Dissertation Stage 3 Architecture by Loretta So

Aldo van Eyck’s role of ‘play’ and playgrounds in architecture for the child and the adult? Loretta So

Images drawns by children answering the question: “Where is their favourite play space?” and “What is their favourite game or activity?”

Aldo van Eyck’s role of ‘play’ and playgrounds in architecture for the child and the adult?

Contents

Abstract Introduction...................................................................................................7

1 The nature of play in architecture..........................................................................11 Defining ‘play’ and the child of play The significance of playgrounds in architecture during the post war period Nature of play in the city Play is intrinsic to our existence 2 Aldo van Eyck’s Post war playgrounds in the city..................................................17 Significance and influence The ‘in-between’ - Participatory - Interstitial - Polycentric A City is a Large House The post-war playgrounds now An inclusive frame of mind 3 Disadvantages and consequences of misuse of playgrounds...............................27 Hubs for delinquent activity Specificity of Amsterdam’s post-war playgrounds Dislocating play from the city The background of designers directly influence the playground 4 How do we design and imagine for play in architecture?......................................33 Fear and risk Adult instigated form versus child centric function Re-imagining the banal 5 Applications............................................................................................................37 Stigma of playgrounds need to be overcome Aldo van Eyck’s theories in practise Bibliography.................................................................................................40 Image credits

Abstract Should â&#x20AC;&#x153;playâ&#x20AC;? be placed higher on city planning agendas? An in depth study

and assessment of key theories by Aldo van Eyck and an architectural look post war playground design approach (constructed from 1947-19781). These came as

a manifestation of his work to uncover the benefits of achieving well designed playgrounds and what specific aspects to a child-centred playground approach can be applied more broadly today.

1 L. Lefaivre and I. De Roode, Aldo van Eyck, the playgrounds and the city, Amsterdam, Stedelijk Museum Amsterdam; NAi Publishers Rotterdam,2002, p. 10.

Introduction

The design and planning of playgrounds and the study of play in a child’s development has moments of increased significance in history but there is still much discussion on and around the topic. Much research in child psychology suggests that the interactions we make as a child forms a foundation of how we behave, work and interact with others through to adulthood.1 Therefore, it was intentional that playgrounds built in the post-war period, which coincided with the baby boom sprung up all over Amsterdam with great rapidity. More than 700 were built according to Aldo van Eyck’s design and specification. Figure 1 and 2 shows Van Eyck’s first playground in Amsterdam. It less common for adults to use play as a tool for formal and informal learning and I aim to explore the challenges and stereotypes attached to the ideas and approaches to play for adults. I will also discuss the degree to which the city is inclusive of children through the study of playgrounds.

Figure 1 Climbing frame in bertelmanplein 1

Figure 2 Sandpit sits in the middle of the play space

J.E. Cass, The significance of children’s play, London, Batsford, 1971.

The modern movement and the International Style swept damaged post-war cities including Amsterdam and the ideology was, in broad terms, an impersonal, top-down approach that The Congrès Internationaux D’architecture Moderne (CIAM) was a huge advocate for.1 After WWII, groups such as Team 10, which Aldo van Eyck was a notable and outspoken member of, began to challenge CIAM’s approach to urbanism. His playgrounds, which are largely unknown and one of the best kept secrets of the 21st century, tell a story of his ideas that illustrate his thoughts on urbanism and architecture. He was spurred on by like-minded architects and city planners. Although the playgrounds themselves have mostly disappeared, they still leave a legacy that is colourful, vivid and unavoidably significant to Dutch architecture and the history of city planning and playgrounds. Aldo van Eyck’s idea of reversing the focus onto the child was innovative; this allowed him to experiment with the utilisation of overlooked spaces to allow more room for education (formal and otherwise) “to stimulate children in being children, not just to “make adults”2. It was both a physical and social statement that provided children with a place in the city. He created opportunities by reinventing unused, purposeless gaps between buildings to focus not wholly on the child but the notion of the ‘in-between’ that instead concentrates on the child and their relationship to the city.3 Some of Van Eyck’s theories can be seen as idealistic and the playgrounds that became the physical manifestation of the theories will be assessed and explored to see firstly what the aim of a playground is, what it should be and if it achieves the aims that have been set out.4

Figure 3 Ladies playing in their garden with a swing

Playgrounds have always existed but historically, they were not exclusive to children. The perception and the physical and visual identity of the playground has changed drastically over time. From very private gardens that housed swings (Figure 3) to our more contemporary understanding that playgrounds are public and are for children under a certain age. This transformation in the image of the playground, although not the main focus here, is significant in understanding the specific playgrounds in Amsterdam after WWII because it shows the delicate balance that gives us our perceptions of playgrounds. The shift of the role of child in society will 1 L. Lefaivre and I. De Roode, Aldo van Eyck, the playgrounds and the city, Amsterdam, Stedelijk Museum Amsterdam; NAi Publishers Rotterdam,2002, p. 27 2 ibid, p. 21. 3 ibid, p. 53. 4 B.E. Hendricks, Designing for Play, Vermont, U.S., Ashgate Publishing Company, 2001, p. 53.

be put under scrutiny in terms of Van Eyck’s theories and his personal approach. Discovering the key alterations to playgrounds over the decades will hopefully form a guide to building better playgrounds. In recent designing for play books, the word ‘playground’ is criticised for being too restrictive and the new term ‘play spaces’ has begun to resolve the perspective of thinking that play only occurs in the playground. Therefore, in this dissertation, ‘playgrounds’ will be specifically referring to Aldo van Eyck’s post-war playgrounds but ‘play spaces’ will cover the wider idea that includes a variety of play areas which can also include playgrounds. The playground as a phenomenon and its effects on the child’s wellbeing has been thoroughly researched and presented since the 1970’s. Not the same volume or depth of research has been completed into the relationship between the child and the community and its place in society outside of the school and classroom. I will be drawing on much of the research that has been done before me but I will aim to use this to take steps further into the understanding of Van Eyck’s post-war playgrounds. After examining all the sources from a variety of related fields, a reflective look at Van Eyck and his works will aid us in understanding more fully the past success and failures of playgrounds through examples. This, together with related theories can form a fuller picture of what role ‘play’ has in society and if there needs to be a shift in thinking and designing. If so, what steps can be taken and what can and cannot be applied to outline aspects to be considered when designing play spaces. A brief idea of the nature of play and the nature of play in architecture as it stands will be given in chapter 1 to give us a firm foundation as we delve deeper into Van Eyck’s related theories. These will help to understand and assess the success of playgrounds. Understanding ‘play’ is exceedingly complex and some factors may be hard to quantify but there are many indicators that can provide a rich and informative picture. Written sources during and after the years that the playgrounds were erected will be examined as well as pictorial evidence of the playgrounds and related subjects.

The nature of play in architecture Defining ‘play’ and the child of play1 In order to understand the nature of play in architecture, we must first examine what ‘play’ is. Since the subject of play is so broad, only a brief yet concise understanding will be given as we are specifically exploring play in architecture. The nature of play 2 is typically discussed with consideration to the child, imagination and attempts to find freedom in playgrounds where it can be the focus of the player. Play is hard to define succinctly as it has multiple definitions even in one subject, making it even harder to realistically achieve and stimulate. Thankfully, in the instance of Aldo van Eyck’s post-war playgrounds we can find a models that has had positive feedback to use as precedents. The official definition of ‘play’ is a verb meaning “to engage in activity for enjoyment and recreation rather than a serious or practical purpose”. 3 However, beyond this simple dictionary definition, we find that there is a complex process that is central and formative in a growing child’s life.4 The dictionary definition, unlike, our idea of playgrounds, is not age specific so it is interesting to see how our experience of playgrounds restricts our idea of ’play’ only to children. The psychological definition is far more elaborate and extensive, seeking to define play as a series of actions and interactions for example in Parten’s six stages of play (1932)5 and other branches of play include P.F. Wilkinson, Innovation in Play Environments: Toward the perfect play experience, Surrey, Biddles Ltd, 1980, p. 28. L. Lefaivre, Ground-up City: Play as a Design Tool, Amsterdam, Rotterdam : 010 Publishes, 2007, p. 28. 3 J. Pearsall & P. Hanks, The new Oxford dictionary of English, Oxford, Oxford University Press, 1998, p. 1421 4 P. Heseltine and J. Holborn, Playgrounds: The planning, design and construction of play environments, London, The Mitchell Publishing Company Ltd, 1987, p. 16 5 M. Parten, ‘Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology’, Social play among preschool children, vol. 28, 1933, pp. 136-147. 1 2

‘The Value of Play’, ‘Play Therapy’. As we dissect our understanding of playgrounds, we can begin to see the processes involved because a key focus of playgrounds was developed when Parry and Archer (1975) commented that there are two levels of play “one merely to keep children occupied; the other contributes to their educational development. The difference between the two levels of play is not easy to detect” 1. The latter is a goal that all playgrounds and play spaces should aim to achieve. Only very few modern educationalists have actually passed beyond the sterile misconception that the child “is not yet grown up” that it must first and foremost be prepared for life so they become an empty vessel to be filled rather than a full person with his/her own capabilities and. Aldo van Eyck supports this line of thought by saying that the “…essential point is still shunned, the accent still placed on the child’s smooth development instead of the child itself; on what is abstract instead of what vital.”2

The significance of playgrounds in architecture during the post war period “Their (the playgrounds) sheer demographic significance in a time of rapid population increase, especially after WWII, ensured a political and social centrality for children.”3 There was a high demand for children to have designated places in the city that were safe so parents would allow their children to play there. However, there is also an opportunity here, as aforementioned, for the playgrounds to not only occupy children but also be used for educational purposes.

Figure 4 Chart to show changes in child development theories

The scientifically proven benefits of play include physical, cognitive and social aspects. These are all positive attributes to the well-being of a child and also any person regardless of age.4 The confinement of play to the child, although the main premise of writing, is also an area where I challenge this perspective. Play spaces and the built environment can shape or enhance the wellbeing of children and adults. In post-war Amsterdam, there were many opportunities to 1 P. Heseltine and J. Holborn, Playgrounds: The planning, design and construction of play environments, London, The Mitchell Publishing Company Ltd, 1987, p. 16. 2 V Ligtelijn and F Strauven (eds.), Aldo van Eyck Writings, The Child, the City and the Artist: An essay on architecture, The in-between realm, SUN Publishers, Amsterdam, 2008, p. 21. 3 B. Gleeson and N Sipe (eds.), Creating child friendly cities: reinstating kids into the city, London, Routledge, 2006, p. 4. 4 S.P. Kennedy, Freedom for speech : outdoor play and its potential for young children’s conceptual, linguistic and communicative development. EdD thesis The Open University, 2001, p. 2.

develop the city that would be more suitable towards the child. One of the issues that prevent politicians and governments to invest in something so seemingly small is the view of the issue itself – urban playgrounds are small scale architectures that require input from residents in order to succeed. The view of play has also vastly changed over time and the chart below shows in brief, how child development theories compare in western society (Figure 4)1

Nature of play in the city The nature of play was most prevalent in Dutch cities than most. This can be seen in the plethora of Dutch paintings that featured children and child games. “It is interesting to speculate that the Dutch cities might have been the first to have introduced play as part of everyday life, as opposed to restricting it to specially institutionalized carnival periods.” 2 A famous example which is by Flemish artist Pieter Bruegel the Elder (Figure 5) titled Children Games by which depicts a very lively scene of children scattered all over the scene playing games in seriousness. There is a great emphasis on the child, their free movement around the city, games and everyday life so it is not surprising that the post-war playgrounds in the city were embraced by the residents when you consider the significance of play in their history.

Figure 5 Oil Painting by Pieter Bruegel the Elder called ‘Children Games’

1 2

B.E. Hendricks, Designing for Play, Vermont, U.S., Ashgate Publishing Company, 2001, p49. L. Lefaivre, Ground-up City: Play as a Design Tool, Amsterdam, Rotterdam : 010 Publishes, 2007, p. 18.

Children require a variety of activities to learn and play, the need for “…opportunities for all kinds of sports and exercise and physical skills – more opportunities, more easily obtained.”1 Simultaneously, there is a need for “unspecialised outdoor home base from which to play, to hang around in, and to help form their notions of the world. It is this form of unspecialized play that the sidewalks serve.”2 This shift from the designated play areas of playgrounds and into the city on the sidewalks is an interesting and explorative move that allows the child to understand the city. The question of safety is immediately raised but a point that Jane Jacobs makes against playgrounds is that “When this home –base play is transferred to playgrounds and parks it is not only provided for unsafely, but paid personnel, equipment, and space are frittered away…”3. There seems to be a need for a variety of play available in the cities but also a desire for outdoor play in the city to become more commonplace however, the rise of road accidents will need to be taken into account.

Play is intrinsic to our existence Walter Benjamin’s observation was that “real, living play” resides in the “playing, not the “play thing”. All people have the potential to be positively impacted by play. In Johan Huzinga’s “Homo Ludens” which translates to “Man the Player” explores, in depth, the idea that the human is always at play, regardless of their sphere of life. Huizinga addresses the significance of this firstly as a cultural phenomenon and then to view “play” beyond the sphere of human life.4 Hendricks agrees with Huzinga although they write half a century apart, saying that “play is such an intrinsic part of being human that it is difficult for us to get the scientific distance to study it”.5

1 J. Jacobs, The Death and Life of Great American Cities: The Failure of Town Planning, Great Britain, Pelican Books, 1964, p. 91. 2 ibid, p. 91. 3 ibid, p. 91. 4 J. Huzinga, Homo Ludens: a study of the play element in culture, Boston, Beacon Press, p. 1. 5 B.E. Hendricks, Designing for Play, Vermont, U.S., Ashgate Publishing Company, 2001, p. 8.

Aldo van Eyck’s post war playgrounds in the city Related theories and their significance and influence Aldo van Eyck was a huge contributor to the emergence of urban playgrounds in Amsterdam with over 700 being built by 1978. His designs were firmly rooted in his theories which were bottomup, participatory approach that heard the resident’s voice and sought to piece together smaller elements of the community to improve spaces. This opposed many of his modernist contemporaries which allowed his design approach to forge a clear distinction. He wrote extensively on various theories over the years as an architect in practise and an architectural educator. There are 3 of his theories that clearly lend themselves to the conception of his urban playgrounds.

The theory of the ‘in-between’ WWII left Amsterdam in devastation and in desperate need of rebuilding. Architectural and city planning decisions needed to be made in order for the city to become habitable again. However, there was a tension between the style and apprvvvoach of the modern movement that was used in the Interwar years and a newer desire to build with more sensitivity. Aldo van Eyck, as a young architect saw this as an opportunity to put his theories, that had not all been fully formed at this time, into practise. His theory of the ‘in-between’ from his only published book ‘The Child, the city and the Artist’ explains his idea which took Martin Buber’s theories of individualism and collectivism further by recognising the ‘in-between realm’ as new dimension to mediate between the “cold abstraction of individualism and collectivism”1 1 V Ligtelijn and F Strauven (eds.), Aldo van Eyck Writings, The Child, the City and the Artist: An essay on architecture, The in-between realm, Amsterdam, SUN Publishers, 2008, p. 54.

These urban playgrounds of which Van Eyck was the central designer, had many other lesser known contributors, who supported his ideas and allowed him more opportunities to design in Amsterdam. Cor van Esteren, Jacoba Mulder, Van Walraven and Van Heemskerck to name a few of the other key benefactors of Van Eyck’s ‘ground-up’ ideas and later in Van Esteren’s General Expansion Plan of Amsterdam, post-war playgrounds were featured heavily. Van Esteren, in particular was a firm follower of CIAM’s ideals but became changed after working with Van Eyck. Aldo van Eyck suggests that we, as humanity have a natural affinity toward the ‘in-between’ and speaks of architecture with a simple “need to assist a man’s homecoming”1 which will be the case “as long as home is perpetually somewhere else”2. This ‘in-between’ state that belongs to architecture also applied to the human- the dweller’s own perception. His idea of distinguishing the ‘in-between realms’ of the urban fabric to remodel and reimagine them to create play spaces gained popularity quickly and residents wrote in regularly to their municipal asking for one to be built closer to where they lived. Aldo wrote about a tangible idea of the playgrounds and also the intangible “awareness of the in-between”3. This theory helps to emphasise the relationship between places in order to create a place in this otherwise ‘non-space’. The “in-between” theory roughly extrapolates into a PIP formula which stands for Participatory, Interstitial and Polycentric. This method enabled the end users to determine how they wished to use their own immediate public spaces. Whilst playgrounds may not delight the entire community, it was always noted in these letters that the child was the principal beneficiary and it was always the children - who could not write a well-articulated letter – that lost out if a playground was removed. • Participatory • Interstitial • Polycentric

1 V Ligtelijn and F Strauven (eds.), Aldo van Eyck Writings, The Child, the City and the Artist: An essay on architecture, The in-between realm, Amsterdam, SUN Publishers, 2008, p. 57. 2 ibid, p. 57. 3 ibid, p. 55.

Particpatory The letters below indicate a good, open communication between resident and municipality. Here are a few of the letters that have been translated to illustrate the advantages and disadvantages of these post-war playground.

Figure 9

Figure 6

Figure 7

Figure 10 Figure 8

Figures 6, 7, 8, 9 and 10 Letters written by residents affected by the playgrounds

Interstitial

Aldo van Eyck uses an interstitial approach that was contradictory to how CIAM had initially wanted to plan the renovation of the city. His approach was sensitive and appreciative of the history and space itself whereas, the CIAM plans, although well meaning, rid the city of most traces of what went on before which is understandable since most of the city lay in ruins after the war. However, the approach and ideology of CIAM was not as sympathetic to the past. A before and after photograph (Figure 11 and 12) depicting a formerly unused space turned into a playground. The building and reforming of otherwise wasted space enabled the cities to become denser and more interconnected as well as friendlier since the unwanted and less ventured to areas were injected by lively children.

Figure 11 Dijkstraat Amsterdam-Centrum before renovationt

Figure 12 Dijkstraat Amsterdam-Centrum after playground was installed

Polycentric A diagrammatic image of a polycentric net and a map that shows the increase of playgrounds so towards the end of Aldo van Eyckâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s career, all playground was within a reasonable walking distance away.

Figure 13 Diagram of a polycentric net Figure 14 Map of all Aldo van Eyckâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s playgrounds by 1961

There was much demand for designated spaces to occupy children and there are photographs depicting overcrowded sandpits (Figure 15 shows a crowded sandpit in the Frederik Hendrikplantsoen, AmsterdamOudwest). Currently, we are experiencing the opposite and the ageing population begs the question of whether it is worthwhile to invest in a declining population of children. Both are vulnerable groups and both need to be considered thoughtfully and I think that it is not so much a matter of expenditure (Van Eyck’s playgrounds were made with simple and cheap materials) as it is a matter of investment and importance. Figure 15 Sandpit overflowing with playing children

A City is a Large House In the title of Van Eyck’s book lies a clear indicator of his stance on the importance of the child. The task of education, first and foremost, is clearly to stimulate children in being children, not just to “make adults”.1 He also stresses that without the “constructive force of imagination (that is linked with the nature of play), every attempt to solve the problems facing us today will fail, or at best prove superficially effective”.2 The chapter titled ‘Imagination Unhusked’ in his book spoke of the benefits of creating well designed playgrounds and this goes beyond a purely architectural and aesthetically pleasing output. There is an inexplicable charm to child’s play cannot be fully quantified but requires space in the city- it moves something internal for the child when imagination is engaged during play. This connection can only be forged when there is a place for this to happen. “An impersonal city has no room for persons and is therefore not a city. If it has no room for persons it has no room for children, no room for the child’s particular rhythm.”3 It is implied that the adult’s place in the city affects the child’s place in the city and there is an element of relativity. A house is a small city is one of the main headings in Chapter 5 of Van Eyck’s book. “City is House and House is City’ implies ‘a house must be like a small city if it’s to be a real home; a city like a large house if it’s to be a real home’.”4 What this particular theory wanted to address was the discrepancy between the city and the house - how they do not need to fit together in order to be valid, in fact, they suggest simultaneous validity.5 The function of this type of approach to architecture was to make specialised spaces (Figure 16 and 17) with specialised equipment that were safe for children to play in the city, to discover 1 V Ligtelijn and F Strauven (eds.), Aldo van Eyck Writings, The Child, the City and the Artist: An essay on architecture, The in-between realm, Amsterdam, SUN Publishers, 2008, p. 22. 2 ibid, p. 22. 3 ibid, p. 24. 4 ibid, p. 25. 5 ibid, p 98.

the city and to find out more aboutt this place where they live and feel empowered to explore and roam. Times have shifted alongside the advancement in technology which might prohibit some of these ideas and play spaces to come to fruition in contemporary architecture and city planning because of the risks and dangers that are presented with the increase of motorcars and consequently, fear of the child’s safety. Since many of Aldo van Eyck’s playgrounds would be surrounded by roads, this had a direct effect on the accessibility of the playgrounds. This is not to imply that the play spaces will be of less value but more thought and vision would need to be implemented into the creation of these spaces and how they integrate into the city if the same quality is to be achieved in our contemporary society.

Figure 16 Some playground equipment designed by Van Eyck Figure 17 Plan of a proposed playground with tailor produced equiment

The post-war playgrounds now Most of these post war playgrounds were undocumented compared to his more famous works which may indicate that this work moved Van Eyck on a more personal level. Either this was the case or that playgrounds, especially, small urban post-war playgrounds were not perceived as significant additions to the cityscape so there is not as abundant documentation compared to Van Eyck’s Orphanage. The reason, however, is likely to be a mixture of the two. It has been revealed that of the 700 playgrounds, 370 had been demolished and 237 had been radically altered. 154 of the 370 have remained as playgrounds but now unrecognisable at Van Eyck’s handiwork. 216 had simply disappeared bar Van Eyck’s first playground in Bertelmanplein.1 1

L. Lefaivre and I. De Roode, Aldo van Eyck, the playgrounds and the city, Amsterdam, Stedelijk Museum Amster-

Of the 237 that had been radically changed, only fragments of the original state remained. It is surprising that they have not been well maintained or retained because they were such a success at the time. However, as Amsterdam’s baby boom generation matured, there was a shift in demographics so there was no longer such a huge demand for them. This, coupled with the economic pressure to house more people as the population increased overall meant the playgrounds, being lower on city planner’s agenda, were demolished for apartment complexes. Seeing the bigger picture might help us to understand why Aldo’s post war playgrounds “were a resounding success at the time”1 – as well as argue, perhaps more controversially, that they are even more needed than ever before in some “…urban environments today, specifically multicultural inner-city neighbourhoods”2. At the time, there was a huge cultural value placed on play, and the place of play in the world of urban government and governance. The playgrounds sought and achieved the aim of intertwining both elements in Amsterdam.

An inclusive frame of mind In particular, modern architecture began addressing the domestic in relation to the metropolitan, asking for an ‘architect-urbanist’. This steered Van Eyck to write in 1956 about how the city should mirror human nature in the way that we are not only breathing in, nor are we exclusively breathing out. They are ambivalent realities.3 Regrettably, things are not always relative and there are absolutes that do exist and contradict Van Eyck’s theory of relativity. Relativity is not a “medicine” for all issues and can probably never be. Van Eyck’s theories are generally inclusive and open however, there are elements that are far too abstract to apply satisfactorily. On the other hand, Aldo’s inclusive approach “did manage to question earlier ways of conceiving urban space, particularly modernism’s negation of the city through its redefinition of “the outside world”4. Next, we shall see how Aldo’s playgrounds and theories have moved on since the postwar playgrounds.

dam; NAi Publishers Rotterdam, 2002, p. 81. 1 L. Lefaivre, