Design-Philosophy-Architecture: Visualizing Essay

COR-TEN Steel - A Trigger or A Stagnation

Key Words

COR-TEN Steel

Australian Center of Contemporary Arts

Human Exceptionalism

Performative New Materialism Material Matters

Linjing Zhang 860179

Abstract

COR-TEN Steel is the trade name of the weathering steel, which was first produced by United States Steel in the 1930s.1 It is a low-alloy steel that was initially used for the support structures (Corten B) of rail way bridges and was first used (Corten A) by architects in 1960s. 2The original idea behind the creation of resistant steel was that it did not require much maintenance. It was able to protect itself from the falling rain by a process of rusting on its outer skin, which protected in the process its interior.3 Architects preferred it because the colour of it blended better with nature and requires low maintenance. Weathered steel is primarily made from iron ore, a material that has been around since the birth of the earth. Initially, iron was refined to produce steel that transformed the world from the industrial revolution onwards. Iron accompanied human development, became an excluded being when human exceptionalism arose. The emergence of human exceptionalism drove the emergence of the Anthropocene.

The Anthropocene is a name proposed for a geological era that registers the massive impacts made by human industrial activity. New theories, including the environmental humanities, posthumanism and new materialism seek to reassess the impact of humans at a planetary scale. These shifts are also reflected in the use of Corten steel by architects, from the refinement of metals to make factory machines, weapons and transport structures, to the use of weathering steel in architectural design. When architects use weathering steel in architecture, I argue, it is because they are trying to integrate the building into its natural environment. Corten steel does not need to be painted, it simply stands there, reacting to the wind, the rain, the air and changing colour. Wood Marsh, an Australian architecture company, designed the ACCA (Australian Centre of Contemporary Arts) cladding by Corten steel. It was designed not only as a building but also as a sculpture that attract people and cooperate well with the sky in photos.

This essay follows the journey of the weathering steel from the original extraction of steel in Ngwenya Mine, to the process of making Australian Steel (Steel supplier for ACCA) weathered steel. The use of Corten steel will be studied in a specific architectural example, ACCA, Melbourne, designed by Wood Marsh architects. I will discuss two questions by borrowing the ideas of the three key points of new materialism from "What is new materialism"4 and the Katie Lloyd Thomas’ ideas of form and matter. Can Corten steel brings people to move into the era of the new materialism, and how? If the specification of Corten steel brings us closer to natural environments or further away?

1. “What is Corten Steel?” Distributor of Corten Steel, 13 March 2022, https://www.corten.com/what-is-corten-steel.html.

2. “Why Corten Steel Is An Environmental Nightmare,” GREEN FUTURE, 25 March 2022, https://greenfuture.io/sustainable-living/corten-steel/#:~:text=In%201964%2C%20Eero%20Saarinen%20was,Deere%20Headquarters%20 in%20Moline%2C%20Illinois.

3. Patricia Ruiz Galende, CorTen steel: a solution to atmospheric degradation in acid and marine environments (Máster Universitario en Gestión del Paisaje. Patrimonio, Territorio y Ciudad, 2018), 1.

4. Christopher N. Gamble, Joshua S. Hanan & Thomas Nail (2019) WHAT IS NEW MATERIALISM?, Angelaki, 24:6, 111-134

History of Corten | Material Matters (Form hide the material)

United States Steel, in the 1930s, first produced COR-TEN Steel.5 The generic name of the Corten is weathering steel. The material was first created because it could get along with the natural environment, change and protect itself from rain. Meanwhile, corten steel’s presence eliminates the requirements of painting on the building and construction material and protecting the environment from the pollution of some painting materials.6 It makes you want to say what material of inner core power this is. When corten B appeared for use in bridge and railway construction in the civil engineering field in the 1960s7, the material was given great attention to itself. When the material began to be used in architectural design, a different direction began to emerge with the advent of corten A. At the same time, however, some designers were attracted by the colour of the exterior and began to hide the material itself to give it meaning in form, and take the privilege of the form upon the material.

To expand, if the emergence and use of corten B is an attempt to make the form stop obscuring the inherent power and nature of the material and to make the material, man and nature work together as equal triads to allow the material to react internally to protect itself and to shape itself. Then the architects’ use of corten a can be critically described as the designer's mind obscuring the inherent power of the material itself. Further, the emergence of corten B allows us to see a gradual move away from human exceptionalism and a blurring of the binary between human and material, human and nature and material and nature. However, how the architect approaches and uses corten A puts the designer in a position of dominance and puts us again in the Anthropocene era.

