Biodiversity in Fashion Fibres

Biodiversity in Fashion Fibres Liz Spencer MA Fashion & the Environment London College of Fashion Fall 2012

Contents 03 Acknowledgements 04 Introduction 05 Methodology 06 Key Issues 07 Homogenization of Fibre & the Ubiquity of Merino 08 Massive Monoculture Farms 09 The Loss of Genetics & Heritage 10 Cruel & Unnatural Farming Practices 12 Diversity Lost Within a Species- The Decline of the Naturally Coloured Alpacas 13 Cashmere Oversaturation & Degradation 14 The Loss of Specialist Fibre Skills 16 Solutions 18 Fibre Literacy 20 Fibre Networks & Marketing 22 Whether Imported or Heritage, Diversity Requires Some Smaller Scale Sources 24 Fashion Supporting Fibre Diversity Conservation 26 Fibre & Source Profiles 28 Alpaca 30 Llama 32 Paco-Vicu単a 34 Wensleydale Sheep 36 Angora Rabbit 38 Yak 40 Bison 42 Bactrian Camel 44 Musk Ox 46 Conclusion 47 Reflections 48 Appendix 49 Bibliography 52 Image Credits 54 Interviews 02

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Acknowledgements Naomi Stannard, Scott Harding & their lovely family & farm animals David Shih Rosa Hammersma Verity Cumming Laura Johnson Ambika Conroy Linda Cortright Chas Brooke Fran Soukup Gloria Smith Dana Locken Matteo Loro Jo Thompson Sal Pitman Lucy Orta Dilys Williams Nina Stevenson The Textile Arts Center MA Fashion & the Environment Peers Family & friends Sam Barrett, for your continued support & for buying our first sheep

Introduction Since the advent of the Anthropocene (a chronological term that serves to mark and give evidence to the extent of human activities that have had a significant enough global impact on the Earth’s ecosystems as to constitute a new geological era) humans have increased the rate of species extinction by 100-1000 times the background rates that were typical over Earth’s history. Additionally, projections put the average global extinction rate to increase another 10-fold during the current century (Planetary Boundaries, 2009). Animal species both wild and domesticated have provided fine fibre for craft, homewares, and fashion to human kind for thousands of years.

‘According to the United Nations Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO), over one third of the estimated 1400 breeds of sheep that exist on earth, are in danger of extinction. Fibers produced by the most endangered breeds have unique, irreplaceable qualities, and the animals themselves fit into valuable ecological niches’ (Ekarius and Robson, 2011). The preservation of their abundance and diversely rich presence on earth serves not only to benefit creatives and consumers within the fashion industry, but the livelihoods of nomadic herders, farmers, shearers, mill workers, and artisans worldwide. Not only that, but the health, stability and resilience of earth’s ecosystems requires that every breed, species and type of animal thrive in a balanced way avoiding human influenced monoculture.

Photograph from the mid-1870s, a pile of American bison skulls waiting to be ground for fertilizer.

In the early 19th century before the expansion into the west and plains region of North America, there were estimates of somewhere between 30 and 80 million bison roaming free. By the beginning of the 20th century the population had reduced to merely 541 animals because of commercial hunting, slaughter, and the introduction of bovine diseases from domestic cattle. The Yellowstone Wildlife Protection Act of 1894 which outlawed the shooting of bison in the park as well as the book ‘The Extermination of the American Bison’ (1889) by William Hornaday were instrumental in spreading public awareness on the importance of conservation of this unique fibre producing animal.

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Methodology This Masters Dissertation explores animal fine fibre production for fashion use and its effects on the natural physical environment, biological diversity, animal welfare and ethics, human economies, traditions of skill, and heritage.

Following the summary of pressing issues related to fine fibre production, proposals for solutions are presented. Primary research includes interviews with diverse fine fibre producers and industry fibre specialists as well as farm and mill visits. Secondary research includes fibre and farm industry websites, newsletters, magazine articles, reports and breed association information as well as animal fibre science articles and books. In order to education fashion designers and consumers on the various characteristics, performances, drape, handle, fineness, and natural colours as well as the associated ethical implications of sourcing these fibres, a knitwear collection was researched, planned, and made by the author alongside an informational booklet. This will encourage awareness among designers and consumers to the beauty of and viable use and consumption of these fibres.

Key Issues

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Homogenization of fibre & the Ubiquity of Merino

Moderation and balance is key for the health of ecological systems just as it is for individual organisms. Too much of any one thing can lead to toxic results, including the loss of genetic diversity, shared global economic opportunity, and a lack of fibre intrigue and richness. The use of a naturally occurring animal fibre such as merino wool is much encouraged over the use of synthetics because it is biodegradable and because of its low impact in care and maintenance as it requires less laundering and can be mended easily when compared with polyester or cotton. However, the merino sheep should not be the only source for which the fashion industry turns to for soft woven woollens and comfortable natural knitwear. At present, fashion knitwear is suffering a case of single-breed inundation. Merino wool has become ubiquitous on fashion knitwear rails and now appears often in all levels of the market from luxury labels like Pringle of Scotland, to the runways of Vivienne Westwood, to the shelves of Uniqlo. ‘Merino is a near miraculous wool, yet it’s easy availability means it is often used to make textiles for which another breed’s wool would be much more appropriate’ (Ekarius and Robson, 2011).

The centuries of breeding work that has contributed to the evolution of merino fibre fineness is something to be respected as the fashion industry and consumers alike have benefitted from and enjoyed the softest sheep’s wool on earth. It is prudent however, to ensure that designers and consumers have exposure to and opportunities to chose from the variety of fine fibre types available today, so that fashion knitwear does not fully succumb to the overwhelming flood of merino.

Obviously, the abundance of reliably consistent merino wool is difficult to resist particularly for the fastest moving sectors of fashion, but if designers and fashion brands don’t reach out to smaller and more diverse fibre markets, however disparate they may be, these unique and niche fibres may cease to be viable options.

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02 Massive Monoculture Farms Merino’s general softness is indisputable. Any animal fibre under the micron mark of 25 is suitable for garment manufacture and merino’s micron count varies from 10 to 22, with anything falling below 19.5 classified as ‘fine’ (Hallett, and Johnston, 2010). The majority of super soft sheep live in Australia and New Zealand. These two countries lead the world in fine wool production with 90 percent of the wool used in the global apparel market (<19.5 microns)(AWI, 2012), 88 percent of which is merino (Siegle et al, 2011). Most of this merino fibre comes from large industrial scale farms where painful yet necessary procedures such as mulesing are used alongside topical applications of pesticides, in order to prevent widespread lice, and pest infestation. Currently these are the only widely effective solutions available for farmers responsible for the health of thousands of roaming sheep and as a result, merinos suffer through improvisations imposed on them by intensive farming methods such as mulesing.

Over the decades, the merino has become a much improved breed for fibre production and fineness, yet unfortunately much has been lost in the way of evolutionary advantage such as natural disease and pest resistance as well as general heartiness and survival skill.

Genetic Diversity will no doubt be necessary for the future, as ‘the industrialization of agriculture has consolidated animals into standardized systems of production. These systems rely on climate controlled confinement housing, sophisticated husbandry,and veterinary support, chemical additives, and heavy grain feeding. Only a handful of breeds have acclimated to these systems’ including the merino on a massive scale,‘and though those breeds are highly productive, they are unlikely to adapt quickly enough to climate or environmental change, or to serious disease outbreaks. Monocultures of genetically similar animals may look good on spreadsheets, where short term bottom line economics is the main consideration, but they are like a house of cards that could collapse completely under pressure’ (Ekarius and Robson, 2011).

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03 The Loss of Genetics & Heritage The constant push for innovation and ever the present thirst for “new and improved” has defined many consumer markets including the fine wool industry. In 2010 the finest merino fibre ever recorded (10 microns) won the prestigious Ermenegildo Zegna Vellus Aureum International Trophy (AWI, 2012). The award is granted annually by Zegna, and centuries worth of artificial insemination selective breeding continues to result in finer and finer fibres to be applauded and then sent to produce a few choice suits for the luxury brand. Technological and breeding advancements have benefitted the Australian economy, but have come at a loss to animal genetic diversity and hindered the growth of other burgeoning fine fibre markets worldwide as a result of immense competition for worldwide fibre accolades. Each kilo of wool that comes from the back of an Australian merino sheep means that there is less need for local production of diverse, unique, natural coloured and sometimes ancient breeds of heritage sheep, alpacas, angora rabbits, yaks and other fine fibre animals.

With the majority of world wool apparel originating from Australian merino sheep, heritage or ‘primitive’ breeds which have been bred for their wool, meat and milking qualities over hundreds and sometimes thousands of years of natural evolution and limited human improvement, are being chosen less and less by fibre farmers.

Heritage, rare breeds, camelids and other ancient fibre animals have adapted incredibly with the varying landscapes and challenges of nature (Culpan to Spencer, 2012) which is something that merinos cannot claim.

These adaptations and characteristics are at risk of being lost forever if not safeguarded and conserved. The Fashion industry has a responsibility to help maintain worldwide genetic variability in fibre producing animals, not just for its own benefit of access to the amazing variety of high value and uniquely performing fibres, but for the integrity and maintenance of the biological richness that all life and the world’s ecosystems thrive upon.

Every rare breed is valuable, particularly those with fine fibre. The Bowmont is a rare breed that was nearly swept off the British map and their numbers had fallen to less than a flock of 30. Lesley Prior of Devon Fine Fibres, prevented the culling of the last unwanted sheep and has ensured a safe future for the breed. Their fleece is extremely fine, on par with some of the softest merinos and is now being used by the UK based surf apparel company, Finisterre.

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04 Cruel & Unnatural Farming Practices The thinnest of micron counts among all merino sheep wool is classified as ultra-fine, and was developed by the Sharlea Sheep Society, euphemistically called Sharlea wool, but realistically known as Shedded wool (Pollard).

