WATER WORKS! Resource Kit 1
THE ABCs OF POTABLE WATER PROJECTS
A Publication of the Peace and Equity Foundation 2007
The 40-liter challenge: situating our work
CONTENTS
List of boxes, tables and figures ........................................................................................................... iii Acronyms and abbreviations used..................................................................................................... iv Foreword.......................................................................................................................................................vi Acknowledgment......................................................................................................................................vii INTRODUCTION : WATER FOR LIFE........................................................................................................1 Water for poverty reduction and improved quality of life...........................................................4 Why implement potable water supply projects?............................................................................5 Water Works! Helping partners meet the challenge .....................................................................8 THE 40-LITER CHALLENGE: SITUATING OUR WORK.......................................................................11 The policy environment..........................................................................................................................15 Who regulates potable water supply and management?..........................................................15 Who can operate/manage potable water supply facilities?......................................................17 Issues related to potable water supply..............................................................................................18 Emerging efforts........................................................................................................................................21 The 40-liter challenge .............................................................................................................................22 THE ABCs OF POTABLE WATER PROJECTS ......................................................................................23 I. Understanding our world of water: basic facts ....................................................................25 A. The water cycle .........................................................................................................................26 B. Water sources ............................................................................................................................27 C. Developing water sources......................................................................................................28 II. Developing a potable water supply system ...........................................................................29 A. What specific purpose will the potable water project serve?...................................29 B. What is a suitable water source?..........................................................................................30 C. What is an appropriate level of service?............................................................................32 D. What technology should be used?.....................................................................................34 1. Technologies in sourcing water...................................................................................35 2. Selecting pumps, tanks and pipes..............................................................................39 What to consider when selecting/designing tanks What to consider when selecting pipe materials What to consider when determining the pipe to use
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WATER WORKS! Resource Kit 1
3. Tapstands/communal faucets (for Level II systems).............................................49 What to consider when designing tapstands 4. Water quality and treatment technologies..............................................................52 E. How much will it cost? How much are users able and willing to pay?...................54 1. Keeping costs down 2. What to include in the cost What to consider when determining water tariffs 3. Setting effective water pricing mechanisms F. What are the legal requirements?.......................................................................................56 1. From community members 2. From the barangay government 3. From the municipal/city government 4. From the NWRB 5. From the DOH or provincial/municipal/city health office 6. From the DENR 7. From community associations or other water system operators/developers G. What should be done during construction, operation, and maintenance of the water system?....................................................................59 1. Planning for construction 2. Procuring materials and services 3. Overseeing construction 4. Ensuring that resources or materials are accessible when needed 5. Hiring and supervising labor/personnel 6. Post construction: clean up, testing, disinfection 7. Operation and maintenance III. Enhancing and sustaining implementation............................................................................62 A. Estimating benefits and costs of potable water supply projects.............................62 1. Uses/advantages of undertaking cost-benefit analysis 2. How to estimate potable water project costs and benefits What to consider when estimating project benefit B. Undertaking related interventions.....................................................................................73 LIST OF KEY INFORMANTS FOR WATER WORKS! ............................................................................74 REFERENCES
. ........................................................................................................................................79
LIST OF PEF AND PARTNERS PROJECT DOCUMENTS...................................................................83
The 40-liter challenge: situating our work
LIST OF BOXES, TABLES AND FIGURES BOXES 1. Water, water everywhere...........................................................................................................‌11 2. ‌and not a drop to drink ..........................................................................................................12 3. Line agencies in the water supply sector.................................................................................16 4. Computing average daily demand........................................................................................... 42 5. Computing maximum hour demand.........................................................................................44 6. Computing maximum day demand...........................................................................................48 7. Determining water tariffs ..........................................................................................................56 8. Government agencies concerned in potable water supply..............................................58 9. Estimating benefits and costs.......................................................................................................64 FIGURES 1. Global access to water supply........................................................................................................3 2. The water cycle..................................................................................................................................26 3. Levels of water service/distribution..........................................................................................32 4. Typical Level II system layout.......................................................................................................33 5. Typical water supply system..........................................................................................................35 6. Rainwater storage.............................................................................................................................36 7. Spring intake box and details.......................................................................................................37 8. Basic well construction methods.................................................................................................38 9. Standard well design........................................................................................................................39 10. Reciprocating pumps.......................................................................................................................47 11. Motorized pumps..............................................................................................................................48 12. Submersible pump...........................................................................................................................48 13. Sample spot map with tapstand locations pinpointed.......................................................50 14. Iron filter...............................................................................................................................................54 TABLES 1. Proportion of households without household water connections.................................13 2. Areas of responsibility for potable water supply...................................................................18 3. Components of potable water supply system by service level........................................34 4. Characteristics of different pipe materials...............................................................................46
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ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS USED ADB Asian Development Bank BWSA barangay water supply association CDA Cooperative Development Agency CO conduit organization COD chemical oxygen demand CSDO-SC Coalition of Social Development Organizations in South Cotabato DENR Department of Environment and Natural Resources DILG Department of the Interior and Local Government DOH Department of Health DOLE Department of Labor and Employment DPWH Department of Public Works and Highways DSWD Department of Social Welfare and Development ECC Environmental Clearance Certificate FIES Family Income and Expenditure Survey GI galvanized iron GOCC government-owned and-controlled corporations GTZ German Development Cooperation HDPE high density polyethylene IRR implementing rules and regulations JBIC Japan Bank for International Cooperation JVO Jaime V. Ongpin Foundation KALAHI-CIDSS Kapit Bisig Laban sa Kahirapan-Comprehensive and Integrated Delivery of Services LGC Local Government Code LGSP Local Government Support Program LGU local government units lpcd liter per capita per day lpd liters per day lps liter per second LWUA Local Water Utilities Administration mcm million cubic meter MDG Millennium Development Goals mm millimeters MOA Memorandum of Agreement MPDO Municipal Planning and Development Office MWSS Metropolitan Waterworks and Sewerage System NGO nongovernment organizations
The 40-liter challenge: situating our work
NWRB National Water Regulatory Board PAC Partnership and Access Centers PCWS-ITN Philippine Center for Water and Sanitation-International Training Network PDME Project Development, Monitoring & Evaluation PE polyethylene PEF Peace and Equity Foundation PEO Provincial Engineering Office PHO Provincial Health Office PO people’s organization PPDO Provincial Planning and Development Office PVC polyvinyl chloride PWWA Philippine Water Works Association RWSA rural waterworks and sanitation association SEC Securities and Exchange Commission sq km square kilometer STRIDES Surveys, Training, Research & Development Services, Inc. UN United Nations UNDP United Nations Development Programme UNICEF United Nations Childrens’ Fund USC-WRC University of San Carlos-Water Resource Center WHO World Health Organization WSSP Water Supply and Sanitation Program
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WATER WORKS! Resource Kit 1
FOREWORD In its five years of implementing and supporting potable water projects across the country, the Peace and Equity Foundation has benefited and learned from a variety of resource materials on the subject. The Philippine Center for Water and Sanitation and the Water Resources Center of the University of San Carlos, in particular, have developed many excellent materials on potable water project implementation. Why, then, did the Foundation decide to develop its own manual? The decision was also a result of our learning process. In working with NGOs, communities, local government units, and experts, we increasingly recognized that project implementation required a range of technical, social, legal and economic knowledge. Local contexts and conditions also serve as important factors in our projects. Navigating this complex terrain required know-how, intelligence and good judgment. At the same time, many of the partners we work with, and want to work with, are relative newcomers in the field of potable water provision. For a long time, the potable water sector has been largely in the hands of government and specialists and it is only recently that development organizations and communities have started making this field their own. We thus saw a clear need to equip them with the requisite knowledge to help them successfully implement their projects. With the Foundation’s growing focus on potable water provision as an effective strategy to our overarching goals of poverty reduction and empowerment, we also recognized the need to get better organized and put systems in place to ensure that our increasing interventions in this sector were effective, beneficial and sustainable. Finally, this manual hopes to supplement other available materials on water project development. Thus, this resource kit provides information spanning technical, legal, social, and economic/financial dimensions of potable water project implementation. It provides tools and methods that are applicable or adaptable to various contexts and conditions that partners encounter. And it is packaged in a user-friendly style that would be accessible to newcomers in the field. At the same time, this resource kit also promotes the Foundation’s standards and objectives for effectiveness, sustainability, cost-efficiency, partnership, collaboration, and poverty reduction. Thus, it contains standard formats, procedures and requirements to help partners ensure that their projects work and benefit their communities for a long time to come. Water works! then, represents PEF’s contribution to the larger potable water sector and the growing number of communities, NGOs, LGUs, and stakeholders who are implementing potable water projects. It is our hope that it will serve as a small step forward in the larger task of providing clean and safe water for all. Veronica F. Villavicencio Executive Director
The 40-liter challenge: situating our work
acknowledgment Water Works! distills within its pages the collective experiences, learnings, and expertise of the Foundation and its partners. As can be inferred from its title, it also carries an advocacy—our advocacy that if done properly, potable water projects work and can make a difference in improving people’s lives. We thank our development associates who, because of their commitment to potable water provision, especially for the poor, volunteered their time, ideas, drawings, photos and writings for this resource kit. We also thank our NGO partners, who candidly shared their good and bad experiences to help other NGOs after them. We thank partnerorganizations, especially the Philippine Center for Water and Sanitation, the Water Resources Center of the University of San Carlos, the Jaime V. Ongpin Foundation, Inc. and the Coalition of Social Development Organizations in South Cotabato, for their pioneering and current work on potable water and for allowing us to use some of their materials for this manual. We thank STRIDES for overseeing the processes that went into developing this manual, as well as all PEF staff who gave their ideas, shared materials and allowed themselves to be interviewed for this resource kit. Finally, we are grateful to our partner-communities, who worked with STRIDES Inc. and PEF, and shared valuable insights that other communities can surely learn from. We include all the names of those who participated in the development of this resource kit in the list of key informants found at the end of the kit. Water Works! is a work in progress. As we use it, we are hopeful that we, along with our partners, will gain new insights on how we can continue to implement successful potable water projects in many poor communities in the country. Peace and Equity Foundation Inc.
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INTRODUCTION:
WATER FOR LIFE
INTRODUCTION: WATER FOR LIFE
Like the air we breathe, water is one of our most basic needs. Today, however, more than one billion people in the world have no access to improved potable water supply. In the Philippines, 30%-40% of the population have limited or no potable water supply; less than 20% of the rural population and less than 50% of the urban population have running water in their homes (PW4SP, 2004).
Along with the problem of access, experts FIGURE 1. have also warned of impending water shortages GLOBAL ACCESS TO WATER SUPPLY and a global water crisis by the year 2025 unless appropriate action is taken (Tacio, 2004). Water 1.1 BILLION ARE STILL WITHOUT ACCESS TO improved water supply; many of them live shortages can lead to declines in agricultural in Asia productivity and economic development, which can result in food shortages and massive increases in morbidity and mortality rates. Experts point CEE/CIS Middle East/ 4% North Africa 4% to two major weaknesses of governments and Latin America/ societies in general — our inability to provide safe Carribean 6% water for all and our inadequate efforts to use water efficiently and well. In 2004, the United Nations (UN) declared 2005-2015 as the Decade of Water for Life. The UN declaration called on all countries to, among other things, halve the number of people without access to safe drinking water (1 billion people) by 2015. This represents Target 10 of the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) adopted by the UN in 2001, which now serve as framework for many development efforts. Global focus on water reflects a growing concern on sustaining human life as well as ensuring quality of life. For those working on potable water project implementation, these two challenges reflect two major areas of work to be done:
South Asia
19%
East Asia/ Pacific 42%
Sub-Saharan Africa 25%
1) working to provide and increase access to potable water for all, and 2) managing and preserving our water resources for the present and the future.
WATER WORKS! Resource Kit 1
WATER FOR POVERTY REDUCTION AND IMPROVED QUALITY OF LIFE In the Philippines, problematic potable water supply is compounded by poverty, underdevelopment and unequal access to water between the rich and the poor. More than 30 percent of Filipinos still have no access to potable water. Most of them live in underdeveloped and marginalized rural areas, but others can also be found in the most urbanized centers like Metro Manila and Cebu (See Table 1 on page 13). Poverty and lack of access to potable water often go hand in hand. It is the poorest of the poor who often lack access to safe drinking water. On the other hand, lack of or limited access to potable water makes it more difficult for people to meet their daily needs. Often, people who have the smallest incomes pay the most for water, leaving less money for food, medicine, education and other needs. Lack of potable water makes people more prone to disease and illness because they have less water for drinking, hygiene and sanitation.
CO Multiversity
Fetching water from afar means less time allotted to earning a living. For women, who often bear the burden of bringing water to their homes, this means less time spent in caring for their children, or engaging in economic, leisure or creative activities. It also means dealing with the stress and worry of saving water and finding the money to pay the bill. Children, who are usually called upon to help, have less time and energy for play, school, and rest.
Barorao, Lanao del Sur potable water system
INTRODUCTION: WATER FOR LIFE
Quality of life, therefore, is seriously diminished and endangered by lack of access to potable water. Conversely, access to potable water can have a profound positive impact on quality of life. Not only can families enjoy safe water to drink and more sanitary living conditions, they can do more productive activities for livelihood, such as gardening, farming, livestock raising, and food making as well as reproductive and recreational activities essential to people’s well-being.
WHY IMPLEMENT POTABLE WATER SUPPLY PROJECTS? AMORE
Value and benefits Helping communities gain access to potable water is important work. It is becoming even more critical today. In discussions of the MDGs, experts emphasize that unless potable water access is improved significantly and the targets for water and sanitation are first met, no other millennium development targets can be achieved. The reason is simple. As long as people have limited access to potable water, they will continue to be poor and at risk. Without potable water supply, social, economic and environmental development cannot be attained. For development practitioners, this is an urgent call to consider and prioritize water supply provision in their development work. Benefits for communities • Having safe drinking water fulfills a basic human need, one that is critical to the survival and development of individuals, families and communities. • Improving access to water gives immediate, direct and manifold benefits to communities. It also improves health, hygiene and sanitation conditions, reduces the risk of illness and disease, creates opportunities for livelihood and employment, and allows more time and energy for productive, reproductive and recreational activities. • Improved access to potable water also enhances the overall development and wellbeing of a community. A reliable potable water supply system serves the needs of households, schools, churches, government offices, businesses and contributes to their effectiveness. • Operating and managing a potable water system also develops a community’s capabilities in managing manage local-level projects and identifying other needs in their area.
Kahikukuk, Sulu potable water system
WATER WORKS! Resource Kit 1
CO Multiversity
Benefits for NGOs and other implementers • Potable water supply projects are easy to implement, given the right know-how and perspective. They are straightforward in terms of design and implementation, and, assuming no major technical problems are encountered, can be completed in as short a period as less than a year. • The effects of potable water projects, e.g., the time saved in fetching water, are instantly felt by people and can be measured immediately. • Putting priority on potable water provision keeps the focus of interventions on the poorest of the poor, to those who need help the most. Unlike microfinance and livelihood activities which are often accessible only to the middle poor or those with income to spare, water projects target the most marginalized sectors. • Water projects encourage community participation because water is a felt and basic need. Implementers of such projects have greater chances of ensuring sustainability and community involvement and ownership. • Potable water supply projects can provide a good starting point for other interventions or a more comprehensive program of interventions in a particular community or locality. • Including water supply in larger programs and projects improves their prospects for success. People are more likely to go into livelihood, environmental conservation, waste management and other efforts when their lack of access to water is first addressed.
INTRODUCTION: WATER FOR LIFE
• Getting involved in potable water projects also builds the technical and administrative capacities of NGOs, POs and individuals within these organizations. Benefits for LGUs and governance •
Most sectors have a stake in and can benefit from potable water supply provision because providing water also addresses problems in health, sanitation, livelihood, and environment protection. Thus, potable water supply projects can create opportunities for multi-stakeholder partnership and action. Local government, NGOs, community associations, schools and the private sector can be invited to collaborate and share technical and financial resources and expertise in water projects.
• Implementing or helping implement potable water supply projects enables LGUs to fulfill their mandate in delivering basic social services, including water and sanitation to their constituency. • Getting involved in the potable water projects builds the LGUs’ capacities, credibility and track record in good governance and service delivery.
AT A GLANCE BENEFITS OF IMPLEMENTING POTABLE WATER SUPPLY PROJECTS
Benefits for Communities
Benefits for NGOs and Implementers
•
•
•
•
fulfills a basic human need for the survival and development of individuals, families and communities gives immediate, direct and manifold benefits to communities: health, hygiene, sanitation, livelihood, employment, productive, reproductive and recreational activities builds local capacities in project management and development
• • • • •
relatively easier to implement with the right knowhow and perspective effects are instantly felt by people and can be quickly measured keeps the focus of interventions on the poorest of the poor encourages communities to participate in and be committed toward sustaining local projects provides a good starting point for other interventions and improves their prospects for success builds the technical and administrative capacities of NGOs, POs and individuals within these organizations
Benefits for LGUs and Governance • • • • •
create opportunities for multi-stakeholder partnership, resource sharing and action enhance local ownership and prospects for sustainability means for achieving more participatory and effective governance enables LGUs to fulfill their mandate in delivering basic services, including water and sanitation builds the LGUs’ capacities as well as the credibility and track record in good governance and service delivery
WATER WORKS! Resource Kit 1
WATER WORKS! : HELPING PARTNERS MEET THE CHALLENGE One of the mandates of the Peace and Equity Foundation (PEF) is to facilitate the delivery of basic services such as potable water supply to the poorest of the poor. PEF has increasingly recognized the value of implementing water projects as a key strategy to its overall mission of poverty reduction. This is reflected in the increasing number of potable water projects it has supported and in the growing number of PEF partner-NGOs and communities keen on implementing water projects.