Is Corten a trigger to take us towards new materialism (especially the performativity materialism), or is it stagnation in the Anthropocene era?

5. “History of Corten”, All Steel Fabrications LTD, accessed May 2022, http://allsteelsculpture.com/history-of-corten-sculptures#:~:text=In%20 the%201930s%2C%20the%20United,America's%20marshalling%20yards%20and%20collieries.

6. “What is Corten Steel”, Corten.come, accessed May 2022, https://www.corten.com/what-is-corten-steel.html.

7. “History of Corten.”

8. Katie Lloyd Thomas, “Introduction: Architecture and Material Practive”, in Material Matters: Architecture and Material Practice, ed. Katie Lloyd Thomas (Abingdon, Oxon: Routledge, 2007), 2.

Theories and Corten Steel | Human Exceptionalism | Performative New Materialism

Human Exceptionalism and Corten Steel

The Anthropocene Epoch is part of the Quaternary Period of the Phanerozoic Eon’s Cenozoic Era, and we were stepped into this epoch.9 In these times, humans desire for geological riches leaves large craters with devastating colours and shapes worldwide. The iron ore mine pit of the corten steel’s raw material is typically one of the scars humans left on the planet.

Performative New Materialism and Corten Steel

New materialists challenge human exceptionalism by pursuing the recognition of the intrinsic activity of matter.10 The performative new materialism is one type of new materialism, which was seen as the future direction of new materialism. What makes this type of materialism different from other new materialisms is that the performativity new materialism believes there is inherent entanglement between ontology and epistemology.11 My understanding is that there is an interaction between the movement of particles within matter and the activity of humans and other matter outside. Weathering steel, as a material that protects its structure by rusting through internal chemical reactions, is well worth discussing and understanding through the framework of performative new materialism. Thus, the exploration of if the corten steel is a trigger to bring humans one step further into the new materialism will be based on the three main criteria of performative new materialism.

The three main criteria of the performative materialism concluded by Gamble, Hanan and Nail are:

“1) The activity of matter itself must be pedetic, or characterised by indeterminacy… 2) Matter must be an ongoing iterative process… 3) Matter must be fully relational and immanently self-caused.”12

The exploration will follow the trip of the corten steel on the Australian Centre of Contemporary Arts from the raw material to the building.

9. Daniel A. Barber, “Architectural History in the Anthropocene”, The Journal of Architecture 21, 8 (2016), 1165, doi: 10.1080/13602365.2016.1258855.

10. Christopher N. Gamble, Joshua S.Hanan & Thomas Nail, “What is New Materialism”, Angelaki: Journal of the Theoretical Humanities 24, 6 (19th November 2019), 122, doi: 10.1080/0969725X.2019.1684704.

11. Gamble, Hanan and Nail, “What is New,” 111.

12. Gamble, Hanan and Nail, “What is New,” 125.

UNWRAP - THE TRIP OF THE CORTEN STEEL...

UNWRAP - THE TRIP OF THE CORTEN STEEL...

Trip | Ongoing iterative process | Pedesis | Relation

Mining | Extraction

Corten steel is relatively new; its journey can be traced back to its raw material, iron. Iron existed in the universe before the advent of humans and even before the Earth was formed. After countless cosmic explosions and regenerations, iron and carbon entered small stars and other planetary bodies, where they underwent numerous violent collisions and eventually became the rocks and metals of the Earth.13

The first stop on our protagonist's journey, the corten steel used in ACCA's buildings, was one of BHP's (BHP Billiton Ltd) iron ore mines in Western Australia. Iron ore has a long life and is the first significant substance that makes up corten steel. BHP is the company that developed the corten steel used for the building cladding of ACCA and owns five iron ore mines in the Shire of East Pilbara, Western Australia.14 It is hard to tell which iron ore mine is the specific starting point of our protagonist. The first step of mining is blasting and digging up the bear iron ore stone from the iron ore mine pit, which is the step that causes the craters-like scars in Western Australia.15 The rest of the mining and extraction processes are concentration, pelletising, sintering and removal of impurities in pig iron. Those processes require a lot of energy to generate heat and emit harmful gases, which are also highly damaging to the environment. Everything that happens in this process, inside and outside the iron ore, is passive and manipulated by humans, which is not in line with the new materialist idea of treating all living and non-living things as equal substances. It causes the binary between human and nature and human and matter.

