Building Integrated Agriculture (BIA) by liba lab

LSC 6140: Landscape Research Dissertation Reg.Number:090127919 Supervisor: N.Dunnett

“Building Integrated Agriculture: A qualitative comparative analysis of methods for commercial food production using buildings as an agricultural settlement.” MA2 in Landscape Architecture, University of Sheffield, 2010‐11

DISSERTATION SUBMISSION INFORMATION 2010/2011 Student Name (or number): . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Course (MLS, MA MLM) and Module Number: ................................................. ....... Advisor (supervisor): . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

Dissertation

Photos on the cover (from left to right):  

Gotham Greens Hydroponic rooftop Farm. [electronic print] Available at: < http://www.ecofriend.com/entry/brooklyn‐green‐rooftop‐greenhouse/>[Accessed 19 September 2011]. Foglia, L. (2009) Rooftop Farming on the Warehouses of North Brooklyn.[electronic print] Available at: < http://blog.cunysustainablecities.org/2009/07/rooftop‐farming‐on‐the‐warehouses‐of‐north‐ brooklyn>[Accessed 19 September 2011].

Acknowledgements I would like to thank my thesis supervisor Dr.Nigel Dunnett who, through his inspiring lectures during our master studies, broadened my perspectives as an architect and introduced me to the world of Ecological Design. A special thanks to Zoe Dunsiger, who has always been available for further advice, consultation and discussion regarding my thesis. Moreover, I would like to thank Mr. Dave Richards, an urban gardener enthusiast, who showed me around RISC’s Green Roof garden in Reading and helped me to understand the basics of cultivating food on Green Roofs. Finally, I would like to thank my family for the support, encouragement and guidance on the topic I chose for my research. Last but not least, I would like to thank the Bodossakis Foundation in Greece, for believing in my potential and granting me an important scholarship which helped me follow and complete my studies in Landscape Architecture at the University of Sheffield.

A B S T R A C T There is currently a growing interest in cultivating food in cities (Rowe, 2011): according to the United Nations the demand for food is expected to increase in the future as the global population living in urban centres will reach more than a billion by 2025 (United Nations, 2008 cited in Satteerthwaite et al. 2010:2809). Localisation of food production has emerged as “a widely accepted strategy to reduce food costs and to facilitate access to healthy food” (Lyson, 2004 cited in Corrigan 2011:1232). Food related strategies have become part of “sustainable built environment initiatives” (Komisar et al., 2009: 61) and agriculture, which was as far as architecture was concerned a remote field, is now seen as the next design revolution (Architectural Design, 2005). According to Graff (2009) and Despommier (2010 (b)), vertical farming may be the future of Urban Agriculture. Rowe (2011) further supports the view that horizontal surfaces, such as rooftops, are potential sites for food growing. Smit and Nasr (1992) argue that Building Integrated Agriculture (BIA) is an unexplored case and it has not been realised extensively so far; thus its success is yet to be confirmed. The paper will provide an overview of the BIA methods and it will investigate what it can be cultivated on rooftops and inside buildings. Furthermore, it will examine the productivity, the benefits and drawbacks of each method, with regard to the built, natural and human environment. Finally, it will highlight any issues that emerge regarding the implementation of each method, so as to assist future research in the field of Building Integrated Agriculture. The paper firstly sets the general framework for Urban Agriculture and then it focuses on the methods currently used for cultivating food on rooftops and inside buildings. The research uses a qualitative comparative analysis methodology based on case studies of already realised farming projects on buildings so as to further conclude which BIA method has the future potential for implementation in cities. The paper highlights that there is a variety of crops that can be cultivated on and inside buildings: from herbs to leafy vegetables. The most productive methods are Hydroponics and Vertical farming, however, soil‐ based practices (Green roof Agriculture and Containerised farming) have more benefits to offer. Finally, the research concludes that among all BIA practices, Green Roof agriculture is the most promising method, with 5

the highest potential for development and implementation for commercial food production in city centres, as it offers a wider range of benefits to our built, natural and human environment. References:

1. Architectural Design, (2005), Special issue on Food and the City, Franck K. (ed.) May, 75 (3) 2. Corrigan, M.P (2011) Growing what you eat: Developing community gardens in Baltimore, Maryland, Applied Geography, 31, 1232‐1241

3. Graff, G. (2009) A greener revolution: An argument for vertical farming, Plan Canada, 49(2): 49‐51 4. Komisar, J., Nasr J., Gorgolewski M., (2009) Designing for food and agriculture; Recent explorations at Ryerson University, Open House International, 34(2); 61‐70

5. Lyson, T.A (2004) Civic agriculture: Reconnecting farm, food, and community, Medford: Tufts University Press

6. Rowe, D.B., (2011) Green roofs as a means of pollution abatement, Environmental Pollution,159, 2100‐ 2110

7. Satterthwaite, D., MacGranaham, G. and Tacoli, C., (2010) Urbanization and its implications for food and farming. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, 365 (1554): 2809‐2820

8. Smit J. and Nasr J. (1992) Urban agriculture for sustainable cities; using wastes and idle land and water bodies as resources, Environment and Urbanization, 4, No 2, 141‐152

9. United Nations. 2008 World urbanization prospects: the 2007 revision,CD‐ROM edition. New York, NY: United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division Key words: Building Integrated Agriculture, rooftop farming, green roof agriculture, hydroponics, containerised farming, vertical farming

List of Tables Table 1: Types of Urban Agriculture (Bakratsa, 2011).......................................................................................... 13 Table 2: Methods of Food Growing on buildings (soil based methods) and inside buildings (water based methods) (Bakratsa, 2011).................................................................................................................................... 15 Table 3: Comparative analysis of BIA methods (Bakratsa, 2011)......................................................................... 50

List of Figures Fig.1: “Cross section of RISC’s Green Roof”......................................................................................................17 Fig.2:“Green Cones can be used to compost kitchen waste on RISC’s Green Roof”.........................................19 Fig.3:”Fencing made of coppiced hazel is used on RISC’s Green Roof as a windbreaker”.....................................20 Fig.4: “ Rainbarrells and waterbutts can be used in order to save water for irrigation of crops”.........................20 Fig.5:“A variety of containers that can be used for food growing purposes”........................................................22 Fig.6:“The Earth Box”.............................................................................................................................................23 Fig.7:” The Hydroponics cycle”...............................................................................................................................25 Fig.8: “The Aqua‐ponics cycle”...............................................................................................................................26 Fig.9: “The Aero‐ponics cycle”................................................................................................................................26 Fig.10:”The Vertical Farm‐Water System”.............................................................................................................30 Fig.11:”The Vertical Farm‐ Energy System”...........................................................................................................30 Fig.12: ” General overview of the plots in Eagle Street rooftop Farm”..................................................................36 Fig.13: ” General overview of the plots in Eagle Street rooftop Farm”..................................................................36 Fig.14:”Tasks that take place on the roof: watering”............................................................................................37 Fig.15:”Tasks that take place on the roof: planting”.............................................................................................37 Fig.16:”Helen Cameron inspects the vegetables growing on the roof of her restaurant”.....................................39 Fig.17:”General overview of the containerised farm above the restaurant”........................................................ 39 Fig.18: ”Access to the roof is made through an external staircase”......................................................................40 Fig.19: ”The planters on the roof”..........................................................................................................................40 Fig.20: ”General view of the Hydroponic Farm”....................................................................................................42 Fig.21:”Gotham Greens’ Hydroponic Farm on the roof of a two storey building in Brooklyn”..............................43 Fig.22: ”Gotham Greens’ vegetables on supermarket’s shelves”..........................................................................43 Fig.23: ”Nuvege Vertical Farm Exterior view in Kyoto, Japan”..............................................................................46 Fig.24: ”Indoor Vertical Farming in Nuvege”.........................................................................................................46 Fig.25:”Contamination Security measures in Nuvege”..........................................................................................47 8

C O N T E N T S 

I N T R O D U C T I O N ........................................................................................................................... 11

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L I T E R A T U R E R E V I E W

1.0 Urban Agriculture 1.1 Localisation of food…………………………………………………................................................................................ 12 1.2 Definition and main characteristics of Urban Agriculture……………………………………………………………………… 13 1.3 Types of Urban Agriculture …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 13 2.0 Building Integrated Agriculture 2.1 Methods of growing food in and on Buildings………………………………………………………………............................15 2.2 Rooftop Farming: Challenges and Requirements of growing food outdoors…………………............................15 3.0 Soil Based Systems 3.1 Method A: Green Roof Agriculture 3.1.1 Definition and Types of Green Roofs………………………………………………………………………………………………. 17 3.1.2 Food Production: What can we cultivate on a Green Roof.................................................................. 18 3.1.3 Requirements of Green Roof Agriculture............................................................................................. 18 3.1.4 Why choose a Green Roof for farming? Benefits of Green Roof Agriculture ………………………………….. 21 3.1.5 Reasons for not choosing a Green Roof: Drawbacks……………………………………………………………………….. 21 3.2 Method B: Containerised Farming 3.2.1: Definition and Types of Containerised Farming…………………………………………………………………………...... 22 3.2.2: Food Production: What can we cultivate in containers?..................................................................... 23 3.2.3 Requirements of Containerised Farming.............................................................................................. 23 3.2.4: Why choose containers? Benefits of Containerised Farming ……………………………............................... 23 3.2.5: Reasons for not choosing Containerised Farming: Drawbacks…......................................................... 24 4.0 Water based systems 4.1 Method C: Hydroponics 4.1.1: Definition and Types of Hydroponic Systems………………………………………………………………………………..... 25 9

4.1.2: Food Production: What can we cultivate with Hydroponics?............................................................... 26 4.1.3: Requirements of Hydroponics............................................................................................................... 27 4.1.4:Why choose Hydroponics?Benefits......................................................................................................... 27 4.1.5: Reasons for not choosing Hydroponics: Drawbacks............................................................................... 28 4.2 Vertical Farming 4.2.1 Definition and methods of Vertical Farming........................................................................................... 29 4.2.2 Food Production: What can we cultivate with Vertical Farming?........................................................... 31 4.2.3 Requirements of Vertical Farming........................................................................................................... 31 4.2.4 Why choose vertical farming? Benefits................................................................................................... 32 4.2.5 Reasons for not choosing vertical farming: Drawbacks........................................................................... 32 5.0 M E T H O D O L O G Y .................................................................................................................................... 34 6.0 C A S E S T U D Y A N A L Y S I S 6.1 Green Roof Agriculture............................................................................................................................. 36 6.2 Containerised Farming............................................................................................................................. 39 6.3 Hydroponics.............................................................................................................................................. 42 6.4 Vertical Farming........................................................................................................................................ 46 7.0 D I S C U S S I O N.......................................................................................................................................... 48 8.0 C O N C L U S I O N S....................................................................................................................................... 56 9.0 R E F E R E N C E S........................................................................................................................................... 58 10 P H O T O C R E D I T S ................................................................................................................................. 65

I N T R O D U C T I O N The research will provide an overview of the methods used for growing food on rooftops and inside buildings, a practice known as Building Integrated Agriculture (BIA). The research questions are: 1. What can we cultivate on and inside buildings? Which method is more productive? 2. What are the benefits and drawbacks of each BIA method with regard to the areas of: a) Built b) Natural and c) Human environment? 3. Which issues should future research focus on? To respond to the above questions, the objectives of the research are: 1.

