The Ed Stu Issue 7 by Liverpool Hope University

The Ed Stu LIVERPOOL HOPE UNIVERSITY’S EDUCATION STUDENT NEWSPAPER ISSUE NO 7 | July 2022 VOLUME 1

Greetings from some of the journalists in this issue! From left to right see Colette Reid, Emma Baker, Andrew Burkhalter, Karenne Aspin, Hanah Nihah, Megan McGee, and Leah Smith.

REFLECTIONS ON EDUCATION STUDIES AND CAREERS AT LIVERPOOL HOPE Karenne Aspin and Chris Gallagher draw connections between their Education degrees and careers in Martial Arts and the Civil Service. POLICY DIRECTIONS IN EARLY YEARS AND HIGHER EDUCATION Education students Emma Baker and Andrew Burkhalter consider the shortfalls of policy

moves for ‘school’ and ‘job’ ready education in early years settings, and universities. IMPACTS OF PEER-TOPEER AND TEACHERSTUDENT INTERACTIONS IN EDUCATION First year Education students, Ben Foster, Hanah Nihah, and Colette Reid reflect on power dynamics in the modern classroom, and the relationships between teachers and students, and students and their peers, that can build student autonomy.

PLUS… CEPA Spotlight on Outdoor Education Hope Education graduate, Megan McGee, and third year Education student, Leah Smith show how outdoor learning practices can offset the damage caused by a risk-averse society.

REFLECTIONS ON EDUCATION STUDIES AND CAREERS AT LIVERPOOL HOPE Past and present students share their transformational experiences of studying Education at Liverpool Hope, and how to get the most out of your degree.

A reflection on Year One: applying educational theories to Martial Arts Studies Karenne Aspin, a first year student in Education and Health and Wellbeing reflects on connections between her degree and her role as a martial arts teacher.

Student questioning, persistence, and teacher scaffolding are central to success in martial arts, and illustrate the relevance of Freire, Dweck, and Vygotsky’s learning theories (Photo by Diogo Nunes on Unsplash)

A burning desire to embark on a career change led me to take the huge step of leaving my job of 13 years and join Liverpool Hope to study a combined Honours degree in Education and Health and Wellbeing. At that point I wasn’t sure where it would take me, but I knew that my recent experience of working with children and young people as a 2

developing jujitsu coach fuelled an aspiration to make a difference in the lives of our future adults. Here I reflect on how my first-year studies have shone a light on the application of educational theories and their relevance to a martial arts learning environment. In martial arts our learning environment is called a dojo, which translates from

“In martial arts our learning environment is called a dojo, which translates from Japanese literally as ‘way place’, and is more commonly referred to as ‘a place of learning’.” Japanese literally as ‘way place’, and is more commonly referred to as ‘a place of learning’. We often refer to our learning as a lifelong journey (journey being an alternative translation of the ‘do’ in ‘dojo’), not only focussed around a prescribed set of skills and curriculum, but as a way of applying the discipline we gain from learning martial arts, to our wider life and circumstances (Morgan, 1992). A philosophical theory which stood out to me in relation to this was Paulo Freire’s concept of ‘problem-posing’ education (Freire, 2005). Here, the belief is that learning should form a two-way dialogue between teacher and learner, where the learner is free to question the process, apply learning in context and critically analyse the learnings they engage in. Whilst much of Freire’s theory is related to surmounting the issues of oppression in society and freeing people from that oppression with education, the concept could be applied to the learning experience of martial arts, as both a student and instructor. A physical learning experience requires knowledge of the mechanics of techniques, which instructors have been trained in, so we must apply them to contextual situations, allowing students time to process what they learn. Students are encouraged to question

how the techniques work in practice and as instructors, we accept those questions, and often must consider the practicalities before providing suitable solutions, sometimes conferring with other instructors to clarify. This allows us to learn from our students questions, whilst providing them with the answers they seek. Each class is a unique, twoway learning experience adding to the rich knowledge acquired on our journey. Whilst considering the learning process, a psychological theory which I found relatable was Vygotsky’s zone of proximal development (ZPD). ZPD can be applied in sports coaching (AvelarRosa, Figueiredo and López-Ros, 2018), and defined as an area in a novice student’s development, somewhere between a task they can accomplish for themselves without help, and one they cannot accomplish even with appropriate help. This is an optimal area of learning opportunity, where an instructor initially provides a great deal of support and guidance in relation to a task, and gradually withdraws the support until the student can accomplish the task independently. In our martial arts setting, it was apparent to me that we apply the ZPD theory with both adults and children instinctively, by providing demonstrations, then allowing students to attempt techniques themselves, giving feedback and corrections and encouraging repetition until a satisfactory standard is met. This process can take many weeks and we see students grow in confidence throughout and with each new technique, as we gradually step back and allow them the space to practice their learning. At the end of a learning 3

“The learning process is a long one, with many years of practice required before a student can profess to knowing all of the required techniques to become a Sensei (teacher) and wear the coveted black belt.” cycle the final assessment of ability is at a grading examination where students demonstrate their learning to gain progression to a higher belt level, where the cycle begins again with a new set of techniques. The learning process is a long one, with many years of practice required before a student can profess to knowing all of the required techniques to become a Sensei (teacher) and wear the coveted black belt. Along the way, many students drop out as the level of difficulty and number of techniques to learn increases. It occurred to me when reading Dweck (2007), that a difference in mindset can play a large part in the journey. Dweck (2007) tells us that with a fixed mindset, a student concentrates on the outcome and how it will be assessed and they become averse to effort and learning opportunities for fear of making mistakes. A student with a growth mindset, however, embraces effort, seeks out learning opportunities and fixes