How Water Works! was developed A multi-stakeholder approach has guided PEF’s water initiatives. PEF linked partners to water experts, e.g., civil engineers and development associates, to assist in designing and managing water projects. It created mechanisms to guide the implementation, including the conduct of water project writeshops and technical appraisals by civil engineers to assist partners in developing project proposals. The Foundation has also encouraged partners to tap other expertise through the conduct of capacity-building programs, e.g., watershed management or financial management. Amid these efforts, the need grew for the documentation of a guide in implementing water projects where many stakeholders are involved. Despite an abundance of international and local materials, PEF partners have expressed the need for consolidated guidelines that address PEF-specific needs and realities and further clarify the many forms of involvement that PEF stakeholders can take. Similarly, PEF noted that the implementation of water projects across project sites has been uneven. Thus, it saw the need to establish guidelines that encourage cost efficiency and ensure project sustainability.
Water Works! was thus developed to:
1) standardize the steps, practices and guidelines in project implementation; and 2) provide partners with a useful tool and reference when undertaking water projects. The development of this resource kit was supervised by STRIDES, Inc., while a technical working group (TWG) composed of PEF senior officers and expert consultants provided inputs and served as review committee. The TWG include representatives from Philippine Center for Water & Sanitation– International Training Network (PCWS–ITN) Foundation, University of San Carlos–Water Resource Center (USC–WRC) and Jaime V. Ongpin Foundation
INTRODUCTION: WATER FOR LIFE
Inc. (JVOFI), all with a long track record in implementing potable water projects in the country. To develop this resource kit, PEF undertook a review of existing materials from partner organizations engaged in water system development. It reviewed, in particular, two local field manuals that have guided project implementation and community organizing in rural water projects in many parts of the Philippines since 2000. These are: • A field manual on formation of rural waterworks and sanitation associations (Levels II & III), developed by the USC–WRC in 2000, unpublished but widely disseminated to the USC network, specially in Visayas and Mindanao, particularly among KALAHI-CIDSS and PEF partners. • Community organizing: a process guidebook, published in November 2001 by Rural Water Supply & Sanitation Project-Phase V of Department of the Interior and Local Government (DILG), developed for the DILG by PCWSITN Foundation.
What is Water Works!? This material is composed of two kits and a field manual. Kit 1(The ABCs of potable water projects) presents basic information on how potable water systems are designed, constructed, and operated. It offers design models, technologies and management schemes on water supply, delivery and treatment, and describes the legal and other requirements implementers need to comply with for such projects. Kit 2 (Working together for potable water projects) provides a guide in implementing a water system project. It describes PEF’s framework for implementing potable water projects. It outlines important guidelines and requirements at every step, and offers effective strategies learned from the experience of PEF partners and other practitioners in the field. It advocates for a participatory approach in undertaking water projects. Water Works! Field Manual supplies the annexes to Kits 1 and 2, consisting of samples and formats for various documentation and legal requirements, as well as training modules that can be used for capacity-building activities.
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WATER WORKS! Resource Kit 1
THE 40-LITER CHALLENGE: SITUATING OUR WORK
The 40-liter challenge: situating our work
By general consensus, Filipinos must have access to at least 40 liters of clean water per person per day (lpcd) from a point at most 250 meters away. Below this level, households are considered water-poor and should be given “first priority attention in any social water supply program” (Gendrano, 2006). This standard is not always feasible to attain especially in areas with no groundwater or other water sources, but it is a target that is easy to remember and aim for, for potable water project implementers. Studies by the United Nations (UN) and the Presidential Task Force on Water Management (PTFWM) show that if all the country’s surface water were tapped, it would be sufficient “to meet all the water requirements of the Philippines beyond 2000” (USC-WRC, 2006).
BOX 1. “WATER, WATER EVERYWHERE… Filipinos consume 310 to 507 million cubic meters (mcm) of water everyday. Where do we get our water? The Philippines has many water sources.
daily. Rainfall is uneven across time and geographical areas. Southern Tagalog has the most freshwater available, and Western Visayas has the least.
• The country has 59 natural lakes and 421 river basins, which have drainage basins of 40 to 25,649 square kilometers (sq km). Of these, 18 river basins have drainages of 1,400 sq km.
• Everyday, we are able to take in 833 mcm from our surface runoff (from rivers and lakes). These are found in dams and water reservoirs along rivers or lakes.
• Rainfall is another water source. The Philippines gets an annual rainfall of 2,400 millimeters, or 2.4 meters. From this, a mean surface runoff (based on 90 percent at a time) of 257,000 mcm is generated. Groundwater from this has an area of 50,000 sq km and reaches up to 251,000 mcm. In total, the Philippines receives 508,000 mcm
• We take in 142 mcm from the groundwater (water stored below the ground) every day. The country has 130,000 hectares of artificial reservoirs and 50,000 sq km of groundwater reservoirs.
Sources: USC-WRC, 2006; PCEC 2004; NWRB, 1980
• We have 57,787 hectares of total land with shallow wells and 123,064 sq km of total land with deep wells.
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WATER WORKS! Resource Kit 1
Despite such abundance, and although potable water supply provision has continually improved in the last twenty years, 30–40 percent of Filipinos still have limited or no access to safe drinking water. The percentage of Filipinos with access to potable water went up from 68 percent in 1995 to 79 percent in 2000, according to one study (PW4SP, 2004). Yet, water supply and sanitation services still cannot meet the country’s health and environmental requirements.
BOX 2. … AND NOT A DROP TO DRINK” A number of studies and agencies put various figures on the state of waterlessness experienced by Filipinos across the country (See Table 1. on page 15 for proportion of households with access to potable water in their homes). • According to the Department of Health (DOH), only 77% of all households have access to Level III service. Nearly a third of all households, therefore, resort to selfprovisioning and buying from vendors— which raises the cost of water for the urban poor. • Agham, an organization of scientists, pegs the number of people with access to potable water at 48 million, or 63% of the population. This is based on data released by the UN and PTFWM. In Metro Manila, only 60% of the population have access to potable water. • According to the PW4SP studies, 20% up to 30% of existing water sources in the rural areas fall in the category of underserved or unserved in terms of safe or unsafe sources, damaged and non-functioning sources. Hence, of the rural population, it was estimated that only about 60% to 80% Sources: NWRB, USC-WRC.
was served adequately by safe sources. This implies that around 72% of the total population (excluding Metro Manila) have access to adequate and safe water supply services. • According to the NWRB, there are 432 waterless municipalities in the Philippines, municipalities where more than 30% of the population have no access to safe drinking water. • Access to safe drinking water declined from 81.4% in 1999 to 80.0% in 2002. The picture is even worse for the poorest Filipinos, whose access declined from 71.5% in 1999 to 70.2% in 2002. Only 63.0% of Filipinos are connected to formal water services; the rest rely on their own resources and systems (World Bank, 2005). Water access does not mean piped water supply. Less than 50% of the urban population and only 20% of the rural population have household or piped water connections. To give a regional perspective, 1 out of every 4 Cebuanos have no access to improved water sources. In Guimaras, 6 out of 10 residents lack potable water. In Lanao del Sur, it is 7 out of 10 (Tacio, 2004).
The 40-liter challenge: situating our work
TABLE 1. PROPORTION OF HOUSEHOLDS WITHOUT HOUSEHOLD WATER CONNECTIONS Not using faucet, FIES 2000 (%)
Not using faucet, FIES 2003 (%)
Percent change (%)
Rank
Ilocos Norte
75.8
72.6
3.2
45
Ilocos Sur
89.5
79.6
10.0
24
La Union
83.2
88.8
-5.6
60
Pangasinan
61.0
85.2
-24.1
75
Region
Ilocos
Cagayan Valley
Cordillera Administration Region
Central Luzon
Southern Tagalog
Bicol
Western Visayas
Province
Batanes
5.2
0.0
5.2
41
Cagayan
94.3
88.2
6.1
38
Isabela
90.3
88.6
1.7
52
Nueva Vizcaya
79.8
91.6
-11.8
67
Quirino
44.6
86.6
-42.0
77
Abra
35.6
72.8
-37.2
76
Apayao
86.3
84.3
2.1
50
Benguet
32.1
41.0
-8.8
64
Ifugao
51.4
48.5
2.9
46
Kalinga
54.6
54.1
0.5
55
Mt. Province
21.7
44.3
-22.6
72
Aurora
87.5
37.7
49.8
1
Bataan
56.9
46.3
10.7
22
Bulacan
50.9
43.9
7.1
36
Nueva Ecija
91.6
83.5
8.1
34
Pampanga
87.0
55.2
31.8
4
Tarlac
82.4
81.3
1.1
54
Zambales
71.7
63.3
8.4
32
Batangas
32.9
32.5
0.4
56
Cavite
35.3
25.7
9.6
27
Laguna
49.4
39.5
9.9
25
Marinduque
65.1
50.0
15.1
19
Occidental Mindoro
77.0
85.9
-8.9
65
Oriental Mindoro
60.9
84.0
-23.1
73
Palawan
70.5
67.7
2.8
47
Quezon
96.0
69.9
26.1
9
Rizal
74.6
34.8
39.9
3
Romblon
67.7
58.3
9.4
29
Albay
62.3
57.0
5.3
40
Camarines Norte
70.5
66.9
3.5
44
Camarines Sur
69.4
69.9
-0.5
57
Catanduanes
84.4
35.5
48.9
2
Masbate
89.0
86.4
2.6
48
Sorsogon
75.6
47.0
28.6
7
Aklan
84.0
91.9
-8.0
63
Antique
81.8
63.3
18.5
14
Capiz
79.8
70.2
9.5
28
Guimaras
91.1
70.3
20.8
13
Iloilo
83.1
76.5
6.6
37
Negros Occidental
72.2
73.5
-1.3
58
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WATER WORKS! Resource Kit 1
TABLE 1. continued Not using faucet, FIES 2000 (%)
Not using faucet, FIES 2003 (%)
Percent change (%)
Rank
Bohol
67.1
45.5
21.6
11
Cebu
55.9
47.5
8.4
33
Negros Oriental
72.9
54.8
18.0
15
Siquijor
50.3
34.5
15.8
18
Eastern Samar
71.2
58.2
13.0
21
Leyte
49.9
55.9
-6.1
61
Northern Samar
85.2
75.4
9.8
26
Western Samar
57.2
49.2
8.0
35
Southern Leyte
57.7
33.3
24.4
10
Biliran
22.3
16.4
5.9
39
Zamboanga del Norte
48.4
66.6
-18.1
70
Region Central Visayas
Eastern Visayas
Western Mindanao
Province
Zamboanga del Sur
42.4
Zamboanga Sibugay Northern Mindanao
Southern Mindanao
Central Mindanao
ARMM
CARAGA
62.0
Bukidnon
45.8
41.5
4.3
42
Camiguin
12.0
1.5
10.5
23
Lanao del Norte
40.8
59.1
-18.2
71
Misamis Occidental
32.2
48.3
-16.0
69
Misamis Oriental
28.2
19.0
9.2
30
Davao del Norte
62.8
61.3
1.4
53
Davao del Sur
37.1
46.4
-9.3
66
Davao Oriental
84.0
68.0
16.1
17
Compostela Valley
76.4
67.7
8.6
31
North Cotabato
97.8
67.1
30.7
5
Saranggani
88.9
67.6
21.3
12
South Cotabato
75.8
62.7
13.2
20
Sultan Kudarat
92.7
90.7
1.9
51
Basilan
66.8
90.5
-23.7
74
Lanao del Sur
99.6
70.7
28.9
6
Maguindanao
94.6
92.1
2.5
49
Sulu
72.2
86.0
-13.8
68
Tawi-tawi
83.5
90.6
-7.1
62
Agusan del Norte
65.5
68.4
-3.0
59
Agusan del Sur
75.5
71.3
4.2
43
Surigao del Norte
51.1
23.7
27.4
8
Surigao del Sur
63.3
45.7
17.6
16
NCR
16.4 Manila
3.0
NCR-2nd District
9.8
NCR-3rd District
30.1
NCR-4th District
24.6
Source: Peace and Equity Foundation poverty maps, 2006
Legend: BOTTOM PROVINCES
TOP PROVINCES
The 40-liter challenge: situating our work
THE POLICY ENVIRONMENT: FROM CENTRALIZED TO LOCAL MANAGEMENT OF WATER The national government’s official water policies are based on the principle that water: 1) water is a limited resource that must be conserved and managed efficiently, and, 2) water has an economic value in all its competing uses and shall be treated as an economic good; thus capacity and willingness-to-pay must be taken into consideration in pricing water. Based on this, the 1976 Water Code of the Philippines states that all water sources, including rainfall, are the property of the state. Any entity that wishes to develop a water source has to acquire a water right, granted by government as a water permit through the National Water Resources Board (NWRB). (The exception to this requirement is domestic use of water from undeveloped water sources.) The Water Code, which provides the framework for water resource management, also calls for centralized control and integrated management of water resources. The Code also calls for the adoption of a river basin approach. This approach clusters localities and water resources around major river basins, and requires that all activities related to water supply and sanitation, resource use and management be coordinated and complementary. All water development projects should also be aimed at multipurpose use. In 1973, the Provincial Water Utilities Act delegated water supply provision to water districts, which function as government-owned and -controlled corporations. The Act also established the Local Water Utilities Administration (LWUA) to serve as financing institution for the setting up, operation and maintenance of local water districts. In 1991, the Local Government Code (LGC) was passed, which called for more decentralized provision, delivery and management of potable water supply. Local governments received a mandate to provide water services, previously held by the Department of Public Works and Highways (DPWH).
Who regulates potable water supply and management? Two line agencies, the DILG and the Department of Health (DOH) and two government-owned and  -controlled corporations (MWSS and LWUA) are currently responsible for the water sector at the national level. The Metropolitan
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Waterworks and Sewerage System (MWSS) regulates Metro Manila private franchise areas (Manila Water and Maynilad) and LWUA regulates water districts for areas outside Metro Manila. Other government agencies concerned are the Department of Environment and Natural Resources (DENR) for watershed protection, and the National Water Resources Board (NWRB, now also under the DENR), to regulate the franchising of water rights. At the provincial level, involved agencies include the Provincial Planning and Development Office, the Provincial Engineering Office, the Provincial Health Office, and other offices. Similarly, at the municipal/city level, the Municipal/City Planning and Development Office, the Municipal/City Health Office, and the Municipal/City Engineer’s Office are concerned with potable water supply. BOX 3. LINE AGENCIES IN THE WATER SUPPLY SECTOR
DPWH. The Department of Public Works and Highways is responsible for the development of Level I water systems and flood control, in line with national plans and policies. It performs engineering and construction works such as drilling of wells, development of spring, installation of rain collector and flood mitigation structures. NWRB. The National Water Resources Board is a high-level body responsible for coordinating and integrating all the activities related to water resources development and management. It formulates policies, evaluates and coordinates water resources programs, regulates and controls utilization, exploitation, development and conservation of the country’s water resources and the regulation of the water utilities operation. DILG. The Department of the Interior and Local Government participates in the general administration/institution-building, such as assistance to local governments in the formation of rural waterworks and Sources: USC-WRC; NWRB
sanitation associations (RWSAs) as well as in the identification, implementation, repair and maintenance of Level II water systems. LWUA. The Local Water Utilities Administration is responsible for water supply development in all areas outside Metro Manila. It provides water services for Level II and Level III systems. In addition, it undertakes institution building, planning and engineering for the implementation of sewerage projects in several urban areas. Specifically, LWUA provides loans to water districts for the development of water systems at concessionary terms based on their development potentials and continued viability. It extends engineering services to water districts as well. Its functions includes the promotion of organizations or rural water works and sanitation associations (RWSAs), and the provision of institutional, technical and financial assistance to financially viable RWSA’s in the construction, operation and maintenance of rural water supply systems.