Their wool may be the finest a sheep can produce (ranging between 10 and 17 microns, while most Australian merino averages between 20 and 22) (Ekarius and Robson, 2011), but the life that the sheep must endure is compromising and unnatural to say the least. The Sharlea method calls for sheep to be housed in the controlled atmosphere of hard slat floored sheds often times individually penned to control specific food rations, where each sheep wears a nylon coat to protect the wool. Feed is restricted to a bare minimum, providing just enough energy to maintain life, as the fibre produced from underweight, malnourished sheep is lower in micron count (RSPCA, 2008). Sheep along with most fibre producing animals are social flock creatures who when grazing naturally in open acreage spend about 50% of their day foraging. Sharlea sheep, particularly when single penned which is common, ‘show signs of stress and boredom by swaying, chewing the bars of their pens and pulling wool’ (Edwards, 2007).

The practice began in the late 1970s and has grown due to the lucrative nature of the practice, and now makes up 12 percent of the Australian wool market (RSPCA, 2008). ‘The pinnacle of the wool industry’ (Pollard) produces mainly for European brands for blending with silk and cashmere to create luxury fashion garments.

Upon interviewing the specialist of raw materials of Zegna brand Matteo Loro, it became clear that the ethical and natural treatment of fine fibre producing animals is becoming an issue of concern, yet still not concerning enough to refuse the wool that results from shedded sheep.

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The first move in what hopes is a progression towards the abandonment of the practice, was the decision in 2011 to restrict the awarding of the Zegna annual wool trophy to sheep who have not undergone mulesing and who are not singled penned (Loro to Spencer, 2012). Zegna, and other luxury wool brands like Loro Piana, still purchase wool from Sharlea producers as well as from mulesed sheep as currently the supply is consistent, easily accessible and clean.

The lengths to which this sector of merino fine fibre farming will go seems at times absurd, when there exists fibre of equal fineness and potential, farmed naturally or living in the wild from animals like the musk ox of Canada and the Arctic (fibre as low as 10 microns), and the yak of Tibet and Mongolia (fibre as low as 14 microns) (Ekarius and Robson, 2011). As opposed to looking to what nature and man have collectively refined over a millennia and more, fashion in the pursuit for finer fibre has developed the ultimate standardisation of fibre production at the disadvantage of biodiversity and wellbeing of animals. With a bit of engagement from fashion brands, the profile of a fibre like Yak or Qiviut (musk ox) could gain exposure to knitwear designers and consumers thus stimulating the regional economies of the peoples who have traditionally kept and lived in tandem with these magnificent animals.

Fibre from the arctic dwelling Musk Ox is known as Qiviut by the native Inuit people.

The fibre is just as soft as Sharlea merino and much warmer. For this reason, the fibre is suited well to blending as a little bit of qiviut goes a long way. Musk Oxen unlike Shedded sheep, are free to roam and are integral to the fragile ecosystem of Northern Canada, Alaska and Greenland, and the sale of their fibre provides supplemental income for native people.

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05 Diversity Lost Within a Species-

The Decline of The Naturally Coloured Alpacas Of the various animals highlighted in this study, alpaca fibre currently has the most potential to supplant some of merino and cashmere’s stronghold share on fashion knitwear. Unfortunately like merino it faces a similar shameful story of genetic loss, as the fashion market demands and pressures have almost completely eradicated the variety of natural colours available. Alpacas have successfully spread to many other countries including the UK, US, Canada and Australia, but South America is home to the majority (over 99 percent) of the world’s 4 million plus alpacas. (to compare there are over 120 million sheep in Australia alone, and China is home to 40 million cashmere goats)(Ekarius and Robson, 2011). Today, most of the 200,000 small scale farmers in South America have no choice to sell or kill for meat their non-white fleeced alpacas. Unfortunately, just ‘five Peruvian companies now buy 95% of alpaca fibre, the majority going for export’, using only lighter fibres to save on costs of sorting and to ensure ease of chemical dyeing. The result is a population of coloured alpacas that has declined by 90% in the last 10 years (Morton, 2010). Many exporters of alpaca fibre in Peru claim to ensure ‘naturally occurring coloured’ fleece, when in fact what is being sold is clearly white that has been dyed dark or mixed with dark fibre (Lord to Spencer, 2012). Diversity is not only important among different species of fibre producing animals, but also crucial to uphold within a species. The alpaca is the only fibre animal with such a varied colour card credential, outnumbering the shetland sheep and angora goat, with 22 officially classified natural colours (Ekarius and Robson, 2011) and to lose such a unique genetic characteristic as a result of fashion demands for homogeneity would be a terrible, yet preventable outcome.

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06 Cashmere Oversaturation & Degradation Cashmere, like merino has grown in availability as well as dropped in price and quality tremendously since the abolishment of trade restrictions by the WTO of importations of the fibre from China to Europe in the late 1990s (Siegle, 2001). The Chinese now process the bulk of cashmere themselves, where historically it was kept in check and processed on a limited scale in Scotland and Italy in family run specialist mills. The subsequent flooding of the market with dramatically price reduced cashmere garments on an unprecedented scale has changed the physical and climactic conditions irreversibly in China and Mongolia. The more than 30 million cashmere goats contribute to massive desertification and deforestation transforming fragile ecosystems, as the land cannot support such unnatural concentrations of voraciously hungry ruminants that eat plants root and all and whose sharps hooves break up the soil unlike that of the more naturally suited native, the camel (Osnos, 2006).The worldwide trend to homogenization of fibre animals and the immediate profit of the cashmere boom has also persuaded many Chinese and Mongolian camel herders to abandon the animal, that is well suited to desert and prairie dwelling thanks to its padded foot and less damaging grazing habits.

Quality reduction has also been a problem as a result of the cashmere goat boom in China as ‘hungry goats are sprouting shorter, coarser, less valuable fleece’ (Osnos, 2006). Cashmere fibre’s average micron count has slowly crept up, damaging future fine fibre integrity that cannot be regained after lost through intensive mixed breeding (Siegle, 2011). The irreversible effects of the democratisation of one particular luxurious fibre whose supply was limited to begin with highlights the necessity of biodiversity in fibre types worldwide to meet fashion’s natural knitwear needs.

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07 The Loss of Specialist Fibre Skills With the advent of globalisation and the eclipsing of fibre diversity and regionalism by big Australian merino and Chinese cashmere, the last few decades have seen a considerate decrease in specialist fibre skill worldwide and a condensing and concentrating of that knowledge in centralised locals primarily China and Southeast Asia. Importing all fine fibre from southern hemisphere sheep not only treads quite a carbon footprint, but continues to cause ‘a loss of highly valued specialist skills, including at the grassroots level and in local sheep farming (Ravaiso, 211). This leaves farmers with fewer fibre specialists and apprentices to carry on the trade and oftentimes without even the facilities in which to process and mill their fibres at an affordable cost. It is not just the low wage fibre processing in China that has contributed to a loss of textile mills and processing facilities worldwide, but the ubiquity of merino has led to lost knowledge of how to properly process these unique fibres.

‘Few producers are in fact familiar with the qualities of other sheep breeds’ wools’ (Ravasio, 2011). Many of the small fibre farmers interviewed that provided yarn for this collection faced difficulty finding a mill to properly sort, de-hair, wash, card and spin their valuable fleeces to a standard deserved of the luxurious nature of their fibre. Some found that the adequate facilities no longer exist, or it remains difficult to find processors that will accept smaller batches.

Pendleton woollen mill is one of the last big specialist heritage mills left in the US. The landscape for small scale fibre farmers is oftentimes quite difficult, as ensuring that the final product has been dehaired thoroughly, sorted adequately and spun evenly especially when in thin yarn weights can be quite a challenge. Most large mills require large minimums which is nearly impossible for small fibre farmers, particularly those focusing on unique animals such as llama, or paco-vicuña.

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Solutions

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01 Fiber Literacy At present, most of the fibres featured in the collection created alongside this research are being sold primarily to hand knitters, much of which is lying idle in yarn baskets or being hand knit by fibre savy individuals who value it enough to justify the warranted higher yarn cost. An establishment of a basic and sound fibre literacy among consumers and more importantly with knitwear designers will lead to a healthier and more diverse fibre balance in garments. Efforts made by the “Campaign for Wool” aim to educate the consuming public that not only the country of manufacture makes a difference but that their choice of fibre does as well. Effective slogans like that of the NHS’s ‘5-A-Day’ campaign to encourage diversity in fruit and veg consumption may mirror well in educating on diversity in clothing fibres. ‘Is there variety in the types of fibres that fill your closet? Do you know what your knitwear is comprised of, and if so do you know what type of sheep or where it came from?

Progress in how to communicate the varied wonders of these luxurious fibres to the consumer is needed. Like for example, the Campaign for Wool’s ‘8 Unwooly Reasons For Loving Wool’ hang tags, the mode need not be complicated, just informative yet digestible.

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Young fashion designers must also understand that fine fibres come at an initial premium cost for reasons more than just the superior softness of the fibre, but also because they are lower maintenance requiring less laundering, have incredible heat regulating abilities, are produced at a slower rate than synthetics, and because they come from the renewable source of a living animal that gives back to the natural world ecosystem. Unique fibres may be more expensive initially, but their longer average lifecycle, amazing handle and drape and as well for the reasons mentioned previously, their value more than makes up for the initial investment by the designer and consumer.

Opportunities for fashion students to work with these unique yarns must become more frequent so that they might create a future demand from worldwide niche fibre markets. The Alpaca Owners and Breeders Association has created an annual competition that links local farm sponsors with foundation and undergraduate level fashion students from schools such as Fashion Institute of Technology in New York and Art Institute of California, encouraging students to create and design with US grown alpaca.

In addition to student based competitions involving fine alternative fibres such as alpaca, curriculums such as Rebecca Burgessâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; Restoration Education module will translate well to the subject of fibre and biodiversity. Her format stresses the importance of locality and the interdependence of various plant species and natural processes which is made apparent to students through hands-on activities based lesson plans.

19 (right) The work of textile student Megan Foley from Philadelphia University. Her sponsorship (above), from the local Sunset Hills Alpaca Farm organized through the Alpaca Owners and Breeders Association annual competition, exposed the budding designer to a unique, local & sustainable source of fibre in various colours.