To investigate the productivity of each BIA method and research about the selection of crops that they are cultivated on rooftops and inside buildings.

To investigate the benefits and drawbacks of each BIA method with regard to the: a)Built, b) Natural and c) Human Environment (in terms of social, health, financial and labour input issues)

To draw upon realised, commercial BIA projects as sources for further information regarding the productivity, the achievements (benefits) and challenges (drawbacks) of each method.

To evaluate the methods through a qualitative comparative analysis, to conclude which method has further potential for future implementation and to identify issues for further research.

The importance of the research lies in the fact that in the near future, “urban citizens of the world will be in need of controlling and producing food for themselves, due to potential environmental, economic and social challenges that will have an impact on food production” (United Nations, 2008 cited in Satteerthwaite et al. 2010:2809). Due to lack of space in cities, alternative spaces may have to be used such as rooftops or entire buildings. The question would then be how food‐growing can be accomplished on buildings and which method must be followed so as to achieve food production using a building as an agricultural setting (Viljoen and Bohn, 2010, In Gorgolewski, Komisar and Nasr, 2011). Knowledge of the benefits and drawbacks of all BIA methods will assist technology and research to proceed in the implementation of BIA practices. 11

L I T E R A T U R E R E V I E W

1.0 URBAN AGRICULTURE 1.1. Localisation of food In the 20th century, the ease of transportation of food has allowed us the growing of products at large distances and gave us the opportunity to have access to vegetables and fruits all year round (Jones, 2005). In the 21st century, however, this food‐system model is questioned, because it is based on intensive agriculture practices (Kennedy et al., 2004) which have lead to a variety of issues (Sonnino, 2009): a) Environmental problems: pollution caused by the intense use of pesticides and fertilisers and exploitation of natural resources b) Social and Economical problems: weakening of local communities caused by the establishment of international market chains that replaced the local food markets; increase in food prices; excessive and unsustainable consumerism and finally c) Health issues, caused by the loss of the nutritional value of food or in some cases by contaminated products (Grewal S.S and Grewal S.P, 2011). Localisation of food “has emerged as an approach to reduce food costs and to facilitate access to healthy food” (Lyson, 2004 cited in Corrigan 2011:1232) and it is currently “receiving increasing attention as the potential solution to the globalized food system” (Kremer and DeLiberty, 2011:1252 ). Local food systems offer a number of benefits: “Economy support, food self‐sufficiency, reduction of food transportations1, creation of links between producers and consumers” (Foundation for Local Food Initiatives, 2002; Hines, 2000; Lang, 1999 in Nichol, 2003) and also opportunities for community involvement (Gorgolewski, Komisar and Nasr, 2011). Localisation of food can be applied at different scales, “from the household to the neighbourhood and from the scale of a region to a country” (Sonnino, 2009). Urban Agriculture practices, such as allotments and community gardens, have been introduced as systems for localisation of food.

and thus reduction of the environmental pollution.

1.2 Definition and main characteristics of Urban Agriculture “An industry located within (intra‐urban) or on the fringe (peri‐urban) of an Urban Centre, which grows or raises, processes and distributes a diversity of food and non‐food products, reusing mainly human and material resources, products and services found in and around that urban area, and in turn supplying human and material resources, products and services largely to that urban area". Mougeot, 1999 in Cityfarmer, 2000 Urban Agriculture (UA) is generally defined as “a practice related to the production of crop and livestock goods within cities” (Zezza and Tasciotti, 2010: 265). According to the definition of Mougeot (1999), the main characteristics of UA are: a) the productive use of land, b) the use of urban wastes and any other cheap resources available c) the use of human resources (referring to employment), d) the creation of links between people and e) the creation of opportunities for education and recreation. It is evident that UA is more than just a farming practice: it is a complex system within which food growing is just one of its many aspects. As UA is mainly practised in countries of the developing world, it is mostly related to lower income families and it is associated with low‐tech practices. However, De Zeeuw et al. (2011) support that high‐tech practices can also be encompassed as components of intensive UA schemes: large scale farms, green houses and hydroponic systems can contribute to the general concept of UA, if used as a part of larger sustainable urban schemes. 1.3 Types of Urban Agriculture

Table 1: Types of Urban Agriculture (Bakratsa, 2011) Urban Agriculture may take many scales and forms; from backyard vegetable‐growing to large scale farming (Drechsel and Dongus, 2010; Grewal S. S. and Grewal S. P., 2011). Depending on the distance of the agricultural plot from the urban centre, there can be distinguished three (3) main types of Urban Agriculture (Viljoen et al., 2005): 1) Peri‐Urban Agriculture2 2)City‐Urban Agriculture3 and 3)Homestead Agriculture‐Farming which generally concerns the cultivation of food at home and it is the most common type of Urban Agriculture in the developing countries (De Zeeuw et al., 2011). Astee and Kishnani (2010) have introduced the term “Building Integrated Agriculture” (BIA) to further describe Urban Farming practices that take place on areas that do not have direct access to land, such as interiors of buildings or rooftops and balconies. Building Integrated Agriculture is a relatively new practice and a more detailed definition was not possible to be found. However, it successfully distinguishes the Homestead farming on backyards from the food cultivation on surfaces of buildings (Table 1) that do not connect directly to land.

i.e Brownfield and Greenfield land: these are potential sites for Urban Farming, provided that the soil is renewed and is

suitable for cultivation. 3

i.e allotments and community gardens: these are smaller plots of land that are usually found in the edges of urban sites.

They can either be rented by local authorities to individuals (allotments) or they may be managed by local communities for recreation and educational purposes (community gardens) (Nairn and Vitiello, 2009).

2.0 BUILDING INTEGRATED AGRICULTURE (BIA) 2.1 Methods of growing food on and inside Buildings Table 2: Methods of Food Growing on buildings (soil based methods) and inside buildings (water based methods) (Bakratsa, 2011)

The case studies will later reveal two main categories of BIA: 1. Outdoor, soil‐based agriculture (Green Roofs and containers) and 2.indoor, water‐based agriculture (hydro‐aqua‐aero‐ponics and vertical farming). For each method, different factors influence the choice of species that can be cultivated, determine the productivity and the project’s success; thus each method will be examined separately in the following chapters. 2.2 Rooftop Farming: Challenges and requirements of growing food outdoors.

There are three main reasons why rooftops should be used for farming activities: A) Lack of available land: As cities grow bigger, the impermeable areas 4expand and the available land for food growing in cities is disappearing (Rosenzweig et al., 2006 in Rowe, 2011). Surfaces of buildings, such as rooftops, are ideal because they “provide the opportunity to replace their impermeable surface with vegetation” (Dunnett and Kingsbury, 2004 in Rowe, 2011:2102) B) Better control and monitoring: Roofs are free from vandalism risks, as opposed to allotments on ground that suffer from thefts and intrusions of unwanted groups of people (Nowak, 2004) and finally C) Potential for creative development: According to Nowak (2004), roofs can be designed to integrate a diverse range of activities (educational, recreational and agricultural) giving thus the opportunity to urban citizens to experiment, to enjoy and to produce (Wiley and Sons Ltd., 2007). The greatest challenge of rooftop farming is the sever weather: “High temperatures, light intensities and wind speeds” (Dunnett and Kingsbury, 2004 in Oberndorfer et al., 2007: 825) are crucial to plant survival and growth (Oberndorfer et al., 2007). There are certain plant species that can thrive on roofs, the selection of which results from experimental trials in different rooftop conditions (Heinze 1985, Boivin et al. 2001, Kohler 2003, Durhman et al. 2004, Monterusso et al. 2005 in Oberndorfer et al., 2007) . As far as the roof requirements are concerned, the main issues to examine are : A) Roof Size (Kail Vinish, 2010): for commercial productions, the size of the roof needs to be 350m2 minimum. The area needs to provide sufficient space for the planting beds, for the farming equipment and for the supplies (soil, compost and mulch), B) Roof Accessibility (Rowe, 2011): the roof must be easily accessible and must also provide a water source5 for the irrigation of the beds (Kail Vinish, 2010), C) Roof Load Capacity (Murray,2010): the roof must be strong enough to hold the extra weight of; the people that work on the roof; the farming equipment; the crops (Germain et al., 2008); the saturated soil and the potential snow load during winter periods (Kail Vinish, 2010) and finally D) Safety and Authorization (Kail Vinish, 2010): authorisation and safety measures are essential (Kail Vinish, 2010). 4

streets, parking lots, pavements etc.

Rain water capture systems, rain barrels and water butts can also be used for supplementary irrigation.

3.0 SOIL BASED SYSTEMS 3.1 METHOD A: Green Roofs 3.1.1 Definition and Types of Green Roof Systems Green Roofs are “layers of vegetation installed on top of buildings” (Dunnett and Clayden, 2007: 53). They are also known as “eco‐roofs” or “living roofs” (Velazquez, 2005; Williams et al., 2010) and they are divided into two main types: a) extensive and b) intensive (Williams et al., 2010). Both types consist of the “same basic build up series of layers and only differ in the depth of the growing medium and thus in the type of vegetation that they support” (Dunnett and Clayden, 2007: 56‐57). A commercial Green Roof consists of five layers which aim to create the suitable environment for plants to grow, protecting at the same time the fabric of the building (British Council for Offices, 2003): 1. The base layer: a water and root‐proof layer. 2. The drainage layer: the layer that removes excess water from the roof. 3. The filter mat: a geotextile material placed between the previous two layers to prevent substrate from compressing the drainage layer. 4. The growing medium: usually soil “which needs to be lightweight” (Dunnett and Clayden, 2007: 58) and finally, 5. The vegetation layer: the layer that provides the “living elements of the roof” (Dunnett and Clayden, 2007: 58). Fig.1: Cross section of the roof garden (Reading International Solidarity Centre, 2011) Layers from top to bottom:

bark mulch (5cm).

newspaper layer

soil (30cm).

filter fleece.

drainage board.

insulation board (5cm).

felt layers with copper foil.