The 40-liter challenge: situating our work
Who can operate/manage potable water supply facilities? • LGUs. Under the Local Government Code, local government units (provincial, city, municipal, and barangay) can directly construct, operate and manage potable water systems. • Water districts. Water districts are classified as government-owned and - controlled corporations. As such, they are subject to government regulations relating to employment, budget, audit and management. Water districts usually cover areas within cities and municipalities. Most water districts are set up through loans provided by the LWUA. Water districts pay back the loans from income earned on water tariffs. • Rural water supply associations. RWSAs are non-profit associations of water users, where members have no equity. Despite the name, RWSAs can be found in both rural and urban areas. They serve small communities within barangays (barangay water supply associations, or BWSAs) or larger areas of two or more barangays. RWSAs are usually set up and funded by LWUA to enable water users and project beneficiaries to own, operate and maintain their own water system and sanitation facilities. RWSAs usually manage Level I or Level II water systems. • Water cooperatives. Like RWSAs, water cooperatives are community-based associations of water users, except that members contribute equity. This means that members have a financial stake in the cooperative’s success and sustainability. Water cooperatives are overseen by the Cooperative Development Authority (CDA). • Private sector-managed systems. Privately managed water systems are commercial, profit-oriented enterprises. They can be small-scale operations, covering only subdivisions and villages, or large-scale, such as the Maynilad and Manila Water concessionaires. A recent study on management models in the Philippines has found the community-managed model as the most consistently successful (World Bank, 2005). LGUs and water districts are prone to inefficiency because of their government identity. On the other hand, privately managed systems, being largely unregulated, have limited accountability and transparency. Whether in the form of RWSAs or water cooperatives, community management allows for greater transparency and accountability, affords the community a greater sense of ownership and responsibility for their water supply, and promotes empowerment. At the same time, the study showed that successful community-based water management requires more sophistication and expertise than just organizing and running a typical community association. In fact, experience shows that many community-managed water systems are not sustained due
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to dwindling interest and support of members and partners, inefficiency and lack of capacity. Successful community-based models are run like small businesses: water is metered, billing and collection are systematized, financial management is transparent and organized, and personnel are trained and professionalized. They also get considerable technical training and support from partners. This means that for NGOs and institutions pursuing community-based management of water systems, capacity- and institution-building should be intensively and systematically provided to partner communities in order to empower them to take on the responsibility. TABLE 2. AREAS OF RESPONSIBILITY FOR POTABLE WATER SUPPLY AREA
MANAGEMENT
SERVICE LEVEL
COVERAGE
1. Metro Manila
MWSS MWCI MWSI
III
5.9 M people or 44.12% of 13.33 M
2. Provincial Urban
WDs by LWUA LGUs Private utilities
II and III
18.3 M people
3. Provincial Rural
RWSAs BWSAs LGUs
II and III (DILG, DPWH, LWUA)
35.76 M people or 84.77% of rural people
TOTAL
59.96 M people (2000) of 76.2 M or 79%
Sources: USC-WRC; NWRB
Issues related to potable water supply Unequal access to potable water. Because of economic, social and geographical differences, there is great inequality in access to potable water between rich and poor families, communities, municipalities and provinces, and between urban and rural/upland and lowland areas. Declining water sources. Pollution, deforestation, watershed deterioration, inefficient water use, increasing demand and limited technologies for optimizing water utility all have resulted in the decline of clean water sources. In 1991, nine major cities in the country were listed as “water-critical areas� (JICA, 1991). These were Metro Manila, Cebu, Davao, Baguio, Angeles (Pampanga), Bacolod (Negros Occidental), Iloilo, Cagayan de Oro and Zamboanga. The same is true today.
The 40-liter challenge: situating our work
The country’s water resources are poorly used and maintained, and often become dumpsites for wastes and pollutants. Of 421 rivers in the Philippines, 50 are considered biologically dead due to pollution. Of 60 major lakes, only Laguna de Bay receives attention, and yet it has also become increasingly polluted. Of 74 water monitoring stations scattered all over the country, 65 percent report that water quality has deteriorated to the point that it no longer meets the standards for beneficial use (PCEC, 2004). Competing uses. Water has multiple uses; aside from households, it is also important for manufacturing and industrial activities, for irrigation, and power generation. The biggest user of water is the agriculture sector, with 76 percent of the total; followed by industry at 16 percent and domestic consumers at 8 percent. Increasing demand means more competition among various users, which means less water for those who now have none or very little of it. Limited investments. Over the last two decades, funds given to water supply and sanitation have fallen short of requirements estimated to achieve the millennium development goals for water supply—only about PhP 3–4 billion out of PhP 6–7 billion. Existing technologies for ensuring optimal use of potable water supply are also limited. Resources that go into developing more efficient technologies for extracting, conveying, delivering, and using potable/freshwater remain inadequate.
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Policy/regulatory weaknesses. The transition from centralized control to devolution has met with other problems. A total of 32 government agencies are currently tasked with different but related water functions. This can be confusing and difficult to handle. Various kinds of water service providers are supervised by different agencies and are subject to different laws and policies. As a result, subdivision and housing developers, water peddlers and haulers, water districts, community associations and cooperatives follow different regulations in their water operations. For example, NWRB grants water rights and regulates all water operators excluding water districts, whose supervision falls under LWUA. Communitybased water operators such as water cooperatives and associations, on the other hand, are regulated by the CDA, LWUA, and LGUs. No coordinating mechanism exists among the various concerned agencies, so efforts are fragmented and policies sometimes contradictory. This is not to say that a unified agency can do the job better. It is clear however that potable water supply provision is best managed by those closest to it and by those sharing the same resource, and with people downstream, the actual community, having a say in its management. Moreover, while various policies abound, these are not always matched by enforcement. On the contrary, most water service providers operate outside the jurisdiction and monitoring of government. Not all water providers have water rights/permits from the NWRB, and the NWRB is constrained from monitoring all areas in the country due to limited resources and staff. Also, while LGUs and other local entities have been granted the right to develop and maintain potable water supply systems, LGUs are constrained from fulfilling this mandate by limited resources and capacities, and the lack of a mechanism for inter-LGU coordination/collaboration to maximize resources and water service coverage.
AT A GLANCE: ISSUES RELATED TO POTABLE WATER SUPPLY
1. Unequal access to potable water 2. Declining water sources 3. Competing uses 4. Limited investments 5. Policy/regulatory weaknesses
The 40-liter challenge: situating our work
Emerging efforts Despite these problems, much progress has been made in the last decade in improving potable water supply and access. By 2002, 82 percent of people in Asia and the Pacific had access to water, up from 74 percent in 1990. UN agencies like the United Nations Development Program (UNDP), World Health Organization (WHO) and the United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF) as well as major multilateral financing institutions like the World Bank and the Asian Development Bank (ADB) are pouring more resources and attention to water supply and management. Various international movements have been launched. Vision 21 advocates giving priority to hygiene, sanitation and sharing the management of water resources. The WASH campaign is a global effort of Water Supply and Sanitation Collaborative Council launched at the International Conference on Freshwater in December 2001 to provide safe water, sanitation and hygiene for all. ADB, UNDP, and WHO, among others, also launched Asia Water Watch 2015, to assess the progress in Asia and the Pacific region of Target 10 of the UN Millennium Development Goals. In the Philippines and elsewhere, there is increasing focus on participation and on capacity- and institution-building of national and local governments, communities, and NGOs for water supply and management. National government agencies are expanding their water programs. The DILG is currently undertaking the Water Supply and Sanitation Program (WSSP), which capacitates LGUs in providing water supply services to their localities. The program is supported by the World Bank, Japan Bank for International Cooperation (JBIC) and German Development Cooperation (GTZ). The Department of Social Welfare and Development (DSWD) is also implementing KALAHI-CIDSS, which has a strong potable-water supply component. NWRB is also taking steps to improve its functions. In July 2006 it amended its implementing rules and regulations on to the Water Code to rationalize water permit pricing. Donor agencies and NGOs have also amassed a wealth of experience and lessons in implementing water supply projects. They are documented and are being used to improve programs and projects. For example, a study by the Water Supply and Sanitation Performance Enhancement Project found that water projects have greater chances of success and sustainability when the following factors are present: • LGU and community involvement • Capacity- and institution-building
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• External monitoring and evaluation • Cost recovery mechanisms, incentives for local investment • Focusing on needs of the poor (World Bank, 2004). Because of previous experience, succeeding projects and programs on water are increasingly demand-driven, participatory, and capacitating.
The 40-liter challenge Given the current situation, providing potable water for all is an enormous challenge. Insofar as the Millennium Development Goals on water supply provision are concerned, for example, a recent ADB study pointed out that the Philippines is lagging behind the rest of Asia and the world. While countries like India, China, Micronesia, Myanmar and Tuvalu are making progress and are expected to meet the 2010 UN goals for improving water supply, the Philippines might not be able to meet such goals. (ADB, 2006).
CO Multiversity
At the same time, the work being done by groups like Peace and Equity Foundation and its partners, as well as national and local governments, communities, civil society and other stakeholders shows that this challenge can be hurdled. Hopefully, this resource kit will be a useful tool in striving for providing potable water for all, or 40 liters of water, more or less, for each person per day.
Barorao, Lanao del Sur potable water system
THE ABCs OF POTABLE WATER PROJECTS
THE abcs OF potable water projects
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AT A GLANCE: THE ABCs OF POTABLE WATER PROJECTS
Understanding our world of water: Basic facts
The water cycle Water sources Tapping water sources for drinking
Developing a potable water system What specific purpose will a potable water system project serve? What is a suitable water source? What is an appropriate level of service? What technology should be used? • In sourcing water • Selecting pumps, tanks and pipes • Tapstands/communal faucets (Level II water systems) • Water quality and water treatment How much will it cost? How much are users able and willing to pay for water?
What are the legal requirements? What should be done during construction and operation of the water system? Enhancing and sustaining implementation Estimating benefits and costs Undertaking related interventions
“Water (in its pure form) is a tasteless, odorless substance that is essential to all known forms of life and known as the universal solvent. It appears colorless to the naked eye in small quantities.. It covers nearly 70% of earth’s surface. The UN Environment Program estimates there are 1.4 billion cubic kilometers (330 million cubic meters) available on earth and it exists in many forms. It appears mostly in the oceans (saltwater) and polar ice caps, but it is also present as clouds, rainwater, rivers, freshwater aquifers, lakes and sea ice.” (Wikipedia, 2006) I. UNDERSTANDING OUR WORLD OF WATER: Basic Facts A. The water cycle Water constantly moves, forms and changes all around us in what is known as the water cycle. The water cycle describes “the existence and movement of water on, in, and above the earth” (USGS, 2006). As its name implies, the water cycle has no starting point but continuously moves round and round.
Water on the surface of the earth—from the oceans, the soil, and plants routinely escapes into the air because of heat, and becomes vapor in a process called evaporation. (Plants and soil also give off moisture through evapotranspiration.)
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WATER WORKS! Resource Kit 1
Vapor rises into the atmosphere until it reaches cooler temperatures where it then stops rising, cools and compresses into clouds; this is called condensation. Winds and air currents move these clouds around the globe. As they move, clouds can collide with each other and break up into separate particles or they encounter colder air, where they then become heavier than the air. When this happens, clouds fall from the sky as precipitation. Figure 2. THE WATER CYCLE (USC-WRC)
Precipitation can be in the form of rain or snow. Rain falling from the atmosphere accumulates and becomes (or adds to) bodies of water. (In temperate climates where precipitation comes in the form of snow instead of rain, snow can give rise or add to glaciers and ice caps, where large quantities of water, in the form of ice, are stored for thousands of years.) Rain falls back into oceans and the ground. Due to gravity, much of the rain flows on the ground as surface runoff until it reaches lakes, rivers and other bodies of water. A great portion seeps into the ground as infiltration or seepage. This is the water that replenishes underground storehouses or reservoirs of Information in this section is drawn mainly from the following sources: Rural Water Supply Design Manual, National Water Resources Board, 1980; materials from the University of San Carlos Water Resources Center; US Geological Survey website ((http://ga.water.usgs.gov/edu/watercycle.html); Management Models for Small Town Water Supply, Lessons learned from case studies in the Philippines. World Bank Water and Sanitation Program. 2003; and papers written by PEF development associates Carmelo Gendrano of the Philippine Center for Water and Sanitation and Virgilio Orca of the Jaime V. Ongpin Foundation Inc., as well as key informant interviews. (For list of key informants, refer to page 73)
THE abcs OF potable water projects
water, such as aquifers. An aquifer is “a water saturated geologic (earth, gravel or porous stone) formation zone underground that stores and transmits usable quantity of water.” Water that does not reach aquifers can stay near the ground surface and can eventually seep back into rivers or lakes, or break out of the ground as freshwater springs. Not all of the water on earth goes through the water cycle, however. Larger quantities are stored in the oceans, underground and other water sources.
B. Water sources Water sources are where water is stored, either on the earth’s surface or underground. • Oceans and seas contain the greatest portion of the water on earth, in the form of saline or saltwater. • Potable water, or water suitable for drinking, mostly comes from freshwater. Freshwater can be in the form of surface water, which is water found in freshwater lakes and rivers. • Freshwater found underground, in aquifers and freshwater springs, is called groundwater. Groundwater is one of the most valuable sources of freshwater. This is because many of the world’s lakes, rivers and other freshwater bodies become easily polluted due to human activities and are often not safe sources for drinking water. Much of our freshwater supply, therefore, is groundwater extracted from springs and aquifers, which is not easily reached or polluted. In aquifers, almost no bacteria can live. Pollutants are filtered out as the water passes through soil and rocks. • Rainfall is another source of freshwater. It can be harvested, stored and used for drinking and other purposes.
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C. Developing water sources 1. Seawater can be harnessed for human consumption only by desalination, or removing its salt content. This entails expensive extraction and treatment processes. 2. Surface water from rivers and lakes can be made suitable for drinking through surface water development methods. But this entails costly extraction and treatment and is thus often inappropriate for small water systems. 3. Groundwater, our main source of potable water, can be extracted in three ways:
a) through wells drilled until they reach the top layer of the aquifer and the water is pumped up through pipes. This is one of the most widely used methods in the Philippines, because it is relatively cheaper than using seawater or surface water, and can be done on a small scale.
b) spring development – springs can be developed by enlarging a water outlet and constructing an intake structure (often called a spring intake box) for catching and storing the water before it is distributed to communal taps or households.
c) infiltration galleries – are horizontal wells constructed by digging a trench into the water-bearing soil and installing perforated pipes in it. Water collected in the pipes form a well that is then pumped out (NWRB, 1980)
4. Rainwater can be collected and stored for individual household or community use. Storing rainwater can be one of the most inexpensive and ecologically sound options for providing water supply. Because of pollution and changing weather conditions, however, rainwater can be contaminated and undependable as a water source. (Technologies for developing various water sources are discussed further in the next section.)
THE abcs OF potable water projects
29
II. DEVELOPING A POTABLE WATER SUPPLY SYSTEM Project implementers need to answer each of the critical questions below in developing a potable water system.
A. What specific purpose will the potable water project serve? Even the most water-poor communities have a potable water source, no matter how rudimentary, unreliable, or inadequate. When starting a potable water project, therefore, implementers first need to identify the specific community problem they want to address with regard to potable water supply. One needs to ask and answer the following questions in consultation with the community (Gendrano, 2006):
• • • • • •
AMORE
1. What is/are the problem/s of the community in relation to potable water? The answer could be one or a combination of the following: limited water supply poor water quality fetching distance to water points unreliability of flow cost/price of water unequal access or distribution
2. What is/are the root cause/s of the problem? The answer could be one or a combination of the following: • source (for water volume and quality) • treatment facilities • transmission lines (e.g., leaks, unauthorized taps and limited pipe capacities) • storage (e.g., limited storage volume) • distribution network • water points • users (e.g., wastage, increasing population, lack of sanitation, inadequate hygiene practices) • management, operation and maintenance (e.g., neglect, lack of repair tools and skills, too low or too high water tariff structure) • disposal of generated wastewater (e.g., inadequate treatment and drainage)
Fetching water (Kahikukuk, Sulu water project)
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WATER WORKS! Resource Kit 1
3. How can the problem(s) be addressed? • • • • • • • •
improvements in the system components augmentation with new sources extension of service to unserved areas increase in facility capacities repair and rehabilitation replacement of the present setup with a new system construction of another system alongside the present ones replacement of the present management, adding new personnel, and/or training and equipping the people who will manage the water system • rationalization of tariffs to minimize wastage • promotion of sanitation and hygiene • installation and maintenance of water treatment and disposal facilities
Once the problem/s is/are identified and the best solution agreed upon, implementers can proceed to designing the potable water system.
B. What is a suitable water source? To begin designing a potable water system, implementers need to identify a water source that is suitable for development. Project implementers usually conduct a preliminary survey or inventory of water sources available in the area, tentatively select one that appears most suitable, and assess it for the following: 1. the rate and stability of flow (in liters per second, or lps) to see if the volume of water to be tapped is sufficient to meet the demand of the community 2. water quality, to see if the water is safe for drinking and is not prone to contamination (water quality is commonly tested by getting and sending samples to the provincial office of the DOH, which will then issue a certification on its safety) 3. location (Is it near a watershed or a populated area? Is it near or far from the target community? Is it elevated, on the same level or on a lower level than the target area to be served?) 4. reliability (does the water source have a good flow throughout the year or does it dry up during the dry season?) 5. uses (How is the water source being used at the time? Is it being used solely for domestic needs, or does it serve other purposes, like irrigation, commercial purposes, etc?) Project implementers or the community can decide to use and improve a developed water source, probably a spring or a well, already being used by the target community.
