Text type examples

■ Celebrities or high-profile personalities ■ The local council ■ Members of Parliament ■ Royalty ■ Venues visited - letters both before and after visits

At one school, a teacher set up a crime scene around the teacher’s desk using police tape. Clues were left in prominent places and a significant object had gone missing. The scenario was used as a context for developing recounts and narrative writing. Pupils were asked to write up the incident in diff erent recount forms, including a personal diary account, a police report and a journalistic report for the school magazine. It could also have been used for other text types, such as instructions on dusting for prints or a persuasive letter asking the thief to return the item.

On the following pages, there are succinct examples of writing in the different text types together with details relating to: ■ Purpose

■ Audience

■ Type ■ Typical structure ■ Typical language features

The examples can be used throughout the teaching process but other pieces of writing should be used to develop these skills. The examples are not intended to be exemplars, but pieces that illustrate the structure and features of the particular text type. They are designed to be an accessible starting point for most pupils in Key Stage 2 and 3. They are not intended to demonstrate the full range of children’s abilities in these key stages.

Recount

Purpose

■ To retell a real event in an informative and imaginative way ■ To retell a series of events, usually in chronological order

Audience

■ Someone who wants to know what happened ■ The audience is often defined by age. Are you writing for peers, for younger pupils or for parents?

Types

■ Used as entertainment in fiction for insight into human motivation, in (auto)biography and history ■ Sequential: chronology provides order ■ Fiction / diary / (auto)biography / history ■ Newspaper articles are sometimes recounts, often beginning with the sensational aspect plucked out of sequence and placed first, then returning to chronology

Typical structure

■ Scene setting to establish context ■ Paragraphs used for effect and to mark change of focus / time / place relating to the events ■ Wide variety of links between paragraphs ■ Starts at the beginning / finishes at the end of the series of events, although sometimes the chronology is reorganised to shift the focus according to time

Typical language features

■ Personal recounts are usually written in the first person ■ Information recounts are usually written in the third person ■ They generally use the past tense ■ Active voice, but passive voice sometimes used to provide formality for reporting ■ Contracted forms provide informality in personal recounts like diaries ■ A variety of sentence structures creates different effects, such as a sequence of multi-clause sentences followed by a short sentence ■ Conjunctions related to time (e.g. later, meanwhile, twenty years on); to cause (e.g. because, since); or to contrast (e.g. although, however, nevertheless) ■ Sophisticated use of punctuation for effect, such as colons, semi-colons, dashes, brackets ■ Painting a picture with words will involve the use of adjectives, adverbs and/or powerful verbs ■ Seeks to answer these questions: When?

Where? Who? What? Why? ■ Uses specific dates, times and/or names of people and places ■ Vocabulary of thoughts, feelings and/or description ■ Recurrence of words for poetic effect ■ Use of imagery, similes and/or metaphors ■ Generally includes a range of statements, questions and/or exclamatory sentences

Recount

STRUCTURE

Introduction: When, who, what, where?

Events organised in chronological order

Finishes at end of event and includes a reflective comment

Furious pace in soccer final

Spectators were treated to a feast of fast football at the weekend when the Calderdale Girls’ Football Association staged its grand final at Ovenden Park.

The highlight of the day was the final match between Midgley and Ripponden, which was a hard, fast game, with the speed of the young Midgley team proving the difference on the day.

Ripponden stormed the Midgley goalmouth from the start of the game. However, the Midgley defence held out and then took the attack to Ripponden’s penalty area through speedy centre forward Jenny Miller. After a period of midfield play, Ripponden’s right wing Mandy Smith broke away but again met solid Midgley defence.

Midgley continued to move the ball quickly and just five minutes before full time, left wing Michelle Cooper hit a terrific shot and put the ball between the posts having narrowly missed several minutes earlier.

The final score was 1-0 to Midgley. It was a major success for the young side. Their spectators were delighted and stormed the pitch at the end of the match to celebrate with their team.

LANGUAGE FEATURES

Use of third person

Past tense

Conjunctions related to time or for contrast

Varied sentence length for effect Passive voice

This text example and many others can be downloaded and reproduced for classroom use from the National Literacy Trust website, Improving Writing at Key Stage 2 Participants’ area.

Explanation

Purpose

■ To help someone understand a process or why something is... ■ To explain how something works ■ Emphasis on clarity and directness

Audience

■ Someone who wants to know about something ■ Often forms the basis of essay type questions, such as: How are sedimentary rocks formed?