Strawboard panels (6cm).

Structural beams, (18cm height)

Only intensive Green Roofs can be used for agricultural purposes as they are the ones to support “a great additional load and a deep layer of growing medium of 20 cm minimum” (Dunnett and Kingsbury, 2004 in Oberndorfer et al., 2007: 825). The maintenance required for a Green Roof farming project would be similar to the maintenance of a plot at a ground level. 3.1.2 Food Production: What can we cultivate on a Green Roof? Practitioners agree that there is a clear need for more research on “the kind of food crops that grow on Green Roofs”, since the factors to consider are complex (MacDonald, 2008). Oberndorfer et al. (2007) support that in theory almost anything can be grown on a Green Roof with adequate irrigation and sufficient soil depth. Kortright (2001) supports that crops that grow in container gardens, are suitable for Green Roofs as well, since growing conditions are similar. According to Foss et.al (2011), crop selection depends on the depth of the growing medium. A Green Roof with less than 15cm of soil can support the growing of herbs and strawberries (Foss et al., 2011:33). A Green Roof with a 15‐30cm depth can support the growing of leafy vegetables. Finally, a greater variety of deep‐ rooted vegetables can grow successfully in a depth of more than 30cm of soil (Foss et al., 2011:33). 3.1.3

Requirements of Green Roof Agriculture

According to MacDonald (2008) the main requirements for Green Roof Agriculture are: A) Sufficient soil depth and good soil composition :the growing medium must be high in organic matter and in nutrients and lightweight at the same time, B) Sufficient Sun exposure and wind protection of the roof and finally C) Sufficient irrigation, because crops are water demanding. To be more specific: A) Sufficient Soil Depth and good soil composition Soil depth and soil composition are important factors for a successful crop. As mentioned above, for a greater variety of crops, a depth of 30cm is essential.

As far as soil composition is concerned: According to Kortright (2011), application of compost is the best way to maximize the depth/weight ratio because compost is lightweight and rich in nutrients at the same time (Kortright, 2001). Compost can be mixed with other lightweight materials so as to add depth and aerate the soil bed. Generally, the soil mixture must be lightweight, without chemical fertilizers and must ensure “good water retention and drainage” (Germain et al., 2008; Rowe et al., 2006 in Williams et al., 2010). Although there are many commercial varieties of compost available, the case studies will later reveal that compost can also be made of organic kitchen waste and can be mixed with the soil. The p.H of the soil must be between 6.5‐6.8 (Waldbaum, 2008).

Fig.2: Green Cones can be used to compost kitchen waste (photo from the RISC’s Roof Garden, Bakratsa, 2011).

B) Sufficient sun exposure and wind protection Sun and wind exposure are important factors to examine (Earth Pledge Green Roofs Initiative, 2005): light is a fundamental need for plants and when it comes to farming, long hours of daily sunlight are needed. Temperature is also a crucial factor, as rooftops are exposed to sun and plants need to withstand high temperatures (Kortright, 2001). One way to protect the crop from high temperatures is by increasing the soil depth (Kortright, 2001). Wind is another critical factor as it can destroy crops and it is stronger at rooftop heights than at ground level. Wind breakers such as vegetal walls and canvases can reduce the exposure of the plants to strong winds on the rooftop (Germain et al., 2008). Alternative ways to protect the crop from sun and wind are through the

use of shade clothes and mulches and through frequent watering (Germain et al., 2008). Finally, the orientation of the plot is of high importance both for sun and wind exposure.

Fig.3: Fencing made of coppiced hazel is used at the RISC’s roof garden as a wind breaker (Bakratsa, 2011)

C) Sufficient irrigation An effective and inexpensive irrigation system is essential to have on the Green Roof Farm (Germain et al., 2008). Besides drip irrigation, other methods and devices can be used, such as rain barrels or water butts: these are available on the market but the can also be made of reused, cheap materials (Dunnett and Clayden, 2007: 77). Water harvested from surrounding roofs or processed grey water can also be used for irrigation (Williams et al., 2010): this can reduce the volume of water use and can relieve the sewage system (Waldbaum, 2008). In order for the Green Roof system to perform correctly, the roof will need to follow certain guidance for better drainage; According to Velazquez (2005), a slope between 1.5 %and 2% to allow for natural drainage properties is preferred, as opposed to flat roofs present drainage issues . Fig.4: Rain barrels and water butts can be used in order to reduce the volume of water needed for irrigation (Crocus, 2011)

3.1.4

Why choose a Green Roof for farming? Benefits of Green Roof Agriculture

The main reasons for choosing a Green Roof for farming would firstly be because of the benefits that a Green Roof generally offers to our built and natural environment (British Council for Offices, 2003). As far as the building structure is concerned; a) Green Roofs provide extra insulation (thermal and acoustic) to the entire structure. They reduce the noise levels6 (Van Renterghem and Botteldooren, 2009 in Williams et al., 2010) as well as the energy for (winter) heating and (summer) cooling (Sailor, 2008 in Williams et al., 2010), b) they increase the life of the roof (Kosareo and Ries, 2007 in Williams et al., 2010;Rowe,2011; Velazquez, 2005) by protecting it from weather conditions and finally c) they improve the view of the built environment (Velazquez, 2005). As far as the natural environment is concerned, Green Roofs: a) add value to biodiversity by providing habitat, shelter and feeding opportunities (British Council for Offices, 2003), b) they improve the microclimate and reduce the urban heat island effect by lowering the temperatures around the building (Lowitt and Peck, 2008: Velazquez, 2005) and c) they improve the storm water quality (Rowe, 2011) which would normally be dismissed into groundwater7. Moreover, Green roof farming can provide recreational and educational opportunities to people (Foss et al., 2011); a farming plot on the rooftop of a school for example, may be used as an outdoor classroom within a walking distance, which students can use for educational activities. 3.1.5

Reasons for not choosing a Green Roof: Drawbacks

The growing substrate and the vegetation layer “absorb sound waves to a greater degree than a hard surface” (Rowe, 2011).

With a Green Roof system, the storm water is filtered and cooled through evapotranspiration (Mentens et al. 2005,

Moran et al.2005 in Oberndorfer et al., 2007; Velazquez, 2005).

Literature review has not revealed any issues or weaknesses regarding Green Roof installation on buildings. With the exception of the set up costs which may seem high8, Green Roofs generally offer many benefits that can compensate for the set up expenses in the long run (Velazquez, 2005) 3.2 METHOD B; Containerised Farming 3.2.1 Definition and Types of Containerised Farming “A micro‐model of farming where a family unit or household is producing fruits and vegetables in special containers for personal consumption to help improve the income, health and well‐being of its family members”. Deveza and Holmer (2002:1) Cultivating food in containers is not a new practice: from ancient times until today it is considered to be the most popular method to grow vegetables for household purposes (Gorgolewski, Komisar and Nasr,2011).There are many different types of containers that can be used for food growing: a) rigid containers (clay pots, wooden boxes, reused vessels and tyres) b) raised beds and c) soft planters (grow bags and wading pools) (Gorgolewski, Komisar and Nasr,2011) (Fig.5).

Fig.5: Types of containers that can be used for commercial farming: containers, raised beds and soft planters (photo sourced from Gorgolewski, Komisar and Nasr, 2011).

Cost would generally start from $200 per m2 and higher (Dunnett and Kingsbury, 2004 in Oberndorfer et al., 2007:825).

For commercial containerised farming, some professional companies have designed units for low maintenance practices: The EarthBox, (fig.6.), used for community and educational gardens, includes “a container, a screen, a water filling tube, reversible mulch covers, lightweight soil and a fertilizer” and it can be placed in a variety of layouts on the ground (Gorgolewski, Komisar and Nasr,2011). Other examples of container farming include “built sub‐irrigation planters with built‐in reservoirs” to facilitate water flow (Gorgolewski, Komisar and Nasr,2011:175) or raised beds of different depths and sizes. Fig.6: “The Earth box” (Cultivating Conscience, 2011)

3.2.2 Food production: What can we cultivate in containers? There is a great variety of crops that grow in containers, depending on the depth of the container: Hanging planters and raised beds can accommodate deep‐rooted plants such as tomatoes, cucumbers, peppers, eggplants, leeks, lettuce and spinach (Gorgolewski, Komisar and Nasr,2011). Grow bags can accommodate root crops and vegetables and if bigger in size they can even support fruit growing (Gorgolewski, Komisar and Nasr,2011). 3.2.3 Requirements of Containerised Farming Similar to Green Roof Agriculture, the basic requirements for containerised farming are: a) sufficient soil depth and good soil composition, b) irrigation and water drainage provision, c) roof load capacity control d) south to west orientation (important for issues like sunlight exposure and wind protection) and finally e) selection of containers (Gorgolewski, Komisar and Nasr,2011).

3.2.4 Why choose Containerised farming? Benefits According to Jobs (Technology for the poor, 2011), the main benefits of containerised farming are: a) Easy establishment and customization on any horizontal surface of the building regardless of the size of the space available, b) Low cost in terms of installation and maintenance and finally c) Soil and water conservation , as containers prevent excessive watering and soil run offs. As far as the environmental benefits are concerned, these are very similar to the benefits of Green Roof agriculture, “when the coverage of the roofspace is substantial” (Foss et al., 2011:19).Moreover, containerised farming can promote “social benefits, through education, public health and community development” (Foss et al., 2011:19). 3.2.5 Reasons for not choosing Containerised farming: Drawbacks Literature review has not revealed any issues regarding containerised farming: it is considered to be the most common and low cost method of growing food on rooftops (Erdmann, 2011).