AMORE
THE abcs OF potable water projects
A typical well that can be improved through a potable water project (Kahikukuk, Sulu)
When water sources are non-existent or inadequate to meet the projected demand, water can be extracted underground through drilling or digging wells. Drilling entails more expense, therefore tapping geology experts and drillers are necessary to identify suitable sites and improve the chances of finding water. Geologists, engineers and other water experts study the natural terrain and geologic formations to determine where groundwater is most likely to be found. When water is found from an underground source, it is tested for water quality and potability. The water source should be able to provide adequate water at least during waking hours. The location of a water source is also considered. Water sources located in densely populated or denuded areas may not provide sustained water supply for the long term. Also, a water source that is too far from the service area may entail costly pipe-laying to get water to the water points/households. Lengthy pipelines are prone to pilferage (water is stolen from the pipes by diverting the water through illegal connections or by making a hole in the pipe to divert water). When a water source is being used for multiple purposes, to avoid user conflict, implementers need to consult with the competing users, or negotiate for a water right or ownership claim before developing it. If necessary, a feasibility study may be conducted at this point to get a more accurate assessment of the above elements (See Section 2.4 of Water Works! Field Manual for a sample format of a feasibility study). Only when a suitable and adequate water source has been identified can project implementers proceed to designing and implementing an appropriate potable-water supply project.
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C. What is an appropriate level of service? Project implementers also need to determine the level of water supply that would be most appropriate for their community. The government classifies water service levels into three, based on source development, distribution system, and management arrangements. Level I (point source) consists of a developed water source (e.g. a protected well or a developed spring) that has an outlet but no distribution system. Water is drawn from the source and hauled by individual households over a short distance to their homes. This system is usually adopted for rural areas where households stand far away from each other. This system typically serves an average of 15 households (LGSP, 2005). Such a service is usually managed by community-based organizations also tasked with operating and maintaining it (USC-WRC, 2006). Figure 3. LEVELS OF WATER SERVICE/DISTRIBUTION (USC-WRC) WATER SUPPLY SYSTEM: GRAVITY TYPE
WATER SUPPLY SYSTEM: PUMP TYPE
LEVEL I: SPRING BOX
LEVEL I: DEEP WELL
LEVEL II: COMMUNAL TAPSTAND CONNECTION
LEVEL II: COMMUNAL TAPSTAND CONNECTION
LEVEL III: INDIVIDUAL HOUSEHOLD CONNECTION
LEVEL III: INDIVIDUAL HOUSEHOLD CONNECTION
Level II (communal faucet system or stand post) is a system made up of a developed water source, possibly a storage tank or reservoir, a piped distribution network, and a number of communal faucets/tapstands. Each tapstand/faucet serves from 4 to 10 households. Level II systems mean shorter distances for hauling water from the tapstand to the household. They are more expensive to install than Level I systems, however, because transmission and distribution pipes, tapstands and storage tanks need to be constructed. This system is suited for rural or urban areas where households are more densely clustered. Water use is estimated and priced based on the number of containers used by households (USC-WRC, 2006).
THE abcs OF potable water projects
Level II systems are designed to cater to barangay-level water supply with limited service coverage and supply capacity. These systems have been implemented by different agencies (DILG, LWUA, LGUs) by encouraging the use of spring sources and are mostly operated by LGUs, RWSAs and water cooperatives. Level III (waterworks system or individual household connections) is a system that has all the components of Level II except the communal faucets. Instead, in Level III systems, water is distributed directly to homes through individual household connections. Water use is metered, priced and paid for by individual households. Level III systems are more developed and expensive systems because they feature household pipe connections and taps. Level III systems are common in urban areas such as Metro Manila, Baguio, Cebu, and Davao (USC-WRC, 2006). Figure 4. TYPICAL LEVEL II SYSTEM LAYOUT (PCWS, PowerPoint presentation)
Potable water system projects are typically either Level II or Level III systems. PEF recommends metered connections for Level II or Level III systems as these encourage water conservation and efficient use, as well as allow for more effective monitoring of water consumption. The rest of this kit discusses implementation aspects of Level II and Level III systems. The level of service suitable for a community will depend on the following: 1. Number of users 2. Concentration of houses 3. Water availability 4. Resources: construction materials, labor and funds 5. Desire and ability of users to operate and maintain the system 6. Capacity to pay of users
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Table 3. COMPONENTS OF POTABLE WATER SUPPLY SYSTEM BY SERVICE LEVEL Level I 1.
Water source
• Drilled/driven shallow well • Drilled/driven deep well • Dug well • Spring • Rain collector
Level II • Drilled shallow / deep well • Spring • Infiltration gallery • Drilled deep well
Level III • Spring • Infiltration gallery • Surface water intake
2. Distribution
None
Piped system provided with reservoir/s with or without pumping facilities
Piped system with reservoir/ s and pumping facilities
3. Water treatment
Generally none. Disinfection of wells is conducted periodically by local health authorities.
Generally none.
Disinfection is provided. Systems with surface water source have water treatment facilities.
4.
At point (within 250-meter radius)
Communal faucet (within 25-meter radius)
Individual house connection/household tap
Standard: 15 HH per point source 1 HH per private well
Standard: 4–10 HH per communal faucet
Standard: 1 HH per connection
At least 20 lpcd*
At least 60 lpcd
At least 100 lpcd
Delivery and service level
5. Consumption
Source: Provincial Water Supply, Sewerage and Sanitation Sector Plan, German Technical Cooperation and Department of the Interior and Local Government
*lpcd – liter per capita per day
D. What technology should be used? In designing the water system, project implementers need to decide which technologies are most appropriate for their use. Selecting the right technology includes deciding on engineering designs, methods of construction, materials to be used, locations, dimensions and capacities of the physical facilities (Gendrano, 2006). A potable water system usually has the following components: • A water source (spring development, well, rain catchment, etc.) • Manual or motor pumps for drawing water from the source (if needed) • Transmission line/s, which are pipes to convey water from the source to the distribution pipes and taps/faucets • Distribution lines, which are pipes that distribute water to communal tapstands/faucets or directly to households
THE abcs OF potable water projects
• Storage and distribution tanks • Communal tapstands (for Level II) or household faucets (Level III) In some cases, a potable water system may also have the following: • Water treatment facilities (if the water needs to be treated) • Flow measuring and diversion devices Figure 5. TYPICAL WATER SUPPLY SYSTEM (PCWS, PowerPoint presentation) STORAGE TANK OR RESERVOIR
PUMP HOUSE FOR DEEPWELL
HH Connection
COMMON TAPSTAND
1. Technologies in sourcing water Various water sources require different technologies for water extraction, storage and distribution. Designing a water system involves determining the right type, size and technology for each of these components. Various technologies most commonly used in the Philippines are discussed below, and the advantages and disadvantages of each (Refer to Section 1.1 of Water Works! Field Manual for more illustrations). a) Rainwater collection/harvesting Where rainfall is abundant, rainwater can be collected and used for individual households or even for small communities. Rainwater can be collected from roofs of houses and other structures and then channeled through gutters and down spouts to cisterns or storage tanks. Storage tanks can be built above or below ground at a convenient distance from the household. They may be made of concrete, concrete hollow blocks, ferrocement, galvanized metal, clay or plastic (steel or plastic containers may be used). The size of the storage tank (or
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cistern) depends on the estimated demand, available rainfall and available funds and resources.
CORRUGATED G.I. ROOFING
GI GUTTER
The system should provide for ways of filtering out dirt, leaves, dust, and other matter. For example, provision could be made so that the system bypasses the first five minutes of rain.
WIRE
DOWNSPOUT WITH STAINER ON TOP
WALL
FLAPPER VALVE TO BYPASS FIRST WATER OPENING WITH COVER 10 CM
WATER LEVEL
DOWNSPOUT OVERFLOW PIPE
OIL DRUM
GI PIPE 10 cm (4”) x 10 cm (4”) FAUCET
DRAIN VALVE 5 cm (2”) x 5 cm (2”) WOODEN BRACING
GROUND LINE 0.30 X 0.30 m. SPLASH BLOCK
SECTION
NOT FOR SCALE
Figure 6. RAINWATER STORAGE (NWRB)
Advantages. Rainwater collection is most suitable for high altitude areas or where there are no other sufficient water sources. It can also be the best technology for isolated individual households that are far from other homes and water supply, because it can be managed and maintained easily. It is convenient, easy to maintain, simple to construct and provides relatively good water quality. Management is on the household scale. In the Philippines, rainwater harvesting can be one of the most inexpensive, and ecologically sound options for ensuring water supply.
Disadvantages. Because of pollution and changing weather conditions, however, rainwater can be contaminated, undependable and limited as a water source. Also, if rainwater is the only source, it would require extreme thriftiness of use. b) Spring development Spring water sources are classified as developed, undeveloped and untapped springs. A developed spring is one that is being used for drinking and sanitation; otherwise it is classified as undeveloped, and considered as unsafe water source. An untapped spring is unutilized and flowing in its natural state.
CO Multiversity
Springs usually appear as small water holes or wet spots at the foot of hills or along riverbanks. A spring is developed by enlarging the water outlet to increase the flow and quantity of water. Enlarging a spring outlet entails digging down until the solid layer of the rock/soil is reached. This ensures that silt, mineral matter and other rock fragments found near the water outlet do not get into the pipes. Loose stones are then piled around the outlet to serve as foundation for the spring box. A spring box is constructed over and around the spring area to protect the water from getting contaminated. Spring intake box
THE abcs OF potable water projects
Figure 7. SPRING INTAKE BOX AND DETAILS (USC-WRC)
A spring box is basically a concrete box constructed to collect the water flow from the spring eye (point where the water flows out) and to protect the enlarged water source. It has several parts, including: • a pipe leading to the distribution pipes; the pipe should be installed at least 100 millimeters from the bottom of the spring box to prevent floor sediment from entering • one or more overflow pipes, which should be big enough to allow excess water to flow out of the box when the spring reaches maximum flow (usually during the rainy season) • a drain pipe to drain the water inside the box for cleaning and silt removal •
a spring cap, which is a smooth concreting of the backfill over the spring eye to prevent surface water from entering during rains
• an intercept ditch or a canal constructed above and behind the spring box to prevent dirty surface water from entering • wing walls, which are erected on either side of the spring box to ensure that water from the spring flows directly to the box
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• a covered manhole on top of the box to allow access for cleaning; the manhole must have a raised opening to prevent dirty water from running into the spring box. Advantages: Spring development is most suitable for areas with freshwater springs nearby (4 kilometers or less). Springs located at higher elevation can be developed to convey water to the service area by gravity. Otherwise, motor pumps would be needed to extract and distribute the water. Disadvantages: Some springs may not always provide an adequate flow and volume of water, and they can dry up during the dry season. In such cases, project implementers would need to weigh the costs entailed in developing such a water source vis-à -vis the benefits (Gendrano, 2006). c) Wells for groundwater Groundwater is usually tapped through wells drilled underground. Wells can be classified by the different ways they are constructed. Hand-dug wells. Dug wells are made with shovels or other hand-digging tools. A hole is dug in the ground until water is reached and flows into the hole. The sides of the well are usually lined with masonry, bricks or reinforced concrete to avoid cave-ins and prevent polluted water and other elements from entering. DRIVE CAP A dug well can also be fitted with a cover, pump or another mechanism for drawing the water. It is impossible to dig wells more than a meter below the water table unless a pump is used to dewater it while doing so.
DRIVE-PIPE
DRIVE-PIPE COUPLING
Driven wells. The driven well is the easiest type of well to construct. It is made by simply hammering a galvanized iron (GI) pipe into the ground until water is reached. As the pipe is driven deeper into the ground, more steel pipes are fitted at the top. Driven wells usually have a depth of 4 to 15 meters. They are suitable for areas where the ground is soft. They cannot be made in very hard ground.
WELL POINT AUGER
DRIVEN WELL
BORED WELL
WATER HOUSE
PUMP
PERCUSSION DRILLED WELL
CASING
JETTED WELL DRIVE SHOE JETTING POINT
Figure 8. BASIC WELL CONSTRUCTION METHODS (GENDRANO, PCWS)
Jetted wells. Jetted wells have more depth, because jetting can be used to sink wells up to 80 meters deep, depending on soil conditions. Jetting involves pumping water down a hole (manually or with the
THE abcs OF potable water projects
use of a motor) to loosen soil so that a pipe can be pushed down into the hole. In jetting, pressured water emerges at the bottom of the drill pipe, loosening or liquefying soil so it is carried by the water as it returns up the borehole to the surface. Drilled wells. Drilling can be done in two ways—by repeatedly dropping a heavy weight on the ground (percussion), or by rotating a sharp bit to form a hole (rotary rig). Smaller drill rigs manually drill 3”–5” boreholes on soft formations. Bigger drill rigs are mechanical. Advantages. Wells are most suitable where there is abundant supply and source of groundwater and the water table is not too deep. Disadvantages. Wells can become increasingly expensive the deeper you have to drill to reach the water table, because this requires more pumping and longer pipes. Figure 9. STANDARD WELL DESIGN (GENDRANO, PCWS)
2. Selecting pumps, tanks and pipes Whatever technology is selected, a Level II or III potable water system would, in most cases, include tanks, pipes, pumps, tapstands/faucets as well as other features. And there is a wide range and variety of each to suit various needs and specifications. A non-technical person could therefore get easily lost when discussing tank and pipe sizes, pump capacities and the like. This section aims to provide an elementary understanding of the different types, sizes and
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capacities of these facilities to aid project implementers in making decisions on such technical requirements. Tanks, pipes and pumps are largely determined depending on a) the type of distribution system chosen, and b) the level of water demand that the system will serve. a) Choosing a distribution system There are three basic types of distribution systems:
Gravity-type. Water is distributed to households through gravity. This type can only be used when the water source is located on a higher level than the households to be served. Costs are very minimal because electricity or pump is not required to operate the system.
Pumping with storage. Water is first pumped to a storage tank before it is distributed to individual users, or is simultaneously pumped to users and storage tanks. System maintenance is higher, because this requires pumping, installation and maintenance of water tanks.
Pumping without storage. In this system, water is pumped from the source and distributed directly to household users, without the use of a storage or distribution tank. This is not recommended, however, because power failure shuts down the water supply completely.
b) Determining water demand Implementers also need to compute the water demand of the community, to be able to determine the right size, type and capacity of tanks, pipes and pumps that would be needed. Water demand is the sum of a) water consumption, and b) unaccountedfor-water. Water consumption is the amount of water consumed by all users (households, institutions like schools, market) in a given area when served by a water facility. Standard water consumption rates in liters per capita per day (lpcd) are recommended as follows: • 100 lpcd for Level III/household connections • 60 lpcd for Level II/communal faucets Unaccounted-for-water is the amount of water lost through leakage and pilferage. Ideally, this should not be more than 15% of the total water sent to the distribution system (NWRB, 1981).
THE abcs OF potable water projects
There are various water-demand figures to be computed to help decide on pump, pipe and tank sizes. These include: • average daily demand – used in determining the tank capacity/size • maximum hour demand – used in estimating pipe sizes • maximum day demand – used to determine the needed pump capacity. c) Selecting tanks Storage and distribution tanks are often essential to potable water systems because they a) balance the supply and demand of water in the system; b) maintain uniform pressure throughout the system; and c) ensure continued water supply during peak hours, power interruptions and other conditions.
What to consider when selecting/designing tanks When designing and selecting what water tanks to use, implementers should ensure the following (See Section 1.1 of the Water Works! Field Manual for tank design drawings): 1. 2. 3. 4.
Tank capacity/size should meet water demand. Tank shape should be appropriate. Tank location should be elevated. Structural design should meet national standards.
Determining tank size/capacity. Tank capacity or size is determined based on the following: • Number of beneficiaries (design population) • Population growth rate (%) • Project life (years) • Source flow (liters per second, or lps) • Average daily demand (liters per second, or lps) Average daily demand is the sum of the daily water demands in one year divided by the number of days of that year. It is computed by multiplying the design population by the standard water consumption rate. As a rule, tank capacity should be at least 12–20 percent of the average daily demand of the target community. For spring systems, tank capacity should be equal to 30–50 percent of total average daily demand. The percentage is 25–45 percent for drilled pumps.
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C. Gendrano
42
Box. 4. COMPUTING AVERAGE DAILY DEMAND
Formula: Average Daily Demand = design population x water consumption rate (Design population = present population of area to be served x 1.15) (Water consumption rate = 60 lpcd for Level II systems and 100 lpcd for Level III) Sample Computation: To determine average daily demand for a Level II water system for a community of 500 people, the formula would be: Average daily demand = (500 x 1.15) x 60 lpcd (Level II water consumption standard rate = 575 x 60 lpcd = 34,500 liters per day (lpd)
Elevated tank
Tank shape. Water tanks are usually round or cylindrical, but they can also be rectangular, cubical, jar-shaped, or spherical. Round, cylindrical or spherical water tanks are usually preferred because in most cases, they are more able to handle water pressure. Tank location. Generally, tanks should be constructed on a higher level than the distribution system and the households/tapstands. They should also be placed strategically to ensure accessibility for use and cleaning. The location should be stable, and not prone to erosion, landslides and other shifts in the earth.