13. Jonathan Schifman, "The Entire History of Steel", Popular Mechanics, published July 9, 2018, https://www.popularmechanics.com/ technology/infrastructure/a20722505/history-of-steel/.

14. BHP, “Iron ore”, BHP, accessed May, 2022, https://www.bhp.com/what-we-do/products/iron-ore.

15. “Iron”, Australian Government Geoscience Australia, accessed June, 2022, https://www.ga.gov.au/education/classroom-resources/minerals-energy/australian-mineral-facts/iron.

UNWRAP - THE TRIP OF THE CORTEN STEEL... UNWRAP - THE TRIP OF THE CORTEN STEEL...

Production | Corten

The second stop of the trip was the production process that happened in the Australian Steel’s manufacture in Braeside, Victoria, Melbourne.16 The iron and steel industry is the largest global source of CO2 emissions and the second-largest industrial consumer of energy. Obviously, corten steel's extraction and production process bring humans away from nature.

The manufacturing process of weathering steel is similar to that of other types of steel materials in that the molten iron is first converted into steel in an oxygen furnace. Then other alloying elements are added, such as copper (Cu), nickel (Ni), phosphorous (P) and chromium (Cr).17 When the corten steel is produced, a manual process was used to speed up the rusting of the COR-TEN Steel, completing a process that would have taken six years to complete in a few months.18 This is a process of artificial intervention in the inner material action of the material, which, while focusing on the chemical reactions and changes inherent in the material, also reflects the quest for material appearance.

However, this artificial involvement only accelerates the rusting of the corten steel to produce a red patina surface; it does not interfere with the exact process of reaction between the metal elements within the weathering steel and the external environment, and this process will continue to repeat itself even after the weathering steel has been used in construction. Thus, although reproducing weathering steel still gives man the prerogative of absolute domination over matter, the process of weathering of corten steel embodies the cooperation of material with man and other matter in the new materialism.

According to Barad's experiments, we would not be able to observe the movement of atoms without the involvement of humans, so presumably, corten would not exist without human involvement.19 Without the accelerated rusting process, corten would not be able to be used in architectural design. Whereas according to Kirby's theory, humans and cultures belong to nature, and nothing in the world is an exception, it might be argued that if humans and materials are seen as equals, the human activity of producing materials is a process of humans acting on materials.20 In this sense, whatever humans do, humans are in the new materialism. Yet human production of the matter is itself a form of control, and humans remain in power; the material itself cannot act on humans.

Ongoing iterative process of rusting.

Ongoing iterative process of rusting.

Relation of inherent chemical composition of corten steel.

Relation of inherent chemical composition of corten steel. Relation between inherent chemical composition, alloying elements and human.

Relation between inherent chemical composition, alloying elements and human.

16 “About Us”, Australian Steel, accessed May, 2022, https://www.australiansteel.com.au/about-us/.

17. Masteel, “Choosing Between A/B Corten Steel”, Masteel, published May 2, 2019, https://masteel.co.uk/ news/choosing-corten-steel/.

18. Central Steel, “The Patina Timeline: The Weathering Process of Corten Steel”, Central Steel Service, Inc., published July 6th, 2020, https://www.centralsteelservice.com/the-patina-timeline-the-weathering-processof-corten-steel/.

In this process of producing corten, we can hardly escape from human exceptionalism, so what if we look at the materials that have been made and used?

19. Gamble, Hanan and Nail, “What is New,” 122.

20. Gamble, Hanan and Nail, “What is New,” 124.

- THE TRIP OF THE CORTEN STEEL... UNWRAP - THE TRIP OF THE CORTEN STEEL...

UNWRAP

Australian Center of Contemporary Arts

“The privileging of form over material is central both to the theoretical discipline and the profession of architecture.”21

The final stop of the corten steel is ACCA. In this site, we will discuss why architects have started to choose weathering steel as a material for building facades, why ACCA designers choose weathering steel and how weathering steel expresses itself in the ACCA.