Types

■ Encyclopaedia ■ Science text book

Typical structure

■ General statement introduces topic ■ Series of logical (often chronological) explanatory steps ■ Clear sequence may be indicated by bullet points, numbers and/or letters ■ Paragraphs often begin with a topic sentence ■ May end with a summary statement

Typical language features

■ Formal and impersonal ■ Formality may be maintained through use of passive constructions and technical vocabulary ■ Present tense for phenomena still in existence; past tense for past events ■ Sentences contain conjunctions and adverbials that indicate sequence (e.g. next, gradually); cause and effect (e.g. because, so) or comparison (e.g. although, in contrast) ■ Generalisation ■ Mainly constructed using statement and question sentence forms ■ Detail where necessary – often includes information ■ Technical vocabulary – glossary may be needed for specialist terminology

Explanation

STRUCTURE

General introductory statement

Historical background and technical information

Summary statement

Torches

A torch is a battery-powered light that can be carried in the hand. They come in all shapes and sizes and some are really powerful.

Once, torches were made from burning material on the end of a long pole. Today, they are smaller and safe, and can easily be taken anywhere.

Usually, torches consist of a plastic or metal container. At one end there is a bulb, which is covered with clear plastic. Inside the container are some batteries, and on the outside is a switch.

When a torch is switched on, the electricity in the batteries is connected to the bulb. This completes the circuit. The power in the batteries and the bulb join, so the bulb lights up. When the torch is switched off, the bulb goes out because the circuit is broken and no power can reach the bulb.

In the modern world, there is a torch in almost every household. Some of the later models are ingeniously designed so that they can fit into purses or be worn on the head to leave the hands free.

LANGUAGE FEATURES

Present tense for phenomena still in existence; past tense for past events

Conjunctions are used to indicate cause and effect: when, so

Technical vocabulary

This text example and many others can be downloaded and reproduced for classroom use from the National Literacy Trust website, Improving Writing at Key Stage 2 Participants’ area.

Non-chronological report

Purpose

■ To present information in an unbiased way that is easy to understand ■ Used as a source of information or reference ■ Clear, factual and impersonal

Audience

■ Someone who wants to know about something ■ Audience sometimes defined by interest rather than by age

Types

■ Reference texts

Typical structure

■ Logical order ■ Opening general statement ■ Paragraphs often begin with a topic sentence ■ Often organised into categories and subheadings ■ Other information provided to support text, such as images or charts

Typical language features

■ Formal and impersonal ■ Present tense ■ Generalisation ■ Detail where necessary – often includes explanations ■ Frequent use of expanded noun phrases ■ Technical vocabulary ■ Varied conjunctions and sentence openings for coherence ■ Passive voice used to provide formality and focus without personalisation

Non-chronological report

STRUCTURE

General opening statement

Paragraphs categorise information

Concluding statement refers back to the introduction and looks to the future

Penguins

Penguins are sea birds that cannot fly. There are 16 different types, or species, but they all have common features and habitats.

All penguins have short, thick feathers. They have white fronts and black, dark blue or grey backs. Some penguins have crests of long feathers on the sides of their heads and patches of brightly coloured feathers on their short, thick necks. Like most seabirds, they have webbed feet.

Penguins spend most of their lives at sea. They swim and dive with speed and skill. Penguins catch and eat fish, squid and krill. They come ashore at certain times of the year to mate and raise their young.

Most penguins make nests on the ground or in grass; some lay their eggs in tunnels. The female Emperor Penguin lays only one egg, and the male keeps it warm by holding it on his feet under folds of skin.

Some penguins are endangered. Pollution is damaging their environment and fishing fleets are catching their food. It is likely that there will be fewer species in the future if we don’t protect their ecosystem.

LANGUAGE FEATURES

Third person generic, so "penguins", not "Percy the Penguin"

Precise vocabulary – facts and figures

Present tense describes how things are

Nouns and verbs predominate

This text example and many others can be downloaded and reproduced for classroom use from the National Literacy Trust website, Improving Writing at Key Stage 2 Participants’ area.

Persuasion

Purpose

■ To promote a particular point of view

Audience

■ Someone you are trying to influence

Types

■ Advert ■ Newspaper editorial ■ Leaflet ■ Letter ■ Script

Typical structure

■ Logical order (often emotive) ■ A series of points building to one viewpoint ■ Paragraphs begin with a topic sentence

Typical language features

■ Personal and direct ■ Emotive and sometimes deceptive language ■ Emotive conjunctions and sentence starters for coherence ■ Feelings aroused through use of rhetoric and value judgements ■ Short sentences used for emphasis after a series of longer, complex sentences (e.g.