4.0 WATER BASED SYSTEMS 4.1 Hydroponics 4.1.1 Definition and Types of Hydroponic systems “The system in which the plant is grown to produce flowers or fruits that are harvested for sale and in which all nutrients are supplied to the plant through the irrigation water, with the growing substrate being soilless”. (Devries, 2003 in Jones, 2005:2) As the above definition describes, Hydroponics 9 is a system in which crops are cultivated in a mixture of water and nutrients, instead of soil. The methods of the nutrient solution delivery vary: a) they can be added directly in the water (Hydroponics) (Fig.7) or b) they can be provided by fish waste water (Aqua‐ponics) (Fig.8) or c) they can be provided “by means of an aerosol mist bathing the plants’ roots” (Aero‐ponics) (Fig.9) (Nickols, 2002 in Jones, 2005:142). Regardless of the method of delivery of the nutrient solution, all the above systems “are proven to be successful, resulting in good plant growth” and they are mainly used for intensive commercial plant production (Jones, 2005:4). Fig.7: The Hydroponics Cycle (Indoor garden online, 2009): “The simplest hydroponic system consists of containers in which plants sit directly in a nutrient solution shallow enough to allow the roots access to oxygen. In commercial systems, nutrient concentrations, water supply and the recycling of the

From “the Greek words hydro (i.e water) and ponos (i.e labor)” (Roberto, 2000).Similar terms are “aqua‐culture, hydro‐

culture and soilless culture” (Jones, 2005:381).

nutrient solution are monitored and controlled automatically”(Gorgolewski, Komisar and Nasr, 2011:206) Fig.8: The Aqua‐ponics Cycle (PRweb, 2010): (1) Fish grown for consumption (usually tilapia and perch) are fed food and they produce waste. (2) Bacteria and worms convert waste to fertilizer for plants. (3) Plants absorb the essential nutrients for their growth and filter the water that returns to fish.

Fig.9: The Aero‐ponics cycle (Biocontrols, 2006): “A micro‐computer controller releases a spray mixture of water, nutrients and growth hormones into the enclosed air environment of the growing box” (Biocontrols, 2006).

Hydroponic systems can be found indoors or outdoors and they vary “in terms of design and operational characteristics” (Jones, 2005:169). They are usually found in greenhouses (Jones, 2005) and they are thought to be “high‐ cost and complex systems to operate” (Jones, 2005:169). 4.1.2 Food Production: What can we cultivate with Hydroponics? There is a wide range of fruits and vegetables that are grown successfully with Hydroponics. According to Jones (2005:169), the crops chosen for hydroponic production are mainly of “high value cash” (such as tomatoes and fruits) or “specialty crops” (such as herbs and vegetables). Peppers, cucumbers, lettuce, beans and corns, as well as strawberries and bananas are some examples of crops that have grown successfully in hydroponic systems (Jones, 2005). Despite their success, Foss et al. (2011) support that “deep‐root vegetables 26

cannot be grown hydroponically, because water cannot expand in the same way that soil does” (Foss et al., 2011:33). Many plant varieties require further research and trials, in order to be able to conclude what it can be cultivated successfully with hydroponics (Jones, 2005). 4.1.3 Requirements of Hydroponics As far as commercial food production is concerned, a hydroponic system requires: a) a levelled area (preferably covered with concrete and not soil) (Jones, 2005), b) south to west orientation c) a greenhouse with a strong structure to withstand snow and winds (Jones, 2005), d) storage tanks, e) a computer programmed system and f) sensors to control the growing conditions (Jones, 2005). As far as the procedure of Hydroponics is concerned, Jones (2005) supports that some main points to take into consideration for successful farming are: i)

Attention to details and good growing skills (Jones, 2005:4): Hydroponics requires excellent trained staff, as a potential mistake would have a negative impact on the entire production (Jones, 2005).

ii) Excellent water quality: Hydroponics requires good quality of pure water, free of any substances and elements that can affect negatively the plant growth. Domestic water or rainwater collected from the greenhouse is unsuitable because it can cause contamination to the crops, “due to presence of inorganic and organic substances” (Jones, 2005: 72). To ensure that the water is free from unwanted organisms, filtering and monitoring should take place frequently (Jones, 2005). iii) Nutrient Solution Composition and Temperature: this is one of the most important issues, as it can result in a potential failure of the crop production. The challenges are: a) “to maintain a constant level of the nutrients which would be neither deficient nor excessive” (Jones, 2005:16) and b) to keep the temperature on the same level as the ambient air temperature10,so that plant roots absorb the sufficient amount of nutrients. iv) Surface and Depth of Containers: “Contact and intermingling of the plants’ roots must be avoided” (Jones, 2005: 118) and plants must be widely spaced to allow sufficient light to penetrate their canopy. 4.1.4 Why choose Hydroponics for farming? Benefits According to Jensen (Jensen, 1981 in Jones, 2005:4), the main benefits of Hydroponics are: 10

between 24‐30 C, (Jones, 2005: 105).

Adaptation to any site and climatic conditions: Due to the fact that Hydroponics takes place in a controlled environment, it can be installed in any climate.

ii) Low Labour Input Requirements: Hydroponics is an automated system that operates with high technology and it can be controlled with computers and sensors: “the PH of the water, the lighting exposure, the temperature, the humidity, the composition of air in the greenhouse, the nutrient feeding and irrigation can all be controlled and regulated accordingly” (Wigriarajah, 1995 in Jones, 2005:306). The grower mainly needs to control the composition of the nutrient solution and then observe the plants’ growth. As hydroponics takes place in water, it is considered to be a “cleaner” system as opposed to soil‐based methods. iii) High productivity (Roberto, 2000): Hydroponics produces “the same yield as soil gardens in 1/5 of the space” (Foss et al., 2011:21). Plant roots are exposed to almost the full volume of the nutrient solution and competition is reduced to the minimum helping, thus, the yield to increase. iv) Organic food production: any disease can be treated in an organic way, without the use of chemicals. v) Extension of season of the crop (Schoenstein, 2001 in Jones, 2005): compared to other growing techniques, Hydroponics gives the farmer the opportunity to extend the crop to a longer season. vi) Less water requirements (Gorgolewski, Komisar and Nasr, 2011:206): Hydroponics uses almost “90% less water than the soil‐based methods” (Foss et al., 2011:21). 4.1.5 Reasons for not choosing Hydroponics: Drawbacks “A forced flowering process technique for growing plants in which the time required to bring crops to production is shortened by controlling all aspects of plants’ life so that the shortest amount of time is taken to produce the largest amount of product, in the least amount of space, with a minimal amount of work”. (Wright , 2004:1) Hydroponics is generally believed to be a highly productive, free of problems system, yet Jensen supports (Jensen, 1997 in Jones, 2005) that it is a difficult system to sustain. The main drawbacks of Hydroponics are: i)

High set up cost: the development of greenhouses as well as the implementation of the essential technological systems in order to control the growing ambient of hydroponics require high capital (Jones, 2005). 28

ii) High energy inputs: According to Foss et al. (2011:21) Hydroponics relies on “consistent energy inputs , which adds to operational costs and environmental impacts”. iii) Vulnerability to diseases: “Diseases spread quickly to all beds on the same nutrient tank through the water11 and affect all crops directly” (Jones, 2005:5) The entire system is vulnerable (Van Patten, 2008), thus high control is essential: Containers, devices and working surfaces must be clean from dust. Even small possible openings “must be sealed sufficiently so as to prevent insects from intruding” (Jones, 2005:279). iv) Technical expertise: Hydroponics needs well trained farmers, because water‐based methods do not forgive mistakes: this corresponds with “Hydroponics not being as strong an educational or community builder”, as opposed to soil based agriculture (Foss et al., 2011:21). v) No ecosystem restoration: Foss et al., (2011:21) support that Hydroponics is a “clinical process”. It does not reinforce biodiversity neither it connects humans with the natural environment, as it is intended mainly for commercial production and profit. However, renewable energy systems (photovoltaic systems, solar panels etc.) can be integrated in Hydroponics, “minimizing its negative aspects” regarding the environment (Foss et al., 2011:21) 4.2 VERTICAL FARMING 4.2.1

Definition and Methods of Vertical Farming.

Despommier describes Vertical farming as “stacked up green houses on top of each other” (Despommier, 2010 (b):23). The concept of Vertical farming is based on the creation of zero energy buildings, where inputs and outputs are balanced (Vertical Farm, 2011): freshwater is recycled and energy resources are conserved in order to facilitate the food production that takes place indoors (Fig.10 and Fig.11, following page). According to Despommier, Vertical farming is seen as a stable system that can ensure achievable results, despite its high technological and financial demands (Despommier, 2010 (b)).As far as crop production is concerned, vertical farms can be achieved through hydroponic, aqua‐ponic and aeroponic methods (Despommier, 2010 (b)). 11

Plants in Hydroponics are fed by a common water supply which could help diseases spread rapidly.

Fig.10: The Vertical Farm‐Water System (Dan Albert/Weber Thompson in Despommier, 2010 (b):146‐ 147) 1.

rainwater collection

cistern

purification system

potable water

grey‐black water

on‐site wastematter treatment

output water to wetland system

rainwater for urban farm

on site infiltration

10. nutrient supply for growing systems 11. hydroponic, aero‐ponic systems

Fig.11: The Vertical Farm‐Energy System (Dan Albert/Weber Thompson in Despommier, 2010:146‐147) 1.

Summer sun

Winter sun

Reflected light

Thermal stack

North side‐cool thermal mass

Warm air vented from greenhouse

Radiant floor

Ground source loop

Operable vents

10. Photovoltaic panel

4.2.2

Food Production: What can we cultivate with vertical farming?