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02 Fibre Networks & Marketing Another issue that many alternative fibre farmers, including some interviewed for this research face is how to effectively market and advertise the unique and superior quality and care that goes into their fibres. As one would imagine, most farmers do not have the extra time or expertise, nor do they necessarily take joy in marketing their fibre. Over the last few decades, many have found outlets through the new age home spinning and craft knitting revivals, but in order for these fibre niches to expand further and grow steadily, the fashion industry should add extra support. It is the suitable next step in ensuring the stability and reinvigoration of garment fibre diversity. More than half of alpaca owners ‘see marketing issues of their fleece or products as the main challenge they face’ and almost ten percent express their concern about the challenge of finding outlets for the increasing volumes of fibre they produce, ‘further illustrating that an economic return is desired’(Alonso, 2009).

After visiting the Keshini Fiber Farm in rural upstate New York to interview owner Ambika Conroy and see her 20 plus animals (primarily angora rabbits as well as angora goats, and merino cross sheep) and fashion studio, she explained that many of the local small fibre farmers not only have difficulty marketing their fibre to enthusiasts, but also have trouble connecting with fashion designers in the city, who already express the desire to source diverse fibres farmed ethically and locally. She straddles both worlds of fibre farming and fashion design, and sees an unbridged gap between the land of plentiful and high quality local sources and conscious fashion designers. Her hope is to play an intermediary role by collectively sourcing local like fibres to be processed nearby and exposed to America’s fashion capital, less than 100 miles away at a price that will profit the farmer, the women spinning in a cooperative format, and the designers.

Along with building fibre networks among New York City fashion designers in search for fine fibres with regional farms and mills, Ambika also runs an ethical angora rabbit farm. All her animals are shorn by hand, the yarn is spun by a cooperative of women working from home and then knit into accessories that she cleverly markets as ‘friendly furs’.

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This will ensure there is no risk of fibre being thrown away (which shockingly is sometimes the case with farmers who focus on showing and breeding instead of subsistence from fibre sales) or fibre being used to make poorly crafted or kitschy products.

Fibre networks and concepts such as that of the initial Fibershed Project in Northern California run and established by Rebecca Burgess, ‘support the creation of bioregional textile cultures that enhance ecological balance, interdependent community economies, and organic agriculture’ (Fibershed.com, 2012) and stress the fact that fine, world class, quality fibre mustn’t necessarily come from an Italian mill or an Australian sheep.

Part of Merino’s success has been the support and backing of the industrial body and organization of AWI (Australian Wool Innovation), the creators of the Woolmark logo which has become a recognized symbol of wool consumers ensuring quality. ‘Alpaca United’, created in 2011, aims to ‘market and promote alpaca as a luxury fiber on a par with cashmere, mohair and vicuña’ and create a brand identification scheme like that of Cotton International (Textile World News, 2011). Such a scheme for developing niche fibres such as yak, camel, qiviut and paco-vicuña could greatly increase consumer and designer awareness and interest.

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03 Whether Imported or Heritage,

Diversity Requires Some Smaller Scale Sources The success of the importation of Alpaca from South America to many different countries world wide and the formation of new breeds such as the Paco-VicuĂąa in the US, has done much to preserve the naturally occurring colours and favorable genetic characteristic such as fibre density, fineness and disease resistance. When sourced locally, fibre is likely to be farmed in an ethical manner, and on a smaller scale, thus it is also more likely that the fibre hails from a biologically diverse surrounding and not from a monoculture environment. It is still important however to continue the development of regionally specific, and rare breed fibre animals all throughout the globe particularly those that are multi-purpose and nomadic in nature such as the camel, llama, yak, and alpaca, as the people who rely on these are often in most need of foreign market stimulation. When acquired from a non-local source however, designers should still take care to source limited amounts of fibre from cooperatives and/or small holder farms that process locally to environmental and ethical standards.

In order for the world fibre map to remain diverse and for a balance to be realigned, local processing and adequate communication must be available wherever the animals and farms exist to incentivise yarn production and bring a fairer price to the farmer for their higher quality goods.

Both The Natural Fibre Company and Toft Alpaca process local rare breed sheeps wool, alpaca, and mohair as well as offer â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;share schemesâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; to their customers who are not able to meet the average 20 kilo mill run minimums. Sue blacker of The Natural Fibre Co. (left) oversees yarn finishing, and Kerry Toft (right) aids in alpaca fibre colour sorting.

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To achieve regionally situated alternative fibre production, study of research such as Amber Bieg’s ‘The Case for a Northern California Textile Mill’ (2012) and vertically integrated operations like Toft Alpaca in the UK and Mongol Textile Ltd. in Ulaanbataar, Mongolia can inspire the formation and development of thriving fibre networks. When ‘mini mills’ or amateur spinning operations fail to produce proper results, which many fine fibre farmers including those I have interviewed experience, they could benefit much instead from open cooperation with each other to meet batch minimums for spinning. The Natural Fibre Co. owned by Sue Blacker of Cornwall UK, has devised such a scheme where small fibre amounts from various farms can be baled together, sorted for colour and type, and spun at an affordable rate for the farmers and at a profit for the mill. This cooperative style spinning would also allow fibre farmers exposure to industry expertise from these larger more experienced mills and could act as a more efficient development of fibre networks.

Although alternative fibres will and should not be a replacement for merino and cashmere garments altogether, the addition of these fibres will only add to the richness of the current fibre offerings to designers and consumers. For instance, yak and camel down are quickly garnering interest from Western markets (and soon, hopefully the immense local and growing Chinese markets) ‘due to the recent increasing price of raw cashmere, the increase in deforestation and its wide-spread availability on the International market so that what was once an exclusive luxury fibre has now become commercial and sometimes untrustworthy’ (Gentzane McCulloch Damm, 2011). Cashmere will continue to be an important fine fibre in the world’s luxury fashion knitwear, but yak and camel can offer local farmers and markets additional and more environmentally sound options for fine fibre.

The vertically integrated mill, Mongol Textile has focused on local fine fibre markets and supporting native alternatives to big cashmere such as yak and camel down.

Nomadic herders sell their combed fibre direct to the mill in Ulaanbaatar. The mill is now receiving much interest from western markets.

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04 Fashion Supporting Fibre Diversity Conservation Throughout the world one breed of farm animal becomes extinct every month. Organizations such as the Rare Breed Survival Trust in the UK, The SVJ Foundation in the US, The Animal Genetics Training Resource in the southern hemisphere countries, university animal science programs such as LARS (Large Animal Rescue Station) at the University of Alaska Fairbanks in the US, and the numerous individual breeders associations worldwide such as the Wensleydale Longwool Sheep Breeders Association are working to make sure that extinctions do not continue. (see bibliography for a full list of world wide associations committed to diversity conservation).

Traditional and regionally specific breeds of animals not only provide lustrous, soft, and heat regulating comfort for the wearer or their fibres, but can also support rural communities from the sale and use of their fibre, meat, milk, and contribute to the vitality of soils in grasslands, mountain areas, and agricultural fields with the fertilization of their droppings. ‘The sustainable use and improvement of indigenous breeds has been justified on the grounds that they are already adapted to local conditions’ (AGTR, 2011) and their continued breeding is of great importance for the maintenance of genetic diversity. More diversity in the gene pool provides a much better shot at adapting to inevitable changing global climate and biological conditions (Ekarius and Robson, 2011). Apart from wild fibre animal extinctions caused by hunting and loss of habitat one of the main reasons for irretrievable domestic breed loss is ‘when they are considered to be commercially non-competitive’ (AGTR, 2011). It is easy to understand how easily merino and cashmere could edge out rare breed wool and other alternate fibres.

Rare breed sheep in the UK are categorized in varying levels of threat and population density by the Rare Breed Survival Trust. These rams of ‘Spring Grove Alpacas and Rare Breed Sheep’ (left) in Somerset, England have many invaluable fibre characteristics such as colour diversity, luster, length or staple, and strength. The logo (right) is that of the University of Alaska at Fairbanks’ conservation effort devoted to the native Musk Ox.

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In addition to these independent and not-for-profit associations such as the Sheep Trust, conservation efforts from the large fashion companies that already source these fine fibres or could stand to gain for the exclusive rights to specific breeds or fibre types could lead to healthier and more stable populations of wild and domestically kept fibre animals. Zegnaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Vicuna Consortium is a shining example of conservation efforts, aiding in the revitalization of the Vicuna population in Peru by working with government and local communities to pledge the end of poaching in exchange for rights to bi-annual shearing and trading of the fibre to the luxury Italian fashion company. The population of wild vicuĂąa is once again thriving (up to at least 170,000 from less than 5,000 animals when the project began in the late 1980â&#x20AC;&#x2122;s) (Loro to Spencer, 2012).

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Fibre & Source Profiles All natural fine fibres included in this showcase collection are biodegradable, and have not been dyed.

They require less washing and laundering than synthetic fabrics and other natural fibres such as cotton.

An airing out or a bit of steam while laying flat will substitute for laundering and return the fibre to its original state.

Laundering less also prolongs the life of a garment and significantly reduces water and energy use over its lifetime.

As most of these fibres come from small farms or sometimes sourced from the molting of wild animals, they are typically expensive and in shorter supply. The premium price is for the soft texture and handle, their durable and low maintenance nature, their rich depth of colour, and the knowledge that all involved (animal, farmer, processor) are ethically treated and fairly compensated. Most of these fibres also differ from synthetics and conventional wool in that they exhibit the â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;blooming effectâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;. The more wear and movement they experience, the more relaxed, less stiff, softer, and supple they become. It is not suggested that these fibres become a replacement completely for merino or cashmere, but are suggested as an alternative when the desired result is added intrigue, beauty, luxury and ethics to valued knitwear garments.

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Alpaca Population and Distribution: The majority of the 3 million alpacas found in the world today inhabit the high plains regions of Chile, Bolivia, and Peru. Many, small, independent alpaca farms are establishing in the UK, the US, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand.

Processing: 22 naturally coloured shades from black to brown to fawn, grey and white. Unique and desirable fibre with a swingy drape, and a supple and silky texture. Unlike lost fine fibre animals, the alpaca has no guard hair, so all of the fibre is useable in fine yarn manufacture. The lack of guard hair also reduces energy in processing.

No lanolin or grease- less water and energy use in production.

To Consider: Alpaca must be knit or woven with consideration to prevent a garment from sagging or drooping because of its slinkiness. Proper gauge and tension is required.

