Betty Mae Tiger Jumper

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Betty Mae Tiger Jumper: Leader, Feminist, Legend

Leah Knowles WMS 530 History of Feminist Thought Research Paper 22 November 2010

MLA Documentation Word Count: 4,980


2 The Seminole Tribe of Florida is a community with a long history of resistance to European invasion and colonization. “In 1830 he [Andrew Jackson] instituted his Indian removal policy, which would affect all southeastern Indians residing east of the Mississippi. They would be forcibly removed to Indian Territory, located in present-day Oklahoma” (Jumper and West, 2). This forcible removal affected many other American Indian nations as well as they suffered along “The Trail of Tears.” “The Florida Seminoles were the only tribe to offer armed resistance...” (Jumper and West, 2). Three hundred Florida Seminoles used their resources to hide in their native environment (the Florida Everglades) and escape the removal. Throughout their history, the Seminoles have cultivated a strong distrust of white visitors, especially as Euro-Americans attempted to conquer the tribe through acculturation in boarding schools and raping their land. “They remained there, unconquered but unwanted, mistrustful of the white man and his government for nearly half a century” (Jumper, 13). The Seminoles also took great care to preserve their native languages (Muskogee and Hitchiti) and legends. “The People, those of them who had come into Alabama and Georgia, made legends then, and the legends were of what they now knew: alligators, snakes, the deer of the dark forests, the fish in the sea, the peninsula south of the tribe, perhaps even forays there and into Mexico as well” (Jahoda, 129). Although tourism brought some wealth to the community, the culture white visitors experienced was only a caricature of the “unconquered” tribe. What is a Seminole village beyond the tourist area of the Tamiami Trail? It is thatched chickees; it is the murmur of the wind in high Royal palms. It is the nutty smell of the sofkee in iron cauldrons, the bright games of children, the rattles and the drums of the Green Corn Dance, and the sacredness of the New Fire which is lit every year in a venerable tradition (Jahoda, 133).

Seminole legend remains a fundamental tool of preservation for a culture that has long employed an oral tradition. “The recipient of a legend must do his or her best to retell the story as close


3 to the original version as possible. It is a great responsibility and for this reason, the best storytellers are greatly respected among those in the tribe” (Jumper, 9). The stories, which are both mystical and didactic in nature, are still told to the younger generations. “After the evening meal, children gathered around the campfire for the older people to tell them stories. That was the way that the young people were taught the rules of life and their clan's ways” (Jumper and West, 53). The tribe eventually became divided between those who practiced traditional Seminole customs and those who preferred to adopt some of the white man's ways. “There was no general tribal organization, owing to the differences between the reservation and nonreservation Seminoles” (Jumper and West, 138). Unfortunately, the U.S. government used legal manipulation to ravage the Everglades until it was too late. “Today, the movement of water through the Everglades is entirely unnatural, and the Everglades are considered one of the most endangered ecosystems on the planet” (LaDuke, 31). Still, the tribe resists these powers in their own way. “What we do is for all things, for all people. Because if you don't stop now with the destruction, with the development and the poisoning of the environment, we're all gonna go” (LaDuke, 44). They unite against environmental degradation using peaceful, unifying methods instead of taking on an adversarial stance against the governmental powers. “We do not wish to own land because our land is for all of us” (LaDuke, 37). The women of the Seminole Tribe have a distinct role in preserving their culture while discovering ways to connect with white Americans. “Patchwork, a 'traditional' craft that relies upon the technology of the sewing machine, and expresses individual taste and talent in culturally consistent patterns, authentically reflects the synthesis of heritage and adaptation achieved by Seminole women” (Shoemaker, 193). Seminole women are also central to the tribe's organization. “Traditionally, Seminoles were both matrilineal and matrilocal” (Shoemaker, 194-195). Their genuine regard for their people is reflected in the delicate balance they create as the Seminoles live on into the twenty-first century. “Seminole women's strong commitment to serving their people is a consistent theme in their