Architects began using corten steel in their architectural designs in the early 1960s, using this material for several reasons. Firstly, being a new material at the time, some designers thought that this material would reflect the modernity of the building. 22 The second reason was that the designers thought weathering steel would merge well with the natural environment. 23 The third reason was that the designers wanted a red, rusty, copper-like material, and weathering steel not only had this appearance but also protected the material and the stability of the building through an attached protective layer.24 As can be seen, none of these reasons, except the third, focus on the internal energy of weathering steel. The second reason can be seen as an attempt by the architect to reduce the dichotomous boundary between us and nature through weathering steel. Ironically, the third reason is that weathering steel is a substitute for copper.

21. Thomas, “Introduction: Architecture and Material Practive”, 2.

22. “Why architects use COR-TEN as their material of choice”, kloeckner metals, published July 23th, 2021, https://www.kloecknermetalsuk.com/en/latest-news/why-architects-use-cor-ten-as-their-material-of-choice. html#:~:text=Cor%2Dten%C2%AE%20Steel%20is,for%20a%20variety%20of%20projects.

23. Christopher Henry, “Linda Flora Residence/Shubin + Donaldson Architects”, Archdaily, published March 9th, 2011, https://www.archdaily.com/117610/linda-flora-residence-shubindonaldson-architects.

24. “Why architects use COR-TEN as their material of choice”

Trip | Ongoing iterative process | Pedesis | Relation

Australian Center of Contemporary Arts

Now let's zoom in to the corten steel on ACCA. There are several reasons that Wood Marsh chose corten steel. The designer team wants to reference and connect with the site's original land functions and context. The previous occupations on the site were iron foundries and warehouse factories. The building's form and corten steel's colour could recall the site's industrial history and be able to associate with the colour of the Malthouse (polychrome brick) next to ACCA. The image created by the weathering steel and the sky is also a reminder of the site's former factory history. Meanwhile, the corten steel's ability to protect itself through chemical reactions is another reason designers choose it. According to the interview with Roger Wood, he described the corten steel as a material that could last forever since it could take care of itself, and he wants to create ACCA as a building with the sense of a rock-like building that "was built 5 million years ago and through erosion exposed".25 In summary, Wood Marsh uses corten steel mainly because of its external performnance qualities and the desire to express a sense of history through its inherent capacity for self-protecting combined with the building form.

Although referencing the site's industrial history is quite an anthropocentric idea, designers of the ACCA try to find a balance between the form and material. Kate Lloyd Thomas argues that some of the architects’ “concern with material aways seems to return finally to form”.26 But the designers from Wood Marsh did not. They did not neglect the inherent power of the corten steel and let the material express itself and collaborate with the form and environment.

25. Acca_melbourne, “On ACCA’s 30th Anniversary: Roger Wood”, posted August 2014, YouTube video, 1:45, https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=s0WR_E7M3ow&list=PL3C37445189A5DA8C.

26. Thomas, “Introduction: Architecture and Material Practive”, 6.

Australian Center of Contemporary Arts

So how does our protagonist, the corten steel, live in the ACCA?

The corten steel does not only form the facade of the ACCA but is also used in some of the interior structures which is fascinating. As mentioned many times in this article, the corten steel itself is protected by the rusting process of the outer layer, which protects its inner second layer of structure and makes it stronger. The outdoor material is exposed to the atmospheric corrosion caused by rain, sunlight and wind. It protects the indoor weathering steel as if the tiny iterative reactions inside the weathering steel, like particles, are amplified and projected onto the building.

The corten steel on ACCA responds to the three criteria of performative new materialism. Pedesis, the matter appears stable on the outside, yet it is full of uncertainty on the inside. Corten steel on the exterior of the building occurs atmospheric corrosion. The material does not appear to change drastically on the exterior performance; however, the chemical composition in the adhering protective layer constantly reacts to the elements in the atmosphere. The constantly rusting process also responds to an ongoing iterative process. The criteria relation presents in several ways. The relationship between the protective layer and the material's inner structure, the relationship between the chemical composition and natural environment elements, the relationship between the exterior corten steel and interior corten steel, and the relationship between the human and corten steel.

Like the idea from McLaughlin, the site, climate, time, processes, services, and inhabitants are all building materials.27 When corten steel was used for a building, the weather, the atmosphere elements, and the chemical composition are all become the matter that formed the building. When architects started using the corten steel, whether they thought it or not, it began to express itself and tried to bring humans and the natural environment into a partnership, gradually moving into the age of new materialism.

If we want to get further closer to the new materialism with corten steel, we should put our humans, machinery, and material in equal status. Referring to Kate Barad28 , Katie Lloyd Thomas29, and Vicki Kirby,30 body, machinery, and materials are all matters. We could say rain, oxygen and wind from the natural environment are also matters. The natural environment, humans, materials, and machinery should collaborate to show the value of materials acting on architecture. Instead of complete rusting in one step, we should allow more autonomy for the matter itself in the process of chemical reactions

“an ongoing open process of mattering through which ‘mattering’ itself acquires meaning and form in the realization of different agential possibilities.”31

27. Thomas, “Introduction: Architecture and Material Practive”, 7.

28. Gamble, Hanan and Nail, “What is New,” 122.

29. Thomas, “Introduction: Architecture and Material Practive”, 6.

30. Gamble, Hanan and Nail, “What is New,” 124.

31. Karan Barad, “Posthumanist Performativity. Toward an Understanding of How Matter Comes to Matter.”, Signs 28, no.3 (2003): 817, doi: 00979740/2003/2803-0006$10.00.

It is worth noting that Roger Wood initially wanted to use copper for the ACCA's facade cladding.32 However, due to the budget restriction, they finally chose the corten steel as the cladding material of the ACCA's facade. As copper has no way of protecting itself from rusting, designers had to choose corten steel, which has a similar colour appearance to copper. If we understand copper and corten steel according to the performative new materialist approach to the matter, their material composition is entirely different. Corten steel is an alloy, and copper is only one of the elements in it. We can find corten steel may be a fake copper for the designer, but it has more power of the internet capacity than copper. The designer looks for the internal capacity of corten steel and therefore chooses it. In a sense, the architect still chooses the corten steel because of the material's own qualities. However, there are some imitations of corten steel deviate entirely from the material itself.

Some companies developed and produced pigment to pretend the rusted look of the COR-TEN Steel. The pigment is introduced into the airbrushing gun, and the gun will pulverise the pigment on the surface of the wood, aluminium, plastic surfaces, etc.33 Why would people choose similar pigments over corten steel? Users often select pigments that mimic the appearance of corten steel to achieve a quicker and easier colour. They ignore the material itself and focus only on the final form.

Karen Barad argued that matter is not a thing, it is a phenomenon. Matter is made up of tiny iterations of internally stable and unstable phenomena.34 We should learn and understand the material through the inherent phenomena rather than only focus on its appearance. The pedesis, ongoing iterative process and relation in the fake corten-like painting spray pigment are different from the corten steel. The alloying elements, chemical compositions and chemical reactions are lost in the pigment.

Although Wood Marsh initially saw corten steel as a replacement for copper, they eventually discovered its inherent qualities and derived a new design concept. This design concept was not given to the material by the designer but by the material to the designer. However, the designers and artists who chose the pigment did not care about the material itself, nor did they put themselves on an equal footing with the material as collaborators. They entirely overshadow the meaning of the weathering steel itself with their design concept and meaning; they stand in a privileged position and ignore the nature of the material.

Suppose the corten steel used in ACCA buildings was the trigger that initially brought us into the new materialist era. In that case, the pigments that mimic the corten steel are the stagnation that stranded us in the Anthropocene era. The material is shaped by the iterations that occur within itself, and the connections of the elements within, rather than by meaning and words. The pigments of corten steel colours should have their own name and not be sold as imitators.

32. Acca_melbourne, “On ACCA’s 30th Anniversary: Roger Wood”.

33. “Corten Rust Effect Paint”, cromas, accessed June, 2022, https://cromaspaints.com/cortenpaint-effect/corten-steel-paint-effect.php.

34. Karen Barad, “‘Matter feels, concerses, suffers, desires, yearns and remembers’ Interview with Karen Barad”, in New Materialism: Interviews & Cartographies eds. Rick Dolphijn and Iris van der Tuin (Michigan Publishing, 2012), 50.

PLASTER

At the End of the story

“Matter is seen as vital and vibrant and as having agency and as being ‘mutually constituted’ with the discursive.”35

To sum up, the process of extracting and manufacturing corten steel is a process that damages the natural environment. In this process, humans place themselves in a binary and separate position from nature. However, when people began using corten steel, they started to pay attention to its inherent activity, and the steel began cooperating with the natural environment. Performative new materialism encourage human to see themselves as matter and collaborate with materials through the understanding of the inherent capacity, phenomenon and relations of the material. Corten steel owns the strong and nonnegligible inner quality that represents itself. They expressed their quality to the architectural realm no matter if the form of the building has the privilege. Corten steel brings humans one step further into the performative new materialism. Although there are, fake corten steel arose, keeping part of the material and the human mind in the Anthropocene. Copycats do not have the solid inherent capacity to replace the corten steel.

and M. Zembylas, “Critical posthomanism, new materialisms and the affective turn for socially just pedagogies in higher education”,

Acca_melbourne. “On ACCA’s 30th Anniversary: Roger Wood.” Posted August 2014, YouTube video, 1:45. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=s0WR_E7M3ow&list=PL3C37445189A5DA8C.

