. Psychological Science, 11(5), 365-371.

Danaher, K., & Crandall, C. S. (2008). Stereotype threat in applied settings re-examined. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 38(6), 1639-1655.

Steele (1995).

O’Brien, L. T., & Crandall, S. (2003). Stereotype threat and arousal: Effects on women’s math performance. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 29(6), 782-789.

Marx, D. M., & Stapel, D. (2006). It’s all in the timing: Measuring emotional reactions to stereotype threat before and after taking a test. European Journal of Social Psychology, 36(5), 687-698.

Croizet, J., Despres, G., Gauzins, M., Huguet, P., Leyens, J., & Meot, A. (2004). Stereotype threat undermines intellectual performance by triggering a disruptive mental load. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 30(6), 721-731.

Osborne, J. W. (2007). Linking stereotype threat and anxiety. Educational Psychology, 27(1), 135-154.

Schmader, T., & Johns, M. (2003). Converging evidence that stereotype threat reduces working memory capacity. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 85(3), 440-452.

Rosenthal, H. E. S., Crisp, R. J., & Suen, M. (2007). Improving performance expectancies in stereotypic domains: Task relevance and the reduction of stereotype threat. European Journal of Social Psychology, 37(3), 586-597.

Schimel, J., Arndt, J., Banko, K. M., & Cook, A. (2004). Not all self- affirmations were created equal: The cognitive and social benefit of affirming the intrinsic (vs. extrinsic) self. Social Cognition, 22(1), 75-99.

Steele (1995).

Johns, M., Schmader, T., & Martens, A. (2005). Knowing is half the battle: teaching stereotype threat as a means of improving women’s math performance. Psychological Science, 16(3), 175-179.

Ben-Zeev, T., Fein, S., & Inzlicht, M. (2005). Arousal and stereotype threat. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 41(2), 174-181.

McGlone, M. S., & Aronson, J. (2007). Forewarning and forearming stereotype-threatened students. Communication Education, 56(2), 119-133.

Cohen, G. L., Steele, C. M., & Ross, L. D. (1999). The mentor’s dilemma: Providing critical feedback across the racial divide. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 25(10), 1302-1318.

Martens, A., Johns, M., Greenberg, J., & Schimel, J. (2006). Combating stereotype threat: The effect of self-affirmation on women’s intellectual performance. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 42(2), 236-243.

Marx, D. M. & Roman, S. (2002). Female role models: Protecting women’s math test performance. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 28(9), 1183-1193

McGlone (2007).

stereotype threat: SHIELDING STUDENTS FROM STEREOTYPE THREAT

RESOURCES FOR TEACHERS Online Resources THIN ICE: STEREOTYPE THREAT AND BLACK COLLEGE STUDENTS Written by Claude Steele, a pioneer in the research on stereotype threat, this article provides an engaging and accessible introduction to the research that discovered stereotype threat. www.theatlantic.com/doc/199908/student-stereotype

REDUCINGSTEREOTYPETHREAT.ORG Valuable information and resources can be found at www.reducingstereotypethreat.org, an excellent website that maintains an updated synopsis of the research on stereotype threat.

Downloadable Powerpoint SHIELDING STUDENTS FROM STEREOTYPE THREAT: A GUIDE FOR TEACHERS This guide, developed by LCRG, summarizes the research on how teachers can shield their students from stereotype threat. While the content in the guide emphasizes the role of math teachers of female students, the information provided can and should be adapted by anyone who teaches members of negatively stereotyped groups. http://www.laurelschool.org/about/CRGResourceCenter.cfm

Downloadable Documents SHIELDING STUDENTS FROM STEREOTYPE THREAT: A DETAILED GUIDE FOR TEACHERS This guide, developed by LCRG, summarizes the research on how teachers can shield their students from stereotype threat. While the content in the guide emphasizes the role of math teachers of female students, the information provided can and should be adapted by anyone who teaches members of negatively stereotyped groups. http://www.laurelschool.org/about/CRGResourceCenter.cfm

PERSONAL STEREOTYPE THREAT ASSESSMENT FOR STUDENTS After learning about the phenomenon of stereotype threat, students should reflect on the specific ways in which they are affected by stereotype threat. This document, developed by LCRG, includes instructions for introducing a personal stereotype threat assessment to students as well as a student handout. http://www.laurelschool.org/about/CRGResourceCenter.cfm

CENTER FOR RESEARCH ON GIRLS Putting the world’s best research to work for girls.

LaurelSchool.org/LCRG

/CRGLaurelSchool

@CRGLaurelSchool

S.T.E.M.

CENTER FOR RESEARCH ON GIRLS

A SERIES OF RESEARCH AND INFORMATIONAL PUBLICATIONS BY LCRG

“Putting the world’s best research to work for girls.”

by Lisa Damour, Ph.D.

ENGAGING GIRLS IN STEM: COLLABORATION The research literature on engaging girls in STEM fields shows that girls prefer STEM work when they are able to work in collaboration with each other.1 Female students report having a better experience when working with other students and are more likely to finish an assignment as well as persist in a STEM course when working collaboratively.2 College-age female students are more likely to complete a computer-related course and major when working in pairs than when working alone or with a male student.3 A study of women intending to major in computer science found that 59.5% of the women who worked in pairs for programming assignments ultimately declared a computer science major while only 22.2% of the women who worked alone did the same.4 Both male and female students who worked in pairs were more confident in their solutions to course work; the confidence boost from working in pairs was greater for women than men.5 Of particular importance, the same researchers found that working in pairs effectively combats the negative stereotype that technical work is solitary and competitive. Studies have identified several additional benefits of collaboration for women in STEM fields: higher quality work6 produced in less time than working alone,7 improved understanding of course material,8 improved course completion rates and performance on exams9 and increased enjoyment of activities such as computer programming.10

engaging girls in STEM: COLLABORATION

...teachers should treat the ability to work in pairs or groups as its own skill set. By mixing up pairs and groups often, girls can develop their ability to work effectively with a lot of different personalities. PROMOTING COLLABORATION While collaboration sounds like a good idea, teachers know that getting girls to work effectively in pairs or groups is not always easy to do. When arranging pairs or groups, teachers should consider these common-sense guidelines for each of the following variables:

• assignment objective and time-frame: the nature of the assignment and the time-frame for its completion may dictate whether (and how) students should be grouped; depending on these variables, teachers m may have students choose their own partners/groups, m carefully assign partners/groups, or m enforce randomness by having students number off to form pairs/groups

•

skill sets: academically demanding tasks may be best suited to pairs or groups of girls with m varied academic abilities (some strong, some weak) or m complementary skill sets

•

personality: m a pair or group of dominant or strong-willed students may helpfully challenge each other’s thinking m a pair or group of soft-spoken students might give each girl a chance to make her voice heard

•

class dynamics: m while still getting to know a class of girls, teachers may group girls randomly to get a sense of the group’s dynamics m girls may benefit from being in “comfortable” groups or pairs for tasks that involve a lot of risk-taking Teachers should feel free to be flexible about their own plans to pair or group girls; instructors are often surprised by who works well together

assessing collaborative work First, instructors should consider whether it is necessary to assess pair or group work at all. If instructors accept that collaboration (like tinkering) has inherent educational merit, they may find great value in having students work collaboratively, even if doing so yields no readily measureable outcome. In situations where pair or group work can and should be assessed, assessments can take a variety of forms. There are two general philosophies about grading group work: one grade for the entire group or different grades for each group member based on contribution.11 These two approaches can also be combined to give students individual and group grades for group assignments.

and who doesn’t. Further, teachers should treat the ability to work in pairs or groups as its own skill set. By mixing up pairs and groups often, girls can develop their ability to work effectively with a lot of different personalities.

FOSTERING SUCCESSFUL COLLABORATION There are several things that teachers can to do help pairs and groups work together successfully:

• talk with students about what it means to work in pairs or groups • fully articulate the nature and goals of the assignment • make sure that students understand the desired result of the assignment have assignment outcomes that can be clearly measured give students clear information about how they will be graded consider weighing collaboration as a significant part of the grade keep groups small; groups larger than three or four students are likely to leave someone out • observe the pairs and groups as they work and offer support or intervention when necessary • have students define clear roles within the group (e.g., reporter, data collector, designer, operator; visionary, pragmatist, etc.); consider having students rotate the roles within the group • create a checklist of what needs to be accomplished, have the students split the responsibilities, but have the pair or group present a final product together

• • • •

A natural converse to the advice above — and a sure way to have pairs and groups struggle — is to ask students to work collaboratively without clear goals and guidelines, accountability for individual group members, or adult supervision and support.

PROVIDING A SINGLE GRADE FOR THE WHOLE GROUP •

Giving each student in the group the same grade has the following benefits:

• It is the easiest way to assign grades for group work. • It can encourage students to make the most of working as a group. • A combined grade reflects the “real world” consequences of a group effort: it is the final product, not the contributions of each group member, that counts. •

Giving each student in the group the same grade also has the significant drawback that some students will put in more work than others but they all will receive the same grade, which can lead — not surprisingly — to upset feelings and damaged morale.

assessing collaborative work (continued) PROVIDING INDIVIDUAL GRADES FOR STUDENTS WORKING IN GROUPS •

Giving students grades based on their individual contribution to the group project has the following benefits:

• Some students will put in more work than others, and their grades will be higher. • It can encourage students to work equally hard.

And the following drawbacks: • Doing so can foster tension between group members because they are asked to judge one another’s work. • It is a more time-consuming way to assign grades. •

•

Individual grades for group work can be based on • teacher observations of the group process • narrative student feedback about the contributions of each group member

• narrative self-assessments of the student’s participation in and contribution to the group process • student-generated time-sheets that track work investment • having each student label her contribution to the final product •

When an objective system is needed for assigning individual grades to a group project, instructors can consider using the following approach: • Determine an overall grade for the project. • Ask each student to turn in a list of the group members and their perception of the percentage of effort put into the project by each member. Remind students that the percentages should add up to 100%. • Average the percentages for each student. • Adjust each student’s grade according to the percentage they contributed to the project.

ENGAGING GIRLS IN STEM: COLLABORATION [endnotes]

Ching, C.C., Kafait, Y.B., & Marshall, S.K. (2002). I always get stuck wth the books: Creating space for girls to access technology in a software design project. In N. Yelland & A. Rubin (Eds.), Ghost in the Machine: Women’s voices in research and technology (pp. 167-189). New York: Peter Lang Publishing, Inc.

Cohoon, J. M. (2008). Just get over it or just get on with it: Retaining women in undergraduate computing. In J. M. Cohoon, & W. Aspray (Eds.), Women and Information Technology (pp. 205-238). Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press.

Werner, L., Hanks, B., & McDowell, C. (2004). Pair-Programming helps female computer science students. ACM Journal of Educational Resources, 4(1), 1-9.

McDowell, C., Werner, L., Bullock, H., & Fernald, J. (2003). The impact of pair programming on student performance, perception, and persistence. Proceedings of the 25th International Conference on Software Engineering, 602-607.

Werner (2004).

DeClue, T. (2003). Pair programming and pair trading: Effects on learning and motivation in a CS2 course. The Journal of Computing in Small Colleges, 18(5), 49-56.

Williams, L., & Ipchurch, R. (2001). In support of student pair programming. Proceedings of the 32nd SIGCSE Technical Symposium on Computer Science Education, ACM SIGCSE Bulletin, 33(1), 327-331.

DeClue (2003).

Nagappan, N., Williams, L., Ferzli, M., & Al, E. (2003). Improving the CS1 experience with pair programming. Proceedings of the 34th SIGCSE Technical Symposium on Computer Science Education, ACM SIGCSE Bulletin, 35(1), 359-362.

McDowell (2003).

Curzan, A., & Damour, L. (2011). First Day to Final Grade: A graduate student’s guide to teaching. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press/ESL. 3rd Ed.

Fisher, A., & Margolis, J. (2011, July, 10). Women in computer sciences: Closing the gender gap in higher education. Carnegie Mellon Project on Gender and Computer Science. Retrieved from cs.cmu.edu/afs/cs/project/gendergap/www/index.html.

Frey, N., Fisher, D., & Erlove, S. (2009). Productive Group Work: How to engage students, build teamwork, and promote understanding. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision & Curriculum Development.

Wolfe, J. (2010). Team Writing: A guide to working in groups. Boston: Bedford/St. Martin’s.

engaging girls in STEM: COLLABORATION

RESOURCES FOR TEACHERS Online Resources NEW FORMULAS FOR AMERICA’S WORKFORCE 2: GIRLS IN SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING This 2006 publication from the National Science Foundation details the projects that have been funded by the NSF to promote gender equity in STEM fields over a period of ten years. This report features a variety of inspiring projects in which girls collaborated while engaging in STEM fields. www.nsf.gov/pubs/2006/nsf0660/nsf0660.pdf

CLOSING THE GENDER GAP IN HIGHER EDUCATION This website includes a variety of publications and working papers based on Carnegie Mellon’s efforts to recruit and keep women in its computer science program. Carnegie Mellon has enjoyed unusual success in this area, with their female undergraduate enrollment rising from 8% in 1995 to 42% in 2000.12 Several of the publications featured on this website address the role of collaboration in helping women to succeed in computer science. www.cs.cmu.edu/afs/cs/project/gendergap/www/index.html

Books PRODUCTIVE GROUP WORK: HOW TO ENGAGE STUDENTS, BUILD TEAMWORK AND PROMOTE UNDERSTANDING Teachers can use this book to promote collaborative work among students while trouble-shooting the various problems that arise when students are asked to work in groups.13

TEAM WRITING: A GUIDE TO WORKING IN GROUPS Based on research about the problems that arise in most group work projects, this book provides a variety of strategies for helping students engage in successful collaborations with their peers. The research for this book was funded by a grant from the National Science Foundation aimed at promoting gender equity in STEM fields.14

CENTER FOR RESEARCH ON GIRLS Putting the world’s best research to work for girls.