Ninety percent of the worldwide alpaca population is white and the coloured population has decreased 80 percent in the last 2 decades due to demand for consistently white and easier to dye fibre from the fashion manufacturing industry. Ordering naturally coloured alpaca can ensure that the valuable diversity of colours does not become extinct, however take care in guaranteeing that the colour is certifiably natural, as much exported alpaca that is marketed as having â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;natural colourâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; is actually white fleece that has been dyed.

Sustainable Features: Like all the camelids featured in this research, the alpaca has padded feet that are more ecologically considerate to the ground they tread, and do not contribute to soil erosion and desertification. On average the alpaca produces the most amount of fine fibre per animal than any other fine fibre producing animal including merino sheep.

The fine fibre produced yearly by one alpaca is enough to make 3-6 cardigans and can be as fine as 18 microns, averaging like Australian merino in the low 20s. Alpacas can also tolerate harsh conditions and it has proven a successful transplant in a diverse array of climates and surroundings.

Fibre Provenance for dress: UK Alpaca www.ukalpaca.com info@ukalpaca.com Vulscombe Farm, Vulscombe Lane Pennymoor, Tiverton Devon EX16 8NB UK 01884243579 28

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Llama Population and Distribution: In North America between 150 and 300,000 animals, 3 million in Peru and 300,000 in Bolivia.

Processing: It is a coarser fine fibre in general (ranging from 20-40 microns) but very strong and light, so more useful in outerwear garments. Llama fibre is hypoallergenic, and very insulating.

No lanolin or grease- less water and energy use in production.

To Consider: Llamas produce quite a variety of fibre quality, so the inconsistency that exists in the current market has led to llama being less prominent in commercial yarns. The llama also prefers to roll around and entangle much vegetable matter in its coat, making the fleece generally more time consuming and labor intensive to process and clean, although many farmers are now devising ways to reduce vegetable matter in fleeces.

There is an abundance and variety of naturally occurring colours.

Many Llamas shed their softer downy inner coat annually and have no need to be shorn, thus reducing the time required to â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;dehairâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; the fleece in preparation for spinning.

Sustainable Features: Llamas are multi-use animals providing much for their owners, particularly for South American keepers as sources of meat, fibre, and can be used as guardians for flocks of other livestock and useful as pack animals.

Like all camelids the padded feet are also more ecologically considerate to the ground they tread, and do not contribute to soil erosion and desertification that is a growing concern in places such as China, the main home of the ever growing numerous herds of hooved cashmere goats.

Fibre Provenance for cardigan: Sugar River Llamas www.srllamas.com fran@srllamas.com Ali and Fran Soukup N1694 County Road HH Lyndon Station, WI 53944 USA 608-666-3600

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Paco-Vicuña Population and Distribution: less than 1000 animals, United States Processing: The fibre is as fine as vicuña (which is generally regarded as the finest natural fibre in the world) longer and easier to process and spins as well as and is much more variant in colour than Vicuña (which primarily only comes in a reddish honey colour). Also, paco-vicuñas produce on average more fibre per animal than the vicuña, and as a domestic animal are easier to handle for shearing. The vicuña is an easily frightened and untamable animal that must be rounded up from the wild once every 2 to 3 years in order to conduct shearing sessions, so increasing the population of the Paco-Vicuña as an alternative to Vicuña is important, as they can be sheared up to 3 times more often.

No lanolin or grease- less water and energy use in production.

Virtually no chemicals, lubricants, or finishes are used in processing.

To Consider: Paco Vicuña is very expensive because of its novel and rare status. The specialty breed (a variant of the Vicuña, but genetically more closely related to the Alpaca) was developed in the US as a result of the fact that it is illegal to transport Vicuñas from South America.

Sustainbable Features: As with many of these fibre animals there is currently no significant negative impact, and the fashion industry’s interest and increased engagement could provide economic opportunity for farmers and specialist spinners and mills.

Like all camelids, the paco-vicuña has padded feet that are more ecologically considerate to the ground they tread, and do not contribute to soil erosion.

Fibre Provenance for top: Hickory Ridge Farms www.pacovicunahrf.com pacovicunahrf@gmail.com Don and Gloria Smith 9864 SE Tobin Valley Dr. Braymer, MO 64624 USA 660-645-2825

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Wensleydale Sheep Population and Distribution: UK- less than 1500 Processing: Wensleydale comes in a range of beautiful and lustrous (light reflecting) colours including black, grey, silver and white.

To Consider: Wensleydale is a long and lustrous wool with less crimp and spring than most wools used in industrial yarn production, thus it is best spun with less twist by a knowledgeable or specialist spinner or mill. As it is a rare breed (Watch list: Category 4- At Risk) as categorized by the Rare Breed Survival Trust of the UK, considerable fibre quantity will be hard to come by. There exist many equally at risk breeds (Teeswater, Romney, Lincoln Longwool, Grey and White Faced Dartmoors, Cotswold, (Blue Faced)Leicester Longwool) whose wool characteristics are very similar, are locally available, and whose quantities can contribute to satisfy larger sourcing needs.

Sustainable Features: The Wensleydale is a rare breed of sheep, thus the use of any rare breed sheep wool in fashion garment production ensures a demand for the continuation of livestock and fibre diversity. The majority of fibre coming from small farms in the UK also means that using a rare breed wool or fibre such as Wensleydale supports local fibre and farm economy.

Fibre Provenance for hat: Woolcraft with Wensleydale www.woolcraftwithwensleydale.com info@woolcraftwithwensleydale.com Causeway farm Barn, Bodle Street East Sussex, BN27 4UA UK 01323832781

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Angora Rabbit Distribution: China, Chile, North America, UK, France, Germany Processing: The fibre is very insulating and a little goes a long way with angora. The characteristic halo effect and incredible warmth and softness of the fibre can be obtained by mixing smaller amounts of angora with other fibres. It comes in a variety of colours including grey, white, and fawn. Depending on the breed the guard hairs can often times be left in and will not considerably affect the softness of the yarn, thus generally the fibre requires less sorting before spinning.

The fibre contains no lanolin â&#x20AC;&#x201C; less water and energy used in processing.

To Consider: 100 percent Angora has no elasticity, so it is best when blended with other fibre such as wool, when the intended result for the final product is garment knitwear. Ninety percent of the worldâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s angora comes from China, where many rabbits are kept in small cages unable to turn around or socialize in less than humane conditions. Ensure that when sourcing angora, the fibre does not originate from a factory farm.

Sustainable Features: Rabbits do not require much food or space to roam when kept commercially in comparison to other fibre producing animals, and can also be dual purpose for meat.

Fibre Provenance for pullover: Cottage Craft Mill www.cottagecraftangora.com cottagecraftangora@hotmail.com Lorraine Weston 368, Range 14, Adstock Quebec G0N 1S0 Canada 418-522-5708

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Yak Population and Distribution: Wild Yaks- less than 10,000-catergorized as Vulnerable to Extinction, Domestic Yaks- 14 million. US population- less than 2000. Found throughout the Himalayan mountains which cover part of Afghanistan, Bhutan, China, India, Mongolia, Nepal, Pakistan and on the Tibetan plateau.

Processing: Yak Fibre comes in many different colours including black, white, brown and red. The fleece has multiple coats and can be more difficult to separate and sort, which has delayed the commercial availability of Yak fibre yarn. The finest Yak down is equal in micron to cashmere and qiviut and the more coarse grades average a respectably soft 18-22 microns.

No lanolin or grease- less water and energy use in production.

To Consider: Fibre sorting techniques are being improved to help meet the needs of increased demand for the incredibly soft yak fibre. Yak will be in more and more demand as prices for cashmere in China escalate due to restrictions from Chinese environmental regulation and a recent history of incredibly harsh winters killing off many cashmere herds.

Sustainable Features: Yaks are multiuse animals and very important for the livelihoods of many central Asian people providing fine fibre for spinning and weaving, longer guard hairs for rope and rug making, skins, milk, meat, transportation and plowing or packing.

Fibre Provenance for open front top: Shokay www.shokay.com info@shokay.com TaiKang Rd, Lane 274, No.9 Shanghai, China +86-21-5466-0907

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Bison Population and Distribution: Once numbered at somewhere between 30 and 80 million wild animals the bison is now mainly a domesticated breed with some numbers roaming wild on park reserves. 600,000 currently in North America.

Processing: The coat is shed in spring and has 5 different types of fibre, the down being the softest and most suitable for garment manufacture.

The fibre contains no lanolin- less water and energy used in processing.

To Consider: Bison are a wild animal that do not take kindly to shearing or combing, thus most fibre on the commercial and handcraft market is shorn from animals as a by-product of the meat industry. Free range bison meat has become a popular and leaner alternative to beef. The fibre usage is in line with the traditional native American practice of valuing and using the entirety of the animal, however this fibre type is quite difficult to come by in enough quantity to qualify as a vegan option.

Sustainable Features: Bison Fibre has unusual durability for its level of softness. It is also very insulating and absorbs water without feeling wet. As a by product of the meat industry it is a fibre that would otherwise not be used thus reducing waste. The preservation of the bison as a species is very important to world animal diversity as well as cultural and regional heritage in North America.

Fibre Provenance for skirt: Cottage Craft Mill www.cottagecraftangora.com cottagecraftangora@hotmail.com Lorraine Weston 368, Range 14, Adstock Quebec G0N 1S0 Canada 418-522-5708

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Bactrian Camel Population and Distribution: The Bactrian (two-humped) wild Population is fewer than 1000 making it one of the most critically endangered mammals on the planet. Domesticated Bactrians number close to 1.4 million worldwide. They are different from hot climate dwelling dromedary (one-humped) camels and inhabit cold and harsh climates including China, Mongolia, Iran, Afghanistan, Russia, New Zealand, and Tibet.

Processing: Camel fibre comes in colours other than the sandy tan one usually expects, including a variety of browns, greys and sometimes white. Camel fibre that comes from Mongolia and inner Mongolia (China) is generally the finest and is near cashmere in its fibre diameter. The under down is shed in spring and can either be collected or combed out during the molting season. When combed instead of shorn from the animal, the fibre requires less processing and sorting.

The fibre contains no lanolin- less water and energy used in processing.

To Consider: Camel fibre can be scarce, and the finest fibres suitable for next to skin garments come from specific regions from within Inner Mongolia. Coarser grade camel hair is also useful for harder wearing outer wear and has wonderful water resistant properties.