Let’s look at the facts.) ■ Can contain a mixture of sentences with different forms: statement, question, exclamation and command ■ Conjunctions in formal text are related to logic – e.g. this shows, because, therefore, in fact ■ Modal verbs and adverbs for degrees of possibility ■ With formal text, counter-arguments are set up to be demolished (e.g. Some people may imagine that…) ■ Punctuation and/or capitalisation often unorthodox or missing in advertising ■ Uses stock words and phrases like obviously, vital, vandal ■ In advertising, uses wordplay, rhythm and/ or alliteration, such as ‘Buy British Beef’ ■ Unorthodox spelling – e.g. Toys R Us

Persuasion

STRUCTURE

Clear opening statement

Arguments often in the form of point plus elaboration and reiteration

Summary and conclusion

Let’s build a new cycle path

Everyone in our community would benefit if we built a new cycle path. There would be many advantages for people of all ages and I am sure that when you hear my reasons, you will agree with me.

I believe the most important reason is about health. Far too many people are lazy and inactive, so obesity is becoming a major problem. When children and adults spend more time cycling, they become healthier. Riding bikes is good exercise, and being outdoors is good for your health too.

Improving our environment is another important aspect. Don’t you agree that an attractive cycleway will attract more people to our town? The roads will be less congested and people will be able to get around much more freely. This will be a massive improvement to our community. In addition, when people are out riding their bikes they meet with others and get to know them. Hopefully this will create a stronger, more cohesive community.

Finally, building a new cycle path will help us save some of the green space in our area. If we don’t work to save our green space, our town will be all concrete and tarmac and we won’t have trees and gardens.

Let’s build a wonderful new cycle path so that we can be healthier, create a more attractive environment, and build a stronger community. It is clearly the right thing to do!

LANGUAGE FEATURES

Value judgement words seek to influence the reader

Conjunctions are related to logic –e.g. in addition, if we don’t

This text example and many others can be downloaded and reproduced for classroom use from the National Literacy Trust website, Improving Writing at Key Stage 2 Participants’ area.

Discussion

Purpose

■ To present a reasoned and balanced view of an issue

Audience

■ Someone who is interested in an issue

Types

■ Essay on the causes of something

Typical structure

■ Logical order with introduction and conclusion ■ Statement of the issue, perhaps followed by preview of the main arguments on each side ■ Arguments for, including supporting evidence ■ Arguments against, including supporting evidence ■ Finally, a conclusion, which may come down on one side of the argument and includes clinching evidence

Typical language features

■ Formal and impersonal ■ Varied sentence starters for coherence, often emphasising contrast or causal connections ■ Third person or perhaps first person in conclusion ■ Present tense ■ Mostly active voice; passive used when identity of agent is not relevant (e.g. It is argued that…) ■ Conjunctions and adverbials relate to logic – e.g. as a result, alternatively ■ Rhetorical questions may appear (e.g. But is it right that…?) ■ Phrases that introduce evidence (e.g. This view is supported by the fact that…) ■ Cohesion developed with paragraphs linked by phrases that aid argument and counter-argument (e.g. There are those who argue that…) ■ Conclusion may be introduced by phrases such as: In conclusion… Weighing up all these arguments, I…

Discussion

STRUCTURE

Statement of issue

Arguments for, including supporting evidence

Arguments against, including supporting evidence

The conclusion usually comes down on one side of the argument, including clinching evidence

Forest futures

One of the most controversial environmental issues concerns the future of the world's forests. Debate centres on whether the forests should be preserved in their natural state or whether logging should be allowed.

On the one hand, conservationists argue that there is a need to stop the destruction of this natural resource. In Brazil, for example, the rainforest is disappearing at an alarming rate, depriving native tribes of their habitat and depleting the earth’s supply of oxygen.

On the other hand, developers claim that forests are a renewable resource and that humankind has an urgent need of the products provided by the forests, such as timber and woodchips. Moreover, the logging industry is a major employer and if logging were stopped, several thousand people would be out of work.

It would seem apparent that while some form of logging is inevitable in the short term, in the longer term we need to develop alternatives to using timber from natural resources.

LANGUAGE FEATURES

Use of third person/possibly first person in the conclusion – e.g. After looking at all the evidence, I… think…

Present tense

Conjunctions related to logic – e.g. as a result, alternatively, however, for example

Conclusion may be introduced by phrases such as - In conclusion… Weighing up all the arguments…

This text example and many others can be downloaded and reproduced for classroom use from the National Literacy Trust website, Improving Writing at Key Stage 2 Participants’ area.