LaurelSchool.org/LCRG

/CRGLaurelSchool

@CRGLaurelSchool

S.T.E.M.

CENTER FOR RESEARCH ON GIRLS

A SERIES OF RESEARCH AND INFORMATIONAL PUBLICATIONS BY LCRG

“Putting the world’s best research to work for girls.”

by Lisa Damour, Ph.D.

ENGAGING GIRLS IN STEM: TINKERING Research on the gap between men and women in STEM fields indicates that boys are more likely than girls to tinker with building materials, mechanical objects and computers. In other words, boys are more likely to see computers and machines as “toys” to be explored while girls are more likely to see computers and machines as “tools” to be put to specific uses. In the words of the American Association of University Women, “There is intellectual importance to getting to understand computers from the “inside out” and developing skills and an intuitive feel for programming. There is intellectual value in tinkering with technology—[however] girls reject a computer culture that they see as primarily focused on playing with machines.”1 When girls tinker, they develop skills that promote success in STEM fields: spatial awareness, mechanical reasoning, invention, exploration and experimentation. They also cultivate intellectual habits that are useful in a variety of academic and creative domains, including critical thinking, risk-taking, systematic questioning, self-monitoring and self-correction, creativity and courage. When teachers incorporate tinkering into their curricula, they provide opportunities for girls to explore new ideas freely; in other words, teachers can use tinkering to help students appreciate the pleasures of inventive intellectual pursuits.

S.T.E.M.: ENGAGING GIRLS IN STEM: TINKERING

Defining Tinkering At LCRG, we have come to define tinkering in many ways. TINKERING • requires taking intellectual and academic risks to manipulate situations, objects and/or materials to arrive at an original outcome • involves the careful application of observation and experimentation in the generation of new ideas and solutions • requires the inclination to explore and invent, the courage to take a step without knowing what comes next and the willingness to persist when frustrated • values process as well as outcome Our consideration of the topic of tinkering has led us to conclude there are at least two distinct forms of tinkering. Sometimes, tinkering involves an undetermined outcome that is to be determined by the tinkerer; at other times, the outcome is determined in advance and it is the tinkerer’s job to figure out how to arrive at the outcome. Both are valid forms of tinkering and pedagogy, but each is appropriate for different purposes. Tinkering should not replace all other pedagogical approaches nor does tinkering require that students and instructors dispense with parameters (such as specifications for a finished product), the importance of mastering certain rules (such as the elements of design or the basics of engineering) or goals.

GETTING GIRLS TO TINKER While giving girls opportunities to tinker may sound like a good idea, it is not always easy to put this idea into practice. Several challenges to the process of tinkering and some proposed solutions are identified below: CHALLENGE: Tinkering often requires ample classroom and personal space. SOLUTIONS: Designate an area where girls can build and take things apart and can safely leave their materials in order to return to them at a later time. At Laurel School, LCRG has developed “Tinkering Stations” that are placed throughout the school and provide girls with a designated area to engage in tinkering challenges. CHALLENGE: Tinkering takes time. SOLUTIONS: Many schools have periods of the day or year where students set aside their regular work to explore non-traditional academic and creative pursuits. In the Primary School at Laurel, LCRG stocked the Game Hall — an area where girls can go during recess — with toys that promote tinkering. In the Middle School at Laurel, teachers have found “intersession”— a week between semesters when girls explore non-traditional academic topics — to be an ideal time to pursue tinkering projects. In the Upper School, field day competitions feature tinkering challenges such as building viable bridges using plastic bags and using catapults to launch water balloons at targets.

CHALLENGE: Girls’ tinkering efforts can be inhibited by their uncertainty about how to begin and, once underway, their worries that they are not “on the right track.” SOLUTIONS: In addition to providing ample encouragement, teachers can direct girls to ask their classmates for ideas and inspiration, limit the number of questions that each girl can ask of the teacher, and actively support girls’ willingness to take risks, regardless of the outcome. To help girls get started, teachers can put girls in pairs and tell them to work together toward their goal; it’s often easier to take risks with a partner than when alone. Some girls are comforted by having a grading rubric that gives them a concrete reference to consult. Teachers should manage expectations from the beginning by articulating that the answers will not always be apparent and that the process will, at times, be frustrating. CHALLENGE: When provided with opportunities for unstructured explorations, some girls can have a hard time focusing on the task at hand and may become silly or begin to waste materials. SOLUTIONS: Students might benefit from having a time limit on their tinkering in order to help them focus on their efforts; the time limit can be adjusted depending upon the ages of the students. Easily distracted students of all ages can benefit from being in a pair or group with students who are more comfortable staying on-task.

Tinkering requires the inclination to explore and invent, the courage to take a step without knowing what comes next and the willingness to persist when frustrated. ASSESSING TINKERING Instructors should consider whether it is necessary to assess tinkering at all. If instructors accept that unstructured experimentation has inherent educational merit, they may find great value in having students tinker, even if doing so yields no readily measurable outcome.

• VISUAL ARTS: Tinkering is at the center of the visual arts curriculum; schools should look to their art teachers as the “resident experts” on the cultivation of classroom tinkering.

• SOCIAL STUDIES: Students can tinker with the challenges that In situations where tinkering can and should be assessed, tinkering assessments can come in the form of narrative feedback from the teacher or student self-assessments that address the student’s • dedication to the tinkering process, not the end result, • participation, focus, effort and persistence, • contribution of ideas to a group process. Students can also be asked to reflect (in written or oral form) on the tinkering process itself. Specifically, they can be asked to answer questions about • what they learned about the process of tinkering, • what they discovered about themselves, and • how they learned what they learned about tinkering and themselves. When possible, teachers can develop a rubric to grade projects that involve tinkering. The rubric not only clarifies the grading process; as noted above, students can refer to the rubric when feeling uncertain about how to proceed with a project that requires tinkering.

PROMOTING TINKERING IN SPECIFIC FIELDS Opportunities for tinkering occur throughout the curriculum:

faced the people they study. For example, when learning about transportation, shipping and trade students can build model canals and experiment with channels, locks and boats.

• MUSIC: Students can be asked to tinker with music by creating their own compositions. Structure can be provided in terms of the form or the number of beats, while students tinker with the specifics of rhythm, instrumentation, orchestration and presentation.

• MATHEMATICS: Younger students can tinker with a variety of math manipulatives such as geoboards and rubberbands to create different geometric shapes. Older students can tinker with online graphing and tessellation programs and graphing calculators. Students of all ages can be encouraged to guess at answers, look for patterns and develop their own ways to solve problems.

• SCIENCE: Students can tinker with engineering projects involving straws, popsicle sticks and noodles. Science projects that allow students to experiment with vortex action, fulcrums and gravity, as well as items that float or sink allow ample opportunities for tinkering. Older students can be asked to develop laboratories to answer questions they generate themselves.

In situations where tinkering can and should be assessed, tinkering assessments can come in the form of narrative feedback from the teacher or student self-assessments that address the student’s

ENGAGING GIRLS IN STEM: TINKERING

[endnotes]

American Association of University Women. (2000). Educating Girls in the New Computer Age. Washington, DC: AAUW, Tech-Savvy, 9-10.

Buchanan, A., & Peskowitz, M. (2007). The Daring Book for Girls. New York: Harper Collins, viii.

Tulley G., & Spiegler J. (2011). 50 Dangerous Things (you should let your children do). New York: New American Library, Penguin Books.

S.T.E.M.: ENGAGING GIRLS IN STEM: TINKERING

RESOURCES FOR TEACHERS Online Resources TECH-SAVVY: EDUCATING GIRLS IN THE NEW COMPUTER AGE This downloadable report from the American Association of University Women describes the current barriers to girls’ participation in “computer culture” and details several suggestions for engaging girls in the meaningful computing objectives. www.aauw.org/learn/research/upload/TechSavvy.pdf

TINKERING SUPPLIES A wide variety of tinkering materials can be purchased online. Consider the materials available through websites such as www. mindware.com, www.fatbraintoys.com, www.growingtreetoys.com, www.oakridgehobbies.com and www.hearthsong.com.

CRG POLYHEDRAS Download LCRG Polyhedras (three-dimensional geometric solids) to help your students sharpen their tinkering and spatial skills. http://www.laurelschool.org/about/CRGResourceCenter.cfm

RESOURCES FOR PARENTS Books DARING BOOK FOR GIRLS School-aged girls and their parents will enjoy this book designed to inspire girls with “ideas for filling the day with adventure, imagination—and fun.” 2 Instructions are included for making a lemon-powered clock, working with tools, building a scooter and creating the “coolest paper airplane ever.”

50 DANGEROUS THINGS (YOU SHOULD LET YOUR CHILDREN DO) Similar to The Daring Book for Girls, 50 Dangerous Things (You should let your children do), seeks to reclaim childhood experimentation in a way that helps girls “learn by doing.” The suggested activities (many of which do require parental supervision) give girls ample opportunities to understand why and how things work.3

Online article TEACHING GIRLS TO TINKER This article, written by Dr. Lisa Damour of LCRG and originally published in Education Week magazine, provides a rationale for teaching girls to tinker and suggests some ways that parents might help their daughters engage in tinkering. http://laurelschool.org/about/Research.cfm

Merchandise CRG RUBIK’S CUBE Engage your daughter in hours of tinkering fun with LCRG’s own Rubik’s Cube. http://www.laurelschool.org/about/CRGStore.cfm

CENTER FOR RESEARCH ON GIRLS Putting the world’s best research to work for girls.

LaurelSchool.org/LCRG

/CRGLaurelSchool

@CRGLaurelSchool

S.T.E.M.

CENTER FOR RESEARCH ON GIRLS

A SERIES OF RESEARCH AND INFORMATIONAL PUBLICATIONS BY LCRG

“Putting the world’s best research to work for girls.”

by Larry Goodman, Ph.D. and Lisa Damour, Ph.D.

ENGAGING GIRLS IN STEM: ROLE MODELS Research on the gap between men and women in STEM fields points to the paucity of readily available role models for girls as they consider STEM careers. This dearth of STEM role models harms girls in two related ways. First, as girls begin to consider college majors and career trajectories, the choice of STEM fields is not reinforced by respected role models; second, the lack of female role models reinforces some negative stereotypes held by girls and young women about STEM fields. Specifically, researchers note that the “male geek” stereotype about computer scientists actively dissuades women from considering the field.1 Once women reach college and enroll in classes, role models and mentors can help them persevere in STEM majors. Research from several disciplines suggests that the presence of female peers,2 teaching assistants3 and faculty members4 increases female retention in STEM majors. On the flipside, the absence of female role models and mentors has a clear negative impact. Women cited a lack of role models as a significant reason for leaving the fields of physics, chemistry, electrical engineering and computer science.5

engaging girls in STEM: ROLE MODELS Girls should be exposed to a wide variety of role models and mentors in STEM fields... to ensure that every girl has the potential to find a role model or mentor with whom she connects. ROLE MODELS VS. MENTORS Both role models and mentors are important to cultivating girls’ interest in STEM fields and it is worth noting the difference between the two. Role models may be thought of as lighthouses: they offer a steady point of reference as we travel through complicated waters. In contrast, mentors forge an ongoing close connection with students and offer oneon-one guidance such as academic advice or information about courses and career options. Young female students are more likely to choose to pursue a STEM career or education with the support of a mentor, especially if the mentor is someone with whom the student has close contact. Researchers at Techbridge, a program connected to the Chabot Space and Science Center in California that emphasizes science and technology for girls, have found that girls consider STEM careers when they are encouraged by “family members who communicate enjoyment for their work, strong encouragement for a career in technology, and opportunities to see, hear, and learn about these careers.”6 Both role models and mentors constitute valuable support for girls in STEM fields; in some cases, one person can serve in both roles. ROLE MODELS AND MENTORS COMBAT NEGATIVE STEREOTYPES ABOUT STEM FIELDS Having a wide variety of role-models and mentors helps combat the negative stereotypes girls hold about the nature STEM careers. As the AAUW’s 2010 report, Why So Few?, makes clear, the negative stereotype that STEM fields are dominated by men who are only interested in the technical aspects of programming contributes heavily to the continued gender disparity in STEM fields in both higher education and industry.7 Further, girls tend to prefer careers in which they have opportunities to help others. When interviewed, girls report that they do not recognize the collaborative, social or human applications of STEM fields such as engineering and computer science.

The reality of life in STEM fields is, of course, significantly different from these perceptions. Yet, convincing girls that in STEM fields, collaboration is the rule, not the exception, can be difficult to do. Similarly, girls need to be provided with clear examples of how all STEM fields have socially relevant applications. Role models and mentors can be very effective in this vein. By familiarizing girls with women whose daily work experiences include a high degree of connectedness to others and an ongoing and meaningful engagement with her society, schools can begin to reshape the conceptions that girls have about STEM fields. THE IMPORTANCE OF A WIDE VARIETY OF ROLE MODELS AND MENTORS Girls should be exposed to a wide variety of role models and mentors in STEM fields not only to combat negative stereotypes about the nature of STEM work, but to ensure that every girl has the potential to find a role model or mentor with whom she connects. It is valuable to have role models whom students can easily admire, perhaps because they represent paragons of achievement in their fields. It is also valuable to have role models and mentors with whom students can identify. Role models or mentors with whom students can identify will likely come from a wide variety of backgrounds, racial and cultural groups and be at various points in their career trajectories. BRINGING GIRLS INTO CONTACT WITH ROLE MODELS AND MENTORS When bringing girls into contact with potential role models and mentors, it is worth considering how to make the effort as successful as possible. A one-time speaker will only be successful if she happens to be someone who is inspirational and compelling in that role. In many cases, arranging opportunities for role models and mentors to work with students over time increases the likelihood that a useful relationship will develop and can do more to bring out what that particular role model or mentor has to offer.

enrollment in the computer science major from 8% in 1995 to 42% by 2000 by offering extensive environmental supports (mentoring groups, support groups, etc.).8 Many colleges have aimed to replicate their success by offering similar programs. As a natural extension of this concept, many universities collaborate with local primary and secondary schools.

Below are several ways in which schools might bring girls into contact with role models and mentors. •

•

Look for intra-school opportunities that capitalize on the fact that young students naturally look up to older students. Consider having the older students in your school develop as part of their coursework (in a STEM-related class) a lesson or even a mini-unit to be taught to the younger students. Also, consider having older students serve as STEM tutors to younger girls. Look for local partners from higher education. Carnegie Mellon University increased female undergraduate

•

Look for curricular partners from your community. Schools should invite women in STEM fields from their parent bodies, boards or other community contacts to engage with students – whether on a one-time speaking basis or as part of an on-going project.

ENGAGING GIRLS IN STEM: ROLE MODELS [endnotes]

Margolis, J., & Fisher, A. (1997). Geek mythology and attracting undergraduate women to computer science. Impacting Change Through Collaboration. Carnegie Mellon University, School of Computer Science, Pittsburgh: Joint National Conference of the Women in Engineering Program Advocates Network and the National Association of Minority Engineering Program Administrators.

Craig, A. (1998). Peer mentoring female computing students: Does it make a difference? In Proceedings of the 3rd Austrailasian Conference on Computer Science Education (ACSE ’98). ACM, New York, 41-47.

Butler, D. M., & Christensen, R. (2003). Mixing and matching: The effect on student performance of teaching assistants of the same gender. Political Science and Politics, 36(4), 781-786.

Robst, J., Keil, J., & Russo, D. (1998). The effect of gender composition of faculty on student retention. Economics of Education Review, 29(4), 429-439.

Etzkowitz, H., Kemelgor, C., Neuschatz, M., & Uzzi, B. (1994). Barriers to women’s participation in academic science and enginnering. In E. W. Fechter, Who Will Do In Science? Educating the Next Generation (pp. 43-67). Baltimore, MS: Johns Hopkins University. Cohoon, M., & Aspray, W. (2006). A critical review of research on women’s participation in postsecondary computing education. In M. Cohoon, & W. Aspray (Eds.), Women and Information Technology: Research on Underrepresentation (pp. 139-182). Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press.

Kekelis, L., Ancheta, R. W., & Heber, A. E. (2005). Hurdles in the pipeline: Girls and technology careers. Frontiers: A Journal of Women Studies, 26(1), 106-107.

AAUW. (2000). Why So Few? Women in Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics. Washington, DC: American Association of University Women.

Fisher, A., & Margolis, J. (2011, July 10). Women in computer sciences: Closing the gender gap in higher education. Carnegie Mellon Project on Gender and Computer Science. Retrieved from cs.cmu.edu/afs/cs/project/gendergap/www/index.html.

Rayburn, C., Denmark, F., Reuder, M., & Austria, A. (2010). A Handbook for Women Mentors: Transcending barriers of Stereotype, Race and Ethnicity. Santa Barbara: ABC-CLIO, LLC.

Hixson, B. K. (1999). Women in Science Rule! Nashua: Delta Education.

Sullivan, O. R. (2002). Black Stars: African American Women Scientists and Inventors. Hoboken: John Wiley & Sons.

Dean, D. (2009). Getting the Most out of your Mentoring Relationships: A Handbook for Women in STEM. New York: Springer Science + Business Media, LLC.

CENTER FOR RESEARCH ON GIRLS Putting the world’s best research to work for girls.

LaurelSchool.org/LCRG

/CRGLaurelSchool

@CRGLaurelSchool

engaging girls in STEM: ROLE MODELS

RESOURCES FOR TEACHERS Online Resources NEW FORMULAS FOR AMERICA’S WORKFORCE 2: GIRLS IN SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING This 2006 publication from the National Science Foundation details the projects that have been funded by the NSF to promote gender equity in STEM fields over a period of ten years. This report describes several initiatives designed to introduce girls to female role-models and mentors. www.nsf.gov/pubs/2006/nsf0660/nsf0660.pdf

CARNEGIE MELLON PROJECT ON GENDER AND COMPUTER SCIENCE This website includes a variety of publications and working papers based on Carnegie Mellon’s efforts to recruit and keep women in its computer science program. Several of the publications featured on this website address the importance of keeping female undergraduates from feeling out of place in the overwhelmingly male culture of computer science. www.cs.cmu.edu/afs/cs/project/gendergap/www/index.html

Books A HANDBOOK FOR WOMEN MENTORS: TRANSCENDING BARRIERS OF STEREOTYPE, RACE, AND ETHNICITY Aimed at women who mentor other women, this book discusses the challenges and pitfalls of mentoring and places a special emphasis on the mentorship for minority women or women in non-traditional careers. An entire chapter is devoted to the mentorship of women in STEM fields.9

RESOURCES FOR PARENTS Online Resources WOMEN.NASA.GOV This highly engaging website profiles women who work, at NASA, describes the various roles they play in the organization, and tells the stories of the educational and career paths that led them to the work they do today.

GIRLGEEKS.ORG This website catalogs a variety of resources to encourage girls’ interest in technological fields. In addition to featuring “inspiring women,” this site connects girls with online and local community support for their technological interests.

Books WOMEN IN SCIENCE RULE! This book includes biographies of 35 famous female scientists and hands-on activities related to each woman’s STEM field. 10

BLACK STARS: AFRICAN-AMERICAN WOMEN SCIENTISTS AND INVENTORS This book profiles the careers or discoveries of 26 African-American women, some well known, and some neglected by history. 11

GETTING THE MOST OUT OF YOUR MENTORING RELATIONSHIPS: A HANDBOOK FOR WOMEN IN STEM Full of advice for young women in STEM fields, Getting the Most Out of Your Mentoring Relationships addresses topics such as selecting a mentor and cultivating a mentoring relationship. This book also includes a great deal of advice about the pursuit of academic and professional goals in STEM fields.12

CENTER FOR RESEARCH ON GIRLS

S.T.E.M. A SERIES OF RESEARCH AND INFORMATIONAL PUBLICATIONS BY LCRG

“Putting the world’s best research to work for girls.”

by Larry Goodman, Ph.D. and Lisa Damour, Ph.D.

ENGAGING GIRLS IN STEM: MEANINGFUL OBJECTIVES

Research indicates that one of the main barriers to women entering STEM majors and careers is the perception among girls that STEM work lacks clear and purposeful ties to everyday life. Girls imagine that STEM work has little to do with the real world—a notion that legions of engineers, scientists and nuclear physicists would loudly proclaim as quite wrong. Nonetheless, focus groups run by the American Association of University Women, found that “girls discuss information technology-related careers not as too difficult, but as a ‘waste of intelligence’ and, in some cases, materialistic and shortsighted.”1 In a survey of high school students, female students reported a desire to use computing in non-computing fields as the main reason to consider pursuing a computer science degree.2 College students follow suit: female students are more likely than men to value the ability to use their technical skills for helping others and are attracted to a computer science major when they recognize computing as a component of a career aimed at helping others.3

S.T.E.M.: ENGAGING GIRLS IN STEM: MEANINGFUL OBJECTIVES

STEM Fields: Where the Girls Are… and Aren’t

WOMEN IN ENGINEERING, COMPUTING AND SELECTED OTHER OCCUPATIONS, 2013

It is important to note that women are not underrepresented in all STEM fields. As the chart to the right illustrates, women are well-represented in the fields of chemistry, medicine and biology – fields with obvious human applications. However, men continue to make up the vast majority of fields related to computer science and engineering.4 In other words, women are poorly represented in fields where the human applications are not readily apparent. The under-representation of women in the fields of engineering and computer science is especially alarming as information technology is widely recognized as one of the most critical and fastest growing fields of this century. Further, some evidence indicates that women are in fact losing ground in their efforts to join these fields; for example, statistics demonstrate that while more women completed bachelor’s degrees in computing in 2012 than in 1985, the gap between the number of men and women completing computing degrees continues to widen.5

Computer Network Architects 7% Mechanical Engineering 8 % Electrical & Electronic Engineering 8 % Aerospace Engineering 9 % Computer Hardware Engineering 11 % Civil Engineering 11 % Chemical Engineering 14 % Biomedical Engineering 20 % Environmental Engineering 21 % Computer Programmers 24 % Physicians & Surgeons 36 % Chemists & Material Scientists 39 % Web Developers 39 % Biological Scientists 50 % Medical Scientists 56 %

“OUTSIDE-IN” CURRICULUM Educators should build curricular units that identify and pursue an objective that is meaningful to girls and that accomplishes a purpose which girls recognize as worthy of their time and efforts. While the teacher’s main agenda may be that the girls learn abstract STEM concepts and transferable skills, he or she should capitalize on the girls’ predominant interest in realworld applications in order to accomplish that goal. Research conducted by the Carnegie Mellon Project on Gender and Computer Science learned from personal interviews that “forty-four percent of the women students (as compared to nine percent of the male students) contextualize their interest in computers in other arenas such as medicine, space, or the arts.”6 Further, women who are proficient in mathematics prefer careers in medicine and law to careers in technical fields, because of the perception that the work will be more socially relevant and interactive.7 To combat girls’ misconception on this point, we need to design STEM curricula that revolve around meaningful, purposeful and concrete objectives. In the words of Jo Sanders, an expert on women and technology, “First and most frequent, make curriculum relevant to real-world concerns.”8 Instructors should draw girls into the core content knowledge (the “inside”) by relying on the strong interest the girls will have in pursuing meaningful objectives (the “outside”). In many ways this is the flipside of tinkering: while tinkering aims to overcome a natural inhibition in girls to proceed without a clear sense of what comes next, “outside-in” curricula aim to exploit a natural tendency in girls to privilege work that has real-world applications. If tinkering enables one to develop an “inside-out” understanding of the content being tinkered with, focusing on the purpose rather than the content enables an “outside-in” understanding that is no less important.

Service Learning: A Working Example of “Outside-In” Curricular Design Teachers in Laurel’s Primary School use the “outside-in” approach to great effect. Using a STEAM enrichment program called Level Up Village, fourth-graders learn basic engineering skills in an immersive, eight-week science lesson. They are paired with students from a developing country to innovate a solution to the global problem of electricity availability. Girls use Tinkercad software to create solutions and refine their designs through collaboration with their peers abroad. And they strengthen their already high level of engagement with the project through their connection to a new friend in another part of the world. Even very young students benefit from this “outside-in” approach to learning STEM concepts. Kindergarteners at Laurel School use scientific inquiry to engineer an animal habitat. Over several days, girls plan, construct and refine their designs. The end result is a sun shelter that protects their reptiles (made of UV-sensitive color-changing beads) from the harsh desert climate.

FORMS OF “OUTSIDE-IN” CURRICULAR DESIGN Though the research literature may indicate that girls are most likely to be motivated by curricula that emphasize the human, animal or social aspects of STEM fields, teachers at Laurel School have found that girls are also motivated by objectives that are not strictly humanitarian. Indeed, Laurel’s STEM teachers have found that providing girls with a clear application for their efforts (socially relevant or not) can go a long way toward helping them engage with STEM content. For example, one Laurel Upper School physics teacher found that girls were readily engaged in modeling pendulums (and the equations that dictate their motion) when each girl was required to develop a pendulum that would serve as a metronome for her favorite song. Needless to say, all students learn best when they can see the day-to-day relevance of what they are learning; we highlight this point here to counterbalance the somewhat gender-stereotyped view that girls are only motivated by goals that involve helping others. In addition to teaching STEM content in the context of its real-world applications, school personnel can provide girls with opportunities to apply STEM principles throughout their lives as students. For example, school drama productions often require the support of people with significant electrical and engineering skills; students should be given every opportunity to learn how to work light and sound boards (and the electrical principles behind them) and to help with the design and construction of sets and props. Similarly, the technology departments of some schools train and deputize students to be “technology assistants” to any student, staff or faculty member in need of technology help.

ADDRESSING THE CHALLENGES OF “OUTSIDE-IN” CURRICULAR UNITS

CHALLENGE: The approach is time-consuming. Schools can be hesitant to spend the “start-up” time that is typically necessary in units like these. SOLUTION: Use these units as keystone moments—moments that are meant to bring together related concepts of material from the course. While this doesn’t eliminate the fact that precious time will need to be invested in contextual material (explaining the background of the objective, etc.), the fact that the class will only do this a few times each year helps minimize the time loss and makes the sacrifice well worth what is gained in terms of student focus and engagement. SOLUTION: Actively integrate STEM content into the school’s service learning initiatives. Many schools already require students to devote a certain amount of time to service learning; integrating STEM content into the service learning requirement cultivates girls’ interest in STEM fields through a focus on being of help to others. CHALLENGE: For some projects there are real-life consequences attached to success and failure which the teacher cannot necessarily control and which can have a profound impact (both positive and negative) on the students. SOLUTION: Avoid selecting “all-or-nothing” tasks; seek out projects that include components with guaranteed success. For example, students might be graded on a detailed model of an engineering design and not necessarily on the actual construction of the project. It is important that students have ways to feel a sense of pride and mastery about their efforts lest “real life” barriers prevent students from implementing the project to its fullest.

There are, of course, challenges to designing one’s curriculum outside-in.” Two of the most prominent are noted below, followed by suggestions for how a teacher might manage them.