“It occurred to me when reading Dweck (2007), that a difference in mindset can play a large part in the journey.” 4

mistakes by exploring alternative options. It struck me that we regularly see this in the dojo in students who will attempt a technique once and see no need to repeat it as they ‘did it correctly’, however, in doing this what they fail to see is the journey that allows them to explore ways in which the technique fails, how they would need to adjust it and whether they could avoid that happening in future. A growth mindset is an important aspect of the learning process in martial arts. In this article I have highlighted a few areas of my first year studies which have had contextual relevance to my work as a developing jujitsu coach. It has been revelatory to me that theories relevant to classroom studies can be transferred and applied to alternative learning environments, and I hope to have the opportunity to utilise my studies to delve further into this area over the coming years. References Avelar-Rosa, B., Figueiredo, A., & López-Ros, V. (2018) How do novice learners construct knowledge in combat sports? A case-study. Abstract book of the 7th World Scientific Congress of Combat Sports and Martial Arts [online] pp. 18-19. Dweck, C. S. (2007) The perils and promises of Praise. Educational leadership [online], 65 (2), pp.34–39. Freire, P. (2005) Pedagogy of the Oppressed. 30th Ann. Ed. [online]. New York: Continuum. Available from: <https://envs.ucsc.edu/internships/ internship-readings/freire-pedagogy-of-theoppressed.pdf> [accessed 17 May 2022]. Morgan, F. E. (1992) Living the Martial Way. Barricade Books Inc.: New York

Learning as transformation at Liverpool Hope: some tips for current students Chris Gallagher, a 2019 graduate in Education and Music, explains how Education Studies prepared him for his career in the Civil Service.

A degree at Hope can help you to build important job skills, such as developing, sharing, and talking about ideas, planning for deadlines, and mutual support (Photo by Diego PH on Unsplash)

As a former student of Education Studies at Liverpool Hope, it must be said that, first and foremost, I have nothing but some of the most valuable memories from my time spent at Hope. From the wonderful tutors you have available to you, the genuine commitment to your learning, the supportive staff across all departments,

and of course the fellow students with whom you will share many a laugh! But what truly marks Liverpool Hope Education studies out from other universities and their respective studies? Why should you consider attending? Why would you ever consider taking a student loan? Why should that alarm be set for in the morning when 5

“I have nothing but some of the most valuable memories from my time spent at Hope.” you could have slept in? Why would you ever bother having to put yourself through the rigors of a dissertation? To put it simply, there are some things that can’t be taught from books or instructional videos, and Hope have done an excellent job at nurturing you as an individual in an environment that – if you put the effort in – you can truly thrive. You may have already heard the phrase “The Student Experience” used and thought not much of it. I would argue that it is the most important aspect of your time at Hope. Remember that time you worked on a group project together? I do, and I learned a lot about balancing people’s viewpoints with that of my own, and when to take a project by the reigns and when to let others shine. Remember that time you left yourself 3 days to complete a 2500 word essay? Yes, unfortunately I do, and never again will I let myself be so disorganised, and the value of sitting down to write ahead of schedule is that it won’t feel like such hard work (and you’ll get better grades). Do you remember the time the lecturer posed a difficult question to the class and there was this uncomfortable silence, and despite being somewhat reticent, you broke the silence and 6

everyone contributed thereafter? Yes, yes I do, and such a small act gave me a tremendous boost to my confidence when speaking in public settings. Do you remember the time a fellow student didn’t quite understand the referencing system and you spent time after class helping them? Yes, and being the one to help in the situation affirmed that I COULD help others. Do you remember how nervous everybody was when they had to present in front of class? Of course I remember, but knowing that your fellow students were just as nervous as you meant that it was perfectly normal to feel anxious, and that very same experience helped me conduct myself in front of interview panels with a degree of confidence I wouldn’t have previously had. You see,

“Remember that time you worked on a group project together? I do, and I learned a lot about balancing people’s viewpoints with that of my own, and when to take a project by the reigns and when to let others shine.”

whilst grades and deadlines may be at the forefront of your mind, don’t neglect the many opportunities you have for personal growth; of which, there are plenty. All of these many small moments comprise the “Student Experience”. When you yourself choose to be present, helpful, opportunistic and focused; not because anybody told you to but because you realised what a fantastic opportunity you have in front of you, and what a privilege it is to be surrounded by people willing to learn and support your learning. You could choose to do the bare minimum to pass, but why would you? Why settle for anything less than your own personal best? As you venture from student into the big wide world of securing a job, which believe me happens so fast, what will you put on your CV? All of the above experiences factored into my ability to conduct interviews, gave me the determination to keep going when facing rejection after rejection, and helped me on the continuous process of trying to better myself tremendously. I could not have gotten this far alone however. Having nothing but the deepest of gratitude towards my dissertation tutor, whom later became a referee, I can finally look forward to a career that offers stability and training, and perhaps the opportunity to progress in my field in the future.

“…choose to be present, helpful, opportunistic and focused … because … what a fantastic opportunity you have in front of you.” employers will respect, the prospects of finding work go up, and you will have the confidence to find your way. So enjoy your time whilst at Hope and take advantage of the opportunities presented to you. They will come in handy later on!

Education in its truest sense is a transformative action in the lives of people and I most certainly have been the recipient. In whatever field you choose to go into, and whatever you choose to do post degree, know this; it is never time wasted. At the bare minimum, you will have a degree 7

POLICY DIRECTIONS IN EARLY YEARS AND HIGHER EDUCATION Education students comment on current policy reforms across the education spectrum, and weigh up their influence on the impact and purpose of education.

Early years education in England: a call for reform Emma Baker, third year student in Single Honours Education, shares some findings from her dissertation project on current concerns about the ‘school ready’ early years curriculum.

Mastering maths and English is vital, but is there room for improvement in how this is approached in the early years? (Photo by Hybrid on Unsplash) 8

According to Melhuish, (2016) when Labour came into power in 1997, the state had a minimal role in Early Childhood Education and Care (ECEC). The local authority provided limited childcare- for “at-risk” children, but privately run nurseries and childminders provided most ECEC. Children of four years went to primary schools before starting compulsory schooling at five years. The process of free early education for three- and fouryear-olds was started in 1998 when Labour introduced 33 weeks a year of weekly hours of 12.5 for four-yearolds. This was extended in 2010, with the entitlement of 38 weeks a year of weekly hours of 15 for three- and four-year-olds. When the coalition came into power in 2010, they kept the entitlement of 15 hours weekly over 33 weeks annually for three- and fouryears- old of free early years education. Currently, there is a15 hours entitlement for all three- and four-yearolds, disadvantaged two-year-olds entitlement of 15 hours and 30 hours entitlement for eligible three- and fouryear-olds with working parents (House of Commons, 2022). Since 2008, most early years providers that contribute to ECEC must follow the requirements of the Early Years Foundation Stage [EYFS]. Parents are finding the funding system complicated and difficult to navigate, and private ECEC is not cheap and so not affordable to all families. There is also a great deal of concern that the curriculum and assessments within the EYFS can be detrimental to the young children in this system due to its strict performativity nature fed down from the government’s marketisation ideology.

There seemed to be an overwhelming opinion that whilst there has been increased attention on the inequality felt by young children subject to the EYFS, not enough has been done to solve this issue. Policies such as pupil premium go in the right direction, but more impact is needed on inequalities related to socioeconomic background, and the other inequalities young children are dealing with. In the following article, I consider three aspects of the EYFS that have drawn criticism, and explain why this has been the case. I. School readiness agenda England has a very formal education in the EYFS, and added to this children start school at five years old, which is early compared to other countries such as Finland. Whilst children at this young age learn a lot, there is an argument that this formal education at such a young age is not suitable for the wellbeing of children particularly as in other

“There is … concern that the curriculum and assessments within the EYFS can be detrimental to the young children in this system due to its strict performativity nature fed down from the government’s marketisation ideology.” 9

countries more formal learning is not started until children are older with a more holistic education and play being important in the early years. This raises the question as to the impact of the early starting age for formal education in England. The literature suggests a dominant discourse of school readiness in the EYFS. This means that these young children are being placed under immense pressure to perform well in their first year of compulsory schooling against strict Early Learning Goals. What is also becoming increasingly evident is that children are being judged on their normality due to the school readiness agenda. Norms in the EYFS are being used to ascertain if a child is school-ready, which is problematic because children are not all the same and do not develop simultaneously, without considering the inequalities felt by some children already, for example, students for whom English is an additional language (EAL). Thus, according to the literature reviewed, this can have connotations on the children’s well-being both at the time and later in their educational journey.

“…young children are being placed under immense pressure to perform well in their first year of compulsory schooling against strict Early Learning Goals.” 10

Some early years professionals and researchers feel that children have to deal with inappropriate learning and assessment pressures at a young age with no scientific evidence to back up for starting such an education at an early age. There is more evidence to suggest that it might be harmful instead (Too Much Too Soon.Org). ‘Opponents of an early school starting age warn that over formal education introduced too soon, maybe detrimental to children’s social well-being and long-term attitude to learning’ Rogers and Rose in (Cremin & Arthur, 2014, p.118). Therefore, questions are raised about policy makers’ pre-occupation with being school ready and how this impacts young children’s learning and development, with evidence that young children are labelled as failing instead of being just not quite ready. II. Curriculum demands and normativity The curriculum guidance for the EYFS is a set of norms that the child is expected to reach at certain ages, and that comes from developmental psychology (Pierlejewski, 2020). ‘Notions of normality which dominate early years policies’ (Fung Lee, 2021, p.275). Consequently, it seems children are affected by the dominant discourses around what is expected of normalcy and being school ready. Evans (2016), who was herself an early year’s teacher, uses the example of a little boy who is sitting with the rest of the class on the carpet listening to the teacher reading a story. He is new to the class and feels uncomfortable, so he shuffles back to a position slightly under a table. However, due to this not being one of the usual ways to behave-keeping hands to

“The school readiness agenda leads to early pedagogy becoming increasingly concerned about school readiness and preparation for the test-based primary school.” oneself, not fidgeting, sitting correctly on the carpet- he is reprimanded and told to move back to his place. These normative narratives and expectations do not consider though that the little boy still wanted to participate in the story but just wanted to feel more secure whilst doing it. It did not necessarily mean he was not ready for school. The logical conclusion is that school readiness should not just be based on these predefined practices, as the boy was seen as a deviant from the norm and expected to conform. “Readiness” is unpredictable, which educators should realise and provoke reflection on their practice. Therefore, norms should be challenged, not reinforced (Evans, 2016 & Fung Lee, 2021). The 2017 Bold Beginnings paper by OFSTED, which flagged up best practice in reception schools in England, privileged the skills around Mathematics and literacy- formal learning. ‘Bold beginnings re-enforces the political agenda that being “ready” for school is the best start in life for all children’

(Kay, 2021, p.07). Schools and teachers thus feel like they have to follow this as it is the best way of teaching, but then teacher autonomy is lost, and educational outcomes are prioritised (Kay, 2021). So, school readiness is measured in attaining Early Learning Goals: getting children ready to pass the phonics screening test at age six. The school readiness agenda leads to early pedagogy becoming increasingly concerned about school readiness and preparation for the test-based primary school (Roberts Holmes, 2021). Moreover, due to this, young children are being separated into different groups based on ability in order to maximise the required attainment, thus classifying and labelling children at a young age which it has been suggested leads to children tending to then suffer from poor mental health and well-being (Roberts Holmes, 2021). Kay, 2021 states however, not all countries, for example, Scandinavian countries like Finland, favour this school readiness agenda and instead follow a more holistic curriculum with less emphasis on testing and outcomes around maths and literacy. In 2015, the British government implemented a national baseline assessment policy for children at the start of their reception year (aged 4-5 years) in England’ (Archer, 2017, p.357). This was to measure school readiness, children’s outcomes and school accountability. In 2016 they withdrew their intention after the Better Without Baseline campaign. Nevertheless, it has since been reintroduced and statutory since 2021 (GOV. UK, 2021). According to (GOV. UK,2021) the reception baseline 11

assessment (RBA) will measure mathematics, language, literacy and communication through teacher assessed activity-based tasks. III. Inequalities in the system and datafication Due to Neo-liberal austerity being felt everywhere, early years premises have struggled more with funding and finances, meaning only essential staff to child ratios are maintained as extra staff cannot be afforded for little one-to-one activities for the more disadvantaged children (Simpson et al, 2017). ‘Research recognises that the quality of nursery provision for children in disadvantaged areas is of a poorer standard than in more affluent areas’ (Simpson, Lumsden and Clark, n.d, p.12). It is argued that children in the English early years education system are viewed as data- ‘A form which can be measured, compared and manipulated’ (Pierlejewski, 2020, p.253), moving from a child-centred approach to education to one centred on data. Positively datafication can lead to a better