Instruction

Purpose

■ To tell someone how to do something in as clear a way as possible

Audience

■ Someone who wants to know how to do something

Types

■ Recipes ■ Instruction manuals ■ Rules for games

Typical structure

■ Outcome defined at the start ■ Strict chronological order ■ Often in list form ■ Clear sequence indicated by bullet points, numbers or letters ■ List of equipment required to complete task ■ Often uses step-by-step diagrams

Typical language features

■ Simple, clear, formal English ■ Present tense ■ Usually second person and formal as reader may be unknown ■ Written with imperative verbs, such as take, use, do ■ Adverbials for time or numbers used for coherence ■ Generally, command and statement sentences, each covering one instruction ■ Punctuation often focused on full stops, commas and brackets when providing additional information, alternatives or examples

Instruction

STRUCTURE

Materials/list of equipment needed

Clear sequence indicated by numbers. Written in chronological order

Make a kite!

Things you need

Three pieces of cane (2 x 60 cm; 1 x 80 cm) Thread Large sheet of light paper (e.g. tissue) Soft pencil Scissors Paint and paintbrush Glue Strong string

What to do

The Frame 1. Dampen the cane to make it flexible. 2. Carefully bend the cane to the desired shape, then tie it securely with thread (see diagram). The Covering 3. Lay the frame on a sheet of paper. 4. Trace around the frame with a pencil. 5. Cut the covering approx. 1 cm larger than the outline. 6. Paint a bird on the covering (e.g. owl). 7. When the paint is dry, place the frame on the unpainted side. Now fold the edges of the covering over the frame carefully and glue them down. The Bridle 8. Cut three pieces of string, each 20 cm long. 9. Secure one end of each string tightly to the frame at the shoulders and tail of the bird. 10. Then tie the other ends in a knot.

LANGUAGE FEATURES

Present tense

Written in the imperative – e.g. lay, trace, cut

Short sentences, each one covering one instruction

Conjunctions relate to chronology –e.g. next, then, when the paint…

This text example and many others can be downloaded and reproduced for classroom use from the National Literacy Trust website, Improving Writing at Key Stage 2 Participants’ area.

Narrative

Purpose

■ To entertain

Audience

■ Adults, peers, younger children

Types

■ Traditional tales – fairytales, myths, fables, legends ■ Science fiction ■ Fantasy ■ Mystery ■ Adventure ■ Historical fiction ■ Contemporary fiction

Typical structure

■ An opening that establishes setting and introduces characters ■ A complication and resulting events ■ A resolution or clear ending ■ Plot or content have a chronology of events that happened in a particular order, although proficient writers may choose to change the order in which they tell events by using flashbacks

Typical language features

■ Written in first or third person (I, we, she, it, they) ■ Typically written in past tense (although can be written in present tense) ■ Includes descriptive language to create atmosphere and convey characters ■ Includes some dialogue to develop characterisation and advance the action ■ Includes characters with recognisable qualities, often stereotypical and contrasting (e.g. a hero and a villain) ■ May include the passive voice or pronouns to develop mystery ■ Varied sentence starters are used to maintain interest ■ Contains a mixture of both single and multi-clause sentences ■ Sentence length varies – longer sentences are used to move the story on, and short sentences are used to create tension ■ Contains a mixture of sentences with different forms: statements, questions, exclamations and commands ■ Full range of punctuation can be used ■ Uses conjunctions and adverbials to move the narrative along and to affect the reader or listener; to signal time (e.g. later that day, once); to move the setting (e.g. meanwhile, back at the…); to surprise or create suspense (e.g. suddenly)

Narrative

STRUCTURE

Opening that establishes people, period and place

Problem introduced

Mac’s Short Adventure

Winston watched rain pelt down the windowpanes in icy cold needles. He sighed. “This is just typical! School holidays and it rains!”

His younger sister, Hannah, didn’t answer and carried on rolling around the floor with Grandma’s dog, Mac, barking excitedly at her ankles.

A moment later, a key turned in the latch, the door opened and 16-year-old Sophie, headphones glued as usual to her ears, bounded upstairs shouting as she went, “Stay at the door, Trace, right.”

Mac certainly needed no second chance and was out of the lounge and into the garden before Hannah could get to her feet.

“You idiot, Sophe!” Winston yelled pointlessly at the retreating figure. “We’re supposed to keep him in. He doesn’t know his way around this end of town.”