ENGAGING GIRLS IN STEM: MEANINGFUL OBJECTIVES

[endnotes]

AAUW. (2000). Tech-Savvy: Educating girls in the new computer age. Washington, DC: American Association of University Women, 8.

Carter, L. (2006). Why students with an apparent aptitude for computer science don’t choose to major in computer science. ACM SIGCSE Bulletin, 28-31.

Tillber, H., & Cohoon, J.M. (2005). Attacting women to the CS major. Frontiers: A Journal of Women Studies, 26 (1), 126-140.

National Center for Women in Technology. (2014). NCWIT scorecard: A report on the status of women in information technology. National Center for Women in

NCWIT. (2014), 4.

Margolis, J., Fisher, A., & Miller, F. (2011, July 10). The anatomy of interest: Women in undergraduate computer science. Carnegie Mellon Project on Gender and Computer

Technology. Retrieved from ncwit.org/scorecard.

Science. Retrieved from http://www.cs.cmu.edu/afs/cs/project/gendergap/www/papers/anatomyWSQ99.html, 5. 7

Lightbody, P., Siann, G., Tait, L., & Walsh, D. (1997). A fulfilling career? Factors which influence women’s choice of profoession. Educational Studies, 23, 25-37.

Sanders, J. (2009, January 11). Gender and technology in education: A research review. Jo Sanders Online. Retrieved from josanders.com, 19.

Thimmesh, C., & Sweet, M. (2000). Girls Think of Everything: Stories of ingenious inventions by women. New York: Houghton Mifflin.

Casey, S. (2005). Kids Inventing! A handbook for young inventors. Hoboken: John Wiley & Sons.

S.T.E.M.: ENGAGING GIRLS IN STEM: TINKERING

RESOURCES FOR TEACHERS AND PARENTS Online Resources SOLVING THE EQUATION: THE VARIABLES FOR WOMEN’S SUCCESS IN ENGINEERING AND COMPUTING This American Association of University Women research report tackles the important question of why there are still so few women entering the fields of computing and engineering and was awarded the Groundbreaking Research Award by Million Women Mentors. Its findings have been used by major corporations and in high school classrooms and presented to lawmakers on Capitol Hill. www.aauw.org/research/solving-the-equation/

CARNEGIE MELLON PROJECT ON GENDER AND COMPUTER SCIENCE This website includes a variety of publications and working papers based on Carnegie Mellon’s efforts to recruit and keep women in its computer science program. Carnegie Mellon has enjoyed unusual success in this area, with their female undergraduate enrollment rising from 8% in 1995 to 42% in 2000.9 Several of the publications featured on this website address the importance of meaningful objectives to engage women computer science. www.cs.cmu.edu/afs/cs/project/gendergap/www/index.html

CRG POLYHEDRAS Download LCRG Polyhedras (three-dimensional geometric solids) to help your students sharpen their tinkering and spatial skills. http://www.laurelschool.org/about/CRGResourceCenter.cfm

Books GIRLS THINK OF EVERYTHING: STORIES OF INGENIOUS INVENTIONS Written for girls aged 9-12, this engaging book tells the story of female inventors and inventors and their innovations that changed the world.10

KIDS INVENTING! A HANDBOOK FOR YOUNG INVENTORS Though not directed specifically at girls, this handbook begins with the instruction most likely to engage budding female scientists: “Look for a problem to problem to solve.” Written for girls aged 9-12.11

CENTER FOR RESEARCH ON GIRLS Putting the world’s best research to work for girls.

LaurelSchool.org/LCRG

/CRGLaurelSchool

@CRGLaurelSchool

internet

CENTER FOR RESEARCH ON GIRLS

A SERIES OF RESEARCH AND INFORMATIONAL PUBLICATIONS BY LCRG

“Putting the world’s best research to work for girls.”

by Samantha Basch and Lisa Damour, Ph.D.

GIRLS AND DIGITAL TECHNOLOGY

Research finds that, on average, children engage heavily with technology by age eleven and that adolescents use technology for non-academic purposes for nearly three and a half hours each day. Girls are more likely to use technology for social networking and communication, while boys are more likely to use technology for gaming or entertainment.1 Interestingly, young men are more likely than young women to become problematic Internet users and young women are more likely than young men to recognize and control their problematic use.2 Overall, research does not support “generalized ‘bad versus good’ effects of Internet use on youth” but suggests that “the context in which Internet use occurs needs to be taken into account.”3

internet: GIRLS AND DIGITAL TECHNOLOGY Media multitasking – attempting to learn while simultaneously engaged with media – interferes with work efficiency, quality and value. INTERPERSONAL RELATIONSHIPS Intense use of digital technology can interfere with young girls’ social skills and ability to manage healthy, face-to-face relationships. Research on girls between the ages of eight and twelve found that – compared to girls who limited their use of digital technology – heavy users spent less time in face-to-face interactions, reported feeling less accepted by their peers and spent more time engaged with peers their parents considered to be a bad influence. In contrast, the same study found that frequent face-to-face communication was closely associated with positive social and emotional development.4 During adolescence, girls carry out two critical developmental tasks: building peer relationships and developing a sense of identity.

• Digital technology enhances girls’ opportunities for self-presentation and self-disclosure, which can be a double-edged sword with respect to girls’ peer relationships. Online environments make it easy for girls to connect with friends and can enhance friendship quality, but they also make it easy for girls to engage in cyberbullying and virtual harassment.5 Similarly, teenagers can access valuable social support online, but they can also interact with dangerous strangers.6

• Research on the impact of digital technology on identity formation also yields mixed results. Going online to communicate with friends appears to contribute to a clear sense of personal identity; however, girls without strong friendships may go online to experiment with different identities and may, as a result, feel less sure about who they are or how they want to present themselves.7

Recommendations for parents and educators INTERPERSONAL RELATIONSHIPS • Parents should encourage their daughters to have “face to face” time with their friends so they can practice the complex and subtle social skills that are best learned through real – not virtual – interpersonal interactions. Digital media should be used to strengthen girls’ relationships and should not take the place of spending time with friends in person.13 • Research indicates that the “psychosocial problems that originate through online communication often resemble those found in the offline lives.”14 In other words, girls who contend with conflict, exclusion or rumor-spreading online often face similar challenges in their offline relationships. Adults can help girls build their social, assertion and conflict mediation skills to improve both their online and offline relationships. MENTAL AND PHYSICAL HEALTH • Time spent online can contribute to depression and anxiety in girls who have few offline friendships or unsupportive online relationships. Parents should pay attention to the quality of girls’ offline and online relationships and, if necessary, limit access to digital media while supporting in-person friendships.

• Parents should help girls moderate their overall use of digital media because excessive use can compromise physical health and interfere with sleep, even as it supports positive peer relationships. Cell phones and computers should be turned off at least a half-hour before bedtime and cell phones, in particular, should not be allowed to interrupt sleep. SCHOOL WORK • Adults should help girls suspend their Internet access, turn on “Do Not Disturb” settings or block access to alluring websites during periods of concentrated work. Further, parents can work with their cell phone plan carriers to suspend data access during particular days or times of each week. • Many girls find that they are highly productive when they follow a twenty-five minute period of concentrated work with the reward of five online minutes. Girls who are easily distracted by technology may need help from parents who are willing to regulate online access for them. For example, some parents offer to hold their daughter’s phone while she studies and to return it for short study breaks.

MENTAL AND PHYSICAL HEALTH Research on college students finds that media multitasking – the act of moving back and forth between doing focused work and texting, emailing and posting online – contributes to depression and social anxiety.8 This is true even when controlling for overall levels of media use. Similarly, research on the connection between engagement with social media and life satisfaction finds that it’s the quality, not the quantity, of the interactions that counts. College students with supportive online interactions reported high levels of life satisfaction, regardless of how much time they spent online.9 Time spent surfing online can contribute to depression and anxiety, but only in the context of having few or poor friendships.10 Compared to heavy users of screen-based media, teens who limit their use report better physical health, higher quality of life and more positive family relationships; however, heavy screen-based media users report more positive peer relationships than teens who limit their use.11 Exposure

to electronic media disrupts sleep by contributing to later bedtimes and greater overall fatigue. Nighttime cell phone use, in particular, is strongly associated with daytime sleepiness.12

SCHOOL WORK Media multitasking – attempting to learn while simultaneously engaged with media – interferes with work efficiency, quality and value. Students who media multitask make more mistakes, remember less of what they learn, are less able to transfer what they do learn to new contexts and have lower grade point averages than students who don’t media multitask.15 In addition to compromising mental power, the interruptions associated with multitasking waste time. The constant switching from one task to another costs students the extra time and effort of trying to pick up where they left off when they return to their studies.16 Indeed, one study found that students were on task for an average of only five and a half minutes before being distracted by digital media.17

GIRLS AND DIGITAL TECHNOLOGY [endnotes] 1

Joiner, R., Gavin, J., Brosnan, M., Cromby, J., Gregory, H., Guiller, J., Maras, P., & Moon, A. (2012). Gender, Internet experience, Internet identification, and Internet anxiety: A ten-year followup. Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking, 15(7), 370-372.

Morahan-Martin, J. & Schumacher, P. (2000). Incidence and correlates of pathological internet use among college students. Computers in Human Behavior, 16(1), 13-29. Rotsztein, B. (2003). Problem Internet use and locus of control among college students: Preliminary findings. Paper presented at the 35th Annual Conference of the New England Education Research Organization, Portsmouth, New Hampshire, April 10, 2003. Retrieved from http://www.brianrotsztein.com/downloads/internetresearch.pdf

Selfhout, M.H.W., Branje, S.J.T., Delsing, M., terBogt, T.F.M., Meeus, W.H.J. (2009). Different types of Internet use, depression, and social anxiety: The role of perceived friendship quality. Journal of Adolescence, 32(4), p. 829.

Pea, R., Nass, C., Meheula, L., Rance, M., Kumar, A., Bamford, H., Nass, M., Simja, A., Stillerman, B., Yang, S., & Zhou, M. (2012). Media use, face-to-face communication, media multitasking, and social well-being among 8- to 12-year-old girls. Developmental Psychology, 48(2), 327-336.

Subrahmanyam, K. & Greenfield, P. (2008). Online communication and adolescent relationships. The Future of Chidren, (18)1, 119-149.

Valkenberg, P.M. & Peter, J. (2011). Online communication among adolescents: An integrated model of its attraction, opportunities, and risks. Journal of Adolescent Health, 48(2), 121-127.

Davis, K. (2013). Young people’s digital lives: The impact of interpersonal relationships and digital media use on adolescents’ sense of identity. Computers in Human Behavior, 29(6), 2281-2293.

Becker, M.W., Alzahabi, R., & Hopwood, C.J. (2013). Media multitasking is associated with symptoms of depression and anxiety. Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking, 16(2), 132-135.

Oh, H.J., Ozkaya, E., & LaRose, R. (2014). How does online social networking enhance life satisfaction? The relationships among online supportive interaction, affect, perceived social support, sense of community, and life satisfaction. Computers in Human Behavior, 30, 69-78.

Selfhout et al., (2009).

Iannotti, R.J., Kogan, M.D., Janssen, I., & Boyce, W.F. (2009). Patterns of adolescent physical activity, screen-based media use, and positive and negative health indicators in the U.S. and Canada. Journal of Adolescent Health, 44(5), 493-499. Mathers, M., Canterfold, L., Olds, T., Hesketh, K., Ridley, K., & Wake, M. (2009). Electronic media use and adolescent health and well-being: Cross-sectional community study. Academic Pediatrics, 9(5), 307-314.

Shochat, T., Flint-Bretler, O., & Tzischinsky, O. (2010). Sleep patterns, electronic media exposure and daytime sleep-related behaviors among Israeli adolescents. Acta Paediatrica, 99(9), 1396-1400.

Ahn, D. & Shin, D. (2013). Is the social use of media for seeking connectedness or for avoiding social isolation? Mechanisms underlying media use and subjective well-being. Computers in Human Behavior, 29(6), 2453-2462.

Valkenberg & Peter (2001), p. 126.

Bowman, L.L., Levine, L.E., Waite, B.M., Gendron, M. (2010). Can students really multitask? An experimental study of instant messaging while reading. Computers & Education, 54(4), 927-931. Wang, Z., David, P., Srivastava, J., Powers, S., Brady, C., D’Angelo, J., & Moreland, J. (2012). Behavioral performance and visual attention in communication multitasking: A comparison between instant messaging and online voice chat. Computers in Human Behavior, 28(3), 968-975. Fernandes, M.A. & Moscovitch, M. (2000). Divided attention and memory: Evidence of substantial interference effects at retrieval and encoding. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 129(2), 155-176. Foerde, K., Knowlton, B.J., & Poldrack, R.A. (2006). Modulation of competing memory systems by distraction. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 103(31), 11778-11783. Ophir, E., Nass, C., Wagner, A.D. (2009). Cognitive control in media multitaskers. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 106(37), 15583-15587. Rosen, L.D., Carrier, L.M., & Cheever, N.A. (2013). Facebook and texting made me do it: Media-induced task-switching while studying. Computers in Human Behavior, 29(3), 948-958.

Bowman et al., (2010).

Rosen et al., (2013).

Steyer, J.P. (2012). Talking Back to Facebook: A Common Sense Guide to Raising Kids in the Digital Age. New York: Scribner.

Cindrich, S. & Douglass, A. (2012). A Smart Girl’s Guide to the Internet. Middleton: American Girl Publishing.

internet: GIRLS AND DIGITAL TECHNOLOGY

RESOURCES FOR PARENTS AND TEACHERS Website COMMON SENSE MEDIA This first-rate website provides: • reviews and age-specific ratings of digital media, • advice for parents, and • resources for educators. www.commonsensemedia.org

Books NET CETERA: CHATTING WITH KIDS ABOUT BEING ONLINE This accessible guide, created by the Federal Trade Commission and available online at www.consumer.ftc.gov/articles/pdf-0001-netcetera.pdf, provides a basic introduction to talking with children and teenagers about online behavior and safety.

TALKING BACK TO FACEBOOK: A COMMON SENSE GUIDE TO RAISING KIDS IN THE DIGITAL AGE18 James Steyer, the founder of Common Sense Media, addresses how digital technology influences kids’ relationships, attention and privacy and provides age-specific “common sense tips” for parents.

RESOURCES FOR STUDENTS Book A SMART GIRL’S GUIDE TO THE INTERNET19 The American Girl Library comes through again with this thoughtful handbook for new users of digital technology. Appropriate for children and tweens.

CENTER FOR RESEARCH ON GIRLS Putting the world’s best research to work for girls.

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civil discourse

CENTER FOR RESEARCH ON GIRLS

A SERIES OF RESEARCH AND INFORMATIONAL PUBLICATIONS BY LCRG

“Putting the world’s best research to work for girls.”

by Tori Cordiano, PhD, Lisa Damour, PhD and Sarah Wilson, MA

ENGAGING IN CIVIL DISCOURSE A group of experts from the domains of politics, academics, journalism and advocacy defined civil discourse as “robust, honest, frank and constructive dialogue and deliberation that seeks to advance the public interest” during a 2011 meeting hosted at the U.S. Supreme Court by the National Institute for Civil Discourse.1 At the classroom level, civil discourse occurs when “students learn to listen respectfully to different opinions and experiences, try out ideas and positions, and give—and get—constructive feedback without fear or intimidation.” 2 Engaging in civil discourse requires a willingness to be open to new perspectives, to assess the quality of arguments and information and to broaden, and perhaps change, one’s mind.3 In short, the work of engaging in civil discourse supports the central aims of any educational endeavor. Based on a review of the relevant literature, Laurel’s Center for Research on Girls identified six key, teachable building blocks of civil discourse.

civil discourse: ENGAGING IN CIVIL DISCOURSE “Have you not learned great lessons from those who braced themselves against you, and disputed the passage with you?” —Walt Whitman, 1860 THE BUILDING BLOCKS OF CIVIL DISCOURSE EMOTIONAL SKILLS: EXTENDING EMPATHY Empathy creates an “as if” situation that allows one to deeply consider another person’s point of view.4 The humanistic psychologist Carl Rogers described empathy as a cognitive and emotional process wherein one can “lay aside the views and values you hold for yourself in order to enter into another’s world without prejudice.”5 Leaders with the Harvard Negotiation Project note that “learning to describe the gap – or difference – between your story and the other person’s story” is essential to having difficult conversations successfully.6 Empathy functions in several ways to improve communication between individuals.7 Cognitively, feeling empathy toward a member of a stigmatized group can improve one’s attitudes toward the group as a whole.8 On an emotional level, increased contact with others who are different from oneself fosters empathy. In turn, this increased empathy can decrease anxiety about those differences9 and can increase concern and understanding toward others.10 Educators with the Facing History and Ourselves program, a nonprofit organization that aims to help students examine racism, prejudice and anti-Semitism, encourage teachers to create an atmosphere of empathy within their classrooms. This can be done by creating trust and openness in conversations, helping students to appreciate contributions from everyone in the class and leaving space for silent reflection, particularly during conversations about complex or controversial topics.11 ACCEPTING DISCOMFORT Learning to accept emotional discomfort allows students to withstand the inevitable stresses that arise when they engage one another around controversial topics. Being able to bear with uncomfortable feelings requires students to follow a three-step process. First, they should be able to identify the emotions they are experiencing. Some young people come to this skill naturally, but for those who don’t, research finds that mindfulness practices can help young people cultivate the capacity to take an objective view of their own internal states. 12 Second, young people should be able to tolerate having negative feelings. Again, some students can comfortably accept their own difficult feelings while others may benefit from mindfulness training exercises that will help them to manage any negative feelings “in ways that are responsive rather than reactive or reflexive.”13 In several studies, mindfulness-based interventions have been found to effectively help both children14 and adolescents feel calmer and less reactive.15 Finally, all students should be fluent in effective strategies for coping with upset feelings when necessary. School-based programs aimed at teaching emotion management skills have been shown to effectively improve students’ ability to regulate16 and cope17 with negative emotions.

BRAVING CONTROVERSY Though disagreements are typically viewed in a negative light, they can, in fact, serve an educational purpose when handled well. To support students as they become comfortable with conflict, adults can have them engage in constructive controversy, a classroom activity in which individuals with incompatible ideas, theories or opinions follow a step-wise process with the aim of reaching agreement.18 Research demonstrates that working through a disagreement with someone who poses a different solution to a shared problem can foster learning and intellectual development.19 Taking a systematic approach to addressing controversial topics teaches students a critical lesson: in order to be effective, difficult conversations require both time and thought. For example, programs designed by Facing History and Ourselves not only delineate multiple steps for approaching challenging topics, but routinely include time for silent reflection.20 Students will not always be able to find common ground when they differ strongly. At these times, they may need adult support to appreciate that a successful conversation can be one in which the parties succeed in exploring a complex and contentious issue without leveling personal attacks or making assumptions about one another’s motives.21

COGNITIVE SKILLS: CULTIVATING CURIOSITY Curious people seek out novelty and new experiences. They are interested in others and their experiences. Curiosity is distinct from, but related to, the personality trait of openness to experience.22 On its own, curiosity can enrich learning23 and is linked to life satisfaction and growth-oriented behaviors.24 Curiosity can also protect against aggression in close relationships25 and enhance interactions between strangers.26 Asking questions and being open to new experiences drive curiosity. Most students benefit from direct instruction in asking good questions and using questions to advance inquiry and solve problems.27 Teachers in any domain and with students of any age can cultivate an atmosphere of curiosity by: encouraging students to ask questions; creating situations designed for sustained inquiry; and crafting and refining questions for specific purposes. It can be challenging to encounter new situations or differences of opinion, particularly when these differ greatly from our own circumstances. Uncertainty, though sometimes uncomfortable, drives what researchers call “epistemic curiosity,” an active search for new information and experiences.28 Douglas Stone, Bruce Patton and Shelia Heen of the Harvard Negotiation Project encourage using curiosity to understand other people’s stories.29 Curiosity allows us to learn about another person without judgment or certainty and creates a platform for civil discourse.

TAKING PERSPECTIVE The ability to consider another person’s perspective on an issue sits at the heart of civil discourse. Perspective-taking is distinct from empathy in that the emphasis is on considering another person’s viewpoint rather than having an emotional response to another person’s feelings.30 Taking another person’s perspective is difficult, because we are most aware of our own intentions and other people’s impact on us, and less aware of other people’s intentions and our impact on them.31 Perspective-taking develops throughout childhood and strengthens during adolescence, when abstract thinking allows individuals to consider another person’s situation and motives. It is associated with positive behavior toward others.32

does not line up with the position one already holds.36 But to engage effectively in civil discourse requires the use of active listening skills in which the listener aims to develop a clear and complete understanding of the speaker’s views.37 Research finds that active listening skills can be taught effectively in classroom settings.38

Students benefit from having opportunities to explicitly develop this skill. Historical texts and documents can be used to develop perspective-taking. Using open-ended or specific prompts, students can use journal-writing, drama, and questioning for deep inquiry to strengthen perspective-taking abilities.33, 34, 35

Students with developed listening and questioning skills are prepared to assert their positions respectfully. Teaching Tolerance, a nonprofit group with the mission of helping educators teach students to be “active participants in a diverse democracy,”41 proposes a three-part model for the effective assertion of ideas. Arguments, ideally, have the following elements: a clear assertion, usually in the form of a simple statement; solid reasoning that lays out the rationale for the argument; and evidence that supports that reasoning.42

ENGAGING EFFECTIVELY When faced with a controversial topic, it’s easy for students to employ selective listening—the practice of filtering out information that

Listening actively prepares students to question one another fairly. Questioning, like listening, can be improved through classroom instruction.39 For example, students can be taught to move away from posing questions that are “rhetorical challenges or disguised statements” and toward asking questions that are open-ended and come from a position of curiosity.40

*While teachers may already use these practices, explicitly tying them to the building blocks may help students see connections

QUESTIONS TEACHERS CAN ASK

EXPERIENCES TEACHERS CAN DESIGN

• What does your friend’s face tell you about how s/he is feeling? Why might s/he feel that way? • What does a good friend do? • It’s ok to feel sad/tired/frustrated. Why do you feel that way? What could help you feel better?

• Teachers can record questions students ask during unstructured periods of the day, and revisit them during focused, whole-class exploration time. (Curiosity, Engagement) • Teachers can role play common student conflicts and ask students to help resolve them. (Controversy, Perspective, Engagement)

• How can we respond if we disagree with what someone is saying? • Why might this culture/group/society believe what they believe? • What does it look like to disagree in a kind way? How can you show awareness of classmates’ feelings when disagreeing with each other?

• Teachers can be explicit about why and when they’re making something more difficult—e.g. requiring a new application of a skill. (Discomfort) • Teachers can use silent written activities (such as chalk talks or think, pair, share) to have students engage one another on unfamiliar beliefs and ideas while they are asked to suspend judgment. (Empathy, Discomfort, Curiosity, Perspective)

MIDDLE SCHOOL

• How can you share your thoughts in a way that keeps the conversation going? • How has your thinking changed after listening to multiple perspectives or opposing ideas? • What have you learned from those who disagree with you?

• Teachers can ask students to explain other students’ point of view. (Empathy, Controversy, Perspective, Engagement) • Students can detail their reasoning on whiteboards and then present their logic to each other. (Curiosity, Perspective, Engagement)

HIGH SCHOOL

• Can you grapple with that problem for a few minutes and then see where you are? • What is the source of your discomfort? • Can you find and explain a point of view that disagrees with or contradicts your position? • What are the merits of the counter-arguments to your own? What of the opposing reasoning can be incorporated into a new version of your argument?

• Students can conduct roundtable discussions while taking on the role of a historical or literary figure. (Empathy, Controversy, Curiosity, Perspective, Engagement) • Teachers can structure a discussion so that it will not result in an agreement or answer, mirroring nuanced academic debate. (Discomfort, Controversy, Perspective, Engagement)

PREPRIMARY SCHOOL

PRIMARY SCHOOL

CO-CURRICULAR ACTIVITIES THAT ENHANCE CIVIL DISCOURSE SKILLS • Theater productions can require students to engage all six of the building blocks. • Model UN and Speech & Debate Teams allow space for guided practice in civil discourse. • Challenge courses and outdoor learning activities, such as Laurel School’s Adventure Course and Adventure Girls curriculum, scaffold students in accepting discomfort. • Homeroom or Advisory Group time can be used to analyze current national and global debates in the context of the six building blocks and to ask students how they can develop these capacities in themselves.

RESOURCES FOR TEACHERS AND PARENTS Books ACTIVITIES FOR TEACHING POSITIVE PSYCHOLOGY: A GUIDE FOR INSTRUCTORS43 This guide for educators covers topics ranging from curiosity to empathy to civic engagement and includes ideas for in-class activities and experiments to strengthen these skills.

MAKE JUST ONE CHANGE: TEACH STUDENTS TO ASK THEIR OWN QUESTIONS44 Based on the idea that asking good questions is central to learning and civil discourse, this book provides practical guidance for teaching all students to ask better questions.

DIFFICULT CONVERSATIONS: HOW TO DISCUSS WHAT MATTERS MOST45

Written by members of the Harvard Negotiation Project, this book is a helpful for resource for everyone – teachers, parents and students – navigating difficult conversations.

ENGAGING IN CIVIL DISCOURSE

HOW TO TALK SO KIDS WILL LISTEN & LISTEN SO KIDS WILL TALK46

Multiple generations of parents have come to rely on this seminal guide to improving communication and strengthening relationships between parents and children. Appropriate for parents of children of any age.