Common terms to know Minimum water level – the lowest water level in the tank sufficient to give the minimum residual pressure to carry water to the remotest end of the system. Maximum water level – the highest water level in the tank. Working pressure – the minimum pressure at which the system will operate. Safe working pressure – the working pressure multiplied by a factor of safety.
THE abcs OF potable water projects
43 Orca, JVOF/PEF
Types of tanks. Tanks or reservoirs are classified as elevated reservoirs, hydro pneumatic pressure system, and ground level reservoirs. • Elevated reservoirs are either constructed on a higher area, or supported by a concrete or steel frame if constructed in a flat area. • Hydro pneumatic pressure systems include a sealed water tank partially filled with air and water. Air is compressed on top of the water in the tank, which provides the pressure for pushing the water downward to the distribution lines. • Ground level reservoirs may be made of reinforced concrete, fiber glass, concrete hollow blocks, galvanized metal, steel, ferrocement or even plastic (for rainwater storage systems) (See Section 1.2 of the Water Works! Field Manual for service life of various types of tanks). In most cases, ferrocement tanks may be the least costly to construct given the use of simple, inexpensive wire mesh and rope material, and their limited use of aggregates. Construction is easy and fast, and communities can be trained to install such tanks themselves. Ferrocement tanks are lighter in weight than concrete or steel tanks, as well as resistant (See Section 1.3 of the Water Works! Field Manual for comparative cost of ferrocement tanks vis-à-vis other tank materials). On the negative side, ferrocement tanks require careful, painstaking work, the use of fine sand (which may not be easy to obtain), and skilled masons. The tank also needs proper curing to ensure it does not leak, and regular watering. Tank appurtenances (Tank parts). Tank parts include: a. Inlet pipe – to let in the water pumped from the water source. This should be placed as high as possible and firmly embedded to prevent leakage. b. Outlet pipe – allows the water to flow to the distribution pipes; outlet pipes are placed 5–10 centimeters above the finished floor level and topped with wire mesh to filter matter. c. Drain pipe – allows the tank to be emptied completely for cleaning. d. Overflow pipe – should be installed below the inlet pipe to allow excess water to flow out of the tank. e. Air vent – is optional and can be installed only if the overflow does not sufficiently function as vent. f. Covered manhole – should be placed with raised edges above roof level to allow access for cleaning the inside of the pipe. g. Tapstand – is also included for Level I water systems.
Ferrocement tank
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For rainwater catchment and storage, additional tank appurtenances include: h. Down spout with a bypass section to allow wasting of the first five to ten minutes of rain i. Flapper valve at the junction about 0.5 meters from the top of the tank; the flapper valve routes the first five to ten minutes of rain to the bypass pipe for wasting. The closing and opening of the valve is accomplished by manipulating a piece of wire or string attached to it. j. Delivery pipe fitted with an ordinary faucet k. Overlapping removable cover d) Selecting pipes Water pipes are of two types. Transmission lines convey water from the source to the distribution pipes. Distribution lines then convey water to communal or household taps. Genzola, PEF
Pipes come in sizes of 13, 19, 25, 31, 38, 50, 63, 75, and 100 millimeters. Which should be used? Pipes should be able to handle the maximum hour demand of the area to be served or the hour of the day when water demand is at its peak, e.g. mornings, weekends or during laundry days. There are two formulas for computing maximum hour demand—one for service areas with less than 100 households or 600 persons, and another for service areas with more than 100 households or more than 600 persons.
Plastering the frame of a ferrocement tank
Box 5. COMPUTING MAXIMUM HOUR DEMAND
Formula: Maximum Hour Demand Less than 100HH/600 persons = Average Day Demand x 3.0 24 More than 100 HH or 600persons = Average Day Demand x 2.5 24 Sample Computation: To determine maximum hour demand for a Level II water system for a community of 500 people, the formula would be: Maximum hour demand
= 34,500 liters per day x 3.0 24 = 4,312.5 liters per hour.
THE abcs OF potable water projects
45 Orca, JVOF
PVC pipes being hauled to the project site
Pipe materials. Pipes can be galvanized iron (GI), plastic, and others (See Section 1.1 of the Water Works! Field Manual for pipe drawings). •
GI pipes are resistant to internal and external pressure, can be laid below and above ground, and require little skill to install. However, they are easily corroded so they have a shorter service life compared to other pipes. For systems where pipes cannot be placed below the ground, GI pipes are a better option.
•
Plastic pipes include polyvinyl chloride (PVC), polyethylene (PE) or high density polyethylene (HDPE), polybutylene (PB). Plastic pipes have smooth internal surfaces, are resistant to corrosion, and are lighter and easier to handle compared to GI pipes. However, they can lose strength at high temperatures, can be deformed when stored, and are not suitable above ground. Plastic pipes also require careful bedding materials. > PE pipes are black, lightweight pipes that are flexible under warm conditions. They vary in density and come in large coils of 30 meters or more. They are usually joined by inserted fittings with clamps or heat fusion using a steel plate. PE pipe is available in wall thickness for 100 psi, 125 psi, 160 psi, 200 psi. The prime use is to bring the water up from a well and for an underground service line for the well or water main to the house. > PVC pipes are rigid, lightweight pipes. They usually come in three- or six-meter lengths and are joined primarily by solvent cement (they can also be threaded). PVC pipes vary in density, and when buried, are extremely resistant to corrosion.
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What to consider when selecting pipe materials 1. Durability. Plastic pipes generally have longer durability, although this may be altered by soil conditions. Pipes should have an expected life of 30 years or higher (See Section 1.2 of the Water Works! Field Manual for service life of various pipes). 2. Availability. Locally manufactured or fabricated pipes are better because they are more readily available in case some pipes need to be replaced. 3. Strength. Pipes should also consider the level of water pressure. The higher the water pressure, the stronger the water pipe that is needed to carry the water. In low water pressure areas, however, any type of pipe will do. 4. Cost of pipes and their installation. Aside from computing the cost of the pipes, budgets should also include the cost of installing them. Installation costs vary depending on type of joint used, weight of pipes, depth and width of trench that needs to be dug, and depth of cover required. 5. Type of soil. Acidic soil easily corrodes GI pipes while plastic pipes are more easily damaged in very rocky soil. 6. Flow characteristics. Table 4. CHARACTERISTICS OF DIFFERENT PIPE MATERIALS
Parameters
GI
PVC
PE
PB
1. crushing strength versus superimposed loads in trench
excellent
fair
poor
poor
2. bursting strength versus internal pressure
excellent
good
good
good
fair
excellent
excellent
excellent
poor
excellent
excellent
excellent
fair
excellent
excellent
excellent
excellent
fair
poor
fair
3. durability 4. resistance to corrosion 5. flow capacity 6. resistance to external mechanical injury 7. ease of installation
easy
8. pipe cost
high
low
low
low
9. cost per fitting
low
high
high
high
10. number of fittings
high
high
low
low
Source: NWRB
must be handled gently and must be buried
THE abcs OF potable water projects
Common terms to know Pipe length – the length of 1 pipe (GI) equal to 6.0 m (20 ft) Pipe run – connected or connecting pipes in series Fitting – a device used to join pipes Joint – point at which two pipes are fitted together Center-to-center – in pipe fitting, the distance between centers of two consecutive fittings in a run Female – pipes, fittings or valves with internal threads Male – pipes, fittings or valves with external threads Gluing – joining plastic pipes and fitting using solvent cement
e) Selecting pumps Pumps are devices used in transferring water from one place to another through pipes by means of energy. Pumping facilities can be classified into two major categories: well pumps and booster pumps. Well pumps draw water from the well to the reservoir and/ or directly to the distribution system and end-users. Booster pumps are used to boost pressure when it falls below the minimum required pressure. Various types of pumps are available for potable water systems (See Section 1.1 of the Water Works! Field Manual for pump design drawings). Kinds of pumps (NWRB, 1980)
CYLINDER
• Hand pumps are most suitable Figure 10. to install for small, isolated RECIPROCATING PUMPS (GENDRANO, PCWS) populations and/or where there is no electricity. Hand pumps are usually installed over dug wells or tube wells. The two basic types of hand pumps are – the shallow well pump with the pump cylinder above ground and the deep well Piston pump, with the pump cylinder seal below ground (normally below water level). • Positive displacement pumps are divided into reciprocating and rotary types. Reciprocating pumps (includes piston pumps) operate by creating a vacuum in a cylinder and then drawing the water in and out of the discharge outlet.
vacuum
foot valve O&M
1. Replace worn-out seats & valves 2. repair / replace holed cylinders
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• Centrifugal pumps raise water by centrifugal force created by a wheel, called an impeller, rotating within a pump case. Water enters at the center of the impeller. When the impeller is rotated, water in the pump is forced out by centrifugal force. Centrifugal pumps come in many designs, including turbine pumps, mixed flow pumps, axial flow or propeller pumps. • Hydraulic rams use the energy of falling water to raise a smaller quantity of water to greater heights. Figure 11. MOTORIZED PUMPS (GENDRANO, PCWS)
• Jet pumps have nozzles which discharge the water into a constricted throat. The throat leads from a suction pipe. This arrangement permits energy of a high pressure fluid to be converted into a high velocity fluid. • Submersible pumps are suitable for deep wells where the required discharge exceeds the capability of jet pumps. These pumps are usually powered by an electric motor installed below the water level, directly coupled with the pump (See Section 1.2 of the Water Works! Field Manual for service life of pumps). Determining pump capacity. To select the right pump, both the maximum day demand (except for hydropheumatic pressure systems) and the tank capacity should be considered. The maximum day demand is the highest one-day water demand. To compute for maximum day demand, the average daily demand is multiplied by 1.3. Box 6. COMPUTING MAXIMUM DAY DEMAND
Formula: Maximum day demand = Average day demand x 1.3 Sample Computation: To determine maximum day demand for a level II water system for a community of 500 people, the formula would be:
Figure 12. SUBMERSIBLE PUMP (GENDRANO, PCWS)
Maximum day demand = 34,500 liters per day x 1.3 = 44,850 lpd
THE abcs OF potable water projects
What to consider when determining the pipe to use 1. In areas with no electricity or for small, isolated populations, hand pumps may be the most feasible option. Motor pumps would be more costly in terms of capital and maintenance costs. 2. Centrifugal pumps are recommended if the well water depth is 6 meters or less (maximum suction lift = 6 meters). 3. Jet pumps are recommended if the well water depth is 6–20 meters. 4. Submersible pumps or vertical line shaft turbine pumps are recommended if the well water depth is more than 20 meters. 5. Pumps should have an operating time of at least 8–12 hours. 6. Estimating pump capacity should be determined by considering the following: • If the pump is used directly to supply water, the capacity must be equal to the maximum hour demand. • If the water distribution system has a reservoir, the pump capacity must be equal to the maximum day demand. 7. Pump controls. These can be manual or automatic. Manual pumps work well for small systems. An operator can start the pump in the morning and then turn it off when the morning peak demand has been met and/or the storage tank has been filled. The pump is restarted when the water in the tank reaches the minimum water level. Automatic controls are activated by either a float or by pressure. 8. Pumps are installed only when the well is completely developed and tested. Pump houses. Pump houses are constructed to protect pumping facilities and to serve as the operator’s quarters or office as well as storage area for equipment, spare parts and tools.
3. Tapstands/communal faucets (for Level II systems) For Level II systems, communal faucets or tapstands need to be installed as part of the water system. These tapstands serve as watering points where households get their water in containers to carry back to their homes. Number of tapstands. In designing tapstands, one would need to decide how many to install and where they should be located. The number of tapstands needed depends on the population to be served and how houses
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are located. The standard is for each tapstand to serve from four to six households or a maximum of 10; any more would make it inconvenient for households to get their water. When one or two households are located far away from other houses, it may be necessary to install a tapstand near them, even if it does not meet the minimum of four households to one faucet. Location of tapstands. Decision on where tapstands should be located has to be made jointly by the community and the expert consultants. Usually, tapstand locations are tentatively identified with the aid of a spot map and considering the following (Muring, et al., 1994):
CO Multiversity
• Tapstands should be located to serve those households that will depend upon it, usually at the central point of a household cluster.
Getting water from a tapstand (Co-Multiversity, Barorao, Lanao del Sur water project)
• Important structures (school, market, barangay hall) should have convenient access to one of the taps. • Tapstands should be located near, but not directly on, a main path. • A sunny site will discourage prolonged use and thus create less wastage. • Tapstands should not be located under palm trees to avoid harm to tapstand or user from falling fronds or coconuts. • Ideally, a faucet should not be more than 25 meters from the farthest house, but this distance can be increased to a maximum of 100 meters where necessary.
Getting water from a tapstand (Barorao, Lanao del Sur water project)
Often, however, technical as well as economic, social and political factors influence the final locations of tapstands. Households may decide that a tapstand is best located near a household where a member is always present and can actively monitor water use, or near a household owned by a local official or leader to ensure proper water usage. In other communities, decisions on tapstand locations may become a source of jealousy or conflict so the process should be handled carefully.
FIGURE 13. SAMPLE SPOT MAP WITH TAPSTAND AND LOCATIONS PINPOINTED (MURING, USC)
THE abcs OF potable water projects
What to consider when designing tapstands The tapstand should be designed to accommodate several users at one time. It should also allow for washing clothes or bathing, if the community chooses to permit these activities in the tapstand area. Other design considerations include (Muring, et al., 1994) the following: 1. Service pipes should be sloped away from the tapstand to prevent settlement of silt at the bottom of tapstands. Otherwise, a cleanout must be provided at the bottom of the tapstands. 2. Tapstand should be designed to provide adequate drainage during peak use periods to prevent unsanitary conditions (standing water). 3. A small waterhole to collect wastewater for animals may be located near the tapstand, but should be at least 10 meters away from the pipelines and tap. Overflow from the waterhole can be channeled to a nearby garden, field or soak pit. 4. No tapstands must be located along the U-profile section of the pipeline to prevent reduction in quantity and velocity of flow in succeeding taps. 5. Standard tapstand flow = 0.225 lps (13.5 l/min) or a minimum flow of 0.125 lps. The economic design flow is 0.2 lps, which will fill a five-gallon container in less than two minutes. 6. Height of tapstands ranges from 0.50 m to 1.50 meters based on user preference. The faucet should protrude far enough from its vertical stand (0.10 – 0.30 m) so that water vessels can be easily filled.
Tapstand construction. Tapstand construction entails the following (See Section 1.1 of the Water Works! Field Manual for detailed tapstand drawings): • Onsite identification of proximate tapstand locations • Excavation • Preparation of foundation • Preparation and installation of rebars and forms • Installation of plumbing fixtures • Concreting • Removal of forms • Finishing • Construction of drainage canal • Excavation of soaking pit
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4. Water quality and treatment technologies (PCWS-ITNF; Netherlands Water Partnership; NWRB)
Before deciding on a water source, it must first be determined to ensure that the water is safe for drinking. Its physical and chemical properties may be subjected to laboratory tests for potability and bacteria content. Physical properties of water include the following: • Turbidity – degree of cloudiness or muddiness caused by suspended matter like silt, clay, organic matter and microorganisms. While turbidity has little health effects, it can have psychological and aesthetic drawbacks. People may think the water is unsafe or unpalatable for drinking and refuse to use it. • Color – color may be affected by substances like vegetable matter and iron salts. Like turbidity, water color has little effect on health. Color can be measured by comparing samples to distilled water. • Odor – because water is odorless in its pure state, water that smells may indicate the presence of contaminants. • Taste – Again, because water in its pure state is tasteless, water that tastes badly may indicate the presence of contaminants like algae, decomposing organic matter, dissolved gases, and phenolic substances. Water’s chemical properties include: • Hardness – the level of calcium and magnesium carbonates and bicarbonates (can be removed by boiling), or calcium and magnesium sulfate and chloride (can be removed through chemical precipitation using lime or sodium bicarbonate). Hardness in water can have a laxative effect, make soaping difficult, and cause scaling of pots and kettles. • Alkalinity and acidity – acidic water has a pH below 7.0 while alkaline water has a pH greater than 7.0. Acidic water corrodes metallic pipes. • Chemical oxygen demand (COD) – the amount of organic content in the water; increase in COD indicates the presence of bacteria because the bacteria uses the dissolved oxygen. • Presence of carbon dioxide, dissolved oxygen, organic nitrogen, iron and manganese, toxic substances, phenolic compounds Water should also be tested for bacteriological characteristics to determine the presence of contamination by sewage or human and animal excrement which can cause infectious diseases like typhoid and dysentery. Such contaminants can be removed by filtration or disinfection. Aside from physical and chemical parameters mentioned in the Philippine Drinking Water Standards, water must have bacteriological purity or a fecal coliform count of no more than 1.6 per 100 ml (WHO) or 2.2 (World Bank) (See Section 1.5 of the Water Works! Field Manual for National Standards for Drinking
THE abcs OF potable water projects
53
Water). On the other hand, other workers in the water sector, concluding that treating water to such standards is not practicable in many parts of the world, settle for 10 for drinking water and 100 for other household uses 95 percent of the time (Gendrano, 2006). AMORE
Various low-cost, easy-to-manage water treatment technologies have been developed that can be included in a potable water system project (See Section 1.2 of the Water Works! Field Manual for service life of water treatment technologies). Chlorination. This involves adding a certain amount of chlorine into the water supply. Solar disinfection. This requires putting water into transparent bottles and exposing them to sunlight. Ultraviolet rays from the sun kill disease-causing pathogens and make water ready for drinking. Solar desalination. In this method, sea water is placed inside a “solar still” which is then left in the sun to allow the water to evaporate and condensate. This type of water treatment is suitable for arid, coastal areas where little freshwater is found. One square meter of solar still produces two to three liters of freshwater per day. Filtration. Water is filtered through sand, ceramic or other filters and treated with chemical disinfectants. This method has several variations: • Plain sedimentation. Water is simply allowed to stand for a certain amount of time to allow heavy particles to settle at the bottom. • Roughing filter. Good for highly turbid water, this entails filtering the water through a coarse bed of gravel or coarse sand to remove heavy particles. • Slow sand filter. This entails slowly allowing water to flow through a bed of fine sand to remove solid materials and pathogens. • Ceramic filter. A ceramic candle filter that is treated with colloidal silver can be used at the household level to remove 98–100 percent of harmful bacteria that cause diarrhea, cholera, and other water-borne diseases. Maintenance consists only of cleaning the inside with a brush and changing the filter element every one to two years. • Clay filter. For PhP 500, a colloidal silver impregnated clay filter can be made and used as water filter. About one to two liters of water per hour can be filtered through this device. •
Iron removal filter. An iron removal filter can be constructed at a cost of PhP 2000 which removes iron content from water through aeration, sedimentation and filtration. Iron in water can cause undesirable odor, color
Water samples
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and stickiness; it can also discolor laundry and cooked rice. Aeration. Good for removing certain pollutants like iron and manganese, aeration consists of agitating the water in the tank through mechanical means. Coagulation. This consists of adding a chemical such as alum or lime to the water. Pollutants stick to the chemicals and fall to the bottom of the tank.
