Thermopylae (Go tell the Spartans, stranger passing by, that here obedient to their laws, we lie) On a swelteringly hot summer day in August, 480 BC a Spartan King in command of a small force of Greek soldiers occupied the narrow pass at Thermopylae; There he stood in defiance of the over- whelming might of the Persian Empire. What was to pass that day would become an epic of history. Sparta The City State of Sparta, so often dismissed as little more than an armed camp, was situated in the far south of the Greek peninsula in an area known as Laconia. Surrounded by mountains on either side it was to a large extent isolated from the rest of Greece. This isolation allowed it to develop a society unique to itself free of outside interference. It was to become both admired and feared. For whereas some Greeks looked on with envy at the stability of its society and trembled with fear at the discipline and courage of its soldiers, others derided it as politically stagnant, economically backward, morally bankrupt, and a little more than a cultural desert; and it is true that the Spartan's left no great art and no great literature to posterity. What they did leave, however, was a model for society that has both fascinated and repulsed in equal measure down the ages. Sparta was a slave state. Earlier in its history it had fought a long and bloody war with its neighbour Messenia. It had been a war that the Spartans had very nearly lost. As a result of this close call the Spartan society we know now was created. Under the guidance of its lawmaker, Lycurgas, steps were taken that would ensure that no such thing would ever happen again. Sparta was reborn. As a result of their defeat Messenia was occupied and its entire population enslaved. These Helots, as they were to become known as, were to make up 80% of Sparta's population, and the Spartan's, who were a small minority in their own land, lived in constant fear of slave revolt, so much so that its prospect determined both domestic and foreign policy. As a result the Helots were harshly treated. They were regularly beaten regardless of any wrongdoing, and could be executed for showing too much vigour and likewise for getting too fat. Sometimes Helots would be forced to get drunk and made to behave in a ridiculous fashion in front of Spartan children as an example to them of the perils of drink. Once every year the Spartan's declared war on the Helots when graduates of the Agoge (Military Academy) under the influence of a mysterious ritual known as the Krypteia were obliged to hunt down and kill as many Helots as they could find. Unsurprisingly perhaps, the Helots loathed their masters and slave revolts were not uncommon. Spartan society was hierarchical and clearly defined. All male citizens of Sparta were professional soldiers from the age of seven when they were removed from their families to the age of sixty when they retired. Spartan men did no work of any kind. This provided the women of Sparta with a freedom unknown in the ancient world. They dominated civil life and governed domestic society, and like their men folk they regularly attended the gym and were trained to sing and dance. Indeed, the freedom of expression and athleticism of Spartan women was much commented upon. All manual labour was carried out by the Helots. A second tier of society, the Periokoi (literally, those who live around) who were not Spartans but enjoyed limited rights carried out skilled labour and acted as the State's tradesmen. Sparta was also unique in having two Kings, but they were not Kings in the usual sense. A hereditary title and held by the descendants of the two greatest families of Sparta they did not govern. Instead they were heads of the priesthood, had judicial responsibilities and were generals. Sparta was actually governed by a Council of 28 Elders - the Gerousia. These were men aged 60 or over who had retired from military service and were elected for life. From the day they were born all citizens of Sparta belonged to the State. Newly born Spartan
babies would be presented before the members of the Gerousia who would decide upon its health. If the baby was declared healthy it would be returned to its mother for rearing; if not it would be taken to the Tagus Valley where it would be tossed from the cliffs to its death. There was no right of appeal against this decision. At the age of seven a male child would be removed from its family to begin military training in the Agoge. Here they were taught physical toughness and mental discipline. They were also taught to play music and to dance. Always clean shaven (it has been suggested that they shaved their entire bodies) they grew their hair long and would tend to each other’s hair with great care. They were also taught to speak little and when they did so to respond to questions in a terse and witty style, the genesis of the term laconic. At the age of 12 each boy was given to an older male who was to be his mentor. He would serve as the boys tutor, guardian and lover. It was believed that a man would fight harder for a lover. Always undernourished a Spartan soldier was expected to be able to survive on very little. When he did eat it would be in communal dining halls with his comrades and the staple diet of a Spartan soldier was a soup made of bulls blood. When he reached the age of 18 the Spartan male would graduate from the Agoge as a fully-fledged soldier of the Spartan army. In recognition of this they would be presented with a knife and ordered to go into the countryside, feed themselves, and kill as many Helots as they could find. When they reached the age of 30 they were ordered to marry. They had no say to whom they married. A woman would be provided for them. The marriage wasn't intended to create bonds of affection but was considered necessary for reasons of procreation and social stability. The women of Sparta would abduct one from among their own. The bride would then have her head shaved be dressed in a man’s cloak and made to lay down on a mattress in the dark. Her new husband having finished dining in the mess hall with his comrades would enter the room. He would then carry his wife off to bed. This ritual would continue for some time and it could often be some months before husband and wife actually saw one another. Despite the fact that men and women lived largely separate lives and affection between the sexes was discouraged family life in Sparta prospered. Women played a significant and proactive role in the running of Sparta. Famed for their athleticism and feverish erotic dancing Spartan women even competed in the Olympic games against the men from other Greek Cities. Before Spartan men went off to war their women would present them with their shields demanding that they return "With this or on this". This was the society that made the 300 Spartans. Thermopylae The Persian Emperor Xerxes I was desperate to avenge his father, the Emperor Darius, who had previously been humiliated by the Greeks at the Battle of Marathon. He was determined to invade and destroy the Greek City States once and for all. To do this he amassed a huge army, some 300,000 strong, and navy. The full might of the Persian Empire was brought to bear. A coalition from among the Greek City States was formed to oppose them. But the Greeks were not united and some, most notably Thebes, welcomed the Persian invaders. The coalition, therefore, was desperate to acquire Spartan support. Delegations were sent to Sparta begging for their help. The Spartans at first refused, always more fearful of rebellion at home and wanting to maintain their isolation. Also, the invasion had clashed with the Festival of Carneia, the only time when all military activity was forbidden. A visit to the Delphic Oracle, however, changed their mind. Her prophecy was dark and doom laden: "O ye men who dwell in the streets of broad Lacadaemon! Either your town will be sacked by the children of Perseus, or in exchange, must all in the Laconian country mourn the loss of a King, descendant of great Heracles". Spartan Kings were held to be descendants of the God Heracles. The prophecy seemed obvious. Either Sparta must oppose the Persian invaders and sacrifice a King or she would be destroyed.