4 life stories, which also reveal their flexibility, as they respond to changing needs by redirecting their careers� (Shoemaker, 206). They encourage the youth to become educated while keeping their unique customs alive. “So, patchwork, like the women who continue to create it, represents both the cultural stability and evolving dynamism of Seminole life� (Shoemaker, 209). Betty Mae Tiger Jumper is one such woman who has walked the tenous line between worlds her entire life. She was born on April 23, 1923, a mixed-race child among the Seminoles. As a little girl, Betty was almost killed for her "half-breed" status, but her grandfather protected her. Still, she was scorned as an outsider for her ethnicity and the fact that her family was Christian. Instead of socializing with other Seminole children, Betty used her time taming wild animals. As she grew older and visited a missionary's home in Oklahoma, she saw a comic book and desperately yearned to learn how to read. Thus, her first goal in life was to be educated, which caused more opposition from tribal members who felt she did not need the white man's schooling. Betty was undaunted by this opposition, however, and was motivated by observing her midwife mother who was unable to save healthy babies simply because she lacked medical training. Betty decided she would become a nurse and and bring both education and health care to her people. When she finally reached this goal, she faced additional distrust from traditional Seminoles who felt their medicine was perfectly adequate. She gained their gratitude later as she used western medicine to save their ailing relatives. Betty also started the Seminole Indian News, a newspaper meant to help connect and educate a divided tribe. When she married Moses Jumper, an alcoholic who made his living wrestling alligators for tourists, Betty would often wrestle in his place when he was too intoxicated to do so. Eventually, Betty was elected the first female chief of the Seminole Tribe for her dedication to her people and her abilities as a trilingual interpreter. She lives on today, a vivacious storyteller and advocate for her community. Betty Mae Tiger Jumper represents feminism in her role as a Native activist, her many


5 positions of leadership and authority, and her trail-blazing precedents established for future Seminole women and youth. Beyond her many roles and accomplishments, however, Betty is a feminist in her ability to create harmony between two dissonant cultures--a feat many feminists struggle to actualize. Long before Betty Mae Tiger Jumper was born, it seems she was destined to follow the examples set by her powerful mother ancestors. Calling Myself Home This land is the house we have always lived in. The women, their bones are holding up the earth. The red tail of a hawk cuts open the sky and the sun brings their faces back with the new grass. - An excerpt from a poem by Linda Hogan When Andrew Jackson instituted the Indian Removal Act, Betty's ancestors were taken from their home in the Everglades to travel by boat. My great-great grandmother and her three daughters were among those captives on board. In the pen where they were kept, she grew more and more worried, because the soldiers had begun using the younger women. She was concerned for her daughters. Then, she and her oldest daughter were raped, and she became consumed with a plan to help her youngest daughters escape (Jumper and West, 4).

The two younger girls were able to escape without being violated, but they did not flee entirely willingly. “The thing that troubled them most was the memories of their mother and sister who were left behind� (Jumper and West, 5). They had been taught how to survive in the swamps and made it back to their camp alive, astonishing the villagers by their safe return. “They couldn't believe that the


6 Snake girls had been able to make it back home after being taken so far away” (Jumper and West, 7). The sisters were solely responsible for the continuance of their clan: Because of these brave sisters, the Snake clan did not disappear, but that's why there aren't very many people in our clan. ...But since there were only two girls, the Snake clan remained small, as only the women carry their clan to their children. ...Today there are about forty-five people in the Snake clan (Jumper and West, 7).

Without their courage, Betty would never have been born to live the incredible life she has. “This narrative is only the second for a Seminole-related escape in the Second Seminole War period that has been published” (Jumper and West, 8). In a culture which follows the maternal line of heritage, legends of female heroism such as this one are common. This fact contrasts with the European patriarchal fairy tales of "knights in shining armor" and "damsels in distress." The Seminoles represent an image of women that is neither weak nor helpless, but courageous and resourceful. It was stories like this one that molded Betty into a woman without fear. From the very beginning, Betty Mae Tiger Jumper was destined for a difficult life. “There were two strikes against me when I was born April 23, 1923. First, I was a half-breed; second, I was born into a Christian family” (Jumper and West, 39). Being born mixed-race was not only cause for discrimination by the Seminole Tribe, but was a matter of life or death. “Before me, all half-breeds were killed as soon as they were born. None were as lucky as I, being born into a family that had received Christ” (Jumper and West, 39). The Seminoles have a history of mixing with African slaves, but Betty (whose father was French) was a product of a union with the Seminoles' greatest adversary. “Miscegenation with whites was not tolerated at all” (Jumper and West, 12). Their fear of mixed-race children was infused in both their cultural and spiritual beliefs. “The Seminoles believed that half-breeds were evil 'Ho-la wa-gus!' (bad spirits) who could endanger the