“…children are being separated into different groups based on ability in order to maximise the required attainment, thus classifying and labelling children at a young age…” 12

knowledge of the child and enable better planning (Pierlejewski, 2020). Nevertheless, this is problematic for those children who do not fit into the norm, thus causing disadvantage. Pierlejewski, 2020 argues that the perils of dataficiation is evident in children who have English as an additional language (EAL). Their communication skills are not assessed in their first language, so they cannot demonstrate their development and attain the expected level of attainment because of being tested in English only. ‘The current society is a society in which British culture, British values and the English language are privileged- a society that is increasingly hostile to immigrants’ (Pierlejewski, 2020, p.257). As children are ranked not just on their ages but on their closeness to the norm, then if the child is EAL, the measurement might be incorrect due to the child not showing their “proper” development through not knowing all English words. Much of their intelligence could thus be hidden from the teacher, leading the teacher to make incorrect judgments as the norms depend on the English language being known. IV. Directions forward After over 10 years of development of the EYFS and its connected preoccupation with ‘school readiness’ of children at age 4 or 5, a big question is whether, in fact, a later formal school starting age would be beneficial. Some countries, especially Nordic ones, have a later start in formal education and some of the best educational scores globally, when tested by PISA at fifteen years old. Therefore, the later start to more formal education does not

“Due to Neo-liberal austerity being felt everywhere, early years premises have struggled more with funding and finances, meaning only essential staff to child ratios are maintained…” appear to have adverse effects. More research in other countries’ education systems may help to determine if there is anything that England can learn, and then implement, to give England’s young children the best start. Moreover, the EYFS would benefit from further research to see if it could be more adaptable to different children’s needs, rather than a one size fits all model that is currently operating.

House of Commons (2022) Early years funding (England) [Online]. GOV.U.K. (2022) Early years foundation stage profile [Online] GOV.UK. Kay, L. (2021) ‘What works’ and for whom? Bold Beginnings and the construction of the school ready child. Journal of Early Childhood Research [Online], pp.1-13. Melhuish, E. (2016) Longitudinal research and early years policy development in the UK. International Journal of Child Care and Education Policy [Online], 10(3), 1-18. Pierlejewski, M. (2020) Constructing deficit data doppelgängers: The impact of datafixation on children with English as an additional language. Contemporary Issues in Early Childhood [Online], 21(3), pp.253-265. Roberts Holmes, G. (2019) Governing and commercialising early childhood education: Profiting from The International Early IELS)? Policy Futures in Education [Online], 17(1), pp.27-40. Simpson, D. Loughran, S. Lurnsden, E. Mazzocco, P. McDowall, R. & Winterbottom, C & C. (2017) ‘Seen but not Heard’. Practitioners work with poverty and the organising out of disadvantaged children’s voices and participation in the early years. European Early Childhood Education Research Journal [Online], 25(2), pp.177-188.

References Archer, N. (2017) Where is the ethic of care in early childhood summative assessment? Global Studies of Childhood [Online], 7(4), pp.357-368. Cremin, T. & Arthur, J. eds. (2014) Learning to Teach in the Primary School. 3rd ed. Oxon: Routledge. Evans, K. (2016) Beyond a logic of quality: Opening space for material-discursive practices of ‘readiness’ in early years education. Contemporary Issues in Early Childhood [Online], 17(1), pp.65-77. Fung-Lee, S. (2021) Governing ‘Disadvantage’ through funded early years places and reconfigured spaces. Journal of Early Childhood Research [Online], 19(2), pp.267-280.

Industrial strategy and access in current higher education policy Andrew Burkhalter, first year student in Single Honours Education considers the shortfalls of policy moves for ‘job ready’ education in universities.

Job creation is important, but what gets lost from education when the government steers the function of universities towards economic growth? (Photo by Christian Wiediger on Unsplash)

British officials and policymakers have an extensive and noticeable impact on British education as they not only set the curriculum but also enact policy which, either directly or indirectly, affects academic institutions. These policies and curriculum standards can help and hinder students and citizens alike. Being an educated individual is beneficial and fulfilling, and is arguably more open to individuals now than it has been in the past. However, government officials seem to be supporting policies that may limit who has access to education in the future, as well as influencing what the goal of education should be. The government webpage for the Department for Education, states that the Department for Education’s priorities are to: ‘Drive economic growth through improving the skills pipeline, leveling up productivity and supporting people to work. Level up education standards so that children and young people in every part of the country are prepared with the knowledge, skills, and qualifications they need.’ Developing skills and promoting the economy is important, but increased commitment to this reasserts the perception that education is a form of capital. In policymakers’ current promotion of vocational skills, it could be argued that they are serving the government’s interest in fuelling economic growth. Furthermore, according to Richard Adams (2021), recently British policymakers have begun to consider increasing the entry requirements into university and capping student admissions. This is in response

to the Augar Review (2019) which analyzed the current economic status of tertiary education. The Augar Review listed out several possible avenues to take for recovering the system’s finances, but foremost heralded that: ‘We are clear that the system must support economically disadvantaged students - people disadvantaged by their family background or income, which may affect their opportunity to participate and succeed in post-18 education. This is central to achieving a post-18 system that fully plays its part in improving social mobility and is core to the panel’s principle that ‘everyone should have the opportunity to be educated after the age of 18’ (Secretary of State for Education, 2019). However, the proposed change to university admissions is in tension with the review’s forward and could increase hurdles faced by socioeconomically disadvantaged students in education who are not granted equitable resources. The education secretary, Gavin Williamson, stated that, ‘he found it “hard to understand”

“Developing skills and promoting the economy is important, but increased commitment to this reasserts the perception that education is a form of capital” 15

“In policymakers’ current promotion of vocational skills, it could be argued that they are serving the government’s interest in fuelling economic growth” why students unable to get a GCSE pass should be able to study at degree level at the age of 18’ (The Guardian, 2021). Statements such as these show a disregard for the greater challenges faced by disadvantaged students, and the fact that school performance is not the ultimate predictor of academic potential. The Augar Report (2019) also seems to draw attention to the fact that universities currently fail to invest in subjects that align with the government’s industrial strategy. This implies that, in the future, the economic desires of the government may take precedence in investment in university subjects, rather than a broad based

“…school performance is not the ultimate predictor of academic potential.”

commitment to those subjects that contribute to the public good in a range of ways. Much policymaking inevitably enacts the will of the government, while also serving the interests of the public. While the government is working to improve the quality of education, recent policies suggest that they have particular interest in the economic function of education, and may also restrict access to higher education for the disadvantaged. This suggests that action may be needed to reassert the importance of the humanities, and of equality of access to higher education. References Adams, R (2021) Ministers to overhaul university funding after long consultation, The Guardian, 9 July. Secretary of State for Education (2019) Augar Review of Post-18 Education and Funding. United Kingdom. Department for Education website: https://www. gov.uk/government/organisations/departmentfor-education/about.