This website offers a multitude of resources for educators working with children from kindergarten through high school, including lesson plans, classroom activities and professional development. https://www.tolerance.org

Online Resources FACING HISTORY AND OURSELVES — FOSTERING CIVIL DISCOURSE: A GUIDE FOR CLASSROOM CONVERSATIONS47

This downloadable PDF serves as a guide for educators to create a safe environment where students can navigate tough conversations related to race, justice and politics. https://www.facinghistory.org/sites/default/files/ publications/Fostering_Civil_Discourse.pdf

[endnotes]

Brosseau, C. (2011). “Executive session: Civil discourse in progress.” Frankly Speaking, p. 1, Retrieved from http://archive.constantcontact.com/fs011/1105924840139/ archive/1108422226053.html on September 16, 2018. 2 Facing History and Ourselves. Fostering civil discourse: A guide for classroom conversations, p. 1. Retrieved from https://www.facinghistory.org/sites/default/files/ publications/Fostering_Civil_Discourse.pdf on September 16, 2018. 3 Ehrlich, T. & Hollander, E. (1999). President’s declaration on the civic responsibility of higher education. Providence, RI: Campus Compact, p. 5. 4 Rogers, C.R. (1975). Empathic: An unappreciated way of being. The Counseling Psychologist, 5, 2-10. 5 Rogers, C.R. (1975), p. 5. 6 Stone, D., Patton, B., & Heen, S. (1999). 7 Gloor, J.L., & Puhl, R.M. (2016). Empathy and perspective-taking: Examination and comparison of strategies to reduce weight stigma. Stigma and Health, 1, 269-279. 8 Batson, C.D., Polycarpou, M.P., Harmon-Jones, E., Imhoff, H.J., Mitchener, E.C., Bednar, L.L., Klein, T.R., & Highberger, L. (1997). Empathy and attitudes: Can feeling for a member of a stigmatized group improve feelings toward the group? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 72, 105-118. 9 Pettigrew, T.F., & Tropp, L.R. (2008). How does intergroup contact reduce prejudice? Metaanalytic tests of three mediators. European Journal of Social Psychology, 38, 922-934. 10 Batson, C.D., et al. (1997). 11 https://www.facinghistory.org/sites/default/files/publications/Fostering_Civil_ Discourse.pdf 12 Shapiro, S. L., Carlson, L. E., Astin, J. A., & Freedman, B. (2006). Mechanisms of mindfulness. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 62, 373–386. 13 Meiklejohn, J., Phillips, C., Freedman, M. L., Griffin, M. L. et al (2012). Integrating mindfulness training into K-12 education: Fostering the resilience of teachers and students. Mindfulness (2012) 3, 291–307, p. 296. 14 Wall, R. B. (2005). Tai chi and mindfulness-based stress reduction in a Boston middle school. Journal of Pediatric Health Care, 19, 230– 237. 15 Bogels, S., Hoogstad, B., van Dun, L., De Shutter, S., & Restifo, K. (2008). Mindfulness training for adolescents with externalising disorders and their parents. Behavioural and Cognitive Psychotherapy, 36, 193–209. 16 Frydenberg, E., Lewis, R., Bugalski, K., Cotta, A. et al (2004). Prevention is better than cure: coping skills training for adolescents at school. Educational Psychology in Practice, 20, 117-134. 17 Zapolski, T.C.B. & Smith, G.T. (2017). Pilot study: Implementing a brief DBT skills program in schools to reduce health risk behaviors among early adolescents. The Journal of School Nursing, 33, 198-204. 18 Johnson, D.W. & Johnson, R.T. (2009). Energizing Learning: The Instructional Power of Conflict. Educational Researcher, 38, 37-51. 19 Buchs, C., Butera, F., Mugny, G., & Darnon, C. (2004). Conflict elaboration and outcomes. Theory Into Practice, 43, 23-30. 20 https://www.facinghistory.org/sites/default/files/publications/Fostering_Civil_ Discourse.pdf 21 Chasin, R., Herzig, M., Roth, S., Chasin, L. et al (1996). From diatribe to dialogue on divisive public issues: Approaches drawn from family therapy. Mediation Quarterly, 13, 323-342. 22 Kashdan, T.B., McKnight, P.E., Fincham, F.D., & Rose, P. (2011). When curiosity breeds intimacy: Taking advantage of intimacy opportunities and transforming boring conversations. Journal of Personality, 79, 1369-1402. 23 Gruber, M.J., Gelman, B.D., & Ranganath, C. (2014). States of curiosity modulate hippocampus-dependent learning via the dopaminergic circuit. Neuron, 84, 486-496. 1

CENTER FOR RESEARCH ON GIRLS Putting the world’s best research to work for girls.

TEACHING TOLERANCE48

Kashdan, T.B. & Steger, M.F. (2007). Curiosity and pathways to well-being and meaning in life: Traits, states, and everyday behaviors. Motivation and Emotion, 31, 159-173. 25 Kashdan, T.B., DeWall, C.N., Pond, R.S., Silvia, P.J., Lambert, N.M., Fincham, F.D., Savostyanova, A.A., & Keller, P.S. (2012). Curiosity protects against interpersonal aggression: Cross-sectional, daily process, and behavioral evidence. Journal of Personality, 81, 87-102. 26 Kashdan, et al. (2011). 27 Minigan, A.P., Westbrook, S. Rothstein, D., & Santana, L. (2017). Stimulating and sustaining inquiry with students’ questions. Social Education, 81, 268-272. 28 Johnson, D.W., & Johnson, R.T. (2000). Civil political discourse in a democracy: The contribution of psychology. Peace and Conflict: Journal of Peace Psychology, 6, 291-317. 29 Stone, D., Patton, B., & Heen, S. (1999). Difficult conversations: How to discuss what matters most. New York: Penguin Books. 30 Longmire, N.H., & Harrison, D.A. (2018). Seeing their side versus feeling their pain: Differential consequences of perspective-taking and empathy at work. Journal of Applied Psychology, 103, 894-915. 31 Stone, D., Patton, B., & Heen, S. (1999). 32 Tamnes, C.K., Overbye,K., Ferschmann, L., Fjell, A.M., Walhovd, K.B., Blakemore, S.J., & Dumontheil, I. (2018). Social perspective taking is associated with self-reported prosocial behavior and regional cortical thickness across adolescence. Developmental Psychology, 54, 1745-1757. 33 Classroom Resources. Retrieved from https://www.tolerance.org/classroom-resources on September 17, 2018. 34 https://www.facinghistory.org/sites/default/files/publications/Fostering_Civil_ Discourse.pdf Retrieved on September 17, 2018 35 Thein, A.H., Beach, R., & Parks, D. (2007). Perspective-taking as transformative practice in teaching multicultural literature to white students. English Journal, 97, 54-60. 36 Bostrom, R.N. (1990). Listening behavior: Measurement and application. New York: Guilford. 37 McNaughton, D., Hamlin, D., McCarthy, J., Head-Reeves, D., et al (2007). Learning to listen: Teaching an active listening strategy to preservice education professionals. Topics in Early Childhood Special Education, 27, 223-231. 38 Spataro, S.E. & Bloch, J. (2018). “Can you repeat that?” Teaching active listening in management education. Journal of Management Education, 42, 168-198. 39 Minigan, A.P., Westbrook, S., Rothstein, D. & Santana, L. (2017). Stimulating and sustaining inquiry with students’ questions. Social Education, 81, 268-272. 40 Chasin, R. et al (1996), p. 326. 41 https://www.tolerance.org/about 42 Teaching Tolerance, Building blocks for civil discourse. Civil Discourse in the Classroom. Retrieved from https://www.tolerance.org/magazine/publications/civil-discourse-in-theclassroom/chapter-2-building-blocks-for-civil. 43 Froh, J.J., & Parks, A.C. (2013). Activities for teaching positive psychology: A guide for instructors. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. 24

Rothstein, D., & Santana, L. (2011). Make just one change: Teach students to ask their own questions. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Education Press. 45 Stone, D., Patton, B., & Heen, S. (1999), 151. 46 Faber, A. & Mazlish, E. (1980). How to talk so kids will listen and listen so kids will talk. New York: Scribner. 47 https://www.facinghistory.org/sites/default/files/publications/Fostering_Civil_ Discourse.pdf 48 https://www.tolerance.org 44

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CENTER FOR RESEARCH ON GIRLS

athletics A SERIES OF RESEARCH AND INFORMATIONAL PUBLICATIONS BY LCRG

“Putting the world’s best research to work for girls.”

by Tori S. Cordiano, Ph.D. and Lisa Damour, Ph.D.

PROTECTING THE FEMALE ATHLETE: RESEARCH ON CONCUSSIONS, ACL INJURIES AND NUTRITION Participation in athletics contributes to health but can, for girls, pose some special challenges. GIRLS AND CONCUSSIONS Girls show higher rates of concussion than boys participating in the same sports Research consistently indicates that girls experience more concussions than boys in similar sports, including soccer1 and basketball2, though the rates at which they differ vary. Researchers define concussion as a change in brain functioning following a force to the head3. Diagnosis and treatment of concussion is complicated by the fact that symptoms are often subtle and difficult to detect, can be non-specific to concussion and might not present immediately following the injury4. Though young children do not show significant sex differences in their rates of concussion, severity of symptoms or recovery time, sex differences in these areas begin to emerge around puberty5. In addition to longer general recovery time from concussion, female athletes also show poorer visual memory6 and greater declines in simple and complex reaction times following concussion and more subjective and objective concussion effects7. Research has begun to explore factors that may contribute to these differential effects of concussion.

athletics:

PROTECTING THE FEMALE ATHLETE: RESEARCH ON CONCUSSIONS, ACL INJURIES AND NUTRITION

What accounts for sex differences in concussion? While the research in this area is still developing, researchers have identified certain factors that likely contribute to sex differences in concussion. These include: • Anatomical differences, including structure of the neck and blood flow in the brain, may increase female athletes’ susceptibility to concussion and help explain differences in symptom severity and recovery time8. • Hormones likely play a role, though their impact is difficult to study due to fluctuations during females’ menstrual cycles. Research into the effect of hormones on concussion is in the preliminary stage9. GIRLS AND ACL INJURIES Girls are more likely than boys to rupture an ACL The ACL stabilizes the knee and connects the femur to the tibia. Devastating injuries to the anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) can occur while playing sports – such as soccer and basketball – that require cutting, rapid deceleration and jumping. Girls are at least three times as likely10 as boys to sustain non-contact ACL injuries.

Several factors contribute to girls’ vulnerability to ACL injuries Research11 suggests several factors may make girls more prone to ACL injuries than boys. First, girls generally show decreased neuromuscular control, such as relying on quadriceps muscles rather than hamstring muscles during movements like pivoting, landing and stopping12,13. Second, girls tend to show greater hamstring flexibility during and after puberty, while boys’ hamstring flexibility declines during that same developmental period14. Increased hamstring flexibility can lead to decreased dynamic control of the knee, and weaker hamstring muscles can affect the coactivation of hamstring and quadriceps muscles necessary for protecting the knee during movement. Finally, anatomical differences related to the angle at which the tibia meets the femur increase girls’ susceptibility15 to ACL injuries. Particularly during puberty, as growth spurts lead to a changing center of mass and challenged muscular control, anatomical differences become a factor in girls’ ACL injuries.

Preventing ACL injuries in female athletes Neuromuscular training programs that condition girls to use specific muscle groups to stabilize their knees have been found to reduce ACL injuries in female athletes16,17. These programs help to reduce strain on the ACL by improving girls’ balance and strength18 and by teaching girls the biomechanics19 of movements that will protect their knees. Research suggests that beginning these interventions during early adolescence may provide the most benefit for injury prevention20.

NUTRITION FOR FEMALE ATHLETES How much should young female athletes eat? Athletes need enough calories and nutrients to support critical biological processes, daily living activities and exercise training. Commonly, sports nutrition assesses an athlete’s energy availability (EA), which is the “amount of the individual’s energy intake that is available for other body processes and functions, once the energy cost of sporting activity has been subtracted21.” Chronic low EA can cause delayed puberty, menstrual irregularities, bone damage, shortness of stature and increased risk of injury22. Energy intake beyond the athlete’s need can result in weight gain and obesity and increase the risk of injury in young athletes23. The specific caloric demands needed to maintain adequate EA vary across young female athletes and depend on metabolic rate, training volume, training intensity and the shifting nutritional demands of pubertal development24.

What should young female athletes eat?25 Carbohydrates maintain energy during exercise and replace energy stores after exercise • Protein provides the basic elements that build and repair tissue • Dietary Fats provide energy and essential fatty acids and help the body absorb fat-soluble vitamins • Vitamins and Minerals support energy production, bone strength, immune function, cellular repair and muscle restoration and development. Key vitamins and minerals (listed below) may be low in the diets of female athletes, especially those who restrict energy intake or avoid meat, fish, poultry and dairy products. • B-vitamins aid energy production and cellular repair • Vitamin D supports bone health, muscle function and boosts the immune system • Calcium is essential to building and repairing bone tissue, maintaining bone mineral density and preventing stress fractures • Iron helps deliver oxygen throughout the body and is key to the enzymes involved in energy production • Zinc supports growth, muscle health and energy production. •

The Female Athlete Triad26 The Female Athlete Triad is a term used to refer to three interrelated health problems sometimes seen in female athletes: low energy availability, menstrual disturbances and impaired bone health. The loss of bone mass is especially concerning during girls’ peak bone-building years which begin during puberty. Low energy availability (EA) can result from restricting calories or from having a decreased appetite due to following a high fiber diet or engaging in high intensity exercise. In addition to being associated with abnormal menstruation, increased risk for stress fractures and poor bone health, low EA also links to hormonal disruptions and impaired immune functioning.

PROTECTING THE FEMALE ATHLETE: RESEARCH ON CONCUSSIONS, ACL INJURIES AND NUTRITION [endnotes]

Gessell, L.M., et al. (2007). Concussions among United States high school and collegiate athletes. Journal of Athletic Training, 42, 495-503.

Frommer, L.J., et al. (2011). Sex differences in concussion symptoms of high school athletes. Journal of Athletic Training, 46, 76-84.

Carney, N., et al. (2014). Concussion guidelines step 1: Systematic review of prevalent indicators. Neurosurgery, 75, S3-S15.

National Collegiate Athletic Association (2014). Guideline 21: Sport-Related Concussion. In 2014-2015 NCAA Sports Medicine Handbook (pp. 56-64).

Roehr, B. (2016, March 9). Concussions affect women more adversely than men. Scientific American: Neurological Health.

Covassin, T., Elbin, R.J., Harris, W., Parker, T. & Kontos, A. (2012). The role of age and sex in symptoms, neurocognitive performance, and postural stability in athletes after concussion. American Journal of Sports Medicine, 40, 1303-1312.

Broshek, D.K., et al. (2005). Sex differences in outcome following sports-related concussion. Journal of Neurosurgery, 102, 856-863.

Roehr, B. (2016, March 9).

Wunderle, K., Hoeger, K.M., Wasserman, E. & Bazarian, J.J. (2014). Menstrual phase as a predictor of outcome after mild traumatic brain injury in women. Journal of Head Trauma Rehabilitation, 29, E1-E8.