E. How much will it cost? How much are users able and willing to pay?
Figure 14. IRON FILTER (GENDRANO, PCWS)
How much it costs to build and maintain a potable water project directly affects how much a community needs to pay. Thus, to ensure that users can pay the price of water, the cost of building and running potable water systems must be kept as low as possible.
1. Keeping costs down Implementers should: a) Choose the most appropriate technologies and other interventions included in the project. b) Involve the community and harness community-based resources in planning and implementing the project, and in operating the water system. c) Maintain a high standard of transparency and accountability in employing resources for the project, such as in procurement. This eliminates opportunities for misuse of funds. PEF allows up to PhP 1,800 per beneficiary in assessing cost-efficiency of potable water supply projects (based on 2003 cost estimates). Experience shows, however, that often projects can come in much cheaper when the above principles are adopted (Gendrano, 2006). Examples:
CO Multiversity
• A spring-fed public tap system with 4.5 km of pipe and two 10-cubic-meter reservoirs were constructed for a rural community of 400 at a materials cost of PhP 400 (2006 prices) per beneficiary. • Roof water gutters and 3-cubic-meter cisterns were constructed in each of the thirty houses in a village at a materials cost of PhP 450 per beneficiary. A community association meeting. (Barorao, Lanao del Sur water project)
THE abcs OF potable water projects
2. What to include in the cost All inputs needed should be included in the budget such as: • purchase of construction materials and tools • rental of equipment that may be necessary • wages for labor (skilled and unskilled) Under PEF guidelines, wages for a community organizer/staff and an engineer can be included in the project grant applied for. All unskilled labor should be voluntary and included in the community counterpart. The total community counterpart, which is the monetary computation of all resources contributed by the community (including time spent by community volunteers in the project and materials/land donated), should be at least 20 percent of the total project grant.
3. Setting effective water pricing mechanisms There are varying opinions on the setting of water tariffs and what rates would be appropriate. JICA suggests that water tariffs should not exceed 5 percent of family income. Others believe the ceiling should be even lower, at 1.5 percent, based on true family income, for at least the first 15 lpcd (Gendrano, 2006). There is also growing consensus that beneficiaries and users of water resources and water systems should bear an equitable share of the costs of utilizing and developing such resources/facilities. Partial or full cost recovery schemes are being factored in, in setting water tariffs in some areas.
What to consider when determining water tariffs For Level II and III systems, water pricing can be done through metering or through a fixed rate agreed upon by users and operators (See Section 1.6 of the Water Works! Field Manual for guidelines on fixing water rates). In setting water prices, the following should be considered: • The cost of operating and maintaining the water system • The benefit derived by the community translated in monetary terms • The rate of depreciation of the water source/system • Inflation • User’s willingness and capacity to pay
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Box 7. DETERMINING WATER TARIFFS
Example: A project will provide a 100-household village annually with 7,200 cubic meters of potable water. Annualized project costs will be PhP 72,000. For financial sustainability, what is the monthly minimum that should be collected from the average household? What should be the minimum basic charge per cubic meter? Solution: 1) Average minimum water tariff per household
= PhP 72,000 per year/100 HH/12 months per year
= PhP 60 per household per year.
2) Average minimum water tariff per cubic meter
= PhP 72,000 per year/7,200 cu m per year
= PhP 10/cu m
Source: Gendrano, 2006.
F. What are the legal requirements? 1. From community members – a) deeds of donation for all lots used/covered by the water system, including site of the water source, water tanks, pump houses, communal tapstands, meters and b) rights-of-way for spring sites and pipeline routes. These ensure that the water system will not be compromised later on due to conflicts on land use and ownership (See Section 1.7 of the Water Works! Field Manual for sample deed of donation). 2. From the barangay government – A project needs to be endorsed by the barangay council through a barangay resolution. Later on, the water pricing/ tariff system agreed upon can also be adopted in a barangay resolution or ordinance to give it greater authority and ensure greater compliance. 3. From the municipal/city government – A project needs to obtain: a) building permit and land use certification b) mayor’s endorsement of the community/barangay association as water system developer/manager, or memorandum of agreement between the LGU (barangay, city/municipality and community/proponent) c) accreditation of the association/group managing the water system (See Section 1.8 of the Water Works! Field Manual for sample document)
THE abcs OF potable water projects
4. From NWRB a) water permit No person or entity is permitted to use a specific water source without a water right, which is granted through a water permit. This is because under the Philippine Constitution, all water on the ground and in the atmosphere belongs to the state. A water permit grants the privilege to use the water source, and charge/collect water fees from users. The only exemptions to getting water permits are for household/domestic use, such as carrying water from a source through pails and other small containers, bathing, washing/watering farm animals. Water permits can take months to obtain, so the NWRB suggests that an application be submitted as soon as or before the project starts. Having a water right/permit also requires water system operators to pay an annual charge, computed by liters per second (See Section 1.9 and 1.10 of the Water Works! Field Manual for water permit requirements and water charges). b) certificate of public convenience (CPC) Implementers apply for a CPC along with the water permit. A CPC is renewable every five years. The CPC grants exclusive right to provide water service to a given area. Applying for a CPC requires submitting the following documents of the association/water system operator (See Section 1.11 of the Water Works! Field Manual for CPC application form): • articles of incorporation/DTI registration • board resolution • copy of official receipts of annual water charges • copy of latest certificate of potability issued by the city/municipal health office • water system plans • latest audited financial statements • balance sheet and income statements for water operations, • water rates and tariff schedules c) if drilling is involved, a drilling permit should also be obtained from NWRB, which one applies for, along with the water permit (See Section 1.12 of the Water Works! Field Manual for application form). 5. From the DOH or provincial/municipal/city health office – a) certificate of water quality of source to be developed b) certificate of quality of water produced through the water system installed c) certificate of water potability to be obtained through water quality testing every three months. This is obtained after submitting water samples and if the samples are tested safe for drinking.
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Regular water quality testing ensures that the water supplied is safe, and will not cause sudden outbreaks of disease or illness in the community (See Section 1.13 and 1.14 for sample documents). 6. From DENR – If water system components are not within private lands but cover public areas, an environmental clearance certificate (ECC) or ECC exemption/non-coverage certificate is necessary. Most water supply projects are small scale and would not need an ECC. Implementers, however, would need to get a certificate of non-coverage from the DENR (or its regional office in the area) to make sure that their project does not have any adverse environmental effects or infringe on environmentally critical areas. 7. Community associations or other water system operators/developers need to acquire a legal personality to operate and manage a water system. This can be done by registering with the CDA (if a cooperative), or other authorized government agencies such as the Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC), the Department of Labor and Employment, the Department of Social Welfare and Development (DSWD), and the LWUA. Box 8. GOVERNMENT AGENCIES CONCERNED WITH POTABLE WATER SUPPLY
At the national level, two line agencies (DILG and DOH) and two government corporations (MWSS for Metro Manila and LWUA for areas outside Metro Manila) are responsible for the water sector. Other government agencies concerned are the DENR for watershed protection, and NWRB (now also under the DENR), to regulate the franchising of water rights. At the provincial level, the agencies involved in WATSAN are the Provincial Planning and Development Office (PPDO), Provincial Engineer’s Office (PEO), Provincial Health Office (PHO), and other offices. At the municipal/city level, the MPDO/CPDO, MHO/CHO, MEO/CEO are concerned with potable water project implementation.
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G. What should be done during construction, operation, and maintenance of the water system? 1. Planning for construction Project implementers should put together the following plans: AMORE
• Drawings – these will serve as reference for the construction engineer and project implementers during construction. (See Section 1.1 of the Water Works! Field Manual for design drawings). • Program of work – a summary/plan and timetable for the construction and related activities to be done in the project (See Section 1.15 of the Water Works! Field Manual for sample document). • Schedule of work – details the timetable for the construction and lists which aspect of the work should be accomplished per day/week. The schedule of work serves as a tool for project implementers to monitor construction, to ensure that materials needed for the day or week are purchased and are available at the site, and work accomplished corresponds to daily or weekly targets (See Section 1.16 of the Water Works! Field Manual for sample document).
Preparing for the project (Kahikukuk, Sulu water project)
AMORE
• Bill of materials – provides a list of all materials and equipment to be rented or purchased, and labor (skilled and unskilled) to be hired for the construction of the water system and the total cost entailed for construction. The bill of materials shows how many units per material (how many pipes, etc.) are to be purchased, the unit cost per material and total costs of all inputs for construction (See Section 1.17 of the Water Works! Field Manual for sample document).
2. Procuring materials and services Project implementers also need to procure the materials and services for water system construction. For PEF-supported projects, procurement needs to be conducted following standard procedures and formats. Bid documents are prepared following prescribed formats. A canvass is then conducted for both materials and services. This entails getting price quotations or bids from construction suppliers and contractors for services and materials, evaluating the bids and selecting the lowest bidder that meets all the qualification criteria set by the project implementers. The process is documented and reported to PEF, which then gives its approval for the granting of the contract/s.
Starting construction (Kahikukuk, Sulu water project)
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3. Overseeing construction After the construction contract has been awarded and materials purchased from suppliers, project implementers should assign a field engineer or technical person to be based at the construction site to oversee/monitor construction. The tasks of the field engineer/technical supervisor are to ensure: • that construction proceeds according to schedule, • that design specifications are adhered to, and • that safety and security of the community, construction personnel and the immediate environment are protected.
S. Genzola, PEF
The salary of the field engineer is either included in the cost of the grant applied for or becomes part of the community counterpart.
4. Ensuring that resources or materials are accessible when needed The lack of a single item or material sometimes means a whole working day is wasted. However, having too much material onsite pose the risk of pilferages and may mean that some will be left over from the project. To avoid this, field officers must buy only what is basically needed, and should be entrusted with money for exigencies.
5. Hiring and supervising labor/personnel Putting the finishing touches.
Increasingly, projects include a component for the hiring and use of local or community labor during construction, whether paid or unpaid. Under PEF guidelines, all unskilled labor in the project should be provided voluntarily by the community to be benefited by the project, as part of their counterpart. It is the task of the field engineer, as well as community organizer and community leaders, to ensure that workers hired for the project have the necessary skills, complete the required number of hours, and are paid on time. To ensure that hiring of local workers does not become a source of conflict, project implementers may set up a hiring and selection process that is systematic, transparent and consultative. Applicants are evaluated and hired based on a criteria agreed upon by all concerned.
6. Post construction: clean up, testing, disinfection After the water system facilities have been constructed, the completed system has to be conditioned prior to full-scale operation. Conditioning includes: Clean up. This entails removal of equipment, tools and excess materials, temporary structures built during construction (storage, bunkhouses, etc.), leveling the ground, and sweeping the area of dirt and rubbish.
THE abcs OF potable water projects
Testing. Testing usually reveals if the system provides the adequate volume of water to consumers at a minimum operational cost. Both pipes and tanks are tested for pressure and leakage. Disinfection. All the parts of the water system should be disinfected before operation. This can be done by subjecting all parts that will come in contact with the water with a 50 mg/l chlorine solution for 24 hours and testing the concentration of the chlorine afterwards. If the test results reveal that the chlorine content is less than 25 mg/l, the disinfection process should be repeated. Start up. This entails testing the operationality of the entire water system by operating the pump and allowing the water to flow through the various components for a certain period. Site development. This generally requires site grading or paving (to level the ground around the area), building an access road (if necessary), fencing (to protect the facilities) and other improvements (landscaping, enhancing the look of the pumphouse).
7. Operation and maintenance The successful and sustained operation of a water system depends on the patronage of its users and the effective management of its operators. A wellmanaged water system that delivers safe, adequate water on a reliable basis at a reasonable price will enjoy the support of its users for the long term. The operation and maintenance of the water system includes: • Personnel • System for records keeping, reporting, bookkeeping/financial management, repair and maintenance • operation and maintenance funds/resources (See Section 3 of the Water Works! Field Manual for training modules designed by PEF consultants and used in PEF projects and adapted for this kit. These training modules can be used by project implementers and communities in setting up their Operation and Maintenance Systems and build the necessary capacities for running their potable water systems.)
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CO Multiversity
III. Enhancing and Sustaining Implementation This section deals with two important aspects in the implementation of potable water systems, namely a) some how-to’s in conducting cost-benefit analysis for potable water supply projects that should be done before implementation to determine if the potable water project is worth doing, and b) the importance of undertaking related community interventions to support potable water projects after implementation. By considering these in project design and implementation, implementers have concrete tools for ensuring the sustainability and long-term impact of water projects.
A. Estimating benefits and costs of potable water supply projects Benefit-cost analysis entails computing all the visible and invisible, material and non-tangible costs and benefits of the project. For a project to be economically worthwhile, it must deliver socio-economic benefits in excess of its costs. When the costs outweigh the benefits, it will be unwise to implement a particular water project.
1. Uses and advantages of undertaking cost-benefit analysis Estimating the benefits and costs of potable water projects has several uses, namely: • helps implementers determine beforehand if the project is economically feasible and worthwhile • predicts survivability and sustainability of water systems. Field evidence indicates that systems with ratios of 4 or higher are usually sustained by users. Those with 2 or lower are not. • is useful in determining financially-viable water tariffs • helps in comparing and choosing between two or more water supply options.
2. How to estimate the costs and benefits of a potable water project Costs and benefits may at first appear difficult to quantify. However, the benefits and costs of potable water systems have to be computed in peso terms on an annual basis to enable comparison. How this is done is discussed in some detail in Box 9 on page 64. a) Estimating benefits Benefits of potable water projects can include: • Reduction in water-fetching labor • Savings in water-using household chores • Improvement in community health
THE abcs OF potable water projects
In estimating benefits, we need to gather pre-waterproject data and formulate realistic targets or projections of possible outcomes once the potable water project is operational. These are then quantified in peso terms. See Box 9 on page 67 for examples on estimating benefits.)
What to consider when estimating project benefit 1) In the Philippines, the usual major items of water supply project benefits are water-fetching labor savings and decrease in water prices. Community health improvement e.g. decrease in diarrhea or water - borne deseases, and other benefits though difficult to measure must be taken into consideration by using other data, e.g. barangay health situation. 2) Estimating benefits for projects that improve or expand existing water systems, or those that would supply only part of the water demand of the community (e.g., one that would supply only the drinking water requirement or only for part of the year) are usually more complicated to undertake.
b) Estimating Costs Costs of potable water projects, on the other hand, include • Fixed costs • Operating costs • Project material costs • Displacement of water-vending livelihood • Environmental costs Given their nature, most costs are easier to quantify. However, for less tangible costs like displacement of environmental costs, estimations must be based on realistic assumptions and quantified in peso terms as well (See Box 9 for examples on estimating project costs). After computations, the benefits and the costs are respectively summed up, and a ratio is computed.