Despommier supports that all crops that grow in greenhouses, can easily grow in vertical farming as well, as long as the root system is held at the right temperature (Despommier, 2010 (b) ). Crops mainly include leafy and rooted vegetables, but Despommier supports that “The technology of hydroponics allows almost any kind of plant to be grown in the Vertical farm, from root crops like radishes and potatoes to fruits such as melons and even cereals“(The Economist, 2010). Besides plants, animal species can be commercialised in Vertical farms: from freshwater fish (tilapia, trout,) shrimps and mussels to chicken and pigs (Despommier, 2010 (b)). 4.2.3

Requirements of Vertical Farming

“Bringing a vertical farm into reality, even a prototype, will require many elements to come together to permit its maximum expression and make it a highly efficient food producing method” (Despommier, 2010 (b):182) Vertical farming demands: 1. Availability of space: Despommier supports that the vertical farm needs to “consist of a complex of buildings constructed in close proximity with each other” in order to be successful (Despommier, 2010 (b):179) : a) a building for food growing b) a control centre for monitoring c) a nursery for seeds selection and germination: d) a quality control laboratory to monitor food safety and document the quality of each crop, e) a building for the vertical farm workforce f) an eco‐educational centre for the public and ideally g) a green market and a restaurant. 2. The excellent design of a building that will keep out pests and diseases (Despommier, 2010 (b): 169): The building must have “double lock entry doorways” and be as sealed as possible, 3. Application of new technologies to get the right conditions for the crops to grow: these include computerised systems that control the light, the temperature and humidity inside the building. Ventilation and water purification systems are also essential. 31

4.2.4

Why choose Vertical Farming? Benefits

Despommier (2010 (b):145) supports that Vertical farming has a range of advantages: i)

Year round crop production.

ii) No weather‐related crop failures: the system is controllable, which reduces the possibility of diseases that can damage the crops (Despommier, 2010(b):148). iii) Organic Production (Despommier, 2010 (b):161): no chemical pesticides, herbicides or fertilizers are needed, as “the system is protected from outside intruders”. iv) Environment friendly System: Vertical farming “recycles black and grey water and it adds energy back to the urban grid” (Despommier, 2010(b):145). v) Low irrigation costs: Vertical farming uses 70‐95 % less water, compared to conventional agriculture. Ideally, vertical farms can be used as “water regenerating facilities, where grey water is restored to drinking water quality and is then used for aquaculture or for crop growing”(Despommier, 2010 (b):29).

vi) It creates job opportunities: Vertical farming will require the employment of people from a variety of backgrounds, from farm‐managers to biologists, educators and farmers (Vertical Farm,2011). 4.2.5

Reasons for not choosing Vertical Farming: Drawbacks

“When planning the vertical farm, architects and engineers must be driven by this critical concept, since the vertical farm will be built to satisfy the needs of the crops and not necessarily ours (..) The materials employed in the construction of the building will be dictated by the needs of the plants and secondarily by the needs of those who work inside the vertical farm”. (Despommier, 2010:181‐184) The Vertical farm project supports that "The Vertical Farm must be efficient‐ cheap to construct and safe to operate” (The Vertical Farm, 2011). Proefrock and Green(2009), support that the idea of vertical farms may

seem appealing, “but when it comes down to practicalities, constructing buildings for food growing purposes makes no sense”. Despommier (2010 (b) ) supports that existing buildings may not be able to support maximum yield to farm indoors. The main reason is the insufficient lighting (Despommier, 2010 (a) ). Even if Vertical farms are made of glass in order to use natural sunlight for the plants, additional artificial lighting will be needed, “to enable year round production” (The Economist, 2010). As a result, the cost “of powering artificial lights can make Vertical farming prohibitively expensive” (The Economist, 2010). Besides high electricity costs, Vertical farming demands space. New building developments need to be constructed, “designed with plants in mind “ (Despommier, 2010 (b): 181). Additional drawbacks of vertical farming are: i)

High Set up Cost: Vertical farms need new technologies and thus a high financial capital.

ii) High Control and Management of the conditions inside the farm: Despommier supports that the greatest challenge is “to best manage temperature, humidity and security inside the farm” (Despommier, 2010 (b): 184). In terms of security, the farm must be sterilised and the staff will need to wear disposable uniforms as well as hair coverings. Finally, an annual routine series of “laboratory tests” is essential in order “to avoid risk of contamination of the crop due to human pathogens” (Despommier, 2010 (b): 169). iii) Human Un‐friendly: Despommier claims that “Conditions inside the building must favour maximum crop yields while creating a tolerable condition for humans” (Despommier, 2010 (b): 184). It is clear that vertical farming is not designed for humans, who will be required to tolerate the conditions inside the farm and not indulge in the process of food growing, as opposed to previous BIA methods. 33

5.0 M E T H O D O L O G Y The paper uses a systematic, critical review of research and precedents on BIA methods. The first part of the study aims to establish a broad contextual overview of the methods currently used for commercial food production. Key points for research regard to: a) the selection of crops, b) the productivity of each method and finally c) the benefits and drawbacks of each method. Articles and publications were searched from September 2010 to October 2011.As far as academic sources are concerned; the search engines used are Scopus, Proquest, Jstor and Google scholar, using the keywords: green roof farming, container farming, hydroponics, urban farming and vertical farming. It needs to be stressed that there are not sufficient academic sources available (i.e. peer reviewed papers) which are directly related to the topic of Building Integrated Agriculture (BIA), as it is a rather new field‐ not extensively explored. As far as Green Roof farming is concerned, much of the information is sourced from: grey literature documents (MA dissertations), academic articles, books and trade journals. In order to gain further knowledge about Green Roof agriculture, I visited the RISC’s Green Roof garden in Reading: the field trip took place in the summer of 2011 and helped me to understand the basics of rooftop farming. This visit has not been included as a case study for the purposes of this paper, as it did not concern a commercial farming project. However, photographic material from this visit is used to support the literature review on Green Roof agriculture. There is a plethora of books on the topic of Containerised Farming and Hydroponics: the majority is related to D.I.Y guides with technical details. Dickson Despommier is regarded as the “progenitor of the idea of Vertical farming” (The Economist, 2010): his articles, book and website are my main sources of information for this topic. Finally, the book “Carrot City: Creating places for Urban Agriculture” (by Gorgolewski, Komisar and Nasr, The Monacelli Press: 2011) is a valuable guide for a general introduction to BIA practices. The second part of the study focuses on evidence based case studies of five realised projects of farming inside and on surfaces of buildings. The case study method was the appropriate way of gaining information about commercial food production in BIA practices because it provided an in‐depth description of realised projects, examining the achievements and the challenges that each project encountered. All information collected from these five realised projects is integrated with the results of the literature review in a form of a table (Table 3), which is used to complete the comparative analysis of BIA methods, to conclude which method has further potential for implementation in cities and to identify where future research should focus on. 34

There are quite a few realised farming projects on surfaces of buildings, both in countries of the developing and the developed world, that show the range of forms that this practice can get: from low maintenance, cheap systems to cost effective, high‐maintenance projects. Information about the case studies chosen in this paper is sourced from websites such as “City Farmer News” which has been a useful tool to obtain information regarding realised examples of BIA projects. As all case studies refer to commercial farming projects, further knowledge and details are obtained by each project’s official website. All case studies are selected in the basis of the following criteria: 

Relevance to advanced farming operations, with food production being approached as an intensive, agricultural practice and not as an experimental, household activity.



Availability of information regarding the research questions of the study: a) selection of crops and productivity b) achievements‐ benefits and c) challenges‐drawbacks.

It needs to be stressed that, as far as crop production is concerned, the parameters/conditions of each case study differ. They may all concern commercial food production in urban centres, yet they are established in different countries of the world, with different climatic conditions ( from the USA to Japan) and they occupy different size spaces (Nuvege farm in Japan uses 5300sq.m for vertical growing, whereas Eagle Street’s Green Roof occupies only 557sq, m of space).In the future, it will be very interesting to set up an experiment of all these methods, setting the same conditions and parameters for the projects (space size, geographical location) so as to examine and come to safe conclusions regarding their productivity. Finally, the research did not raise any issues of ethics as all information is sourced from published books, articles and websites. The field trip to Reading did not require ethical approval as the visit took place in an “open day” that the centre organised to introduce the Green Roof concept to the residents of Reading.

6.0 C A S E S T U D Y A N A L Y S I S

6.1 G R E E N R O O F A G R I C U L T U R E 6.1.1 Eagle Street Rooftop Farm, Brooklyn Keywords: commercial production, partnership, volunteering, education, organic food, open to public.

Fig.12 and Fig.13: General overview of the plots in Eagle Street Rooftop Farm. (photos by Nyerges S. In Gorgolewski, M., Komisar, J. and Nasr, J.(2011). Carrot City. Creating places for Urban Agriculture. United States: The Monacelli Press)

Designer: A collaboration between Ben Flanner and Annie Novak. Size: 557 sq. meters. Height above ground level : 15m Year of completion: 2008 Construction Costs: 60.000 $ for design and installation (NTDTV,2009) (financed by Broadway Stages). Funded by: Broadway Stages ( for the green roof installation ) (Gorgolewski, Komisar and Nasr, 2011) Yield: around 30 tons of vegetables and fruits per year (Urban Farm Online, 2011) Who is involved: A head farmer with a team of trained interns, apprentices, staff from Growing Chefs, agriculturalists and educators (Gorgolewski, Komisar and Nasr, 2011) Aim‐Purpose: To provide high production crops for restaurants and market sales. Future Aim: To reduce the cost and introduce more farms in the City.

Fig.14 and Fig.15: Tasks that take place on the roof (watering and planting)

(photo by Nyerges S. In Gorgolewski, M., Komisar, J. and Nasr, J.(2011). Carrot City. Creating places for Urban Agriculture. United States: The Monacelli Press)

Plant selection‐crops: 

Corn, salad greens, herbs, nasturtiums, peppers, radish, tomato, aubergine, zucchinis, green onions, lettuce, cabbage, eggplant, peas and beans. The most successful crops are: tomatoes, hot peppers, sage and squash (Eagle Street Rooftop Farm, 2010).

Activities that take place (Eagle Street Rooftop Farm, 2010): 

Farming of fruits and vegetables.



Honey production and Chicken Keeping (Yelp, 2004).



A community supported agriculture program (CSA) (includes composting programs in cooperation with local restaurants of the area) (Eagle Street Rooftop Farm, 2010).



Onsite farm market on Sundays.



Farm‐based educational and volunteer programs (workshops for children and adults about composting and cooking and food growing).

Achievements‐ Benefits: 

Provides produce to local restaurants and citizens (Eagle Street Rooftop Farm, 2010).



Reduction in cooling costs for the building below because the captured rainwater from the roof cools the warehouse (Eagle Street Rooftop Farm, 2010). 37



Reduction in storm water run off (Eagle Street Rooftop Farm, 2010).

Keys to Success: 

Bee hiving: The apiary helps pollinate and spread the crops, besides the honey production (Eagle Street Rooftop Farm, 2010).



Lightweight soil: a mixture of compost, rock particulates and shale (Eagle Street Rooftop Farm, 2010) that retains water and allows for air circulation.



Earthworms: bought and mixed into soil to help it aerate (Eagle Street Rooftop Farm, 2010).



North‐South orientated planting beds (Eagle Street Rooftop Farm, 2010) that benefit from day‐long sun exposure.



Management : Involves a group of people from volunteers and the owners, to trained interns and Urban Farming Apprentices (Eagle Street Rooftop Farm, 2010). Main management tasks take place during the growing season, when volunteers visit every week for harvesting and composting (Eagle Street Rooftop Farm, 2010).