Grabbing two coats, Hannah joined her brother on the step, just in time to see the black-and-white dog squeeze through an impossibly small gap in the hedge and start ambling up the road.

“No time to leave a note to Mum,” Winston decided, taking charge. “Let’s get him. The last thing Grandma needs to know when she’s in hospital is that we’ve lost her dog. Blasted thing!” he added under his breath. “Tell Sophe,” he ordered a surprised-looking Tracey. “And tell her it’s all her fault!”

LANGUAGE FEATURES

Third person past tense

Characters described through actions and dialogue

Verbs chosen to describe actions precisely

This text example and many others can be downloaded and reproduced for classroom use from the National Literacy Trust website, Improving Writing at Key Stage 2 Participants’ area.

STRUCTURE

Panic as problem intensifies

LANGUAGE FEATURES

Splashing through puddles, the two children rushed towards Mac. That was probably the worst thing to do because he decided they had come out to play a game. Wagging his tail vigorously and sending sprays of water onto the legs of a passer-by, he raced off towards the park.

“We’ll get him,” Hannah said confidently. “He’s only got little legs.”

“He’s doing all right on them, though,” Winston puffed, rounding the corner to see Mac turn down yet another street. “I just wish it would stop raining. My glasses are covered. I can’t see properly.”

Mac led his pursuers towards the gateway to the town park and set off at once towards the duck pond. He’d not had so much fun for years.

Winston and Hannah were close behind but cannoned round the corner straight into a woman pushing a pram.

“Watch where you’re going,” she yelled, stumbling but grabbing the handle.

“Sorry,” they mumbled.

Hannah got up and examined her cut knee. She looked as if she was going to cry.

“I can’t see Mac any more,” Winston announced when the woman had gone on her way. “I thought we’d catch up with him by the ducks.”

Adverbs used for description

Dialogue develops characterisation

Longer sentences move the story on

This text example and many others can be downloaded and reproduced for classroom use from the National Literacy Trust website, Improving Writing at Key Stage 2 Participants’ area.

STRUCTURE

A few minutes of racing along the sodden paths in the park finally convinced the children that they had lost Mac. But they could not give up yet. Winston was keen to keep trying. Hannah wanted to report him missing to the police. They both wished their Mum was with them. While arguing about the best course of action, they left the park and made their way up the High Street.

“We’re never going to find him by ourselves,” Hannah persisted. “I bet he’s frightened now. Poor little thing.”

“I should hope he is!” Winston said, rather unkindly. “Look at the trouble he’s put us to! Oh look,” he yelled. “A bus! Come on! Let’s go home and phone Mum.” Before Hannah could argue, he had pulled his sister onto the bus and paid their fares.

Later, Hannah did try to tell him that she had said the bus was going the wrong way but by then it was much too late. They both realised they were going east instead of west, miles away from their own estate.

Hannah burst into tears. “I’m so fed up,” she sobbed. “And I’m cold. And I’m scared because we’ll be in real trouble now. We’ve lost Mac!”

Winston tried to cheer her up but he’d never been very good at that anyway. The bus turned a corner into a small estate of retirement bungalows.

LANGUAGE FEATURES

Short sentences create tension

A range of sentence openers including time conjunctions moves the story on

A range of sentence types

This text example and many others can be downloaded and reproduced for classroom use from the National Literacy Trust website, Improving Writing at Key Stage 2 Participants’ area.

STRUCTURE

Peace: problem resolved “Oh look,” said Winston. “Grandma’s house. Oh –” and his voice trailed off as he gazed in amazement at a small, very wet and bedraggled black-andwhite dog sitting on the doorstep, waiting patiently.

The children tumbled off the bus at the next stop and charged back up the road.

“Mac!” shrieked Hannah, “we found you! You clever old thing. You came home.”

“I suppose he cut along by the old canal,” Winston said, “and that’s how he got here so quickly. Poor Mac. He must miss Grandma. Let’s get him home and dry him off.”

They didn’t have to wait long for another bus – this time going the right way – and were in the kitchen rubbing Mac dry when the phone rang. It was Grandma.

“They let me have the trolley phone by my bed,” she explained. “I just had to ring and see if poor old Mac is all right. I’m so worried about him.”

Winston and Hannah looked at each other. Winston shook his head. Hannah nodded.

“Oh you mustn’t worry, Grandma,” Hannah said brightly. “He’s had a lovely day. No trouble at all!”

LANGUAGE FEATURES

This text example and many others can be downloaded and reproduced for classroom use from the National Literacy Trust website, Improving Writing at Key Stage 2 Participants’ area.