IMPACTS OF PEER-TO-PEER AND TEACHER-STUDENT INTERACTIONS IN EDUCATION Who makes more of a difference to education? Our peers, or our teachers? Our student journalists get on the case, and offer some surprising findings.

Closing the gap between achievement and social respect for female learners Ben Foster, first year student in Education and Health and Wellbeing reflects on power dynamics in the modern classroom and calls for more praise of knowledgeability for all genders.

Equal support for expressions of knowledge from males, females, and non-binary students may help to build the self-esteem of learners. (Photo by micheile dot com on Unsplash) 17

When assessing a successful education it is important to look beyond solely academic scores and question whether or not pupils are being equally encouraged to build self-esteem, and to equate expression of knowledge with social success. In education in the U.K., girls are outperforming boys on many levels, however these successes do not translate into employment patterns that we might expect. In 2019, the employment rate for males of working age was 80.3 percent compared to only 70 percent for females. (Clark, 2020)

“…it is important to look beyond solely academic scores and question whether or not pupils are being equally encouraged to build selfesteem…” In 2020, the gap between pay amongst men and women stands at 15.4 percent in favour of males. (Clark, 2020) It is useful to look at education to see how it may be playing a role in these disparities. In 2001, Emma Renold conducted research that aimed at bringing the focus back from ‘underachieving’ boys to girls’ experiences of academic achievement. In the article Renold addresses the issue of an imbalance in focus between males and females, and that showed that there 18

was a tension in some schools between being ‘clever’ and being ‘feminine’. During Renold’s observations she concluded that although girls may often know the answer to questions, they would regularly not put their hands up and volunteer, as to avoid labels such as ‘square’. This was particularly evident in situations where girls may not have been convinced they knew the right answer - a behaviour that was not shared with boys, who would largely answer questions without the concern of ridicule when being incorrect. These findings suggest a lack of self-esteem and may shine a light upon potential failings in the education system in regards to preparing girls for life outside of the education setting. Although academic girls were often ridiculed by other boys during the process of the study, teachers also seemed to share such attitudes. Teachers were found to dislike and privately scorn girls for being knowledgeable. This is an attitude to learning that may have repercussions for a child’s self-confidence and result in girls not pursuing their full potential once out of the classroom.

“In 2020, the gap between pay amongst men and women stands at 15.4 percent in favour of males.”

“…academic girls were often ridiculed by other boys during the process of the study, teachers also seemed to share such attitudes.” Renold’s academic research offers a possible explanation as to why, in a recent study, women were found to be less likely to apply for certain jobs than men, out of fear of failing. This was the case even though more women felt they would be able to do the job well than men who took part in the study. (Mohr, 2014). These findings suggest that some women do not equate ability with social respect, and this seems to correlate with the internal struggle girls were encountering during Renold’s observations of classroom behaviour.

are linked to different experiences in the workplace for women, and further research is needed on the experiences of individuals with other gender orientations, such as non-binary students. However, Renold’s research, paired with the fact that disparity in workplace experiences do exist, suggests that more positive cultures around knowledgeability and selfexpression for all in education could be beneficial. These changes may have a part to play in closing the gap between achievement and social respect for all genders. References Clark, D., 2020. UK employment rate by gender 2019 | Statista. [online] Clark, D., 2020. UK gender pay gap 2021 | Statista. [online] Mohr, T., 2014. Why Women Don’t Apply for Jobs Unless They’re 100% Qualified. [online] Harvard Business Review. Renold, E (2001) ‘‘Square Girls’, Femininity and the negotiation of academic success in the primary school’ British Educational Research Journal, 27 (5), pp. 577-588.

We cannot know for certain whether gendered experiences in the classroom

“…positive cultures around knowledgeability and self-expression for all in education could be beneficial.” 19

Helping individuals to become themselves: insights from psychology of education Hanah Nihah, first year student in Education and Early Childhood applies humanistic psychology to discuss how teachers who accept, listen, and adapt to individuals can help students to build their autonomy.

Wellbeing and self-actualisation can happen in education when teachers listen to students and help them to clarify their interests. (Photo by Sharon McCutcheon on Unsplash)

The discipline of psychology can help to tackle problems in education because it makes the aims clearer and measures the probability that this aim can be attained (Thorndike, 1910). Psychology also does directly what sociology and history sometimes do more indirectly, which is to help to explain the changes that occur in human beings as a result of factors such as institutional racism and discrimination in general. 20

Some scholars seek to better a child’s experience of education by applying insights from psychology about the development of the self, in addition to tailored anti-discrimination initiatives. Positive education is a significant endeavour led by psychologists such as Martin Seligman, and that has the potential, if implemented inclusively, to develop every child’s curiosity, social skills, optimism, and creativity. Its

“Psychology … does directly what sociology and history sometimes do more indirectly, which is to help to explain the changes that occur in human beings as a result of factors such as institutional racism ...” practitioners aim to create an ‘education for both traditional skills and for happiness’, and to make this compatible with standardised testing (Seligman, 2009 as cited in Joseph, S, 2020). Positive Education can also be implemented in an attempt to lower depression and anxiety for young pupils and whilst the advantages are seen, some argue that it does not actually challenge traditional education and therefore that longer term, institution wide, programmes are actually more effective in raising wellbeing (Kibe & Bonwell, 2018 as cited in Joseph, S, 2020). Carl Rogers provided some insights about other approaches that might support happiness in education, advocating for what is often called a ‘person-centred’ approach. This personcentred approach is dependent on the

“Rogers … like Seligman, aims to reach a form of human flourishing (Eudaimonia)…”

pupil themselves, and one in which the teacher, through listening to the pupil, supports them to reach their own innate potentials and autonomous learning identities. In order for this to occur though, schools must be able to create a welcoming, loving environment that is accepting and non-directive. The non-directive component is perhaps particularly difficult to implement within the confines of current models of standardised testing. Some say that Rogers’ approach is a form of positive education as he, like Seligman, aims to reach a form of human flourishing (Eudaimonia) and to encourage students to work on what they are intrinsically motivated to do. However, Rogers’ theory is an ontological approach, calling for institutional support to be built around the learner, rather than moulding the learner to fit into the institution, which is where they differ. It is clear that psychological approaches to education have an important role to play in supporting the growth of a child’s agency, and, ultimately, happiness in schooling. Seligman and Rogers help us to see how changes within the system, as well as institutional changes, could help to enable human flourishing in schools. References Murphy, Joseph. (2020) ‘Positive Education: A New Look at Freedom to learn.”, Oxford Review of Education, 46, 5, pp. 549-562. Thorndike, E. L. (1910). The contribution of psychology to education. Journal of Educational Psychology, 1(1), pp. 5-12.

Teacher feedback, peer-topeer learning, and the domino effect of bad praise Colette Reid, first year student in Education and Health and Wellbeing draws on findings from current psychological research to show how teacher praise, and group learning, can be tailored for success in school settings.

Intellectual growth in the classroom is influenced by teacher praise and group learning opportunities. (Photo by Jonas Kaiser on Unsplash)

Some commentators argue that success in education is affected by the way a teacher praises, others stress the importance of peer-to-peer learning opportunities. An evaluation of the 22

work of Carol Dweck, with reference to that of Denis Erbil, suggests that a combination of the two may provide the best chance for students to thrive in the education system.

“Some commentators argue that success in education is affected by the way a teacher praises, others stress the importance of peer-to-peer learning opportunities.” Carol Dweck is a behaviourist who is interested in how to use praise to modify behaviour to achieve maximum effort, motivation, and, potentially, academic success. According to Dweck, the right kind of praise is praise for effort, which can lead to a growth mindset and, as a result, academic success. By contrast, praise for intelligence creates a fixed mind-set and more educational challenges. So how did Dweck come to these important conclusions? Dweck considered two groups of 5th grade students at an American school, with a range of age, gender and ethnicities included. One group were given praise based on intelligence following a task, such as “You must be smart at these problems” (Dweck, 2007, pp.36) The other group were given praise based on effort, including motivation and reliance, for example “You must have worked hard at these problems” (Dweck, 2007, pp.36). Dweck found that the group praised for intelligence were more likely to lie about results than the group praised for effort (40% compared with 10%), implying

higher resilience in the group who were encouraged to have growth mind-sets. The group who were praised for their intelligence therefore seemed to have more anxieties around making mistakes, possibly because of an underlying belief that their intelligence was fixed. Dweck also found that this group was more likely to choose an easy task and lost confidence and gave up on tasks. This concept is supported by Skipper and Douglas (2011), who found that in groups who were praised on intelligence, it was detrimental to their outcomes. Dweck found that the group given praise based on effort had increased motivation and resilience. Students in this group made more references to intelligence being defined with a focus on skills and knowledge, therefore something that can be improved with effort. The intelligence praise group, on the other hand, is more prone to characterise intelligence as intrinsic and fixed. A study by Jeffs et al (2021) backs this up with university-level research that indicated interventions centred on formative feedback enhanced motivation, finding that delivering effective praise creates a growth mind-set.

“Dweck found that the group praised for intelligence were more likely to lie about results than the group praised for effort…” 23

“The group who were praised for their intelligence therefore seemed to have more anxieties around making mistakes, possibly because of an underlying belief that their intelligence was fixed…” Other psychologists have studied motivation in learning. Whilst Dweck is concerned with the role of praise from the teacher, Erbil (2020) believes that the teacher is not the only factor in motivation, and should be seen alongside the team and group learning when optimising learning. He believes the group helps develop social skills, language, responsibility and can offer peer pressure that helps students to reach, and define, their academic goals.

“Erbil believes … the group helps develop social skills, language, and responsibility and can offer peer pressure that helps students to reach, and define, their academic goals.” 24

In conclusion, the research shows that a growth mind-set can be promoted with the right praise. This research could be repeated in education settings to boost growth mind-sets. It is important to educate teachers at training level to ensure they are aware, not only the positive effects of praise, but that some praise can be detrimental. It can be argued that the praise not only impacts the person receiving it, but peers who are present. So, if a teacher is praising based on intelligence and a student who is present is struggling to complete a task, it can be argued it could be detrimental to their mind-set also. References Dweck, C. S. (2007) ‘The Perils and Problems of Praise’, Educational Leadership 65(2), pp. 34-39. Erbil, Deniz Gökçe (2020) A Review of Flipped Classroom and Cooperative Learning Method Within the Context of Vygotsky Theory. Frontiers in psychology, 2020-06-03, Vol.11.

CEPA Spotlight on Outdoor Education Centre for Education and Policy Analysis (CEPA) AT LIVERPOOL HOPE UNIVERSITY CEPA is a University research centre, based in the School of Education, which supports and enhances research activities within the areas of educational research, policy, and practice at Liverpool Hope. We engage a broad range of researchers, our undergraduate, postgraduate taught, and doctoral students, and other stakeholders across education. These range from scholarly and professional associations to think tanks and the third sector. CEPA coordinates and showcases research across the educational life span, from early years through to lifelong education. Our work is primarily arranged around four research programmes: Higher Education, Teacher Education, Citizenship, Social Cohesion and Social Change, and Philosophy of Education. We also have two active interdisciplinary themes: Responsive Education and Ethics in Education. As with the University as a whole, we have a strong commitment to social justice and social activism. We are delighted to introduce the reflections of former and current Hope students on outdoor education. This is a mode of learning that is seen as vital to intellectual and emotional wellbeing, but to which access is increasingly limited. Our reporters seek, as Megan McGee aptly states, ‘to reverse this trend’. Dr Carly Bagelman and Dr John Tillson Co-Directors, Centre for Education and Policy Analysis (CEPA).

Preservation of learning outside the classroom in the U.K. Megan McGee, a 2019 Master’s graduate in education shows how outdoor learning practices from Denmark could aid OFSTED’s mission to enhance outdoor learning provision in the U.K.

Aarhus Art Museum in Denmark. Aarhus University is a centre for research on outdoor learning (Photo by Julius Yls on Unsplash).

England is currently witness to a decline in the practice of learning outside the classroom. By contrast, I argue that we should reverse this direction of travel. To do this, I propose that teacher education should include a compulsory module on outdoor learning and that outdoor education should be properly funded and supported by the UK government to provide schools with the ability to 26

offer excursions and trips with funding also allocated to support teachers in obtaining training in delivering classes outdoors. Without these interventions, we risk the practice of outdoor education becoming lost in the English education system, negatively impacting children’s overall experience in education and life outcomes.

“England is currently witness to a decline in the practice of learning outside the classroom…we should reverse this direction of travel” Outdoor learning refers to the practice of facilitating learning activities in an outdoor, natural environment. What does this mean? In this context, I am referring to activities in particular, natural places such as local parks, local beaches and local woodlands that can be accessed by children and their school. The main purpose of conducting learning in these environments is to use the environment as a real-life example to further children’s knowledge in how we may sustain and preserve these environments or to build an understanding of the inner workings of the environment scientifically. Furthermore, a study conducted by Aarhus University, Denmark (2019) found that children who grow up surrounded by greener, more natural environments have a 55% less risk of developing mental illnesses and disorders in adulthood. There are many children across England who will not have access to green spaces and whose first experience of a green space will be during a school trip. Children may not have access to trips and excursions due to socio-economic factors such as poverty or they may live in a suburban location that does not have those experiences to offer up.

An example of an outdoor learning practice is the Danish Forest School practice. The Danish Forest School practice looks at using the natural, local environment to conduct learning by using hands on experiences to actively engage children in learning. This practice has inspired some British practitioners to adapt it for use in this country. The Danish Forest School practice is arguably of great value to practitioners in England as it highlights the benefits of facilitating the use of the outdoor environment in children’s learning and how vital it is for children to have access to local, natural green spaces. The approach itself incorporates a method of ‘hands on learning’ in that children learn by doing, rather than observing. The growing appearance of the Forest School approach across England demonstrates the approach’s feasibility and in turn, amounts to a strong testimony for its value for young children.

“…children who grow up surrounded by greener, more natural environments have a 55% less risk of developing mental illnesses and disorders in adulthood.” Speaking of the decline of outdoor education in England, Barkham (2021) wrote about the unfortunate number of outdoor education centres across 27

“The Danish Forest School practice looks at using the natural, local environment to conduct learning by using hands on experiences to actively engage children in learning.” the UK that have been forced to close permanently or have suffered a significant loss in both income and staff due to the lack of proper, financial support from the UK government in relation to the ongoing pandemic. Tying into this, O’Brien and Weldon (2017) argue that at present, the current generation have less contact with nature and outdoor spaces compared with their parents and grandparents. An OFSTED report titled “Learning outside the classroom: How far should you go?” (2008) discovered that out of all of the schools and colleges visited, only three of these institutions had appropriately analysed the overall impact of learning outside the classroom in improving pupil achievement or adequately monitored the continuation of activities by pupils. OFSTED itself perceives outdoor education as a vital part of the curriculum and that the clearer more planned learning outside the classroom opportunities are, the more effective and beneficial it is to children’s learning (Skates, 2021). Currently, learning outside of the classroom is highly recommended in 28

practice and with this in mind, the following recommendations are made: 1. To develop an additional, compulsory module that facilitates a broad understanding of learning outside of classroom and provides newly qualified teachers with the muchneeded confidence to deliver lessons outside of the classroom. This can be done as a stand-alone module prior to placement but should also be offered to teachers in practice. This initiative will improve students’ chances of having teachers who are able to build upon their own experience and knowledge of outdoor education to confidently lead excursions and trips for their students and thereby deliver the benefits mentioned above. 2. To fund resources and support teachers need to effectively facilitate learning outside of the classroom. More specifically, greater funding for residential visits, trips to outdoor centres and training for teachers in delivering lessons outdoors.

“… an unfortunate number of outdoor education centres across the UK … have been forced to close permanently or have suffered a significant loss in both income and staff…”

References

“OFSTED itself perceives outdoor education as a vital part of the curriculum…” To conclude, the facilitation of learning outside the classroom is vital in children’s development and learning experiences. To be able to provide a rich, engaging learning environment for pupils is something that every teacher strives to achieve. Yet, our country has witnessed multiple closures of outdoor education centres and trips being postponed indefinitely due to the pandemic as well as the overall impact the lack of time spent outdoors has had on our children. To help reverse this trend and secure the benefits of outdoor education, I have recommended a compulsory module on learning outside the classroom for trainee teachers and for this to also be offered to teachers currently in practice as well as more funding for excursions to residential centres and outdoor trips.

Aarhus University. (2019). Being surrounded by green space in childhood may improve mental health of adults. Available: https://www.sciencedaily.com/ releases/2019/02/190226112426.htm.Last accessed 27th July 2021. Barkham, P. (2021). ‘We’ve fallen off the radar’: outdoor centres in crisis over lack of Covid help. Available: https://www.theguardian.com/ society/2021/mar/23/outdoor-educationcentres-crisis-lack-covid-support Last accessed 18th July 2021. OFSTED. (2008). Learning Outside of the Classroom: How far should you go? Available: https://www.lotc.org.uk/wp-content/ uploads/2010/12/Ofsted-Report-Oct-2008.pdf. Last accessed 27th July 2021. Skates, E. (2021). Learning outside the classroom- The OFSTED perspective. Available: https://educationbusinessuk.net/features/ learning-outside-classroom-ofsted-perspective. Last accessed 24th Nov 2021.

How to combat risk-aversion through outdoor learning Leah Smith, third year student in Education and Early Years shares her research into how particular types of outdoor learning in early years settings can offset the damage caused by a risk-averse society.