AMORE
• Savings in household labor and supplies with improvement in water quality • Reduction in time spent waiting for water • Reduction in water prices • Provision of water for community population growth • Creation of livelihood • Greening of the community • Other environmental benefits • Educational value
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Doing the numbers (Kahikukuk, Sulu water project)
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Box 9: ESTIMATING BENEFITS AND COSTS (GENDRANO, 2006)
1. Reduction in water-fetching labor A water supply project may result in less time spent fetching, lining up, or waiting for one’s container to be filled with water. Example: Computing reduction in water-fetching labor Scenario A village of 100 people uses 20 liters per person daily (lpcd) fetched by foot from a spring 1000 meters away. The water is fetched in 20-liter pails, one pail at a time. A proposed improvement project will pipe water from this source to tapstands in the village, reducing fetching distance to an average of 75 meters. Assuming that the value of home labor is half the local minimum wage of PhP 25 per man-hour, and the speed of a walking person carrying a loaded water pair is 3000 m/hr, how much will be saved by the village annually? Solution Before the project: Number of trip loads per year =100 people x 20 lpcd x365 days per year /20 liters per trip = 36,500 trips per year. Fetching time per trip =1000 m x 2 x 1 man / 3000 m/hr = 0.667 man-hours per trip. Total man-hours fetching time per year = 0.667 x 36500 = 24,333 man-hours per year. Post- project estimates: Number of trip loads per year = 100 people x 20 lpcd x 365 days per year /20 liters per trip = 36,500 trips per year. Fetching time per trip = 75 m x 2 x 1 man / 3000 m/hr = 0.05 man-hours per trip. Total man-hours fetching time per year = 0.05 x 36500 = 1,825 man-hours per year. Value of saved labor = (24,333 – 1,825) man-hours per year x PhP 25 per man-hour / 2 = PhP 281,354 per year.
2. Savings in water-using household chores labor If a project will result in increasing the amount of available water for each beneficiary to up to 30 lpcd and as long as the water point will be within 170 meters of their households, they will tend to use this water to save on labor in water-using household chores. Example: Computing water-using household chores labor Scenario In the above situation, assume further that the project will result in 5 lpcd more water to each user. What is the value of the household chore labor to be saved annually by the village due to this additional water supply? Assume additionally that the household chore value of the 20th lpcd is PhP 0.10, decreasing in value linearly to 0 at the 30th lpcd. Solution Before the project: Average hh chore value per additional lpcd = {PhP 0.1 per lpcd + ( PhP 0.1 per lpcd + 5 lpcd [PhP 0.1 per lpcd – PhP 0 per lpcd] / [20th lpcd – 30th lpcd]} / 2 = {0.1+(0.1+5[0.1-0]/[20-30]} / 2 = PhP 0.075 per lpcd. Additional available water per year = 5 lpcd x 100 people x 365 days per year = 182,500 liters per year. Total hh chore value of this additional water = 182,500 x PhP 0.075 = PhP 13,688 per year.
THE abcs OF potable water projects
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Solution Note: in this example, increasing the water consumption will result in the users making more trips to the water points, so the savings in fetching labor will have to be adjusted as follows: Post project estimates: Number of trip loads per year = 100 people x 25 lpcd x 365 days per year / 20 liters per trip = 45,625 trips per year. Fetching time per trip = 75 m x 2 x 1 man / 3000 m/hr = 0.05 man-hours per trip. Total man-hours fetching time per year = 0.05 x 45,625 = 2,281 man-hours per year. Value of saved labor = (24,333 – 2,281) man-hours per year x PhP 25 per man-hour / 2 = PhP 275,654 per year.
3. Improvement in community health a. Due to improvement in water supply volume In the Philippines, each additional lpcd of water supply up to the 40 lpcd level is estimated to be worth PhP 0.0018 in terms of avoided health care costs and productivity loss due to water-borne disease morbidity and mortality. Example: Computing improvements in water supply volume Scenario In the above situation, what is the community health improvement value of the additional 5 lpcd to be provided by the project? Solution Additional available water per year = 5 lpcd x 100 people x 365 days per year = 182,500 liters per year. Total community health improvement value of this additional water = 182,500 x PhP 0.0018 = PhP 329 per year.
b. Due to improvement in bacteriological water quality Some studies imply that the value of substantial improvement in the bacteriological quality of the water supply to at least within drinking standards, is half of the value obtained in the previous section. c. Due to reduction in water hardness In cases where a community has been making do with ‘hard’ water and wherein the project will change this to ‘soft’, the savings in the use of soap and shampoo may also be credited as a project benefit. A ‘table’ estimate for these savings is about PhP 0.001 per liter of laundry, dishwashing or bathing water so improved and used. 4. Savings in household labor and supplies with improvement in water quality Example: where a community has been making do with ‘hard’ or iron-tainted water and the project will change this to ‘soft’, the savings in the use of soap and shampoo may also be credited as a project benefit. A ‘table’ estimate for these savings is about PhP 0.001 per liter of laundry, dishwashing or bathing water so improved and used.
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5. Reduction in time spent waiting for water In some communities, intermittent water supply cause at least one member of each household to spend 20 minutes to 1 hour waiting for water to reach them and transferring it to water containers. If a water supply project will reduce this waiting time, the value of this reduction can be credited as a benefit. 6. Reduction in water prices This can be estimated as volume of water annually used per year before the project x unit price of the water before the project – volume of water annually used per year after the project x unit price of the water after the project. 7. Provision of water for community population growth More people projected to be using the proposed water system in the future will mean less cost per capita. Most communities in the country are expected to grow by 50 percent in the next 30 or 40 years, the usual life of a water system. With the absence of a more detailed population growth data, a good estimate of the average number of users over this period is therefore: Average number of users over the life of the project = present beneficiaries 100 + 50 / 2 = 125 percent of present beneficiaries. 8. Creation of livelihood Projects create livelihood. From a social point of view, in an employmentshort country these livelihoods or workplaces, incidental though they may be to the main project objectives, are of value because otherwise society would have to invest to create them. a. In system operation and maintenance It is generally accepted that to create a workplace requires about the equivalent to a year’s minimum wage worth of investment. In the Philippines this is at present about PhP 62,500.00. The opportunity cost of this money is at least equal to what it would pay if it is instead deposited in a bank. Since in the country, the average of this rate, net of inflation is about 5 percent annually, this is equal to: Opportunity cost avoided = PhP 62,500 x 0.05 = PhP 3,125 a year. This can be credited as a benefit of the project. Assuming that project input prices are reasonable and that due diligence in implementation is practiced, generally, every PhP 100,000 in paid project cost (as opposed to volunteer manpower) creates 0.037 livelihoods or workplaces in the construction industry, with an annual opportunity value of PhP 116.
THE abcs OF potable water projects
AMORE
A successful water project can help create new livelihoods (Kahikukuk water project)
Ideally, to estimate the operation-andmaintenance workplaces created by a project, the magnitude of the various operation-and-maintenance tasks have to be projected. In the absence of such details, a rule-of-thumb is that every PhP 100,000.00 of project budget paid creates about 0.032 operation-and-maintenance livelihoods and 0.044 repairer livelihoods. b. In the projected increase in water-using production and livelihoods otherwise not possible before the project Examples of livelihoods where water is a major input are concrete products manufacturing, laundry shops, water recreation parks and livestock production. Sometimes, water and eespecially wastewater to be generated by users will also be used in watering adjacent gardens and farms. However, estimating how much of these activities will arise from a project that is still a proposal is difficult. In this case, studies of past projects are helpful. A 1994 study of 34 PLAN International (a child-centered NGO) piped water, handpump wells and rainwater harvesting projects in rural Cebu, Mindoro and Benguet estimated that individual incomes arising from the said projects were equivalent to a fourth of reduction in water-fetching labor benefit. This would indicate that in a large group of rural water supply projects, the opportunity value of the water-using livelihoods that will be created is about 1.25 percent of the water-fetching labor benefit. 9. Greening of the community Again, estimating the value of this benefit is difficult. In communities with substantial running water, households with ornamental gardens are willing to pay utility rates (typically PhP 0.017 per liter) to keep them green. But not all households have gardens, so this benefit could not be considered a social one deserving of weight. It is noted however that communities with good water supply are often greener than the surrounding countryside. 10. Other environmental benefits Rainwater harvesting projects are particularly environment-friendly. Detaining runoff minimizes soil erosion, leaching, flooding and the coastal siltation associated with it. A ‘table’ estimate for such a value is about PhP 0.0015 per liter of water so detained.
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11. Educational value A project or project component that that will be pioneering, innovative, result in knowledge demonstration or dissemination and can be replicated elsewhere in the project area is by itself worth the expense. As long as this project or project component is viable, its annualized construction (but not O&M) costs can be neglected in annual cost computations.
Estimating costs 1. Fixed costs Fixed costs are computed by considering the following: depreciation, interest on investment, repairs and maintenance, annual fees, permits and taxes, office supplies, travel, office utilities, vehicle gas and oil. Example: Computing fixed costs Item
Spring box, concrete
Unit
Unit acquisition cost as of 2005 (PhP)
Acquisition cost (PhP )
Service life (years)
13
Salvage value, (% of acquisition cost)
Annualized cost as % of acquisition cost Depreciation
Interest on investment
R&M
0
7.69
2.5
1
Concrete reservoirs & other civil works
40
0
2.5
2.5
1
Steel reservoirs
25
10
3.6
2.75
2
Plastic reservoirs, Exposed
20
10
4.5
2.75
2
Steel pipelines
25
10
3.6
2.75
2
Plastic pipelines, buried
35
0
2.86
2.5
2
Tapstands
20
0
5
2.5
10
Wells
18
0
5.56
2.5
2
Pumps, 16 hrs ops daily
5
10
18
2.75
8
Electricals
20
10
4.5
2.75
2
Buildings
50
0
2
2.5
1
Engines & vehicles
20
10
4.5
2.75
10
Computers
5
20
16
3
2.5
Other office equipment
20
20
4
3
1.5
Land
100
5
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2. Operating costs O&M personnel For very small water systems, part-time staff may be all that is required. A task inventory of the O&M requirements of the system should be made to determine how many man-hours a year is required of plumber/operator, collector, bookkeeper, management and auditing services and their honoraria/ commissions may be based on these. Fulltime staff would require the usual mandatory insurances as an added cost. Power Example: Computing power costs Scenario A pumped water supply system will require pumping 100 lpcd plus 20 percent for pipe leakage losses to an elevation of 100 ft via a 100-ft pipeline for 100 people. How much will be the annual pumping power cost if: • The pump will be electric (assume 50-percent pump efficiency, 1-percent pipe friction losses and PhP 11 per kwh); or • The pump will be driven by an appropriate hp diesel engine (assume further 5.5 hp per liter of diesel consumed, PhP 36 per liter of diesel, and 8 percent of the diesel cost as lubricant cost). (Conversion constants: 550 ft-lb/sec per hp; 0.741kw/hp, 2.2 lb/liter of water). Solution Using the electric pump: Pounds of water pumped annually = 100 lpcd x 2.2 lb / liter x 100 people x 365 days per year x 1.2 = 9,636,000 lbs per year. Working head = 100 ft elevation + 100 ft pipeline x 0.01 = 101 ft. Hp-hours per year = 9,636,000 lbs per year x 101 ft/550 ft-lb per sec per hp / 3600 secs per hour / 0.5 pumping efficiency = 984 hp-hours per year. Kwh per year = 984 hp-hours per year x 0.741kw/hp = 728 kwh per year. Cost per year = 728 kwh per year x PhP 11 per kwh = PhP 8,012 per year. Using a diesel engine-powered pump: Liters of diesel to be used per year = 984 hp-hours per year / 5.5 hp-hours per liter = 179 liters per year. Fuel and lubricant cost per year = 179 liters per year x PhP 36 per liter x (1.08) = PhP 6,956 per year.
The power consumption of smaller pumps and powered devices such as motorized chlorinators and ultraviolet lamps can be calculated from multiplying their power rating by the number of hours of annual operation. 3. Process materials cost Sometimes a project would involve buying the water from an outside utility and distributing it in the beneficiary community, so the price of this water will be a major operating cost item. For systems that will use process chemicals such as chlorine, its cost may be computed as follows
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Example: Computing process materials costs Scenario In the above example, it was determined that the water will be dosed with 1 mg chlorine using HTH, a chlorinating material that is 70-percent chlorine. HTH costs about PhP 800 per 50-kilo bag. How much will be its annual cost? Solution Annual liters of water to be treated = 100 lpcd x 100 people x 365 days per year x 1.2 = 3,650,000 liters per year. HTH needed per year = 3,650,000 liters water per year x 1 mg chlorine per liter / 1000 mg per gram / 1000 grams per kg = 3.65 kg HTH/year. Chlorinating materials cost per year = 3.65 kg HTH/year x PhP 800 / 50 kg = PhP 58 per year.
4. Displacement of water-vending livelihood Some projects may result in local water vending livelihoods becoming redundant. Some of these people if qualified may be hired as system staff, but not all of them can be so absorbed. In such cases, the project may have provisions for helping create an equivalent number of new livelihoods (e.g., planting and maintaining the source watersheds), with the cost of such mitigation to be included in the tariff. Example: Computing displacement of water vending livelihood Scenario A project will displace 10 water vendors, although on the average these people engage only in this livelihood 50 percent of their working time. How much will creating the equivalent alternative livelihoods for them cost on an annualized basis?
Solution Amount of livelihoods to be created = 10 vendors x 0.5 = 5 livelihoods. Annualized cost of creating these livelihoods = 5 livelihoods x PhP 3,125 per year = PhP 15,625 per year.
5. Environmental costs These include water protection costs, cost of treating and disposing of wastewater, stranded costs of abandoned previous water systems. a. Watershed protection costs. In the Philippines, on the average it takes two to five hectares of watershed to produce one liter per second of surface water and one liter per second of ground water supply. If the watershed of the sources of a proposed project is well defined and accessible to stewardship, it will be good practice for the beneficiary community to undertake this measure. The usual method is to plant trees or otherwise appropriate mixed-use vegetation, and guard them, enacting and enforcing the necessary land use ordinances.
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Another measure is to help in improving the sanitation and solid wastedisposal facilities and practices of communities dwelling in the watershed. These measures generate many other benefits accruing to the general society, but for practicability their expense may be charged to the prospective beneficiaries of the water. The cost of establishing a tree stand (on the average PhP 20,000 – 30,000 per hectare) can be included in the tariff. Example: Computing watershed protection costs Scenario A project will require one liter per second of water supply from a source. It has been determined that in the area, it takes two hectares to produce this much supply. What is the annualized cost of planting and protecting this watershed? Assume it takes PhP 20,000 to establish one hectare of forest and that the annual interest rate is 5 percent. Solution Cost of planting two hectares = 2 x PhP 20,000 per hectare = PhP 40,000. Annualized cost of this = PhP 40,000 x 0.05 = PhP 2,000 per year. A note on watershed reforestation: it is usually feasible to plant fast-growing tree species, which use up a lot of water, in areas in the country with a lot of rainfall (Sierra Madre, the Bicol peninsula and Catanduanes, eastern Visayas, and northern and eastern Mindanao). However, for the rest, native species are usually more appropriate. In small islands where rainfall and groundwater resources are much less, it is not advisable to plant extensive tree stands. Individual trees may however be planted for windbreaks, as food source and to control erosion.
b. Cost of treating and disposing of the wastewater to be generated by the project. A water supply project usually results in increased water supply to a community. However, every 100 liters of water used produces in turn 80 liters of wastewater. If the total amount of wastewater produced by a community is less than say five liters per square meter of community area, it can largely be treated and disposed of by existing onsite household wastewater facilities such as latrine wet pits, sullage pits or trenches and evapotranspiration mounds. Beyond this, additional wastewater treatment capacities must be increased to mitigate problems such as standing water in the streets and the release of raw sewage into the environment. There are various methods of treating wastewater. The cheapest ones, (leaching trench extensions and household scale anaerobic systems) cost only about 50 percent of the cost of water supply on a per-liter basis but are suited only in households where there is enough space to build the installation and the water table is at least one meter below the surface.
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The more expensive ones (sewerage with centralized treatment, sometimes with pumping and aeration) cost from 200–500 percent of that of the water supply, but these may be the only technologies feasible in heavily built-up, lowlying, flat-grade communities. This cost becomes a financial cost of the proposed water supply project and therefore eligible for inclusion in the tariff, only if it is the project that will build and operate the wastewater facilities. c. Stranded costs of abandoned previous water systems. A proposed water system may make the previous ones in the community redundant. When this happens, such systems fall into disuse. Some components may be dismantled for use in the new system, but the rest is abandoned. Example: Computing costs of abandoned water systems Scenario A proposed water supply project will make redundant four shallow well handpumps. Considering accumulated wear-and-tear and at present prices, the pumps have a present value of PhP 5,000 each, or PhP 20,000 for the total. Some of the piping, worth PhP 5000, can be used in the proposed system, but the rest of the system will have to be abandoned. What is the annualized cost of abandoning these pumps? Assume a real annual interest rate of 5 percent. Solution Value of infrastructure to be abandoned = PhP 20,000 – PhP 5000 = PhP 15,000. Annual opportunity cost of this amount = PhP 15,000 x 0.05 = PhP 750.
While this is not a financial cost, it should be included in the feasibility analysis of the project because the facilities represent abandoned social investment.