Prodromos, C.C., Han, Y., Rogowski, J., Joyce, B. & Shi, K. (2007). A meta-analysis of the incidence of anterior cruciate ligament tears as a function of gender, sport, and a knee injury-reduction regimen. Arthroscopy, 23, 1320-1325.

Myer, G.D., Ford, K.R., Palumbo, J.P. & Hewett, T.E. (2005). Neuromuscular training improves performance and lower-extremity biomechanics in female athletes. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 19, 51-60.

Griffin, L.Y. et al. (2006). Understanding and preventing noncontact anterior cruciate ligament injuries. The American Journal of Sports Medicine, 34, 1512-1532.

Mandelbaum, B.R. et al. (2005). Effectiveness of a neuromuscular and proprioceptive training program in preventing anterior cruciate ligament injuries in female athletes: 2-year follow-up. The American Journal of Sports Medicine, 33, 1003-1010.

Myer, G.D., Sugimoto, D., Thomas, S. & Hewett, T.E. (2014). The influence of age on the effectiveness of neuromuscular training to reduce anterior cruciate ligament injury in female athletes: A meta-analysis. The American Journal of Sports Medicine, 41, 203-215.

Desbrow, B. et al. (2014). Sports dietitians Australia position statement: Sports nutrition for the adolescent athlete. International Journal of Sport Nutrition and Exercise Metabolism, 24, 570-584, p. 572.

Bass, S., & Inge, K. (2010). Nutrition for special populations: Children and young athletes. In L.M. Burke & V. Deakin (Eds.), Clinical sports nutrition (4th ed., pp. 508– 546). Sydney: McGraw Hill.

McHugh, M. (2009). Oversized young athletes: A weighty concern. British Journal of Sports Medicine, 44, 45-49.

Petrie, H.J., Stover, E.A. & Horswill, C.A. (2004). Nutritional concerns for the child and adolescent competitor. Nutrition, 20, 620-631.

American College of Sports Medicine, American Dietetic Association & Dieticians of Canada (2000). Joint position statement: Nutrition and Athletic Performance. Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise, 32, 2130-2145.

Silver, H.J. & Mandelbaum, B.R. (2007). Prevention of anterior cruciate ligament injury in the female athlete. British Journal of Sports Medicine, 41, i52-i59.

Hewett, T.E. & Myer, G.D. (2005). Reducing knee and anterior cruciate ligament injuries among female athletes. The Journal of Knee Surgery, 18, 82-88.

Nattiv, A. et al. (2007). The female athlete triad. Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise, 39, 1867-1882.

Myer, G.D., Ford, K.R., McLean, S.G. & Hewett, T.E. (2006). The effects of plyometric versus dynamic stabilization and balance training on lower extremity biomechanics. The American Journal of Sports Medicine, 34, 445-455.

American Academy of Pediatrics (September, 2016). State Advocacy Focus: Concussion Management: Return to Play. Retrieved from https://www.aap.org/en-us/advocacyand-policy/state-advocacy/Documents/Concussion.pdf

Hewett, T.E., Myer, G.D. & Ford, K.R. (2006). Anterior cruciate ligament injuries in female athletes: Part 1, mechanisms and risk factors. The American Journal of Sports Medicine, 34, 299-311.

Noyes, F.R. & Barber-Westin, S. (2012). ACL injuries in the female athlete: Causes, impacts, and conditioning programs. New York: Springer Heidelberg.

LaBella, C.R., Hennrikus, W. & Hewett, T.E. (2014). Anterior cruciate ligament injuries: Diagnosis, treatment, and prevention. Pediatrics, 133, e1437-e1450.

Castle, J. (2015). Eat like a champion: Performance nutrition for your young athlete. New York: American Management Association.

Hewett et al. (2006).

Griffin, L.Y. et al. (2000). Noncontact Anterior Cruciate Ligament Injuries: Risk Factors and Prevention Strategies. Journal of the American Academy of Orthopaedic Surgeons, 8, 141-150.

CENTER FOR RESEARCH ON GIRLS Putting the world’s best research to work for girls.

LaurelSchool.org/LCRG

athletics: PROTECTING THE FEMALE ATHLETE: RESEARCH ON CONCUSSIONS, ACL INJURIES AND NUTRITION

RESOURCES FOR PARENTS, COACHES AND ATHLETES Resources

State Advocacy

CONCUSSION MANAGEMENT: RETURN TO PLAY27

Concussion Management: Return to Play

This fact sheet, produced by the American Academy of Pediatrics, provides information,

Sports-related concussions in youth athletes are underreported. Coaches, parents, and teachers often fail to recognize the signs of concussions in young athletes.

OVERVIEW

AAP guidelines and helpful links for additional guidance. https://www.aap.org/en-us/advocacy-and-policy/state-advocacy/Documents/Concussion.pdf

This book provides helpful information to guide training techniques toward reducing and preventing ACL injuries in female athletes.

AAP POSITION

ACL INJURIES IN THE FEMALE ATHLETE28

Proper management of concussions, including cognitive and physical rest, is imperative to ensure that the student athlete does not suffer long-lasting effects of injury. A coalition of physicians organizations including AAP chapters, athletic trainers, youth sports associations, and professional sports teams have led efforts to pass state laws requiring coaches, teachers, and athletic trainers to have training in the identification of concussion in youth athletes and athletes suspected of concussion to be cleared for play by the child or adolescent athlete's pediatrician and medical team prior to returning to the field.



Coaches and athletic trainers should be trained in the identification of concussions, and refer any student athlete suspected of sustaining a concussion to a licensed physician, such as a pediatrician, neurologist, primary care sports medicine specialist, or neurosurgeon with expanded knowledge and experience in pediatric concussion management for evaluation.



Pediatricians and other physicians can be an important resource in educating coaches, athletic trainers, and other adults that work with young athletes in recognizing the signs of concussion injuries and when to seek medical attention for their athletes.



A team approach consisting of the child or adolescent athlete’s pediatrician and medical team, the school team, and the family team to assist the student in his or her return to learning is ideal.

ANTERIOR CRUCIATE LIGAMENT INJURIES: DIAGNOSIS, TREATMENT, AND PREVENTION29

Division of State Government Affairs | stgov@aap.org | www.aap.org/stateadvocacy

This clinical report, provided by the American Academy of Pediatrics, provides accessible, up-to-date information for parents regarding ACL injuries in children and teens. http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/content/133/5/e1437

EAT LIKE A CHAMPION: PERFORMANCE NUTRITION FOR YOUR YOUNG ATHLETE30 This research-driven, practical book addresses the nutritional needs of athletes aged eight through eighteen.

FIND A NUTRITIONIST The “Find an Expert” section of the Academy of Nutritionist and Dietetics website lists Registered Dietician Nutritionists by location and area of expertise. www.eatright.org

CENTER FOR RESEARCH ON GIRLS Putting the world’s best research to work for girls.

LaurelSchool.org/LCRG

/CRGLaurelSchool

@CRGLaurelSchool

CENTER FOR RESEARCH ON GIRLS

executive functioning A SERIES OF RESEARCH AND INFORMATIONAL PUBLICATIONS BY LCRG

“Putting the world’s best research to work for girls.”

by Tori Cordiano, Ph.D. and Lisa Damour, Ph.D.

EXECUTIVE FUNCTIONING AND STUDY SKILLS IN GIRLS

While there are many ways to define executive functioning, one particularly helpful definition comes from the Center on the Developing Child at Harvard University. These researchers liken executive functions to an air traffic control center in the brain. They define executive functions as “a group of skills that helps us to focus on multiple streams of information at the same time, monitor errors, make decisions in light of available information, revise plans as necessary, and resist the urge to let frustration lead to hasty actions.” 1 Executive functions are involved in most areas of daily functioning, including learning, emotions and social situations. Not surprisingly, learning and academic achievement are closely tied to executive functioning. Robust working memory capacities, in particular, contribute to both short- 2 and long-term3 success in school. Executive functions play a part in the diagnosis of Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD), in that many individuals with ADHD struggle with one or more areas of executive functioning.4 Deficits in executive functioning, especially the ability to consider fresh perspectives, can exacerbate symptoms of anxiety and depression in adolescents.5 Likewise, anxiety and depression can impair aspects of executive functioning, such as regulating one’s emotions.6

executive functioning: EXECUTIVE FUNCTIONING AND STUDY SKILLS IN GIRLS

EXECUTIVE FUNCTIONS AT A GLANCE 7 EXECUTIVE FUNCTION

DESCRIPTION

EXAMPLE

INHIBITION

Refraining from acting or speaking when needed

Raising your hand to answer a question, rather than blurting out the response

FLEXIBILITY

Shifting between tasks or activities; generating multiple solutions to problems

Thinking of other ways to get a homework assignment if you forgot to write it in your planner

EMOTION REGULATION

Effectively identifying & managing emotions, like anger, frustration & disappointment

Taking deep breaths and calming oneself during a heated disagreement

INITIATION

Beginning a task, from generating ideas to actually starting the work

Making an outline and starting the writing process of a paper

WORKING MEMORY

Holding and utilizing information in short-term memory

Keeping a teacher’s description of an assignment in mind while writing it in your planner

PLANNING

Making and adhering to a short- or long-term plan

Creating and sticking to a schedule for studying for a final exam

ORGANIZATION

Having effective and reliable systems for managing one’s work and belongings

Having a consistent time and place to complete homework and the right materials on hand

SELF-MONITORING

Recognizing effective study strategies, allocating time strategically and catching one’s own mistakes

Knowing which subjects take you the most time and planning accordingly

Adapted from Cooper-Kahn, J. & Dietzel, L. (2008) Late, lost, and unprepared: A parents’ guide to helping children with executive functioning. Bethesda, MD: Woodbine House.

HOW (AND HOW NOT) TO STUDY A team of educational researchers recently asked a critical question: What are the most, and least, effective study strategies? Their survey of published studies8 generated the following answers.

STRATEGY

EFFICACY

Taking practice tests, including self-testing

VERY EFFECTIVE

Spreading studying out over time

VERY EFFECTIVE

Mixing up the types of problems - such as addition, subtraction, division - that are studied over time

PROMISING, especially for math and concept learning

Explaining to oneself why a stated fact or concept is true

PROMISING

Explaining problem-solving decisions to oneself, or how new information connects to known information

PROMISING

Re-reading material one has read before

OKAY, but only if spaced over time and still not as good as other options

Highlighting or underlining content

OKAY, but only as a first step

Writing out summaries of the material to be learned

OKAY, but only with good training on how to summarize

Using keywords and mental imagery, such as picturing a dentist pulling a tooth to remember “la dent”

FAIR for studying languages, but results don’t last

Developing mental images for text materials, such as trying to picture the process of photosynthesis

FAIR, but only for image-friendly text

Closely adapted from Dunlosky, J. (2013). Strengthening the student toolbox: Study strategies to boost learning. American Educator, 37(3), 12-21.

EXECUTIVE FUNCTIONING ROADBLOCKS High levels of executive functioning can be hard to maintain. Even with the best of intentions, girls often encounter pitfalls in their executive functioning. Below are some common executive functioning scenarios and corresponding solutions:

SCENARIO: A girl feels rushed and defeated because she put off a long-term project or didn’t start studying until the night before the test.

SOLUTIONS: • Help her get in the habit of using a calendar to plan out work and study periods, taking into account when extracurricular activities or outside events will decrease available time. • Help her recognize the role of anxiety in procrastination.9 Self-defeating thoughts (“I’ll never finish this paper”) often keep girls from getting started. Changing those thoughts to more accurately reflect the situation (“This paper will take some time, but I can break it up and complete it before it is due”) makes it easier for girls to begin large tasks or start studying.

SCENARIO: A girl struggles to complete difficult work because she feels physically, emotionally or intellectually burned out.

SOLUTIONS: • Prioritize proper sleep to prevent burnout: • Elementary school students require an average of 11 hours/night • Middle school students require an average of 10 hours/night • Upper school students require an average of 9 hours/night • Provide support when motivation feels low: allow her to vent her frustration, offer to keep her company while she works and brainstorm compelling rewards for finishing the task (e.g., watching a show, checking social media, playing with the dog).

SCENARIO: A girl uses overly complicated organizational systems and ineffective study strategies.

SOLUTIONS: • Help her adopt efficient organizational systems. A calendar, paper or digital, can help girls plan out their week’s work, with extracurricular activities and outside obligations easily visible. • Help her utilize effective study techniques, such as sample testing and spaced practice, rather than relying on time-consuming and ineffective strategies, such as color-coded highlighting and the meticulous recopying of notes.

EXECUTIVE FUNCTIONING AND STUDY SKILLS IN GIRLS [endnotes]

Center on the Developing Child at Harvard University (2011). Building the Brain’s “Air Traffic Control” System: How Early Experiences Shape the Development of Executive Function: Working Paper No. 11. http://www.developing child.harvard.edu

Cantin, R.H., Gnaedinger, E.K., Gallaway, K.C., Hesson-McInnis, M.S. & Hund, A.M. (2016). Executive functioning predicts reading, mathematics, and theory of mind during the early elementary years. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 146, 66-78.

Ahmed, S.F., Tang, S., Waters, N.E. & Davis-Kean, P. (2019). Executive function and academic achievement: Longitudinal relations from early childhood to adolescence. Journal of Educational Psychology, 111, 446-458.

Kofler, M.J., Irwin, L.N., Soto, E.F., Groves, N.B., Harmon, S.L. & Sarver, D.E. (2019). Executive functioning heterogeneity in pediatric ADHD. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 47, 273-286.

Han, G., Helm, J., Iucha, C., Zahn-Waxler, C., Hastings, P.D. & Klimes-Dougan, B. (2016). Are executive functioning deficits concurrently and predictively associated with depressive and anxiety symptoms in adolescents? Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 45, 44-58.