Challenges‐ Drawbacks: 

Installation Process: Soil had to be transferred three floors up to be placed on the roof. This task was done over the course of a single day, with the use of a crane and “super‐sacks” (Eagle Street Rooftop Farm, 2010).



Crop Selection: In the first season, the farm was growing more than 30 types of crops which later on had to be reduced. A narrower crop list was then introduced, including only the plants that were proven to be successful in growing on the rooftop (Eagle Street Rooftop Farm, 2010).



Irrigation: initially irrigation was provided via black plastic drip lines using city tap water. This caused issues, as “the root systems of the crops were incodusive with drip watering (esp. carrots, radishes, micro greens”).Currently the farm relies on hand watering via a hose for seedlings and transplants and on rainwater on established plants.

6.2 C O N T A I N E R I S E D A G R I C U L T U R E 6.2.1 Uncommon Ground Restaurant, Chicago Keywords: commercial, containers, eco‐living, beehives, restaurant farming

Fig 16: “Helen Cameron inspects the veggies growing on the roof of her restaurant” (photo by Stewart S., Sun Times) Fig. 17: General overview of the farm on the roof of the restaurant (photo by Cameron M., In Gorgolewski, M., Komisar, J. and Nasr, J.(2011). Carrot City. Creating places for Urban Agriculture. United States: The Monacelli Press)

Designer: a collaboration between M. and H. Cameron (clients) and P.Moser (Architect) Size: 232 sq.m (Uncommon Ground, 2010) of which 60sq.m are covered with planters (Gorgolewski, Komisar and Nasr, 2011) . Height above ground level: 6m (City Farmer News, 2008). Year of completion: 2007 Construction Costs: $150.000 (City Farmer News, 2008). Yield: not available Who is involved: not available Aim‐Purpose: To provide the restaurant of the ground floor with locally produced food without the use of any pesticides, herbicides, hormones or genetically modified ingredients (Uncommon Ground, 2010). Future Aim: Not available 39

Fig. 18: Overview of the farm on the roof of the restaurant (photo by Cameron M., In Gorgolewski, M., Komisar, J. and Nasr, J.(2011). Carrot City. Creating places for Urban Agriculture. United States: The Monacelli Press) Fig. 19: The planters on the roof (photo by Cameron M., In Gorgolewski, M., Komisar, J. and Nasr, J.(2011). Carrot City. Creating places for Urban Agriculture. United States: The Monacelli Press)

Plant selection‐crops: 

Sweet and hot peppers, eggplants, tomatoes, cucumbers, lettuce, radish, beets, spinach, fennel, garlic, edamame, beans, okra, shallots, herbs and flowers (Gorgolewski, Komisar and Nasr, 2011) .

Activities that take place: 

Farming



Educational activities for volunteers and schools (City Farmer News, 2008).



Recycling programs and community events (Uncommon Ground, 2010).



Bee hiving: 4 beehives are installed on the southern part of the garden and produce annually 18kg of honey, which is used for the restaurant needs(Uncommon Ground, 2010).



Private tours for the public (City Farmer News, 2008) as well as summer camps for educational purposes.

Achievements‐ Benefits: 

Organic Food Production: The roof was certified as an organic farm in 2008 by Midwest Organic Services Association (MOSA) (Uncommon Ground, 2010).



Promotion of the concept of eco‐living: installation of five(5) solar thermal panels (which cover up to 70 percent of the restaurants water), use of locally harvested wood, purchased equipment from local 40

sources and use of local craftsmen, workers and artists for interior design, use of recycled materials and eco friendly cleaning supplies (Uncommon Ground, 2010) are only some of the steps of the Uncommon Ground to promote ecological design and living. 

Relation development with local farmers (Uncommon Ground, 2010)

Keys to success: 

Involvement: The project was realised with the help of community volunteers and the restaurant’s employees) (Uncommon Ground, 2010).



Composting: All kitchen waste from the restaurant is composted and reused for gardening purposes (Uncommon Ground, 2010).



Materials Selection : long lasting materials ( steel and cedar )are used for the planters to provide durability, ease of use and maximization of food production (Uncommon Ground, 2010).



Planters Construction and design: Planter boxes have been built in a variety of different heights, to allow flexibility in growing. All boxes are on casters, allowing different rearrangements of the garden’s layout if needed, and they include support structure capability for plants such as tomatoes, cucumbers, beans and peas (Uncommon Ground, 2010).



Use of Earth boxes: Earth boxes reduce the water evaporation rate of the soil and keep it saturated (Gorgolewski, Komisar and Nasr, 2011), allowing thus plants to grow to their full potential (Gorgolewski, Komisar and Nasr, 2011) .

Challenges‐ Drawbacks: 

Re‐support and Re‐construction of the building: The existing building required additional reinforcement (Gorgolewski, Komisar and Nasr, 2011) .



Farm Installation: 6 tons of soil (City Farmer News, 2008) were transported on the roof.



Crop Selection: The owner claims that experimenting with the crops will be needed so as to confirm what can grow best in rooftop conditions. He will then readjust the restaurant’s needs and menu (City Farmer News, 2008).



Irrigation: For the irrigation of the boxes, plumbing was brought to the roof. It was essential that all planter boxes would be connected to a digitally programmable irrigation system so that the risk of excessive water or drought would be avoided. This added further financial requirements to the project. 41

6.3 H Y D R O P O N I C S 6.3.1 Gotham Green, Greenpoint, Brooklyn Keywords: hydroponic farm, commercial, high tech farming, controlled environment agriculture

Fig. 20: General view of the hydroponic farm, (Gotham Greens, 2011)

Designer: The Founders of the Farm (Viraj Puri, Eric Haley and Jennifer Nelkin). Size: 1400 sq. metres Height above ground level: On the roof of a former two‐story building. Year of completion: 2008 Construction Costs: Around $2 million for the greenhouse construction (Collins, G., 2011)

Funded by: The founders of the farm (Eckel, S., 2011)

Yield: 100 tons a year (Gotham Greens, 2011).

Who is involved: 25 people that propagate hand‐pick and hand‐pack the produce (Collins, G. 2011).

Fig.21: Gotham Greens hydroponic farm on the roof of a two storey building in Brooklyn (The Green Point Gazette, 2008)

Fig. 22: Gotham Greens vegetables on supermarket shelves (Tedblog, 2011)

Aim‐Purpose: 

“To create a local farm that would offer New York chefs and retailers the freshest and highest quality culinary ingredients, year‐round, at competitive prices” (Gotham Greens, 2011).

Future Aim: 

To build other rooftop greenhouses all over the city, which will grow more diverse crops (Eckel, S., 2011).

Plant selection‐crops: 

Butterhead lettuce, red leaf lettuce, tropicana green leaf lettuce, Gourmet Lettuce, medley, basil (Sposato J., 2011), arugula, bok choy and Swiss chard (Eckel, S., 2011).

Activities that take place: 

Farming



Research: A part of the project is dedicated to research (funded by the New York State Energy Research Development Authority) regarding energy efficiency methods of hydroponic food cultivation. Monitoring and collection of data take place in order to check and compare the carbon impact and the energy use of Hydroponics (Eckel, S., 2011).

Achievements‐Benefits: 

High production and popular demand in the local supermarkets.



Natural pest Controls through the introduction of parasitic wasps, lacewings and ladybugs (Collins, 2011)



Water Recycling: Only 700 gallons used per day12 (Collins,2011).Irrigation water is captured and reused (Eckel, S., 2011) Rainwater is also gathered from a giant cistern (Schwartz, A., 2011).

Keys to success: 

Controlled Environment Agriculture13: it provides the best control possible of the environment in the greenhouse and creates the most suitable conditions for the growth of plants offering thus very high productivity and efficiency (TedBlog, 2011). The system consists of a) sensors installed inside the greenhouse which measure the temperature, light, humidity and oxygen b) a central computer control system which adjusts the conditions in the greenhouse based to the readings of the sensors14 and c) a rooftop weather station that monitors wind, rain, temperature, humidity, carbon dioxide and light intensity15.



Proximity to the City: The farm is within distance from the city centre, it avoids the long‐distance and the refrigerated food transport16 (Eckel, S., 2011)



Experienced Staff: Selection of people with the right technological, financial and business know‐how (GothamGreens, 2011) has contributed to the project’s overall success.



Social entrepreneurship: Involvement of a team of people with a diversity of skills that can cooperate with each other (GothamGreens, 2011).

a 10th of the amount of water needed in conventional farming (Collins,2011)

“a combination of horticultural and engineering techniques, which can be well adapted to the built environment (TedBlog,

2011) 14

“when temperature rises, fans and vents are deployed. If it is very sunny a shade curtain opens and in case of rain the

vents close automatically (TedBlog, 2011). 15

This serves to regulate irrigation pumps, greenhouse vents, exhaust fans, gable shutters and shade curtains.(Collins. 2011)

This helps to reduce carbon emissions and air pollution.



Trials: To decide which greens to grow, the team surveyed their customers and relied on their experience of what would grow well. Then, they conducted variety trials with the five vegetables they decided and finally settled on one that would do well in the system.(Sposato J., 2011)

Challenges‐ Drawbacks: 

Energy demanding to achieve the right conditions for the crops. However, the farm is designed to be as energy efficient as possible; For cooling, the greenhouse relies mostly on natural ventilation and also on fans and for heating, a 59 kilowatt array solar energy system is installed on the roof, which feeds a part of the facilities electrical needs (TedBlog, 2011). A radiant water system will be installed in the future, so as to heat the greenhouse through water instead of through air.



Establishment costs: According to the owners, the set up costs are high, but they expect to save energy costs in the long run (TedBlog, 2011).

6.4 V E R T I C A L F A R M I N G 6.4.1 Nuvege, Kyoto, Japan Keywords: highly controlled farming environment, indoor farming

Fig.23: Nuvege Farm Exterior view in Kyoto, Japan (Nuvege, 2011) Fig. 24 : Indoor Farming in Nuvege (Nuvege, 2011)

Size: 5300 sq. meters of vertical growing space (Cho, 2011) Year of completion:2006 Construction Costs: not available Funded by: Green Green Earth Inc. Yield: 6 million lettuces per year Employees: Not known Aim‐Purpose: Commercial Lettuce production. Future Aim: Establishment of branch operations in Asia and the United States. 46

Fig.25: Contamination Security measures in Nuvege (Nuvege, 2011)

Plant Selection‐Crops: 

a range of lettuce varieties (Frill, Moco, Silk, Pleat, Wasabi, Ruttkora and Detroit lettuce)

Activities that take place: 

Farming

Achievements‐ Benefits: 

High quality, Bacteria Free and healthier products: all products are organic and pesticide free.