All Steel Fabrications LTD. “History of Corten”. Accessed May 2022. http://allsteelsculpture.com/history-of-corten-sculptures#:~:text=In%20the%201930s%2C%20the%20United,America's%20 marshalling%20yards%20and%20collieries.

Australian Government Geoscience Australia. “Iron”. Accessed June, 2022. https://www.ga.gov.au/education/classroom-resources/minerals-energy/australian-mineral-facts/iron.

Australian Steel. “About Us”. Accessed May, 2022. https://www.australiansteel.com.au/about-us/.

Barber, Daniel A. “Architectural History in the Anthropocene.” The Journal of Architecture 21, no. 8 (2016): 1160-70. doi: 10.1080/13602365.2016.1258855.

Barad, Karen. “‘Matter feels, converses, suffers, desires, yearns and remembers’ Interview with Karen Barad”, in New Materialism: Interviews & Cartographies, edited by Rick Dolphijn and Iris van der Tuin, 48-70. Michigan Publishing, 2012.

Barad, Karan. “Posthumanist Performativity. Toward an Understanding of How Matter Comes to Matter.”, Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society 28, no.3 (2003): 801-831, doi: 0097-9740/2003/28030006$10.00.

BHP. “Iron ore”. Accessed May, 2022. https://www.bhp.com/what-we-do/products/iron-ore.

Bozalek, V. and Zembylas, M. “Critical posthumanism, new materialisms and the affective turn for socially just pedagogies in higher education.” SAJHE 30, no. 3 (Nov 2016): 193-200. doi: 10.20853/30-3652.

Corten.com. “What is Corten Steel”. Accessed May 2022. https://www.corten.com/what-is-corten-steel.html.

Central Steel Service, Inc. “The Patina Timeline: The Weathering Process of Corten Steel”. Published July 6, 2020. https://www.centralsteelservice.com/the-patina-timeline-the-weathering-process-ofcorten-steel/.

Galende, Patricia Ruiz. CorTen steel: a solution to atmospheric degradation in acid and marine environments. Published by Máster Universitario en Gestión del Paisaje. Patrimonio, Territorio y Ciudad, (2018)

Gamble, Christopher N., Hanan, Joshua S. & Nail, Thomas. “What is New Materialism.” Angelaki: Journal of the Theoretical Humanities 24, no. 6 (Nov 2019): 111-133. doi: 10.1080/0969725X.2019.1684704. GREEN FUTURE. “Why Corten Steel Is An Environmental Nightmare”. Published 25 March 2022. https://greenfuture.io/sustainable-living/corten-steel/#:~:text=In%201964%2C%20Eero%20Saarinen%20 was,Deere%20Headquarters%20in%20Moline%2C%20Illinois.

Henry, Christopher. “Linda Flora Residence/Shubin + Donaldson Architects”. Archdaily. Published March 9, 2011. https://www.archdaily.com/117610/linda-flora-residence-shubindonaldson-architects. kloeckner metals. “Why architects use COR-TEN as their material of choice”. Published July 23, 2021. https://www.kloecknermetalsuk.com/en/latest-news/why-architects-use-cor-ten-as-their-materialof-choice.html#:~:text=Cor%2Dten%C2%AE%20Steel%20is,for%20a%20variety%20of%20projects.

Masteel. “Choosing Between A/B Corten Steel”. Published May 2, 2019. https://masteel.co.uk/news/choosing-corten-steel/.

Schifman, Jonathan. "The Entire History of Steel". Popular Mechanics. Published July 9, 2018. https://www.popularmechanics.com/ technology/infrastructure/a20722505/history-of-steel/.

Thomas, Katie Lloyd. “Introduction: Architecture and Material Practive”, in Material Matters: Architecture and Material Practice, edited by Katie Lloyd Thomas, 1-11. Oxon: Routledge, 2007.