Outdoor education can offer opportunities for expressing emotion and real-life creative problem solving not possible indoors. (Photo by Yoshi Takekawa on Unsplash)

Childhood upbringings in the twentyfirst century are subject to heightened risk aversion, whereby ‘physical risk is more often seen as something negative and dangerous and to be avoided’ (Little and Wyver, 2008, p.34). This is commonly encouraged by parents and professionals, who protect young children from any form of potential risk and promote risk-free environments, often indoors (Nikiforidou, 2017, p.11). Yet, providing young children with risk taking experiences through outdoor learning is an essential element of children’s learning and development. The importance of the natural outdoor environment is one that educational institutions should consider due to the endless opportunities provided for risky play, stimulating children’s creativity, imagination and the development of many other skills and characteristics such as language facilitation, perseverance, self-determination, social skills and teamwork.

“Childhood upbringings in the twenty-first century are subject to heightened risk aversion…” I conducted observations in outdoor learning environments in a nursery in East Lancashire to build further understanding of the benefits offered by the outdoor classroom, as well as by two types of outdoor learning. The first was an ‘outdoor classroom’, an environment consisting of large concrete

“…an abundance of opportunities for children to engage in creative and imaginative play were apparent in the nature garden…” areas, including a track where bicycles and tricycles are used, a significant amount of artificial grass, manufactured play equipment, resources and a large sand house. The second outdoor learning context I observed was the ‘nature garden’ which is an environment surrounded by tall trees, woodland, logs, branches and consists of a rope swing, tyre swing, mud kitchen, wooden planks, real bricks, stones, water, mud, clay, tyres, and ropes. The nature garden encouraged children to obtain an awareness of the surroundings as the ground is very uneven and various obstacles need to be considered. The participants within the research study engaged in greater and more valuable risk-taking opportunities in the nature garden, whereby almost every opportunity involved some form of risk-taking experience for children to overcome to achieve a desired outcome. This is in accordance with Coe (2017) who suggests this is a result of the surrounding of woodland and trees in the natural environment, creating an uneven surface and many obstacles. All Sandseter’s (2007) categories of risky play were demonstrated by the participants within the nature garden. In contrast, risk-taking in the outdoor 31

classroom did occur, but it was not as prominent as children’s risky play in the nature garden, due to the manufactured resources and equipment which the children may have perceived as having a pre-set purpose. A lack of imagination and creativity was displayed within the outdoor classroom, endorsed by the manufactured resources and equipment, such as the balance bicycles whereby the children continuously travelled in the same repetitive loop, following a one-way system with no purpose to the play. Yet, an abundance of opportunities for children to engage in creative and imaginative play were apparent in the nature garden, such as children encountering real life problems and discovering different ways to overcome problematic issues using natural resources, such as deciding how to cross a puddle. When a large and deep puddle of water was found by the children, one set a challenge to get

“…the natural resources within the natural landscape did not have a pre-set purpose and instead enabled the children to give the natural resources a purpose which is suited for their play…” 32

across it without stepping through it. Two of the children went to find some bricks, with another making many trips carrying individual bricks to the puddle. Then one of the children exclaimed, “I have a good idea! I will put the bricks in the wheelbarrow because they are too heavy for me to carry”. This child steered the wheelbarrow but asked for help from their peer repeatedly as they got stuck in the many different sized divots in the ground, but self-motivation and persistence was evidently addressed and developed (Nikiforidou, 2017) as they overcame the obstacles and independently transported the bricks in the wheelbarrow. Thus, the natural resources within the natural landscape did not have a pre-set purpose and instead enabled the children to give the natural resources a purpose which is suited for their play (Coe, 2017). In my study, I also found a significant amount of learning can be achieved by applying indoor learning within the outdoor learning environment. The indoor environment sustains classroom expectations whereby children must remain quiet indoors and walk around the room sensibly. Yet, these classroom expectations do not allow children’s learning and development to be completely fulfilled, whereas the outdoor learning environment allows the learning and development to flourish. Children can accomplish fundamental gross motor skills including jumping, running and climbing, whilst freely expressing all feelings of emotion such as screaming with excitement and exhilaration. Participants within the research study had been focussing their learning on

“The indoor environment sustains classroom expectations whereby children must remain quiet indoors and walk around the room sensibly… whereas the outdoor learning environment allows screaming with excitement and exhilaration.” the story of the Gruffalo and carried this learning out within the outdoor classroom. The children moved in different ways to represent the different animals, whilst making the different animal noises, an element of learning which is unachievable indoors due to the classroom expectations (Ouvry, 2003). On the basis of the findings from the research study, early years settings that are already established, or those that are being set-up may find it useful to consider the importance of a natural environment to support risk-taking within children’s outdoor learning. An ideal natural environment is one consisting of woodland and trees with natural resources such as bricks, stones, water and the absence of manufactured equipment. A nature setting would be the preference for outdoor learning areas as the research study discovered

they offered the greatest opportunities for creativity, emotional expression, language facilitation, self-determination, and indoor learning was carried on and furthered outside. These types of findings could be useful to the government, schools, and other organisations to inform clearer guidelines in relation to the importance of providing children with opportunities to take appropriate risks. The increasingly risk-averse modern-day society would benefit from training, in particular parents and practitioners who have a substantially important influence on children’s learning and development. The training would equip the trainees with knowledge surrounding the importance and many benefits of risktaking experiences, ensuring children become risk aware and not risk averse. References Coe, H.A. (2017) Embracing risk in the Canadian woodlands: Four children’s risky play and risk-taking experiences in a Canadian Forest Kindergarten. Journal of Early Childhood Research [online], 15(4), pp.374-388. Little, H. and Wyver, S. (2008) Outdoor play: Does avoiding the risks reduce the benefits? Australian Journal of Early Childhood [online], 33(2), pp.33-40. Nikifordiou, Z. (2017) The Cotton Wool Child. In: Owen, A. eds. Childhood Today. London: SAGE Publications, pp.11-23. Ouvry, M. (2003) Exercising muscles and minds: Outdoor play and the early years curriculum. London: National Children’s Bureau. Sandseter, E.B.H. (2007) Categorising risky play how can we identify risk-taking in children’s play? European Early Childhood Education Research Journal [online], 15(2), pp. 237-252

Future Contributors Do you want to contribute to the January 2023 edition of The Ed Stu? If so, please contact Rosie Germain with your idea at germair@hope.ac.uk All ideas welcome.

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The Ed Stu T: 0151 291 3947 E: germair@hope.ac.uk Edited by Rosie Germain and designed by Liverpool Hope University Design Team.