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Kahikukuk, Sulu potable water project
B. Undertaking related interventions Finally, implementers need to keep in mind that potable water supply systems should not be implemented as stand-alone projects. As sustainability measures, water project implementers should also consider going into sanitation and waste disposal, as well as watershed management. These areas have a strong influence, for better or for worse, on water supply. The lack of proper sewage and waste disposal can lead to contamination of water source and supply. Poor watershed management can make the water source dry up. Because water supports and connects many human activities, potable water supply provision should not end with the installation of facilities. Ensuring sustainable and adequate supply of water means taking care of more than the source, but the larger ecosystem and environment that nourishes it.
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KEY INFORMANTS FOR WATER WORKS! LUZON Taradungan Water System Association (TAWASA), Palawan Edison T. Lagrosa Reynaldo Nangit Ruben Rodriguez Marilyn Gonzales Emy Basaya Nelina L. Tabla
Barangay Captain, Taradungan President Vice President Secretary Treasurer Auditor
Palawan Center for Appropriate Rural Technology (PCART), Palawan Bobby Dioso Cyril Flores
Operations Supervisor Community Management Staff
Bulakin I Water and Sanitation System (BWSS), Dolores, Quezon Michael A. Cauyan Francisco Brinoza Josephine B. Penaloza Mildred B. Carabio Marcia B. Penaloza Adelia Benes Adorado Chumacera Andrew Jeprie Susan Felicita Elenorie B. Annes Amelia R. Alcanso Rorie Barcelona
General Manager Kagawad Barangay Secretary Finance Officer Bookkeeper Customer Service Storekeeper Dangca Meter Reader Utility Member Member Member
Irisan Community Environment and Multipurpose Cooperative, Irisan, Baguio City Ben Carbonel Cecilia Edralin Jaime V. Ongpin Rhoda Fe Buenavista Virgilio Orca, Jr.
Chairperson Board Member Foundation, Baguio City Ecological Enhancement Program Manager Consultant Engineer
Cainta Homeowners Water Service & Multipurpose Cooperative, Cainta, Rizal Alex Kimpo Andres Prevendido Robejel Coniendo Roselyn Loveras
Founding Manager of the Cooperative Pump Manager Bookkeeper Cashier
Balita Multi-purpose Cooperative, Marinduque Agripino Malapot Melan M. Mayorga
Member Member
list of key informants
Serlita P. Migol Juan M. Pilar
Member Member
MarinduCARE, Marinduque Chona Vega Colayco Herbert Monreal Nimfa F. Montiel
Executive Director, MarinduCARE Project Engineer, MarinduCARE Community Organizer, MarinduCARE
Center for Island Resource and Development Greg V. Padernal Rodrigo N. Masuliar
Executive Director Site Engineer
Mogpog Municipal Employees Multipurpose Cooperative, Marinduque Edgardo Fabrero Jerome Manguera Lloyd Manguera
Municipal Accountant Municipal Engineer Project Manager
Biga, Sta. Cruz, Marinduque Alfonso Fidelino Engr. Rustico R Constantino Galor Pe単a Godofredo I. Buenaventura Frederick P. Principe Jimmy Ricohermoso Driller Edilberto Sajer
Barangay Captain, Biga, Sta. Cruz Municipal Engineer Ex-Board of Director, Sta. Cruz Credit Cooperative CE-Aide CE-Aide Contractor Provincial Cooperative Development Specialist (CDA) for Marinduque and Romblon Residents of Maniwaya, Sta. Cruz
Suha/Matuyatuya, Torrijos, Marinduque/ Torrijos Municipal Employees Association (TORMEA) Ricardo P. Palma R. Deca単a Lauro V. Pe単aflor Francisco Estrella Justo A. Regis Meynardo A. Basco Emeterio F. Tabale単a Marlon Azares Ronan L. Regio Bernardo V. Par Baltazar P. Reginio III
Punong Barangay, Suha Barangay Kagawad Barangay Kagawad Barangay Kagawad Vice President, TORMEA Information Officer (former President), TORMEA Board of Director, TORMEA Board of Director, TORMEA Board of Director, TORMEA Municipal Engineer/Member, TORMEA Member, TORMEA
Malibago, Torrijos, Marinduque Conegunda R. Orbac Nenita M. Cruzado
Barangay Captain, Malibago, Torrijos Barangay Treasurer, Malibago, Torrijos
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Ramon Regis Salome S. Berdin
Manager, BAWASA Credit Cooperative/Brgy Kagawad Bookkeeper, Malibago, Torrijos
Boac, Marinduque Meynardo B. Solomon
Boac Municipal Mayor
VISAYAS Partnership and Access Center-Bohol/Feed the Children Foundation Maricor Burbos Lare Tumulak
Feed the Children Visayas Area Manager Provincial Coordinator, PAC-Bohol
PROCESS Joyce Bucha Aida Relator-Sumampong
Community Development Facilitator Community Development Facilitator
Minol Women’s Association (MWA) in Barangay Minol, Mabini Jessilita Espinosa Catalina P. Felicio Nelda V. Felecio Stella B. Bersano Ramona R. Soliano Faustina J. Cano Artemia O. Cano Elenita T. Melloria Maria F. Porongao Annie B. Felecio Concepcion Cano Conchita Tutor Jovencia T. Masinopa Juanita Olandria Lorenza B. Telece Lucena F. Salaum Pilar Amaquin Roberto Ayade Roberto G. Tutor Rosalina A. Demegillo
President Vice President Secretary Treasurer Collector Auditor Press Relation Officer Member, Board of Director Member, Board of Director Member Member Member Member Member Adviser Member Member Member Member Member
Panaghiusang Mag-uuma sa Cabangahan (PMC) in Cabangahan, San Miguel Abundio A. Nunez Alberto A. Boncales Bernardo Macabenta Norberto P. Bunao
Member Member Member Member
list of key informants
Pundok sa mga Mag-uuma sa Alegria Norte (PUMA) in Barangay Alegria Norte, Loay Elena Benatero Perlita Milo Antenogenes Gamil Bonifacio Aures Casiana Anito Eutopia Gaslang Ignacia Molej Nanie Bolong
Vice President Collector Member Member Member Member Member Member
Mangool Active Mothers’ Association (MAMA) in Barangay Mangool, Baclayon Salome Miculob Necitas Jayo Lelanie Ugay Honorata Iyog Rosalinda Jayo Gliceria Beray Alfredo Jayo Elpedia Iyog Aguida Hayo Felipe Hayo Gliceria Hayo
Chairperson Project Manager Secretary Treasurer Bookkeeper Audit Inventory Chair Member, Board of Director Member, Board of Director Member Member Member
MINDANAO Joint Water Committee, Barangays Taviran and Marques, Datu Odin Sinsuat, Maguindanao Edria Makalapin Mahaliden Diocolano Rahib “Senc” Macalapin Nhuky Dicolano Hja Normen Diocolano Balit Tasil Datuali Bangkas Gumbay Bangkas Taviran 2 Sanny Diocolano Kalim Guimalon Ermail Husain Sanimban Kalim Nuron-Nisa Rowena Puti
Barangay Kagawad Barangay Kagawad Secretary Treasurer Committee Secretary Member Member Member Member Member Member Member Member
Kadtabanga Foundation for Peace and Development Advocates, Inc. Hja Giobay Diocolano Makaledin P. Kido Abdulnasser Mulod Juhanga Bayan
Executive Director Board of Director, Kadtabanga Project Documentor Community Organizer
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Kusain Amino Oting Agting Khanappi “Sonny” Ayao
Community Organizer Community Organizer Operation Officer
Coalition of Social Development Organizations in South Cotabato/ Partnership and Access Center -Cotabato Maria Ena Olmedo Jimmy Unsoy
Provincial Coordinator Program Officer
PEACE AND EQUITY FOUNDATION Ricardo Torres, Jr. Associate Director National Office Allyn Lopez Regional Manager – Luzon Ofelia Rivamonte-Cardeno Regional Manager – Visayas Cristituto G. Bual Regional Manager – Mindanao Roberto Mina Senior Program Manager – Luzon Russell Herrera Senior Program Officer – Visayas Leonardo Valle Senior Program Officer – Mindanao Mercedita Coca Program Officer-Visayas Elbe Dagulpo Program Officer-Luzon Sostenes Genzola Development Associate, Luzon Edil Sajer Development Associate–Luzon Engr. Virgilio Orca Jr. Development Associate–Luzon Engr. Carmelo Gendrano Development Associate–Luzon Engr. Geoffer Gonzaga Development Associate–Visayas Apolonio Sambas Development Associate–Visayas Mico Canares Development Associate–Visayas Engr. Agripina Leonica Development Associate–Mindanao Engr. Roman Reinhardt Ladao Development Associate–Mindanao National government agencies Floremel Balbedina Fe Banluta Virgilio Gacusana Nenette Javier Luis Rongavilla Emy Ruales
Policy Department, NWRB Program Manager, WSSP, DILG Technical Assistant, DPWH Office Manager, PWWA Engineer III in charge of GIS, NWRB Head, Policy Department, NWRB
references
REFERENCES __________. (1978). Letter of instructions no. 683. (http://www.lwua.gov. ph/downloads/pdf ). __________. (Undated). Sources of water supply. (http://www.davaonorte.gov.ph/profile/sep_5_1_2.htm). ___________. (Undated). Ecological importance of groundwater. (http://www.denr.gov.ph/section-news). ___________. (Undated). Results: ongoing progress in the Philippines. (http://www.worldbank.org.ph/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/COUNTRIES/ EASTASIAPACIFICEXT/PHILIPPINESEXTN/O_contentMDK). Arcilla, C. (2004). Technical guideline module. Sourcebook for community upgrading, JSDF/World Bank-PHILSSA project. Quezon City: Partnership of Philippine Support Service Agencies. Austriaco, L. R. (1990). Mechanical properties. Course on ferrocement technology for the construction industry: Its applications and management. Bangkok, Thailand: International Ferrocement Information Center. Carmichael, SS. (Undated). Decision support system for the development of rural water schemes. South Africa: Water Research Commission. Dianderas, A. & Yepes, G. (1994). Financial indicators and overview of service rates. Water and Sanitation Division. (Unpublished). Ditcham, S. (undated). District metering: a means of addressing NRW. (http://www.lwua.gov.ph/tech_matters/district_metering.htm). Elazegui, D. D. (2001). Watering down the water problem: an institutional perspective. PIDS Policy Notes. Makati City: 2001-15. German Development Cooperation. (2004). Groundwater situation: Bohol. Quezon City, Philippines. German Development CooperationPhilippines. (Unpublished). Gardunio, H. et al. (Undated). Stakeholder participation in groundwater management. World Bank-GW-MATE Briefing Note Series. IRC International Water and Sanitation Centre. (2001). Keep it working: A field manual to support community management of rural water supplies. Netherlands: IRC Technical Paper Series. Leermakers, M. (1998). 25 steps to safe water and sanitation. Switzerland: Helvetas Publications, No.1. Local Water Utilities Administration. Provincial Water Utilities Act of 1973 (as amended). Quezon City, Philippines: Local Water Utilities Administration.
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McCommon, C. (1990). Community management of rural water supply and sanitation services. Washington, D.C: UNDP-World Bank Water and Sanitation Program. Moat, C. (2003). Making water work for villages. South Africa: Water Research Commission. Naaman, A. E. (Undated). Performance criteria for ferrocement. Chicago: University of Illinois: Department of Materials Engineering. National Anti-Poverty Commission-WASCO. (2005). Implementing guidelines on the president’s priority program on water. Quezon City, Philippines: Water and Sanitation Coordinating Office. National Community Water and Sanitation training Institute. (Undated). Background and overview of management of community water and sanitation training programme for local government training programme. South Africa: Water Research Commission. National Water Resources Board. (Undated). NWRB current fees and charges. Quezon City, Philippines: NWRB. National Water Resources Board. Water Code of the Philippines and the implementing rules and regulations. (Undated). Republic of the Philippines. Office of the President of the Philippines. Letter of instructions No.683. Establishing basic policies for the water supply sector. Peace and Equity Foundation. (2005). Creating access through partnerships: Report for 2005. Quezon City, Philippines: Peace and Equity Foundation. Peace and Equity Foundation. Training documentation on ferrocement technology construction. Brgy. Sirao, Cebu City, October 18-22, 2004. Philippines-Canada Local Government Support Program. (2003). Water and sanitation services for all. Pasig City: LGSP. Philippine Center for Water and Sanitation-International Training Network Foundation. (2001). Community organizing: Process guidebook. Quezon City, Philippines: Department of Interior and Local Government. Philippine Center for Water and Sanitation-International Training Network Foundation. (2001). Tubig sa ating buhay: Pangangasiwa ng spring water system. Quezon City: SZOPAD Social Fund. Philippine Water Works Association, Inc. (2001). Conference proceedings of the 10th international conference and exhibition on water resource management. The Marco Polo, Davao City: PWWA.
references
Robinson, A. (2003). Management models for small towns water supply. Washington, D.C.: World Bank Water and Sanitation Program. Sabado, M. (2005) Water, at last: helping two urban poor communities in metro manila gain direct access to potable water. Quezon City: Peace and Equity Foundation. (Unpublished). Schouten, T. & Moriarty, P. (2003). Community water, community management: From system to service in rural areas. London, UK: IRC International Water and Sanitation Centre. Srinivasan, L. (1990). Tools for community participation: a manual for training trainers in participatory techniques. New York, USA: PROWWESS/ UNDP Technical Series Involving Women in water and Sanitation. Surveys, Training, Research & Development Services, Inc. (2005): Manual of program operations. Quezon City: Peace and Equity Foundation. (Unpublished) Tumbaga, L. & Sabado, M. (2006). Infrastructure options in urban upgrading (Annex A). Upgrading communities: A guidebook on urban poor community renewal. Quezon City: Partnership of Philippine Support Service Agencies, Inc. pp A3-A8. Twelfth Congress of the Republic of the Philippines. (2004). An act providing for a comprehensive water quality management and for other purposes. Republic of the Philippines. Water and Sanitation Program-East Asia and the Pacific. (2004). Lessons learned from rural water supply projects in the Philippines. Identifying elements of sustainability. Jakarta, Indonesia: Water and Sanitation Program. Water and Sanitation Training Programme, Department of Interior and Local Government. (1995). Manual on simplified accounting systems and procedures for BWASA. Quezon City, Philippines: Fourth Country Programme for Children (CPC IV) in cooperation with the United Nations Children’s Fund. Water and Sanitation Training Programme, Department of Interior and Local Government. (Undated). Operation and maintenance guide for water supply and sanitation facilities. Quezon City: Department of Interior and Local Government. Water Code of the Philippines. (Undated). (http://www.lwua.gov.ph). Water Resources Center, University of San Carlos. (2000). (Unpublished). Operation manual for rainwater roof catchment system. Cebu City: Water Resources Center.
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Water Resources Center, University of San Carlos. (2000). A field manual on formation of rural waterworks and sanitation association (Level II-III). Cebu City: Water Resources Center. Water Supply and Sanitation Programme-East Asia and the Pacific. (2005). Philippines sanitation sourcebook and decision aid. Jakarta, Indonesia: A partnership of the Government of the Philippines, the Water and Sanitation Program-East Asia and the Pacific of the World Bank, the German Technical Cooperation Agency and the Government of Australia. Watt, S.B. (1978). Ferrocement water tanks and their construction. Intermediate Technology Publications Ltd. London. World Bank. (2000). Water resources management. Philippines environment monitor 2000. Washington DC: The World Bank, pp. 27-28. World Bank. (2005). Water supply and sanitation (Chapter 7). Philippines: Meeting Infrastructure Challenges, Washington DC: The World Bank, pp. 107-137.
list of pef and partners project documents
List of PEF & Partners Project Documents Background papers and organizational profile of the Water for the Baguio Dumpsite Community project. Barangay Alegria Norte, Loay, Bohol assessment on water project proposal and presentation report. Barangay Minol, Mabini, Bohol water project profile and background papers. Bulakin I, Dolores Quezon Water Works and Sanitation System organizational profile, project profile and related data. Cainta Homeowners Water Service and Multi-purpose Cooperative legal documents and organizational profile. Dolores Development Cooperative 2005 annual report. Jaime V. Ongpin Foundation, Inc. organizational profile. Marinduque water projects profile and background information of the sites. Marques-Taviran, Datu Odin Sinsuat, Maguindanao water spring development project profile and background papers. Saligang Batas ng Taradungan (Palawan) water system association. Sitio Mangool, Barangay San Isidro Baclayon background papers on the construction of water tank and pipeline installation. Other materials from PEF (loose sheets). Comparative cost of different types of tanks. Indicators for PEF-assisted water projects by Lyn N. Capistrano. Listings of approved proposals as of December 2005. Operations update as of August 31, 2006. Operations update as of December 30, 2006. Project proposal: Villafuerte initiative in enhancing water access & watershed, Villafuerte, Carmen, Bohol. Project proposal: Level II piped-water system development in sitios Lited and Centro, barangay Ilaya, Inabanga, Bohol. Project proposal writing: case data (checklist of information that should contain in the proposal). Water project monitoring indicators.
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