Luciana, M. (2016). Executive function in adolescence: A commentary on regulatory control and depression in adolescents: Findings from neuroimaging and neuropsychological research. Journal of Clinical Child an Adolescent Psychology, 45, 84-89.

Cooper-Kahn, J. & Dietzel, L. (2008). Late, lost, and unprepared: A parents’ guide to helping children with executive functioning. Bethesda, MD: Woodbine House.

Dunlosky, J., Rawson, K.A., Marsh, E.J., Nathan, M.J. & Willingham, D.T. (2013). Improving students’ learning with effective learning techniques: Promising directions from cognitive and educational psychology. Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 14(1), 4-58.

Knaus, W.J. (2016). Overcoming procrastination for teens: A CBT guide for college-bound students. Oakland, CA: Instant Help Books.

Dunlosky, J. (2013). Strengthening the student toolbox: Study strategies to boost learning. American Educator, 37, 12-21.

https://www.purdue.edu/asc/resources/pdfs/exams/ASC_Handouts_TheStudyCycle.pdf

https://www.nytimes.com/2019/08/22/well/family/how-to-help-your-child-study.html

Cooper-Kahn, J. & Dietzel, L. (2008).

executive functioning: EXECUTIVE FUNCTIONING AND STUDY SKILLS IN GIRLS

RESOURCES FOR TEACHERS AND PARENTS Articles and Infographics STRENGTHENING THE STUDENT TOOLBOX: STUDY STRATEGIES TO BOOST LEARNING10 This article, from the American Educator, distills the research on studying into practical, accessible study techniques for use by teachers and families. https://www.aft.org/sites/default/files/periodicals/dunlosky.pdf

THE STUDY CYCLE11 This infographic, adapted by the Purdue University Academic Success Center from Frank Christ’s PLRS study system, outlines a clear, effective system for tackling difficult information. https://www.purdue.edu/asc/resources/pdfs/exams/ASC_Handouts_TheStudyCycle.pdf

HOW TO HELP YOUR CHILD STUDY 12 This article in the New York Times by Brian Platzer and Abby Freireich, the founders of Teachers Who Tutor NYC, provides helpful strategies for addressing the common pitfalls of procrastination, feeling overwhelmed and failing to retain information. https://www.nytimes.com/2019/08/22/well/family/how-to-help-your-child-study.html

Book LATE, LOST, AND UNPREPARED13 This book explains specific executive functions and provides helpful executive functioning strategies for use in everyday life.

CENTER FOR RESEARCH ON GIRLS Putting the world’s best research to work for girls.

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@CRGLaurelSchool

academics

CENTER FOR RESEARCH ON GIRLS

A SERIES OF RESEARCH AND INFORMATIONAL PUBLICATIONS BY LCRG

“Putting the world’s best research to work for girls.”

by Lisa Damour, Ph.D., Tori Cordiano, Ph.D. and Megan Weiskopf, M.A.

GIRLS AND ACADEMIC MOTIVATION Students may have the time, materials and skills they need to do their schoolwork, but the work won’t get done without an additional, essential ingredient: motivation. Defined as “the impetus that gives purpose or direction to behavior,”1 motivation has long been a subject of academic study. What has been discovered by researchers has clear implications for helping students tackle their work.

TWO TYPES OF MOTIVATION Academic psychologists have identified two key types of motivation, intrinsic and extrinsic.2 Intrinsic motivation describes the experience of feeling innately drawn to the task or topic at hand. Intrinsic motivation can readily be likened to fascination; a deep and genuine interest takes over and satisfaction is derived from the learning itself. In contrast, extrinsic motivation describes the condition of doing work in response to an outside stimulus. This can take the form of working in order to gain a positive outcome, such as receiving praise or a good grade, or to avoid a negative outcome, such as adult disappointment or being grounded. Intrinsic motivation requires less mental effort than extrinsic motivation, in the same way that fascination is less cognitively demanding than exerting effortful attention.3 That said, it is not

necessary or helpful to treat intrinsic motivation as a superior or preferred form of motivation. It is not always possible for students to summon intrinsic motivation, especially given that they are often required to study a wide range of topics not of their choosing. And even when intrinsic motivation is present, it is not always easily maintained over long stretches of time. Finally, it is important to note that students often feel intrinsically and extrinsically motivated at the same time. It is not at all unusual for a student to be genuinely interested in an assignment and, simultaneously, strive to get a good grade on it. Adults are most helpful to students when we view intrinsic and extrinsic motivation as two different, valuable tools that students have at their disposal. Ideally, students will learn how to use both tools to get work done.

FOSTERING INTRINSIC MOTIVATION There are many reasons to help students find a sense of intrinsic motivation. In addition to requiring less effort than extrinsic motivation,

academics: GIRLS AND ACADEMIC MOTIVATION

Research shows that students are more likely to experience intrinsic motivation when they feel autonomous, supported and competent... intrinsic motivation has been linked to higher levels of academic achievement4 and a great overall sense of well-being.5 Research shows that students are more likely to experience intrinsic motivation when they feel autonomous, supported and competent; they are less likely to experience intrinsic motivation when they feel controlled, pressured or unsure.6 To promote a sense of autonomy, students should be offered choices for how to approach their work whenever possible. For example, they might be given options for how they’d like to master new skills, approach new concepts, solve problems, demonstrate their understanding, organize their assignments or arrange their workspaces. To help students feel supported, adults should offer guidance designed to help students meet their own goals, as opposed to guidance aimed at getting students to conform to the wishes of teachers or parents. Finally, we should remember that students cannot summon intrinsic motivation for work that is too hard. Accordingly, adults should be alert to the possibility that a student who seems unmotivated may, in fact, be missing the knowledge or skills needed to complete the assigned work.

CAPITALIZING ON EXTRINSIC MOTIVATION

with students about the strategies that we turn to when we do not feel intrinsically motivated to accomplish necessary tasks. This might mean acknowledging that we often get ourselves to do tasks by looking forward to the reward of a cup of coffee, a chat with a friend or a paycheck once the work is completed. In other words, students should not feel uneasy about sometimes needing extrinsic motivators and should, in fact, be helped to find the external rewards that work best for them. As a first step, adults might recognize and celebrate the external motivation strategies students come to on their own. For example, some students complete a timed interval of work before rewarding themselves with a brief social media break. Others discover that they are better able to buckle down when studying in public at a library or coffee shop. Parents and teachers should support the systems students employ to complete their work, even if the strategy in question—such as studying while enjoying the online company of a friend—might seem strange to adults. Finally, parents and teachers can help students come up with effective motivators when necessary. The chart below details several excellent options.

Adults routinely rely on extrinsic motivation and should talk openly

WHEN SHE NEEDS HELP GETTING STARTED

WHEN SHE GETS STUCK

WHEN SHE FEELS OVERWHELMED

Help her break the work down into steps. If she’s unsure, help her figure out just the first step and begin there.

Give her time and space to grapple, offering strategies or asking questions to help her find a way in without giving her “the answer.”

Suggest she look at her obligations for the week, then map out a day-to-day approach that balances the work.

If you can, offer to sit near her and do your own work while she is working.

Ask her what tools she has at her disposal for troubleshooting: directions on the assignment sheet, resources on Canvas or Seesaw, a study buddy or two?

Help her break the work down into steps. Remind her that she doesn’t need to do it all at once to get it done.

To tap into intrinsic motivation, invite her to tell you something she enjoys or is curious about in relation to the class or the assignment.

Encourage her to make a list of specific questions and then check in with teachers.

Recommend that she cross even small tasks off a list to see what she is accomplishing one step at a time.

To tap into extrinsic motivation, encourage her to set a starting goal and come up with a small reward for meeting it.

Encourage her to work in 25-minute cycles, followed by active 5-minute breaks.

Help her identify opportunities for choice—in an assignment prompt, what to tackle first, a learning strategy she can use, the organization of her work space —to remind her that she can exercise some control.

GENDER AND MOTIVATION

Does praise undermine motivation? While some studies suggest that praising students helps to build intrinsic motivation,7 other research suggests that motivation flags when students are rewarded for their efforts.8 Experts agree, however, that praise can be an effective motivator when done correctly.9 In specific terms, students are more likely to feel intrinsically motivated when they are recognized for the effort they put into their work and when the praise they receive feels encouraging, sincere and supportive. In contrast, praise undermines motivation when students feel that they are being recognized only for their innate talents, or simply for acting in ways that are pleasing to adults. To help students feel motivated, celebrate their efforts by acknowledging that they “worked very hard,” and “should feel very proud of themselves.” Steer clear of suggesting that a student’s accomplishments reflect “a real gift for the subject,” or “what I knew you could do.”

Early research on gender and academic motivation tended to explain gender differences based on factors such as achievement anxiety—that is, worry about one’s performance in a place like school where that performance is being assessed—and learned helplessness, or the belief that current success is not possible because of past obstacles. However, this research is largely seen today as incomplete and imprecise, as it did not take into account cultural and educational beliefs about gender that had an impact on women’s choices at the time.10 More recent research has explored the relationships between gender, motivation and representation in STEM fields. One study with a large, ethnically diverse sample found that adolescent girls’ motivation in math and science was connected to maternal and peer support in math and science, exposure to feminism and belief in gender equality.11 Importantly, some research indicates that gender differences in motivation, especially those related to girls’ beliefs about their competency in and the importance of STEM fields, begin in elementary school, making this a critical time to target motivation in STEM.12

GIRLS AND ACADEMIC MOTIVATION [endnotes]

https://dictionary.apa.org/motivation Richard, R.M. & Deci, E.L. (2000). Self-determination theory of intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being. American Psychologist, 55(1), 68-78. 3 Shernoff, D.J. & Csikszentmihalyi, M. (2014). Flow in Schools: Cultivating engaged learners and optimal learning environments. In M. Furlong, R. Gilman, & S. Heubner (Eds.), Handbook of Positive Psychology in the Schools, 2nd edition (pp.211-226). Oxfordshire, UK: Routledge, Taylor & Francis. 4 Taylor, G. et al., (2014). A self-determination theory approach to predicting school achievement over time: the unique role of intrinsic motivation. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 39(4), 342-358. 5 Burton, K. D., Lydon, J. E., D’Alessandro, D. U., & Koestner, R. (2006). The differential effects of intrinsic and identified motivation on well-being and performance: Prospective, experimental, and implicit approaches to self-determination theory. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 91(4), 750–762. 6 Ryan, R.M. & Powelson, C.L. (1991). Autonomy and relatedness as fundamental to motivation and education. The Journal of Experimental Education, 60(1), 49-66. 7 Deci, E.L., Koestner, R., & Ryan, R.M. (1999). A meta-analytic review of experiments examining the effects of extrinsic rewards on intrinsic motivation. Psychological Bulletin, 125(6), 627-668. 8 Birch, L.L., Marlin, D.W., & Rotter, J. (1984). Eating as the “means” activity in a contingency: Effects on young children’s food preference. Child Development, 55(2), 431-439. 9 Henderlong, J., & Lepper, M.R. (2002).The effects of praise on children’s intrinsic motivation: A review and synthesis. Psychological Bulletin, 128(5), 774-795. 10 Meece, J.L., Glienke, B.B., & Burg, S. (2006). Gender and motivation. Journal of School Psychology, 44, 351-373. 11 Leaper, C., Farkas, T., Brown, C.S. (2012). Adolescent girls’ experiences and gender-related beliefs in relation to their motivation in math/science and English. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 41, 268-282. 12 Meece et al. (2006). 13 Knaus, W.J. (2016). Overcoming procrastination for teens: A CBT guide for college-bound students. Instant Help Books. 14 DiTerlizzi, A., & Alvarez. (2020). The magical yet. Hyperion. 15 Willingham, D. (2021). Why don’t students like school? A cognitive scientist answers about how the mind works and what it means for the classroom. (2nd ed.). Jossey-Bass. 16 Paul, A.M. (2021). The extended mind: The power of thinking outside the brain. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. 17 https://www.timetimer.com 18 https://www.forestapp.cc 19 https://pomofocus.io 1

academics: GIRLS AND ACADEMIC MOTIVATION

RESOURCES FOR TEACHERS AND PARENTS Books OVERCOMING PROCRASTINATION FOR TEENS: A CBT GUIDE FOR COLLEGE-BOUND STUDENTS This practical book helps students understand the link between anxiety and motivation and provides actionable strategies to decrease procrastination and use time efficiently.13

THE MAGICAL YET This beautifully illustrated picture book helps younger children understand the connection between effort and outcome, particularly for difficult tasks.14

WHY DON’T STUDENTS LIKE SCHOOL? The second edition of this seminal book by cognitive psychologist Daniel Willingham explores factors related to students’ critical thinking, retention and motivation and provides strategies to help teachers harness engagement in the classroom.15

THE EXTENDED MIND: THE POWER OF THINKING OUTSIDE THE BRAIN This newest book from science writer Annie Murphy Paul explores the ways in which people use their bodies and the world around them to solve problems and how thinking “outside the brain” can boost motivation and generate fresh solutions.16

Products and websites TIME TIMER This visual timer helps even the youngest students set work limits and visualize upcoming breaks.17 https://www.timetimer.com

FOREST This app and website blocker helps students stay focused and eliminate distractions when they must use devices to complete their work. Students can watch a tree “grow” as they stay focused for designated periods of time and cause their tree to “wither” if they visit distracting websites.18 https://www.forestapp.cc

POMODORO TIMER This website and app from the original creator of the Pomodoro technique helps students set structured work periods and planned breaks when working for longer periods of time.19 https://pomofocus.io

CENTER FOR RESEARCH ON GIRLS Putting the world’s best research to work for girls.

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