7 tribe and bring on bad spells” (Jumper and West, 39). As Betty puts it, “people thought my family was 'bad medicine' because we were half-white” (Jumper and West, vii). Because of her family's brave advocacy, however, Betty survived to face a harsh childhood. “Life was not easy for my brother, Howard, and me as we faced discrimination from other full-blooded reservation children. ...Many, many times my brother and I shed tears because we were half-breeds” (Jumper and West, 57). Later, when she was admitted to a Cherokee boarding school, Betty finally felt as if she belonged somewhere. I looked around and noticed a guy with the bluest eyes and black wavy hair staring back at me. My mind was saying, "What a funny-looking Indian!" Then I looked another way and saw a blond-haired girl. I thought, "Isn't this an 'Indian' school?" I later learned that some students had only a little Indian blood, while others were full-bloods. I thought to myself, "Never again will I ever ask where my kind belong!" (Jumper and West, 108).

Betty's life progressed toward a balance between the Seminole world and the Euro-American world as she sought to experience both ethnic identities without subordinating one or the other. She became a bridge of peace between two different worlds as she fought internally and externally. The first step Betty took to embrace her white heritage was to gain a formal American education. She had previously attended a missions trip to Oklahoma where she met other Seminole girls who knew how to read. Her goal was cemented in her mind as she looked at a comic book and desired to comprehend its message. “I had a mission when I arrived back in Dania in 1937—to go to school. I wanted an education like my friends in Oklahoma had” (Jumper and West, 102). Due to the racist times in which Betty was living, however, segregation proved her first obstacle to obtaining an education. “The government people tried to put me in Dania and Ft. Lauderdale schools, but the doors were closed to Indians” (Jumper and West, 102).


8 Traditional Seminoles were an additional roadblock while they still maintained a negative and suspicious attitude toward white schooling. “The Indians believed that we had no need to attend school. It was the white man’s way, not the Indians” (Jumper and West, 64). Betty's motivation for educating herself was never selfish or a way to abandon her people by becoming fully assimilated into the American culture. “I am deeply grateful for the education I have received and I want sincerely to use it in the interest of my people” (Jumper and West, 137). In reality, Betty had very specific goals in mind in her efforts to help the Seminole Tribe, and she was driven to achieve those goals by the powerful teachings of her matrilineal heritage. “I had learned from my grandmother to set a goal and go after it. So I set my goals at an early age. To finish school was one goal. To work among my people and get them on their feet through health care and education were my goals for the future” (Jumper and West, 117). Nevertheless, Betty faced hardships like many who set precedents for future generations. As Betty pushed herself through school beyond the barriers set by the U.S. government and the disapproval of her people, she made another connection between cultures. Betty learned to read and write in English, making her the first trilingual speaker in the history of the Seminoles. Betty could speak English and both Native languages fluently and began to use her new talent for translation at a young age. “Sometimes, around the fire, Ada Tiger would tell several Seminole stories while Betty would translate” (Jumper and West, 68). This accomplishment is only one among many that Betty conquered throughout her life. “She was the first formally educated Seminole, trained in the medical arts, outspoken, trilingual, a Christian, and a conservative” (Jumper and West, 168). Her trilingual abilities would aid her in future endeavors as well. “Being the first trilingual candidate for chairman gave her a great advantage not only as a speaker but also as an interpreter” (Jumper and West, 160). After she graduated from high school, Betty chased another major dream--to become a nurse. She had set this goal early on in life as she watched her mother practice midwifery. Mother also had medical knowledge, which she had learned from


9 her father, Tom Tiger. However, many times I went with her to deliver babies, and many times the babies died. ...I watched perfectly healthy babies die when they shouldn't have. I believe that is when I decided to make things better for my people (Jumper and West, 49).