Increased yield: this is achieved through a “lighting network that increases vegetable growth by equalizing light emissions which advance photosynthesis through increased levels of carbon dioxide” (Nuvege, 2011).



Year round Crop production



Water Saving: it demands 70‐90 % less water than conventional farming.



Local production: products reach the market in a day, offering thus to customers the luxury to eat them fresh



Popular Demand: the company sells its products to Subway Chain Markets, Disneyland and the United States Army (Nuvege, 2011).

Keys to success: 

Fully protected environment, unaffected by weather: food growing takes place indoors, in a building sealed and protected from the outside environment.

Challenges: Not available

7.0 D I S C U S S I O N SELECTION OF CROPS The literature review and the case studies show that there is a variety of crops that grow on rooftops and inside buildings: Green roof farming has allowed the farmers of Eagle Street rooftop farm to grow salad greens and vegetables. The owners of the Uncommon Ground Containerised Farm grow herbs, vegetables and flowers in their containers and provide their products to the restaurant’s kitchen on the ground floor. Gotham Greens’ Hydroponic farm produces an impressive yield of leafy vegetables, aromatic salad greens and herbs whereas Nuvege Vertical farm in Japan provides lettuces to the local supermarkets. Leafy vegetables, salad greens and herbs seem to thrive in BIA conditions, whether grown in soil or in water. All case studies agree that the selection of crops needs further tests and trials on roofs and inside buildings in order to be able to conclude which crop varieties perform best in BIA conditions. For example, none of the above projects grows fruits, with the exception of strawberries that grow on Eagle Street’s rooftop farm. Fruit trees have greater irrigation demands than vegetables (Germain et al., 2008): this will create further challenges for BIA, in terms of building load capacity and labour input, which future research will need to examine. PRODUCTIVITY As far as productivity is concerned, it is possible to infer that Vertical Farming and Hydroponics in greenhouses (practices that take place indoors and are unaffected by weather conditions) are highly productive systems that provide year round, high value cash, organic crops: 6 million lettuces per year for Nuvege Vertical Farm and 100 tons of vegetables for Gotham Greens’ Hydroponic Farm are the proof. Green Roof Agriculture and Containerised Farming (practices that take place outdoors and their productivity depends on weather conditions) are also successful, though their annual yield is lower: 30 tons of vegetable crops per year for Eagle Street Rooftop farm and just a sufficient food production for Uncommon Ground’s Containerised farm to cover the needs of its restaurant. In soil‐based methods, productivity is increased through the implementation of techniques such as compost making and mulching or through involving other living organisms in the process (earthworms, bees and humans). In water‐based methods, on the other hand, productivity is regulated through automated procedures. 48

As previously said, it needs to be stressed that all case studies in this paper refer to practices that occupy different sizes of space: Nuvege farm in Japan uses 5300sq.m. for Vertical growing, whereas Eagle Street’s Green Roof occupies only 557sq.m. of space. Besides, they are established in different countries of the world, in different climatic conditions: thus their annual yield is expected to vary. Further study on the topic of productivity of BIA is therefore recommended: it will be very useful in the future to set up an experiment in order to test the productivity of all these methods, setting the same conditions and parameters for the projects (space size, geographical location). The second question in this research regarded to the benefits that each BIA method offers to the areas of a) Built, b) Natural and c) Human environment. Table 3 (next page) provides analytical information on this topic, it gives general overview of all BIA methods and it aims to categorise information sourced from the literature review and case studies. To be more specific: GREEN ROOF AGRICULTURE: Green Roof Agriculture offers a range of benefits. As far as the Built environment is concerned, it provides thermal and acoustic insulation to the building structure, it improves the microclimate and it extends the life of the roof, while “softening” the view of the city (Livingroofs, 2011). As far as the Natural environment is concerned, it creates an ecosystem in which all living organisms contribute to the natural renewal of nutrients of the growing medium: for example, in Eagle Street farm the soil quality is enhanced by the help of earthworms while bees from the apiary pollinate the crops. Therefore, biodiversity is enhanced. It is interesting to note the benefits that Green Roof Agriculture offers to people (Human Environment). From a Social perspective, it offers a variety of activities (educational and recreational) that take place along with farming. It also motivates people to take part in the farming process (community involvement). Community involvement is a very important benefit of Green Roof Agriculture, because it can strengthen the relations between the members of a group (Ohmer et. al.,2009) by offering them the opportunity to cooperate in order to achieve a common goal. Moreover, community involvement can be beneficial for the project itself: In Eagle Street farm, for example, it contributed to the project’s overall success. Volunteers, interns and the employers of the rooftop farm cooperated for the overall management of the project and helped for the farm’s maintenance. 49

As far as Health benefits are concerned, it is widely known that home gardening is used as a “tool to alleviate physical and mental disabilities” (Shieh et al., 2008: 23). With this in mind, Green Roof farming can also “aid people’s mental and physical health” through their connection with the soil and observation of nature (Raske, 2010). In terms of financial benefits, farming on Green Roofs can reduce i) the heating and cooling costs of the building structure, ii) the drainage costs and finally iii) the roof protection costs “through the reuse of secondary aggregates”(Livingroofs, 2011). In terms of set up costs, as the case studies showed, Green Roof agriculture is less expensive, compared to water‐based practices ($1070 per sq.m for the set up of Eagle street Green roof farm as opposed to $1428 per sq.m for the establishment of Gotham Greens hydroponic greenhouse). Green roof farming can further limit down the set up costs by making use of recycled materials: for example, materials found on site can be used for the construction of the windbreakers or the rain collectors etc. A great challenge of Green roof farming is the irrigation cost, which according to the literature review can be reduced by storing water in rain barrels. Finally, in terms of labour input, Green roof Agriculture is an intensive practice which requires a team of people to undertake tasks on a regular basis (Eagle Street farm case study). An advantage, however, is that it does not demand experienced or professionally trained staff, as opposed to water‐based farming methods which require farmers with an excellent knowledge of the farming techniques. CONTAINERISED FARMING: Similar to Green Roof Agriculture, Containerised farming offers a range of benefits. As far as the Built environment is concerned, neither the literature review, nor the case studies mention any benefits regarding the protection of the building structure. In terms of aesthetics, the case study of Uncommon Ground shows that design and farming can be compatible and that aesthetically pleasing design solutions can be achieved, even with containers. The benefits to the Natural and Human environment are equivalent to Green Roof agriculture with the exception of the set up costs that are generally the lowest of all BIA methods: only $646 per sq.m are spent for the establishment of Uncommon Ground’s container farm. 52

HYDROPONICS: Hydroponics is an interesting case in which crop yield is at its maximum, yet the range of benefits that it offers are limited. As far as the Built environment is concerned, the existing literature does not provide information regarding the impacts that the construction of greenhouses has on buildings and on the microclimate. In terms of aesthetics, greenhouses do not constitute an aesthetic building element, thus their contribution in improving a city’s skyline is argued. Architects and urban planners will have an important role in evaluating the potential of Hydroponics as systems that can be incorporated into the built environment. As far as the Natural environment is concerned, Hydroponics does not interact with the outdoor environment. As Roberto supports, the success of Hydroponics relies on “the ideal growing conditions of a sterile environment” (Roberto, 2000:8).The entire system is based on controlled environment agriculture, with sensors and computers established inside the greenhouse and does not rely on the performance of an ecosystem for the crop production. As far as the Human environment is concerned: The role of humans in Hydroponics is to control the growing conditions and not to assist in the system. Thus, farmers involved in Hydroponics must be well trained and skilled in order to contribute in the procedure. As the literature review revealed, failure due to mistakes can damage the crop: this can probably explain the lack of community involvement and integration of uses (in Gotham Greens for example, only farming and research activities take place). In terms of financial benefits: hydroponic systems produce high yields and prevent loses of nutrients, but demand higher investments, since they rely on the implementation of high technology in order to create the ideal growing conditions for the crops. As previously mentioned, Gotham Greens, required $1428 per sq. meter for the establishment of their system‐ a very high investment compared to the investments of Green Roof agriculture and containerised farming. The energy costs for the heating and cooling of the greenhouse and for the entire building structure are not mentioned in the literature or in the case study of Gotham Greens: this is another issue that research should examine in the future. Finally, Labour input is lower in Hydroponics, as all tasks are automated. However, experienced and highly skilled staff is more than essential. 53

VERTICAL FARMING: An issue that emerges from the case studies and the literature review is that the majority of books and articles praise the idea of vertical farming and of constructing new buildings in order to grow food in cities. They do not further question the impact that vertical farming may have on the built environment. Nelkin and Caplow (2008) stress the fact that urbanization as well as financial costs of delivering power and water are increasing. It seems thus logical to question how much space there is actually available in cities to construct new building complexes and how much of natural resources are available in order for vertical farming to become a reality. Another issue that arises is the disconnection of people from nature. Barker (2007) supports that the lack of connection of societies to nature is a well recognised problem and steps are needed to be taken .With this in mind, it would be rational to question the possibility of using the remaining free space of cities to erect buildings as opposed to creating additional green spaces. As far as the natural environment is concerned, on the one hand, the concept of vertical farming supports the creation of zero energy buildings. On the other hand, this needs further research in order to become a reality: Despommier also admits this when he claims that “Vertical farms are likely to be experimental projects”. Besides, nature is not integrating with the growing process of plants in vertical farms: it is all about technology inside buildings, thus ecosystem creation is absent. As far as the Human environment is concerned, vertical farming does not encourage integration of uses, unless additional buildings are constructed next to the farms, that can accommodate educational or recreational activities. Community involvement is an impossible task: the conditions inside the building do not allow the involvement of non trained staff. Moreover, in order to prevent contamination, measurements are strict: all equipment must be disinfected and the staff must wear uniforms. One issue that emerges from the case study of Nuvege farm is linked to the impact of vertical farms to human health: a practice that is created only for maximum plant growth purposes, is it likely to provide a suitable environment to the people that will be, for example, exposed to artificial light or to limited natural light? Largo‐Wight (2011) supports that natural light plays an important health focus. Grimaldi et. al (2008) further support that shortage of exposure to daylight is associated with mental ill‐being. More research is needed in the above field in order to investigate the impact that vertical farming would have to people’s well‐being. In terms of financial benefits, vertical farming produces an optimum annual yield, however, set up costs are estimated as the highest of all four BIA methods This is of no wonder if one thinks of the high technology 54

that needs to be implemented in order to create the ideal growing conditions for the crops indoors. A final issue that emerges from Vertical farming is whether humans should rely completely on technology for the production of their food, and what the financial loss would be in case technology fails‐ even for simple external reasons such as electricity shortage. 55