Still Sparta was loathed to commit. Finally, she relented and despatched King Leonidas with 300 soldiers of the Spartan Army. The Persian Army disembarked on the Peleponneseum Isthmus. Numbering some 80,000 to advance any further, however, it had to move through the narrow pass at Thermopylae. The Greek coalition rushed a force of 7,000 to block the pass. They were joined there by Leonidas who took command. For five days Xerxes waited expecting the Greeks to come to their senses and surrender. When they did not, angered by their stubbornness, he ordered his army to attack expecting a swift victory. The pass was narrow and a full-frontal assault seemed the only strategy available. Leonidas blocked the pass with a shield and spear wall - the phalanx. Under the weight of the attack Leonidas's troops held firm. He rotated his men so as to avoid fatigue and every so often would feign a retreat so as to draw in the Persians who would then be cut down by his reserves. Late in the day Xerxes sent in his Immortals, 10,000 strong and the elite of the Persian army. They were decimated, Xerxes was furious. Despite his anger Xerxes was loathe to attack again. That night a Greek goat herder, Ephialtes, approached the Persians. He would, he said, show them a route down the pass that would enable them to encircle the Greek army, for a reward of course. The Phocians, who had been sent by Leonidas to guard the pass on seeing the advance of the Persian army, withdrew to a nearby hill allowing them through to surround the Greeks. On hearing the news of the Phocian withdrawal Leonidas held an emergency war council. Surrounded by an overwhelming force their position was hopeless. Many of the Greeks wanted to withdraw while they still could. Leonidas refused. He would hold the pass at Thermopylae, alone if necessary. Perhaps, aware that the other Greeks were unwilling to remain, he ordered them to withdraw. Demophilus, the leader of the contingent of 700 troops from the city of Thespiae, refused to abandon Leonidas. They would all die at Thermopylae. Convinced that Leonidas must surely now see that his position was untenable, Xerxes sent emissaries to negotiate a surrender. He offered the defenders land, wealth, and even the honoury title of 'Friends of the Persian People' if they would surrender. Leonidas refused, when the Persian Ambassador angrily demanded that the Greeks lay down their arms, Leonidas famously replied, "come and get them". Battle was inevitable but still Xerxes hesitated hoping that the Greeks would simply disperse. Finally, he ordered an all out attack. To his astonishment not only was his attack repulsed but Leonidas ordered a counter-attack during which many Persians were killed. It was as he led this counter-attack that Leonidas himself was slain. A furious fight now ensued for the retention of his body. The Greeks won taking it back to the low hill where they would make their final stand. Now few in number and many unarmed they continued to repulse further Persian attacks. Herodotus writes that "Here they defended themselves to the last, those who still had swords using them, others resisting with their hands and teeth". Tired of the sacrifice of his men, Xerxes ordered his archers to finish the job. They rained arrows down on the defenders until not one was left alive. Usually, respectful of valiant opponents the Persians mutilated the bodies of the Greek defenders at Thermopylae. Leonidas' body Xerxes had decapitated and the torso crucified.
Statue of the Hero at Sparta Why did Leonidas fight to the death at Thermopylae? Tactically and strategically it was unnecessary. The Greek cities in the path of any Persian advance had already been abandoned, including Athens. Certainly the reputation of the gallant Spartan warrior was established beyond reproach at Thermopylae. Perhaps, Leonidas was also aware that the Delphic Oracle had prophesised the sacrifice of a Spartan King. Just a few months after Thermopylae, the Persian Fleet was destroyed in the Straits of Salamis. A year later the Greek army under Spartan command decisively defeated the Persian army at the Battle of Plataea. Western civilisation had been saved. Thermopylae contributed little to final victory but it lives in the annals as an epic of world history.