Although Betty wanted to save the children traditional Seminole medicine could not, she respected her mother's capabilities very much. “Betty Mae Jumper credited her initial involvement in public health to her lineage, since she descended from a line of Indian doctors, including her mother, who was a midwife” (Shoemaker, 207). Betty's training in the white man's medicine caused even further alienation from the tribe. “When Betty Mae Jumper, later tribal chief, left her village to become a nurse in the world of modern America, there were older Seminoles who would not speak to her” (Jahoda, 132). Betty faced hostility from many traditional tribal members for her efforts to bring them western medicine. “I had returned to a struggle. My tribe was still against the new world. It was a tough road trying to convince the people that the medicine man could cure certain illnesses but wasn't familiar with white man's illness, and so that is why we needed the white doctors” (Jumper and West, 122). Eventually, when they saw the positive effects of Betty's work, many began to trust her. This did not happen before Betty had stared down the barrel of a loaded shotgun, however, and many asked her why she even bothered. She was ready with an answer. “We can't walk away because we care for these people” (Jumper and West, 125). Her motivation was simple yet clear: she didn't want to see any more of her people die if they didn't have to. As the dominant American culture slowly encroached upon the Seminole community, new diseases were introduced to the tribe that the medicine women and men had never seen before. Betty, as the bridge between worlds, was there to help them. “When the incidence of diabetes among the Seminoles increased, Betty, as a health-care worker, decided to devote all her energy to the medical


10 problems of her people” (Jumper and West, 142). Outside her busy professional life, Betty married a man she had known growing up, Moses Jumper, who was a loving husband but also an alcoholic. Alcoholism is an unfortunate problem for the Seminole Tribe as poverty has kept them in a desperate state for so long. Younger women writers see the value of discussing their own generations' struggles with life on the reservations, substance abuse, abject poverty, government bureaucracy. ...They wanted to share the harsh existence of life on reservations as they tried to raise children and follow traditions in a changing, poverty-stricken community where the main attraction was alcohol and death was commonplace (Jumper and West, xiii-xiv).

When Moses was too intoxicated to do his job entertaining tourists as an alligator wrestler, Betty would take his place. Her attitude regarding this amazing talent is nonchalant. “I did that because I needed to earn money to feed the kids” (Jumper and West, 133). It was a matter of necessity for Betty, who considers her alligator wrestling a minor feat. She had been raised to know how to behave around animals from a very young age, particularly since she had few friends who would accept a "half-breed" like herself. “During my childhood I had a lonely life. It seemed that my closest friends were my dogs and cats, and a bunny that a white couple gave me. I taught them to get along with each other, which amazed the reservation visitors who stopped by our camp” (Jumper and West, 54). Generally speaking, Betty's life did not revolve around her role as a wife and mother and her success did not depend on the success of her husband like so many women throughout history. Her narrative chronicles her life as an independent catalyst for change as she grew accustomed to working on her own. Betty made a name for herself as an individual who cared about her community even when she hadn't always been accepted for who she was. In what many may consider her greatest accomplishment, Betty achieved the inconceivable.


11 “Betty Mae Jumper became the first chairwoman (and the only one to date) of the Seminole Tribe of Florida. She was forty-four years old” (Jumper and West, 160). If one asks Betty about her position as the first female chief of the Seminoles, however, she would claim it was merely another way she could serve the interests of her tribe. “In lengthy conversations with Betty, however, I learned that being chief of the Seminole Tribe of Florida was not on top of Betty's list of her greatest personal accomplishments” (Jumper and West, ix). The chairwoman position was far from glamorous. “The newly elected president would earn $8,300 per year. Chairwoman Betty Mae Tiger, the chief of the Seminole Tribe, received nothing” (Jumper and West, 161). She took the chairwoman job because she wanted to unite the clashing cultures of mainstream America and the Seminoles, and she was recognized for her efforts. Betty received her first major award in November 1970. At the National Seminar for American Women held in Denver, she was named one of the "Top Indian Women" of the year for earning national recognition and working tirelessly on behalf of fellow Native Americans (Jumper and West, 166).