8.0 C O N C L U S I O N S

From the above, it is possible to conclude that there is a variety of crops that grow on rooftops and inside buildings: from herbs to salad greens and leafy vegetables. Water based practices (Hydroponics and Vertical farming) provide high annual yield of high cash value, specialty crops. Soil based practices (Green Roof agriculture and Containerised farming) provide satisfactory yields, but crops are always subject to potential failure due to weather conditions. Literature review and case studies agree that further research and trials are needed for all methods in order to clarify which crops thrive in BIA conditions. Soil‐based methods have more benefits to offer over water‐based farming methods: they form an ecosystem in which all organisms interact with their physical environment, providing opportunities to people for recreation, education and connection with nature. They assist in making them feel a part of a community through their involvement in the project, they allow them to make mistakes and learn, to experiment and to improve their physical and mental health. In terms of aesthetics, Green Roofs and containerised farming improve the views of the built environment. At the same time, Green Roofs offer the benefit of insulating the building, reducing its energy costs ‐ a benefit that containerised farming does not offer. Although both systems demand higher labour input compared to water‐based methods, they allow the involvement of inexperienced people in the project: volunteers and trainees can contribute and help to achieve a successful result. On the other hand, water‐based systems have the capacity to produce higher yields , excluding however, people and the environment from the overall procedure: people only facilitate the production through the computerised control of the growing conditions and they are not further involved in the farming process. Hydroponics and vertical farming are more demanding in terms of set up costs, which according to the literature review may be compensated in the long run. Although they are completely unaffected by weather conditions, failure can also exist due to human mistakes, for example due to contamination of water which can damage the crop. In terms of aesthetics none of these two methods contributes aesthetically in the built environment. Vertical farming needs extra space in the urban grid, as new building structures will need to be erected: this is an important issue to investigate, because lack of space is already a current issue in cities. Finally, as opposed to soil‐based systems, Hydroponics and Vertical farming do not improve the quality of our natural environment. Their concern is not to put further strain on it, by using organic farming methods and by collecting and storing energy. 56

There is a variety of issues that future research should examine. As far as hydroponics is concerned, it is essential to investigate how greenhouses on rooftops will affect the image of our cities and how this would add further challenges regarding the energy costs of the buildings that accommodate the farms. Issues that emerge from Vertical farming are related to many aspects including ethical issues: Firstly, it needs to be examined how the idea of a zero‐energy building can be achieved. Secondly, it is necessary to investigate whether relying completely on technology for food production is advisable. Thirdly, it needs to be examined whether the expenses for the establishment of high‐tech systems can offer benefits in the long run. Fourthly, research should examine the impacts that vertical farms will have on the well‐being of people and whether vertical farming is socially sustainable practice. To sum up, it is possible to infer that soil‐based BIA systems have more benefits and potential for future implementation in cities, even though their productivity is lower‐ compared to water‐based methods. Green roof agriculture seems the most promising practice that offers benefits to nature, buildings and humans, making them feel a part of an ecosystem. An important issue to keep in mind is whether food production in cities is a goal to achieve per se, or planners and designers are interested in incorporating it into the ecosystem and hence in people’s lives. Further investigation to the above questions would assist research and technology to progress in the field of BIA and to implement it extensively in cities.

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Websites City Farmer (2000) Urban Agriculture ‐ Justification and Planning Guidelines [online] Available at: http://www.cityfarmer.org/uajustification.html [Accessed 05 September 2011 ] City Farmer News (2008) Restaurant opens 2,500‐square foot Organic Rooftop Farm – first to be Certified Organic in the USA [online] Available at: http://www.cityfarmer.info/?s=uncommon+ground[Accessed 05 September 2011 ] Eagle Street Rooftop Farm (2010) Farm Fact Sheet [online] Available at: http://rooftopfarms.org/wp‐ content/uploads/2010/01/EagleStreetRooftopFarmFactSheet2010.pdf [Accessed 05 September 2011 ] Gotham Greens (2011) Gotham Greens’ first greenhouse facility, located on a rooftop in Greenpoint, Brookyn, will begin harvesting in June 2011. [online] Available at: http://gothamgreens.com/our‐farm/ [Accessed 05 September 2011 ] LivingRoofs (2011) Introduction to Green Roof Benefits [online] Available at: http://livingroofs.org/2010030565/green‐roof‐benefits/greenroof‐benefits.html [Accessed 19 July 2011 ] NDTV, (2009) New York City Rooftop Farm [video] Available at: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=t3mLPy0ttqc> [Accessed 09 August 2011 ] Nuvege (2011) What is a “Vertical Farming Environment?” [online] Available at: http://nuvege.com/about3.html[Accessed 19 October 2011 ]. TedBlog (2011) Fellows Friday with Viraj Puri [online] Available at: http://blog.ted.com/2011/07/01/fellows‐ friday‐with‐viraj‐puri/[Accessed 09 August 2011 ] Technology for the poor (Not Known) Urban Agriculture: a guide to container gardens [online] Available at: <http://www.technologyforthepoor.com/UrbanAgriculture/Garden.htm> [Accessed 10 October 2011 ]. The Economist (2010) Vertical farming: Does it really stack up? [online] Available at: http://www.economist.com/node/17647627 [Accessed 10 October 2011 ]. The Greenpoint Gazette (2011) Gotham Greens’ Guide to Greens [online] Available at: http://www.greenpointnews.com/news/3652/gotham‐greens‐guide‐to‐greens [Accessed 10 October 2011 ]. The Vertical Farm (2011) The vertical farm: Learn more [online] Available at: <http://www.verticalfarm.com/more>[Accessed 10 October 2011 ] Uncommon Ground (2010) Rooftop Farm resources [online] Available at: <http://www.uncommonground.com/pages/roof_top_farm_resources/151.php > [Accessed 12 August 2011 ]

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Yelp (2004) Eagle Street rooftop farm [online] Available at: http://www.yelp.com/biz_photos/x_I__ctT3nwQUij9wEMySw?select=jR_g9P5_0oJUqoeIPjDLtA [Accessed 09 August 2011 ]

1 0. P H O T O C R E D I T S Fig.1: RISC, 2011 Cross section of RISC’s Green Roof. [Illustration](Reading International Solidarity Centre leaflet) Fig.2: Bakratsa, E., 2011. Green Cones can be used to compost kitchen waste on RISC’s Green Roof. [photograph] Fig.3: Bakratsa, E., 2011. Fencing made of coppiced hazel is used on RISC’s Green Roof as a windbreaker. [photograph] Fig.4: Unknown, 2011. Rain barrels and water butts can be used in order to save water for irrigation of crops. [electronic print] Available at: http://www.crocus.co.uk/product/harcostar‐child‐safe‐water‐butt‐227‐ litre/classid.200980/ [Accessed 18 November 2011]. Fig.5: Collage of photos sourced from Gorgolewski, Komisar and Nasr,(2011) A variety of containers that can be used for food growing purposes [photograph] Fig.6:

Unknown,

2011.

The

Earth

Box.

[online

image]

Available

at:

http://www.cultivatingconscience.com/2011/03/earthbox‐diy/ [Accessed 18 November 2011]. Fig.7:

Unknown,

2009.

The

Hydroponics

cycle

[online

image].

Available

at:

http://

www.indoor_garden_online.com/section/hydroponic_garden [Accessed 18 November 2011]. Fig.8:

Unknown,

2010.

The

Aqua‐ponics

cycle

[online

image].

Available

at:

http://www.prweb.com/releases/2010/05/prweb3803954.htm [Accessed 18 November 2011]. Fig.9:

Unknown,

2006.

The

Aero‐ponics

cycle

[online

image].

Available

at:

http://www.biocontrols.com/aero17htm#HOW_DOES_IT_WORK [Accessed 18 November 2011]. Fig.10: : Dan Albert/Weber Thompson in Despommier, 2010 (b):146‐147. The Vertical Farm‐Water System [illustration] Fig.11: Dan Albert/Weber Thompson in Despommier, 2010 (b) :146‐147. The Vertical Farm‐ Energy System [illustration] Fig.12: Nyerges S., 2011. General overview of the plots in Eagle Street rooftop Farm [photograph] Fig.13: Nyerges S., 2011. General overview of the plots in Eagle Street rooftop Farm [photograph] Fig.14: Nyerges S., 2011. Tasks that take place on the roof: watering [photograph] Fig.15: Nyerges S., 2011. Tasks that take place on the roof: planting [photograph]

Fig.16: Stewart S., 2008. Helen Cameron inspects the vegetables growing on the roof of her restaurant. [online image]. Available at: http://www.cityfarmer.info/2008/12/28/restaurant‐opens‐2500‐square‐foot‐organic‐ rooftop‐farm‐first‐to‐be‐certified‐organic‐in‐the‐usa/ [Accessed 20 October 2011]. Fig.17: Cameron, M., 2011. General overview of the containerised farm above the restaurant [photograph] Fig.18: Cameron, M., 2011. Access to the roof is made through an external staircase [photograph] Fig.19: Cameron, M., 2011. The planters on the roof [photograph] Fig.20: Unknown, 2011. General view of the Hydroponic Farm [online image] Available at: http://gothamgreens.com/our‐philosophy/ [Accessed 15 September 2011]. Fig.21: Unknown, 2008.Gotham Greens’ Hydroponic Farm on the roof of a two storey building in Brooklyn [online image] Available at: http://www.greenpointnews.com/news/3652/gotham‐greens‐guide‐to‐greens [Accessed 15 September 2011]. Fig.22: Unknown, 2011. Gotham Greens’ vegetables on supermarket’s shelves [online image] Available at: http://blog.ted.com/2011/07/01/fellows‐friday‐with‐viraj‐puri/. [Accessed 15 September 2011]. Fig.23: Unknown, 2011. Nuvege Vertical Farm Exterior view in Kyoto, Japan [online image] Available at: http://nuvege.com/gallery.html. [Accessed 20 November 2011]. Fig.24: Unknown, 2011. Indoor Vertical Farming in Nuvege

[online image] Available at:

http://nuvege.com/gallery.html. [Accessed 20November 2011]. Fig.25: Unknown, 2011. Contamination Security measures in Nuvege [online image] Available at: http://nuvege.com/about2.html. [Accessed 20November 2011].