Sustainable Features: Camel fibre is very durable and will last a lifetime. It does not pill or lose its shape, and the fibre becomes softer with increased wear. Camels are dual coated, and the outer coarse hairs are incredibly useful for making waterproof tents, yurts and ropes, thus making them an economic and indispensable part of many farmersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; lives. Sourcing camel fibre that has come from smaller cooperative sources that are fairly traded ensures an ethical and hopeful future for these unique fibre animals and the people who keep them.

Fibre Provenance for shrug: Mongol Textile www.mongoltextile.com info@mongoltextile.com Chingis avenue 30 Khan-Uul district Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia +976 11 342535

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Musk Ox Fibre from the Musk Ox is also known as Qiviut or Qiviuq which is the Inuit word for the fibre.

Population and distribution: estimates 80-120,000 animals. Primarily live in Arctic Canada and Greenland, with small introduced populations in Sweden, Siberia and Norway.

Processing: Fibre is collected when the animal molts the soft undercoat in the spring from objects it has rubbed up against, or plucked straight from the animals in range farms in Alaska and Canada.

Fibre is one of the softest and warmest on earth and comes in a soft grey to medium brown colour.

No lanolin or grease- less water and energy use in production.

Fibre does not felt when washed or introduced to high temperatures.

To Consider: Qiviut is very expensive, as the majority of animals live in remote regions of the arctic and on national wildlife reserves, so large amounts of fibre can be difficult to obtain. Most commercially available fibre either comes from combing the living musk oxen as they shed in spring on farms, or shaved from the hides of wild animals killed in regulated harvests in Canada where all parts of the animal; meat, horns and fibre are put to use.

Sustainable Features: There is currently no significant negative impact of Musk Ox fibre, and the increased interest and engagement of the fashion industry could provide economic opportunity for farmers, native peoples, specialist spinners and mills, as well as insure the safety of the Musk Ox population.

Fibre Provenance for pullover: Cottage Craft Mill www.cottagecraftangora.com cottagecraftangora@hotmail.com Lorraine Weston 368, Range 14, Adstock Quebec G0N 1S0 Canada 418-522-5708

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Conclusion The increased democratization and homogenization of fine fibre in the fashion industry has resulted in ethical, environmental, and genetic losses. The decline in worldwide cashmere prices as well as quality and overwhelming nature of merino content in natural fibre knitwear keeps interest and incentive away from using diverse, ethically sourced and naturally coloured animal fibres. Fashion is not alone in world industries involved in the use of animals.â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;Normal economic market forces have driven much of the extinction of the worldâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s biodiversity, whereby lower yielding animals or breeds have been replaced by higher yielding stock...the total economic effects in the long run have been small and even negative in many casesâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; (Animal Genetic Training Resource).

The loss of biodiversity is counted as one of the nine most pressing issues man will face and must reverse in the coming decades (Planetary Boundaries, 2009). Sourcing the right kind of fibre from the right places and people is just a tiny part of the solution to worldwide biodiversity loss. Natural fine fibres are also, now just a small part of the worldwide fashion industry, yet the encouragement of species homogeneity cannot become the norm for any natural source exploited by the fashion industry. Education especially of young fashion designers and consumers is the first step. Garments made with these higher quality, covetable, durable, naturally grown fibres from smaller scale sources, benefits the health of the earth and contributes to less superfluous consumption. The fashion industry can play a role in nurturing and preserving fine fibre animal diversity worldwide by sourcing considerately instead of cheaply and increasing its engagement in conservation of these invaluable fibre animals.

Reflections This dissertation began from a personal experience and interest in unique fibres and the animals from which they grow. Having kept various farm animals including some of the ones featured in this project, I have been fortunate to rear, feed, nurse, groom, meditate with and sometimes chase these animals on a farm outside Seattle. Much of my motivation in deciding to acquire many of my animals was the fascination with and hope to garner some of their constantly renewing fibre for my own creative and educational desires. Although I do not see a continuation of farming fibre animals in my immediate future, as my next few years are planned to be in the city, I do feel that I will continue in furthering my knowledge and pursuit of sustainable solutions in terms of creating local fibre-sheds and networks.

I underestimated the amount of information gathering involved for this subject. I will critique and say that more in depth research into less key issues may have eased this. Always, as with a course of the dual theory and making nature of MA Fashion & the Environment, one of the biggest challenges is balancing time devoted to design, as well as research on the issue under the spotlight. I will say that I would have been happier allowing myself a lengthier amount of time for design experimentation and sampling refinements. As a new machine knitter, I am proud to say that all design and construction work was done by myself, but I still have more to learn in the ways of professional linking of pieces, and formulas and useful tools or software to aid in producing perfectly sized garments.

In research I would have liked to learn more about industrial finishing of natural fibre and the worldwide ill effects (if any) of natural fibre industrial processing particularly. My time spent with my mentor Sal Pitman was very helpful as well as were one tutorial each with Jeanette Osterried, Dilys Williams and Nina Stevenson. Lucy Orta was also very kind to facilitate a connection with Matteo Loro of Zegna. I feel that the presentation of this collection would be best laid flat, or on dress stands as knitwear has a tendency to sag or slip when hung.

The inclusion of a swatch board with fibres and knit swatches that could be handled by visitors and a larger format educational yet succinct booklet explaining the origins, and character of each fibre type.

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Appendix

Bibliography Barr, Lynne. Reversible Knitting: 50 Brand-New, Groundbreaking Stitch Patterns. Stewart, Tabori Chang. New York. 2009.

Black, Sandy. Eco-Chic: The Fashion Paradox. Black Dog Publishing. London. 2008.

Black, Sandy. Knitwear in Fashion. Thames and Hudson. London. 2005.

Cartright-Jones. Catherine. The Prolific Knitting Machine. Interweave Pres. Loveland, Colorado. 1990.

Cortright, Linda. Pullover! Itâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s the Cashmere Cop: Q and A with Karl Spillhaus. Wild Fibers Magazine. Fall 2008.

Cortright, Linda. Humps Herders and Hard Times in the Gobi. Wild Fibers Magazine. Fifth Anniversary Edition. 2009. Vol 6, Issue 4.

Cortright, Linda. Baa-Baa Test Tube, Have You Any Wool? Wild Fibers Magazine. Summer 2011. Vol 8, Issue 2.

Cortright, Linda. Rare Breed on Both Sides of the Fence. Wild Fibers Magazine. Summer 2011. Vol8, Issue 2.

Cortright, Linda. Rabbit Rich. Wild Fibers Magazine. Summer 2011. Vol8, Issue2.

Donofrio-Ferrezza, Lisa and Hefferen, Marilyn. Designing a Knitwear Collection: From Inspiration to Finished Garments. Fairchild Books Inc. New York. 2008.

Ekarius, Carol and Robson, Deborah. The Fleece and Fiber Sourcebook: More than 200 Fibers from Animal to Spun Yarn. Storey Publishing. North Adams, Massachusetts. 2011.

Fashion Goes Green In Patagonia. Wildlife Conservation Society. March 1, 2012. (http://www.wcs.org/news-and-features-main/green-cashmere.aspx) Fletcher, Kate and Grose, Lynda. Fashion and Sustainability: Design For Change. Lauence King Publishing. London. 2012.

Franck, Robert R. Silk, Mohair, Cashmere and Other Luxury Fibres. Woodhead Publishing Limited. Cambridge England. 2000.

Hallett, Clive and Johnston, Amanda. Fabric for Fashion: A Comprehensive Guide to Natural Fibres. Laurence King Publishing, London, 2010.

Kerven, Carol. Report on the First Asian Conference on Cashmere. Kyrgyz Sheep and Goat Breeders Association. January 2007.

Knight, Erika. Lace and Eyelet Stitches: 250 to Knit. Collins and Brown. London. 2007.

Loban, Jonathan. New Australia Report: Merino Wool-Sheer Genius. Monocle Magazine. March 2012. Issue 51, Volume 6.

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Bibliography Saunders, D.A. The Landscape Approach to Conservation, Community Involvement, the Only Practical Solution: Creating Policy on Species Diversity. Oxford Press. 1996.

Siegle, Lucy. To Die For: Is Fashion Wearing Out the World? Fourth Estate. London. 2011.

Silver Knitting Machine Co. Pattern Drafting for Machine Knitting. Silver Knitting Machine Co. Ltd. 1959.

Internet Sources Wild Fibers Magazine (http://www.wildfibersmagazine.com/) Zegna Group- Vicuna Project (http://www.zegnagroup.it/materie_prime/vicuna_project) Rebecca Burgessâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; Restoration Education Curriculum (http://www.rebeccarburgess.com/restoration-education) Tibetan Plateau Project (http://www.earthislandprojects.org/tpp/tppframes.htm) Animal Genetics Training Resource (http://agtr.ilri.cgiar.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=230&Itemid=292) Sheep to Chic: The Case for a Northern California Textile Mill. By Amber Bieg (http://www.slideshare.net/AmberBieg/wool-mill-presentation3) www.merino.com AlpacaFashion.com Competition for Students (http://alpacafashion.com/competition.asp) Oxfam Unwrapped Livestock Project (http://www.oxfam.org.uk/shop/oxfam-unwrapped) Ethical Fashion Forum- Profiles: Rebecca Gentzane Mcculloch Damm (http://ethicalfashionforum.ning.com/profiles/blogs/working-as-a-vso-volunteer-in) Australian Wool Innovation 2011/2012 Report (http://images.wool.com/pub/AWI_ANNUALREPORT_2012_FINAL.pdf) AWI- About the Wool Industry (http://www.wool.com/About-us_wool-industry.htm) Toft Alpaca Breeding and Information on Coloured Alpaca (http://www.toft-alpacas.co.uk/about/Alpaca_Breeding_Policy.aspx) Internet Articles Fashion Industry Considers Biodiversity when Sourcing Materials. Summer Rayne Oakes. March 12, 2012 (http://www.huffingtonpost.com/summer-rayne-oakes/fashion-industryconsider_b_1336118.html) Fashion Goes Green in Patagonia by the Wildlife Conservation Society. March 1 2012 (http://www.wcs.org/news-and-features-main/green-cashmere.aspx) 50

Bibliography O.K. Lady Drop the Shawl by Bob Colacello. Vanity Fair. November 1999. (http://www.vanityfair.com/hollywood/features/1999/11/shahtoosh-furs-199911) When Youâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;re Almost Extinct, Your Price Goes Up by Robert Krulwich. NPR Public Radio. October 24, 2012. (http://m.npr.org/news/Science/163542173) Last Days of The Ark by Kelly Luker. Sonoma Independent. Metro Active Central Archives. Jan 23, 1997. (http://www.metroactive.com/papers/sonoma/01.23.97/news-9704.html) Biodiversity: Mammals Face Extinction Crisis. Interpress Service News Agency (http://www.ipsnews.net/2008/10/biodiversity-mammals-face-extinction-crisis/) Will Cloning Bring Back Glory Days of Kashmir? Free Pess Kashmir (http://freepresskashmir.com/will-cloning-bring-back-glory-days-of-cashmere/) Us Proposes to List Tibetan Antelope as Endangered. Environment News Service. (http://www.ens-newswire.com/ens/oct2003/2003-10-14-01.asp) Kashmir Rethinks Shatoosh Ban. The Washington Times. June 18, 2004. (http://www.washingtontimes.com/news/2004/jun/18/20040618-102454-3729r/) Shatoosh: Can the Prized Industry be Revived Again? India Today (http://indiatoday.intoday.in/story/shahtoosh-can-the-prized-industry-be-revived-again/1/183749.html) Endangered Species Handbook: Tibetan Antelope (http://www.endangeredspecieshandbook.org/trade_tibetan.php) Planetary Boundaries: Exploring the Safe Operating Space for Humanity. Ecology and Society 14(2): 32. 2009 (http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol14/iss2/art32/) Camel Hair is a Highly Sought After and Sustainable Fiber for the Fashion World. (http://ecosalon.com/fiber-watch-camel-hair-for-sustainable-luxury-from-the-steppes/) The Resurgence of an Iconic Australian Industry by Aleisha Parr (http://www.businessinfocus.com.au/index.php/2012/03/australian-wool-innovation-awi/)

List of Conservation Organisations -American Livestock Breeds Conservancy -Rare Breeds Canada -The Sheep Trust (UK) -North SheD (Nordic Countries) -Heritage Sheep (European Union) -Rare Breeds Trust of Australia -Rare Breed Conservation Society of New Zealand -Convention on International Trade In Endangered Species -Rare Breed Survival Trust (UK) 51

Image Credits Contents Page (clockwise starting top right) Gudrun & Gudrun- www.trendtablet.cow/handmade Bison Watercolor- www.etsy.com/listing/84550184/bison-archival-print Llama- www.flickr.com/photos/irenesuchocki/2545190704/ Merino Mulesing- www.theland.farmonline.com.au/news/state/livestock/wool/formal-mulesing-training-on-the-way Bactrian Camel- www.society6.com/product/Bactrian-Camel-G079_Print Wensleydale Sheep- www.wensleydale-sheep.com 01 Burton Historical Collection, Detroit Public Library- www.detroit.lib.mi.us/featuredcollection/burton-historical-collection 02 Pringle of Scotland Jumper- www.coolspotter.com 03 www.shop.uniqlo.com/uk/list/basic/women/knitwear/extrafinemerino 04 Vivienne Westwood for Merino- www.www.merino.com/en/fashion/vivienne-westwood 05 Many merinos printed fabric- www.thumpacat-fabrics.co.nz/shop/purely-new-zealand/new-zealand-merino-sheep 06 One Sheep Sweater Project- Christien Meindertsma- www.christienmeindertsma.com/index.php?/projects/one-sheep-sweater-2010/ 07 Bowmont Sheep- www.finnisterreuk.com 08 Shedded Sheep- www.sheepcruelty.wordpress.com 09 Shedded Sheep- www.sharlea.com.au 10 Qiviut Fibre- www.qiviut.com 11 Naturally coloured alpacas eat- www.aliciaadamsalpaca.com/about-alpaca/ 12 Industry of All Nations naturally coloured alpaca sweater- www.industryofallnations.com/Alpaca-crew-neck-sweater 13 Alpaca fleece sorters in Peru- www.pucara-alpacas.com/images/apr01_alpaca10.jpg 14 Camel padded foot track- www.animals.nationalgeographic.com 15 Cashmere goat and desertification- www.chinadigitaltimes.net/2006/12/your-cheap-sweaters-real-cost-part-one-of-chinas-great-grab-evan-osnos/ 16 Pendleton Woolen Mill- www.oregonlive.com/O/index.ssf/2008/12/pendleton_woolen_mill_celebrat.html 17 Scanned image of hang tag collected by author at East Sussex Spinners, Weavers and Dyers Expo in Lewes, Oct 2011 18 Campaign for Wool Logo- www.campaignforwool.org 19 Alpaca Fibre Sponsor for Student Competition- www.openherd.com/farms/3/sunset-hills-farm-alpacas-llc 20 Alpaca Competition Student work- www.alpacafashion.com/2012_winners/winners2012 21 Ambika Conroy shearing angora rabbit- www.ambikaboutique.com 22 Ambika angora ear warmers- www.ambikaboutique.com 23 Vintage woolmark logo- www.thevintagetraveler.wordpress.com 24 Woolmark logo- www.woolmark.com 25 Sheep flock commemoration of the Woolmark logo- www.creativereview.co.uk/cr-blog/2011/april/logos-expert-panel 26 Sue Blacker oversees mill production- www.thenaturalfibre.co.uk 27 Kerry Toft sorting alpaca colours- www.toftalpaca.blogspot.co.uk 28 Mongol Textile Mill in Ulaanbaatar- www.mongoltextile.com/en/about-factory 29 Camel Fibre being transported after combing- www.ecosalon.com/fiber-watch-camel-hair-for-sustainable-luxury-from-the-steppes/ 30 Rare breed Rams- Photo taken by author on research trip to Spring Grove Alpacas and Rare Breeds Farm, March, and November 2012 31 Large Animal Rescue Station Logo- University of Alaska at Fairbanks- www.lars.uaf.edu 32 Herding vicu単a for shearing- www.zegnagroup.it 33 First two sheep- Photo taken by author on personal hobby farm in Issaquah, Washington, 2009 52

Interviews 4 June 2012 Dissertation Interview Questions- Dana Locken 1.

Please explain how many and what types of fiber animals you own. We own 10 Bactrian camels.

2.

How much fiber do(es) your animal(s) currently produce each year? (wool clip weight and/or total processed fiber weight) Bactrian camels are dual coated, meaning that they have a coarse hair and a fine, soft down. In the spring, the camels shed the down first, then the hair comes out. I comb the down from the camels, so it is very dependent on the camels willingness to stand still for the process. In a good year, I get about 1 pound of good quality down from each female. Occasionally I will save the coarser hair for different projects (ropes, rug yarn, etc). Each camel has approximately 8-12 pounds of hair. The males’ down is not very fine or soft, so I don’t collect it.

3.

Do you have this fiber processed in a mill and if so, which mill and how is it processed? What sorts of chemicals, lubricants and finishes, if any are used? I have had the fiber processed at Dakota Carding and Wool, in Groton, SD. A light spinning oil is used.

4.

Did you find it difficult at all to find a mill to process the fiber properly, as this breed and its fiber is unlike any other in North America? I was fortunate to find this mill, they specialize in small batches and exotic fibers. I did explore the possibility of collecting all the camel fiber, that which has fallen on the ground and into the fences, and sending it to a mill that dehairs fiber, but the cost was prohibitive and the quality of the fiber deteriorates in this process. One characteristic handspinners like about my fiber is the length.

5.

Do you know how much water and energy is required to process camel fiber? Understanding that there is no lanolin or scouring required, the processing water and energy consumption is lower than with merino sheeps wool for example? I would estimate that it takes 20 gallons of water per pound of down. I use about ¼-1/2 cup laundry detergent per load. Here is my process: I fill a large tub with hot water, put in the soap and down. I let it sit an hour or so. Strain the fiber out and fill the tub again, to rinse. Then I take the fiber to my washing machine to spin it out. One has to be careful not to agitate the down or you will have one felted mess. Camels like to roll in the dirt, so the down is very dusty and that is what I am trying to get out.

6.

Is there currently a high demand and/or potential for growth of your fiber endeavor? I used to travel to shows and was very successful selling the fiber, but have gotten busy with other things so the demand is less. There is also competition from the imported fiber. It is less expensive and unless people are familiar with the awesome quality of my fiber, they don’t know what they are missing.

7.

Who do you know, is purchasing your fiber? (spinners, hand hobby knitters, professional hand knitters, machine knitters, weavers, fashion knitters/designers? etc.) Is one category of customers in particular purchasing more? (i.e. hand spinners value the fiber and are more willing to pay the higher cost?) My fiber is most popular with handspinners. Several years ago I has some commercially spun into assorted weights of yarn. It was expensive to do, so the yarn was rather expensive. I found that I could sell the down for more than the yarn with way less expense.

8.

Have you had or do you know of any fashion brands or small labels using your fiber for garment production? If so, which brands, designers? Several years ago, I traded a handweaver some yarn for garments, but lost touch with the designer and don’t know what happened.

9.

Are you currently a self-sustaining farm from the sale of fiber alone? Our main business is a grain farm, the camels are our hobby.

10.

Do you hope to see an increase of camel farm operations in North America? I think the economy has forced people to step back from keeping exotic animals. Camels are fairly easy to keep, but they have a 13 month gestation. The male must be in rut to breed the females, so we feel fortunate to get 2 babies every 3 years. The babies are not quite as vigorous as other animals, ie cattle. And they are very large when full grown, so need a custom trailer to haul them. We always have been able to find homes for any surplus animals we have but the price has definitely weakened.

11.

Do you intend to grow your camel numbers and what blockades/difficulties, if any have you encountered in viable growth as a fiber producer? We are interested in growing our herd. The only difficulties are the ones mentioned in #10. I don’t know that I am interested in growing the fiber any more than I do right now due to the labor intensiveness of the process.

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Interviews 6 June 2012 Dissertation Interview Questions- Chas Brooke of UK Alpaca 1.

How is alpaca fibre processed in a mill? What sorts of chemicals, lubricants and finishes, if any are used? Alpaca is a long staple fibre so should be processed by the worsted system to get the best from it. As per other wools, alpaca is scoured, then top made by carding and combing, then onto the spinning frames, then steam conditioned before being dyed if appropriate and then balled or left on cone. You need to speak to the commission processors in Bradford area to get the technical data on what they use. I can supply company names if you want them.

2.

Did you find it difficult at all to find a mill to process the fibre properly, as this fibre animal breed is still growing in popularity in the UK? The conventional processors are now much more open to specialist fibres, than say 5 years ago, however bulk is still the key. There are only two large scale worsted spinners left in this country really and top making is down to similar number as well. Commission scouring is down to one ! To achieve a consistent quality yarn with the best possible handle you need to use the ‘big boys’ who have generations of experience and the machinery to go with it. The smaller scale processors are expensive, have higher losses and probably will not achieve the best quality. Minimum quantities for commercial pricing is around 500kg per colour per grade.

3.

Do you know how much water and energy is required to process Alpaca fibre? Understanding that there is no lanolin or scouring required, the processing water and energy consumption is lower than with sheeps wool for example? We still have to scour but it does use less detergent. You would need to speak to the scourers for technical data on differences between sheep wool and alpaca 4.

As far as you know is there currently a high demand and/or potential for the growth of Alpaca fibre use in the fashion industry? We have been driving British alpaca yarn for the last six years, however we are only just starting to see the results. Demand is high as everyone loves the soft handle and colours of our yarns. It is also less allergenic for those who cannot use wool. We have yet to make it into the fashion world and would love to do so, as we are now able to provide a consistent supply at a consistent quality. It will still remain a small scale niche yarn as total UK production at the moment is only around 4 tonnes across all colours and grades.

5.

Who do you know, is purchasing your fibre? (spinners, hand hobby knitters, professional hand knitters, machine knitters, weavers, fashion knitters/designers? etc.) Is one category of customers in particular purchasing more? (i.e. hand spinners value the fibre and are more willing to pay the higher cost?) We sell across all really. Retail, wholesale, spinners, dyers, weavers, hand knitters and machine knitters, both hobby and commercial.

6.

Have you had or do you know of any fashion brands or small labels using your fibre for garment production? If so, which brands, designers? This is an area we are keen to develop now we have fixed supply. John Arbon Textiles has used our yarns for sock making and other knitwear, although he is starting to make his own now in small scale.

There are probably lots of other small label designers we do not know of….

7.

Do UK alpaca fibre farms generally sustain from fibre production, or are they primarily making more of an income from breeding? Most alpaca owners have invested in pedigree breeding stock as the industry needs to expand much more so revenues are from breeding and sale of stock rather than their raw fibre. Having said that some breeders are adding value to their own fibre and making end product which they sell for good profit. Current values for greasy fibre are in the range of £5 to £12 per kg. With annual production of say 2kg on a good alpaca, the revenues are really quite small without adding value. As with sheep, the combination of fibre, meat and skin products will ultimately make the alpaca viable in the long term.

8.

Do you intend to grow your Alpaca fibre business and what blockades/difficulties, if any have you encountered in viable growth as a fibre producer? Yes. We have invested large sums in building the volume of yarn made. Obtaining sufficient quantities of good fibre is always difficult together with financial funding as work in progress costs are huge before you get the end product for sale. Education of growers/breeders is ongoing as they need to produce what the market wants and not what they think it wants.

9.

Do you feel that the fashion industry is hesitant to engage local producers of fine fibre, if so why are they currently not purchasing more locally produced fibre? (higher cost than South American sources and processing, high demand for consistency, lack of facilities to process in Europe, small quantities, quantities are already being consumed fully by hand spinners/knitters etc). Yes, we do feel this. We strive hard to match imported prices and are successful in most cases. UK Alpaca is now secure and ready to supply consistent quality and quantity into the trade and we are committed to doing this from stock and from a forward order book.

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Interviews 7 June 2012 Dissertation Interview Questions- Fran Soukup of Sugar River Llamas 1.

How much fiber collectively and individually, do your animals currently produce each year? (wool clip weight and/or total processed fiber weight) I do keep a record for each llama which we shear. I could provide this if desired. The weight varies from llama to llama, because of type of clip done, size of llama, age of llama. For instance, on a show juvenile (less than one year), we only do a barrel cut. The average weight is 14 ounces, but, can be as low as 7 oz. and as high as 20 ounces. Once our llamas enter the breeding herd, we do a complete body shear. We can get as much as 6 lbs. However, not all of this, maybe none of it, is fine enough for yarn of a quality for garment production. We do try to separate fine, medium, coarse fiber. The neck wool is usually medium quality at best. Belly and leg are discarded as too coarse. That leaves the prime fleece left. On an older animal, often beyond 4 or 5 years of age, the prime is still too coarse. The herd averages between 24 and 32 ounces of primes fleece from llama to llama. Collectively, the herd is producing about 125 lbs per year.

2.

Do you have this fiber processed in a mill and if so, which mill and how is it processed? What sorts of chemicals, lubricants and finishes, if any are used? The juvenile fleece is usually too long to be processed by a mill, unless it is cut, which leaves lots of short ends. I usually have the juvenile fleeces hand spun. The medium to fine fleece I have spun in batches, by colour, at a mill. My favourite mill closed this past year. There are multiple mini mills, some of which do great quality, some not. I have no idea what these mills use. One uses Eucalon as the washing solution. Sorry, that is the only one I know. Some years, I have sent the fine fleece off to be spun and knit into socks. The coarse quality I either send to have core wrapped and handwoven into rugs, or, I send it off to a cooperative, where they either spin it into rugs, or socks.We do not have any of our yarns dyed.

3.

Did you find it difficult at all to find a mill to process the fiber properly, as this animal is still relatively unique to North America? There are many mini mills which process camelid fiber. The problem is processing the fiber “properly.” I am very particular on the quality of the yarn returned. Many mills want to combine llama with sheep wool. Others do not know how to properly process our fine fiber. They do well with medium quality fiber, but ruin the fine fiber. Or, they are good at spinning DK or worsted weight yarn, but do a poor job of spinning sport or finer yarns. As above, my favourite mill, which we used for years, closed in 2012. The average wait time on a batch of fleece is 6 months.

While llama comes in many natural colours, it is not easy to put together batches of 4 lbs or more to meet minimum lot size for the mills.

4.

Do you know how much water and energy is required to process Llama fiber? Understanding that there is no lanolin or scouring required, the processing water and energy consumption is lower than with merino sheeps wool for example? I do not know the answer to this question.

5.

Is there currently a high demand and/or potential for growth of your fiber business? There is not high demand for our product. I do see the potential for growth.

Increasing numbers of large yarn companies are offering llama yarns. As with most small farms, yarn producers, we have to work to sell this product. Marketing is expensive.

Vending is time consuming.

6.

Who do you know, is purchasing your fiber? (spinners, hand hobby knitters, professional hand knitters, machine knitters, weavers, fashion knitters/designers? etc.) Is one category of customers in particular purchasing more? (i.e. hand spinners value the fiber and are more willing to pay the higher cost?) Spinners. It is easier to sell roving than yarn. There are parts of the country where hand spinners do value llama yarn. I do not live in one of those areas. Many producers have ruined the reputation of llama yarn by giving away coarse or extremely dirty fleece. Therefore, the impression to spinners is that it is all like that. I do sell to the hand hobby knitters in my local knitting guild. I do knit professionally. And, do some weaving. No sales have been made to machine knitters or fashion knitters/designers. I do sell patterns for use with our yarns. Not many.

7.

Have you had or do you know of any fashion brands or small labels using your fiber for garment production? If so, which brands, designers? None.

8.

Are you currently a self-sustaining farm from the sale of fiber alone? No. The farm is barely self-sustaining through sale of high quality show/breeding llamas.

9.

Do you hope to see an increase of Llama numbers in North America? What if anything is keeping llama numbers from growing? Llamas are a hobby type animal. The cost is too high for many people. While we do see new owners entering the industry, there are many people abandoning or dispersing their herds. The economy is not in favour of an increase of llama numbers.

10.

Do you intend to grow your Llama operation and what blockades/difficulties, if any have you encountered in viable growth as a fiber producer? Marketing. I am a terrible vendor. The reputation of llama fiber is not good – alpaca folks work at denigrating the quality of llama fiber. Our own producers not selling quality, clean fiber is a negative. My daughter is a graduate student. The herd is hers as much as mine. I am getting old. I can only care for so many. We are pretty much as large as we should get. With a herd of just over 50, we will not be increasing. Although sales are slow this year. And, we don’t dump our old, non producers to reduce herd numbers. We think they have earned their years of rest. So, I guess I am saying, we view our herd as pets, not commercial enterprises. The fiber is an added source of income, but not the primary source.

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Interviews 31 May 2012 Dissertation Interview Questions- Gloria Smith of Hickory Ridge Farms 1.

How much fiber do your animals currently produce each year? (wool clip weight and/or total processed fiber weight) The clip weight is generally between 1 and 2 ½ pounds. Weight of processed fiber is 10 – 16 ounces. Example, Flash is an adult male with an annual fiber length of 2 ½ inches producing a total 2.6 pounds of clipped weight.

Skirted blanket weight is 17.6 ounces with a final product (roving) weight of 15 ounces.

2.

In which mill do you have this fiber processed? What sorts of chemicals, lubricants and finishes, if any are used? The Shepherd’s Mill in Phillipsburg Kansas. All they use is a minimal amount of Syntho Lube.

3.

Did you find it difficult at all to find a mill to process the fiber properly, as this breed and its fiber is unlike any other in North America? The Shepherd’s Mill is the first and only mill that we have used. They will process each fleece separately for me and have done a wonderful job on our 13 micron fleeces. Other paco-vicuna breeders use different mills so there are several that process paco-vicuna fiber.

4.

Do you know how much water and energy is required to process Paco-Vicuña fiber? Understanding that there is no lanolin or scouring required, the processing water and energy consumption is lower than with merino sheeps wool for example? They really did not know but less than wool.

5.

Is there currently a high demand and/or potential for growth of your fiber business? There is demand for paco-vicuna fiber products. Our only form of marketing has been our web site and attending a few vendor events annually. We are able to sell out of our inventory each year. We have sold to Canada, United Kingdom, France, Italy, Australia, Germany, and all across the USA. As we produce more fiber, our marketing plans will expand. We realize the demand in the future will come from the designer market. That is the market we will target. There is also a market from fiber artists. Most of our customer find paco-vicuna while looking for vicuna fiber. Most say vicuna is too expensive for their purse. This is an affordable substitute. They also like that the paco-vicuna is a domesticated animal that is well cared for and the buyer does not have to worry that their fiber purchase may contribute to the death of an animal. We have heard this from a number of customers. We believe our business will grow as more people find out about paco-vicuna fiber.

6.

Who do you know, is purchasing your fiber? (spinners, hand hobby knitters, professional hand knitters, machine knitters, weavers, fashion knitters/designers? etc.) Is one category of customers in particular purchasing more? (i.e. hand spinners value the fiber and are more willing to pay the higher cost?) Spinners, knitters, felters, weavers have all bought our fiber. We have also sold to a felting designer and a small company that plans to produce woven and knitted luxury fabric for designers. We have sold 13.6 micron roving for $70 an ounce. Buyers did not question the price. The longer staple length that paco-vicuna produces verses the vicuna is an advantage.

7.

Have you had or do you know of any fashion brands or small labels using your fiber for garment production? If so, which brands, designers? No fashion brands yet.

8.

Are you currently a self-sustaining farm from the sale of fiber alone? When we finish with our start up activities we will be able to sustain the farm on fiber sales. Start up activities include barn building, animal purchases, acquiring land, purchasing equipment, and fence building.

9.

Do you hope to see an increase of paco-vicuña farm operations in North America? Would the price of the fiber then reduce? Yes, we want to see the paco-vicuna industry grow in the US and the world. As the demand for paco-vicuna fiber grows, demand for the paco-vicuna will increase. No, we do not feel that the price of the fiber price will reduce. It is a luxury fiber like vicuna and qiviut that will have limited quantity for many years.

10.

Do you intend to grow your Paco-Vicuña farm and what blockades/difficulties, if any have you encountered in viable growth as a fiber producer? Yes, we intend to grow our paco-vicuna farm and business. This is a new breed and defining standards requires cooperation from all paco-vicuna breeders. Establishing a strong herd and strict breeding and registration standards will ensure that we are able to meet our objective. These steps have been started and the foundation is set.

11.

Do you feel there is a risk in breeding a hybrid species such as the Paco-Vicuña in affecting the future biodiversity of fiber animals in a detrimental way? Alpacas were domesticated from the vicuna many years ago. The US paco-vicunas were selected from alpaca herds in South America. These animals demonstrated vicuna traits. Using careful breeding standards, we are able to improve desired fiber and phenotype characteristics from one generation to the next. We no longer consider the US paco-vicuna herd to be hybrids. We only produce offspring by breeding paco-vicuna to paco-vicuna. We are tracking several generations with no sign of reproductive defects, faults, or loss of fertility.

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Interviews 31 May 2012 Dissertation Interview Questions- Phil Switzer of Switzer-Land Paco-Vicuñas & Alpacas 1.

How much fiber do your animals currently produce each year? (wool clip weight and/or total processed fiber weight) About 3.3lbs every two years.

2.

Do you have this fiber processed in a mill and if so, which mill and how is it processed? What sorts of chemicals, lubricants and finishes, if any are used? Spring Too Fiber Mill, Elizabeth, Colorado and Lonesome Stone Mill in Granby, Colorado. Both Mills: De-hair, make into roving and we have them spin some yarns. Virtually no chemicals, lubricants, or finishes are used. The exception to this is mild soap if we have them scour.

3.

Did you find it difficult at all to find a mill to process the fiber properly, as this breed and its fiber is unlike any other in North America? We found that many mills do not have de-hairing equipment (used for cashmere). We had trouble with novice owners of small mini mills that did not know how to process fine fiber. Only about 1/3 of them have de-hairing equipment.

4.

Do you know how much water and energy is required to process Paco-Vicuña fiber? Understanding that there is no lanolin or scouring required, the processing water and energy consumption is lower than with merino sheep wool for example? I don’t have any info on this. We request that the mills only use very mild soap (such as ivory snow).

Many times we ask that they do not wash, we may wash yarn in skeins to help set the twist. Certainly it takes less energy than washing sheep wool.

5.

Is there currently a high demand and/or potential for growth of your fiber business? Yes, but if it grows too quickly, the demand will out strip the supply. Buyers will abandon the use of fiber that is constantly in very short supply. Best to not get in too big a hurry as the population of good paco-vicuna in the world is in short supply.

6.

Who do you know, is purchasing your fiber? Spinners, hand hobby knitters, professional hand knitters, machine knitters, weavers, fashion knitters/designers? Etc.) Is one category of customers in particular purchasing more? (i.e. hand spinners value the fiber and are more willing to pay the higher cost?) Yes hand spinners are our biggest market.

Selling on line and selling at high end (like S.O.A.R.) spinners conferences and fiber festivals. Is our most profitable selling. Some wholesale accounts have been developed .

We sold a lot of the higher micron fiber too Louet who make a very fine yarn with a very low amount of paco-vicuna, but were able to call it paco-vicuna. We did not like this outcome even though we sold of some of the lower grade P.V. 7.

Have you had or do you know of any fashion brands or small labels using your fiber for garment production? If so, which brands, designers? Individuals using their name only.

8.

Are you currently a self-sustaining farm from the sale of fiber alone? No. We live in a non farming mountainous area of Colorado. All our feed is trucked in from about 40 miles away. We are next to Rocky Mt. National Park with many predators such as mountain lions and bears. Thus we have to put all our animals in a barn at night. This method is expensive as we have to pay full time help to clean the barns every day- about $100 per day. We make money by selling the animals. With the right conditions I believe that a P.V. farm could be profitable on its fiber sales.

9.

Do you hope to see an increase of paco-vicuña farm operations in North America? Would the price of the fiber then reduce? We do hope to see more P.V. farms in the USA. I doubt that the fiber price will drop as long as the quality of the fiber persists.

10.

Do you intend to grow your Paco-Vicuña farm and what blockades/difficulties, if any have you encountered in viable growth as a fiber producer? We do not have enough land to get any bigger so we will not be growing in size.

11.

Do you feel there is a risk in breeding a hybrid species such as the Paco-Vicuña in affecting the future biodiversity of fiber animals in a detrimental way? Or is this perceived only to be a risk if breeding were carried out in South America? Paco –Vicuna will not threaten the Vicuna where there are no vicuna, and there are none in the USA. All camelids can cross breed so the possibility of genetic pollution in South America is always present. In the South American highlands guanaco, vicuna, alpaca, and llama exist in fairly large numbers and in small numbers the hybrids exist such as alpaca–vicuna (paco-vicuna), llama–vicuna, guanaco- llama, guanaco-alpaca, llama-vicuna, llama-alpaca. The alpaca is considered the domesticated descendant of the vicuna (starting over 6,000 years ago) and the llama is considered the domesticated guanaco (starting over 6,000 years ago). Certainly there have been many re-hybridisation of these animals over the thousands of years. Our Paco-Vicuna were imported from the highlands of South America they were selected for their phenotype mainly considering fiber fineness. We assumed the animals that we bought in South America and imported into the USA were at least 3rd generation paco-vicuna and met all the criteria for export as all the animals were carefully inspected by the exporting governments. Upon arrival, we selectively bred the paco-vicuna to paco-vicuna to improve the fineness of their fiber, in doing so many vicuna traits were enhanced in the offspring. Our ideal fleece would have the fineness and density of the vicuna and the growth rate and uniformity of an alpaca. We also breed for longevity of fineness so the animal will produce usable fiber into its old age and we do not have to sell the animal for meat. We don’t have enough information on longevity to tell you 58

Interviews 20 June 2012 Dissertation Interview Questions- Carol Koop of Bijou Basin Ranch 1.

How much fiber do your animals currently produce each year? (wool clip weight and/or total processed fiber weight) Depending on severity of the winter, each adult animal produces approximately 4 pounds of raw fiber annually. After all processing losses, each animal nets about 1 pound of finished yarn.

2.

Do you have this fiber processed in a mill and if so, which mill and how is it processed? What sorts of chemicals, lubricants and finishes, if any are used? All of our domestic fiber is processed at Zelingers mill in Michigan, USA. Fiber is cleaned using mild surfactants, spun and rewashed so as to remove any machine oils from processing but no lubricants or finishes are used.

3.

Did you find it difficult at all to find a mill to process the fiber properly, as this breed and its fiber is unique in North America? Finding a mill is most difficult due to the limitations that most small US mills have about spinning a short staple length fiber. The extreme softness and short length of the fiber necessitates a highly skilled mill.

4.

Do you know how much water and energy is required to process Yak fiber? Understanding that there is no lanolin or scouring required, the processing water and energy consumption is lower than with merino sheep wool for example? Unknown but expected to be of low energy consumption.

5. fiber.

Is there currently a high demand and/or potential for growth of your fiber business? Demand is growing as we build awareness of the qualities and uniqueness of the

6.

Who do you know, is purchasing your fiber? (spinners, hand hobby knitters, professional hand knitters, machine knitters, weavers, fashion knitters/designers? etc.) Is one category of customers in particular purchasing more? (i.e. hand spinners value the fiber and are more willing to pay the higher cost?) All of our business is directed to hand knitters and crocheters and hand spinners.

7.

Have you had or do you know of any fashion brands or small labels using your fiber for garment production? If so, which brands, designers? Unknown

8.

Are you currently a self-sustaining farm from the sale of fiber alone? No

9.

Do you hope to see an increase of yak farm operations in North America? Do you see this potentially happening? Are they also raised for their meat? Yak ranching is a growing farm operation in the US. Interest continues to grow from small ranchers. There has also been some growth from medium size operations who are evaluating the breed stock and meat producing industries.

10.

Do you intend to grow your Yak farm and what blockades/difficulties, if any have you encountered in viable growth as a fiber producer? Yes, we are continuing to grow our business in yak fiber and yarns. As we build awareness of the qualities of the fiber and yarns, we continue to see more and more interest from the crafting community.

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All of the lovely animal drawings are the work of Laura Johnson. facebook.com/laura.johnson.art