Her life had taken a turn even Betty could not have foreseen. “The baby who Tribal Elders wanted to throw away in the swamp is now the leader of her people” (Annino, 29). Betty set yet another precedent in her position as coeditor of The Seminole Indian News with Alice Osceola (Jumper and West, 150). Her rationale behind the paper stemmed from her desire to unite the two factions of the tribe, one living on the reservation and the other a traditional Seminole lifestyle. “Betty went to the Tamiami Trail and discussed with Alice the idea of a newspaper that would serve both the Seminoles on the reservations and the Miccosukees” (Jumper and West, 151). Betty and Alice knew that publishing a newspaper which reflected a unified voice for their people would be a challenge. “The editors were concerned about their viewpoints as they represented two culturally similar but idealistically diverse tribal entities” (Jumper and West, 151).


12 The Seminole Indian News caused even more resentment toward Betty as it was considered a white man's tool. “Having a newspaper as a forum was a real novelty and a major break with tradition for the tribal peoples. ...Many mistrusted and feared it, especially the large numbers who were isolated and illiterate yet facing the new responsibility of voting in a nontraditional, democratic system” (Jumper and West, 154). Coeditor of The Seminole Indian News was just one of the many roles Betty was not afraid to take on. “Betty Mae Jumper also changed careers, first from public health to public policy and leadership in tribal government, and later to the editorship of the tribal newspaper” (Shoemaker, 206-207). In her later life, Betty has remained an active member of her community. Although her goals reflected a strong desire to understand Euro-American customs, she also understands the significance of preserving Seminole ways. “Betty is very well known to Floridians as a storyteller” (Jumper and West, ix). Her maternal elders taught young Betty the Seminole legends and their importance to the tribe. “Nights under the mosquito net in my grandmother's chickee and days in the field picking tomatoes also gave me plenty of time to hear the oral history and legends of our tribe and clan” (Jumper and West, 54). Betty was also the first person to ever record the Seminole stories, for which she was criticized by a society that had always relied on an oral tradition. “'These stories are very old, but have never been written down,' is how Betty Mae rationalized her deed. 'If the oldest people on the reservation were to die, without leaving them for others to learn, then our culture would be gone, too'” (Jumper, 12). “Her story is both personal and profoundly valuable as a compelling discussion and insightful perspective of Seminole tribal history, which has been thus far unwritten for lack of a native voice, a voice that Betty Mae Jumper has now provided” (Jumper and West, xi). Betty continues the oral tradition alongside her book of Seminole legends, and it's a role she takes very seriously. “...Betty became well known in the community for being a Seminole spokeswoman, a former chief, and a


13 talented storyteller” (Jumper and West, 169). After acquiring an education for herself and excelling in so many areas of life, Betty Mae Tiger Jumper has also taken up the cause of Seminole youth. “Education continued to be an important issue for Betty. During the late 1950s she served as the tribe's unofficial truant officer. Playing hookey was not tolerated on her watch” (Jumper and West, 157). She encourages the younger generations to learn all they can about both the dominant American ideologies and their own heritage. The youth were very important to Betty, who remembered her own social isolation, her educational needs, frustrations, and aspirations. She noted in news articles: "The younger generation want modern things. We want them to have clinics, gymnasiums and schooling. But we want them to have respect for heritage, too" (Jumper and West, 164).

She wants to see her tribe advanced long after she has passed. Betty's story is another legend in and of itself from which future Seminole children can learn. Betty Mae Tiger Jumper took advantage of her ethnic inheritance to relate to the white man's ways. She worked within the system to help her people rise above the station in which they had been kept by the forces of colonization. She began her journey as a little girl who dreamed of going to school. Most of today's critics of the Indian boarding schools come down hard on the government's solution to the Indian Problem, which was geared toward acculturating the Indian students into mainstream society at the expense of their tribal culture. Since acculturation was Betty's personal goal, she was grateful for the opportunity to get an education (Jumper and West, 113).

I feel it must be mentioned that Betty was not interested in becoming fully assimilated in the dominant white culture so she could leave her Seminole roots behind her. She wanted to understand how the system worked so she could put it to work on behalf of the Seminoles. “When we became


14 organized, we took steps forward to fight in the white man's world at tables, instead of with bows and arrows and guns” (Jumper and West, 156). Instead of resigning herself to life as an outsider as she was treated since childhood, Betty turned her circumstances around and demanded to be accepted as a member of both societies represented in her ethnic identity. In doing so, Betty Mae Tiger Jumper has acted as a bridge of peace and justice between the Seminoles and white America. Especially within public health and education, Betty has taken the good in both cultures and combined them for a richer experience for the Seminole nation. Not only was she able to incorporate western medicine and education into the lives of a reluctant people, she impressed the American government as well: Elected to head the Seminoles in 1967, she was a founder of the United South and Eastern Tribes (USET), one of the most powerful lobbies in Indian Country. In 1970, she was one of two women appointed by President Nixon to the National Congress on Indian Opportunity (Florida Commission on the Status of Women).

Betty has somehow found a balance between two distinct ways of living. She is a well-rounded, knowledgable woman who learned how to live on both sides of the road. “I am glad to say that this helped me to live and learn and to abide by the outside world’s rules and laws as well” ("Women of Legend," 24). As much as she learned about white culture, Betty has always appreciated Seminole wisdom and instills respect in the culture's youth. “She wants to pass on this heritage to the tribe’s young people, to make sure the legends don’t die when she and other elders die” ("Women of Legend," 25). While medicine and education are two positive tools she has used from western culture, Betty also acknowledges the domination of the colonial powers and expresses profound pride in the Seminoles' determination to remain unconquered. “As long as we were there, people liked to see us. But we learned how to fight for our rights the same as anyone else” ("Women of Legend," 25). Betty Mae Tiger Jumper is one of the most courageous and devoted feminists of the twentieth century. She has defended the rights of women and Native peoples since she was a young woman and


15 never slowed down to let anyone trample her spirit. Leading by example, “...Seminole Betty Mae Jumper [was] out to create a new image for Seminole women” (Jumper and West, 161). Her given name also foreshadowed a life of war on all forms of oppression. “Betty's Indian name—given to her by her grandmother, Mary Tiger, when she was very small—is Pa-Ta-Kee. It means 'Soldier'” (Jumper and West, 173). Branching out beyond Seminole rights, Betty supports all women who wish to rise beyond the hetero-patriarchal standard that would keep them subordinate to men. Honored by many women's organizations, she says to all women pursuing a career: "Do not let hardships stand in your way. Set small goals and work toward them, even if it's only fifteen minutes a day." With all that Betty Mae Jumper has accomplished in her life, it is no exaggeration to say that she is a legend in her own time (Jumper and West, 170).

Betty Mae Tiger Jumper's legacy is a call to action for the youth of her people and all women. She never rested until she saw significant change and never let a childhood of adversity and prejudice diminish her passion to help her people. Although the roles of Seminole chief, nurse, and storyteller define her as a powerful and accomplished woman, it is her ability to cross two worlds and force them to see the humanity in each other that makes Betty Mae Tiger Jumper truly feminist. She is the harmony maker, and we can all learn from Betty what it really means to be unified as a people and as a world. The Blanket Around Her oh woman remember who you are woman it is the whole earth -An excerpt from a poem by Joy Harjo


16 Annotated Bibliography Annino, J.G. She Sang Promise: The Story of Betty Mae Jumper, Seminole Tribal Leader. National Geographic Children's Books, 2010. Print. This children's story chronicles the adventures of Betty Mae Tiger Jumper as she faces racial discrimination, stubbornly demands an education, wrestles alligators, and becomes a leader and story-keeper for her people, the Seminoles of the Everglades. Through brilliantly illustrated depictions of her life, the young reader learns of traditional Seminole dress and culture. The author also includes a historical timeline and a bibliography at the end of the book. Annino met Betty Mae Tiger Jumper at a Seminole festival and was so inspired by her story, she wrote this book so all children would know of Jumper's remarkable existence.

Florida Commission on the Status of Women. “Betty Mae Jumper.� FCSW.net. Web. This web page was created in tribute to the life of Betty Mae Tiger Jumper as one of the inductees in the hall of fame of the Florida Commission on the Status of Women. The image shows a proud Jumper, advanced in age and experience. The brief synopsis includes only a short introduction to her incredible life. Although her life's work cannot be justly described in this short of a piece, the web page highlights the reasons Betty Mae Tiger Jumper will go down in Seminole history as a legend.

Green, Rayna. Women in American Indian Society. New York: Chelsea House Publishers, 1992. Print. This book examines the history of Native American women more generally, deconstructing the common misconceptions and facts left out of patriarchal education. While the book is more of a survey than a focus on the life of Betty Mae Tiger Jumper, the Seminoles are included as a


17 memorable and significant tribe among all Native women. The author also examines culture, colonization, and gender roles of American Indian women.

Jahoda, Gloria. “Seminole.” Florida Historical Society 55.2 (1976): 129-133. Print. In this journal article, Gloria Jahoda explores what it means to be a “real” Seminole Indian. She creates an honest conversation about racism and prejudice among and against the Seminoles. Through a brief history of the tribe, the author discusses the impact of modern tourism on the traditional ways of the Seminole community. She specifically mentions Betty Mae Tiger Jumper in the section on white assimilation and tourism because the tribe rejected Jumper as a traitor when she learned English and became a nurse. She concludes her article with a reminiscence of the old ways of the Seminoles before tourism became the most profitable survival tactic.

Jumper, Betty M. Legends of the Seminoles. Pineapple Press, 1994. Print. This book for all ages is Betty Mae Tiger Jumper's own recording of her people's legends. She is known for her regular story-telling as she continues the Seminole oral tradition, and is additionally credited for the written history of their legends. The book includes such stories as Two Hunters, The Deer Girl, The Corn Lady, Orange Grasshoppers, Two Women, and Witch Owls. Richly painted illustations create an image of each legend in the reader's mind. Many stories are also appropriately concluded with a strip of Seminole patchwork, which symbolizes the legend to the tribe. Their stories are woven into their fabric so they will never forget their own history.

Jumper, Betty Mae, and Patsy West. A Seminole Legend: The Life of Betty Mae Tiger Jumper. 1st ed. University Press of Florida, 2001. Print.


18 Betty Mae Tiger Jumper's autobiography follows the path of her life in her own words. She describes her constant struggle to fit in with her tribe as she is discriminated against for her mixed-race status. Such experiences strengthened Jumper and molded her into a determined woman and a true leader. The book paints a picture of the balance she has found between the dominant American culture and her own Seminole heritage; a balance which expresses her ethnic identity and an on-going cultural conflict. The story also includes her desperation to be educated and to become a nurse so she could pick up where the medicine men left off in Seminole communities. She faced animosity for this decision and also for deciding to record Seminole legend as opposed to only maintaining an oral tradition. Generally speaking, Jumper has bravely attempted to create harmony between two adversarial societies, a feat for which she will always be remembered.

LaDuke, Winona. All Our Relations: Native Struggles for Land and Life. South End Press, 1999. Print. This book raises the reader's consciousness about the many injustices American Indian nations have suffered by the world powers. LaDuke's chapter on the Seminoles examines their environmental battle with the American government as they tried to keep the natural Everglades intact. The Seminoles also fought for the survival of the Florida panther, but there are very few left now. LaDuke follows the dischord between the Seminoles who wish to remain traditional and those who have become more assimilated to the dominant white culture.

Shoemaker, Nancy. Negotiators of Change: Historical Perspectives on Native American Women. 1st ed. Routledge, 1995. Print. Shoemaker's book explores the historical gender identity and cultural struggles between white standards and traditional Native customs. She concentrates particularly on Native women's


19 reaction to Eurocentric assimilation and conquest and their evolving cultures. In her chapter on the Seminoles, she examines women's status in the tribe as many members were forced to walk “The Trail of Tears” to Oklahoma, while only a few hundred remained in the Everglades. She writes specifically about Betty Mae Tiger Jumper facing the wrath of her community as one of the first women to be educated outside traditional Seminole education (which included didactic legends and survival skills). She describes Jumper as an activist and a catalyst for change as she encouraged the Seminole youth to become educated. Shoemaker also credits Jumper with improving the status of women in her tribe by setting a precedent for future female leaders.

“Women of Legend.” Forum Magazine Spring 2007: 24-25. Print. This article is an interview with Betty Mae Tiger Jumper about her seemingly contradictory life as an educated Seminole woman. She denies dualist thinking that precludes a kind of harmony between conventional Seminole ways and those of white Americans. She acts as a bridge between two seemingly dichotomous worlds; Jumper somehow finds a way to link the two in ways no one ever thought possible. While she welcomes education outside traditional Seminole medicine, she is also dedicated to preserving Seminole culture and heritage, particularly in the form of story.


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