The Early Nineteenth Century

The Early Nineteenth Century

Popular conceptions of nineteenth-century ritual magic often revolve around the personalities and organizations that appear late in the century: Éliphas Lévi, the Theosophical Society, the Golden Dawn, the Hermetic Brotherhood of Luxor, MacGregor Mathers, and Aleister Crowley. Nonetheless, their precursors and influences can be found in this period, with what would later be called the “occult sciences” becoming classified, commodified, and packaged as a field separate from, yet drawing legitimacy from, both religion and science.

The nineteenth century’s urbanization and industrialization did not lead to an end to belief in ritual magic. These changes brought their own uncertainties and dangers, some of which could be caused or alleviated through magic. Enforcement of the 1736 Witchcraft Act was spotty, leaving cunning folk largely free to offer their services as they had before. Despite elite rhetoric and education, belief in witchcraft persisted, leading to sporadic attacks and vigilante justice on those believed to be witches.84

A relatively new element on the British magical scene were orders dedicated to the study and practice of the magical arts. The medieval magical manual Liber Juratus had mentioned a supposed magical order, and various groups of magicians did meet in the medieval and early modern eras to pursue treasure hunting and other pursuits, usually in short-term associations.85 Still, most magical knowledge seems to have been transmitted either between individuals or through manuscripts, not through a formal school. The early seventeenth-century Rosicrucian manifestos inspired much mystical speculation, not to mention attempts to found or uncover such an organization. The eighteenth century had seen the formation of fraternal orders in Europe for esoteric purposes, ranging from Martinez de Pasqually’s Élus Cöens to the German Orden des Gülden und Rosen-Creutzes.86 Still, it would not be until the early nineteenth century that we have the first evidence of British organizations dedicated to cultivating their members’ magical talents, often basing themselves on the model of Masonic lodges of various types. These might include the group of adepts that Francis Barrett sought to teach; the Mercurii, an order coalescing around the astrologer Raphael (on whom see page 22); and the Orphic Circle, in which Emma Hardinge Britten claimed membership.87 Evidence of all of these is debatable, especially regarding the groups’ sizes, members, and endurance, yet it seems that having a lodge or

84. Waters, Cursed Britain, 9–37. 85. Honorius, Sworn Book, 49–53; Klaassen and Wright, The Magic of Rogues, 83–116. 86. Le Forestier, La Franc-Maçonnerie Occultiste, 420–93; McIntosh, The Rosicrucians, 63–75, 97–106. 87. Harms, Balloonists, Alchemists, and Astrologers of the Nineteenth Century, 11–15; Mathiesen, Unseen

Worlds, 20–26.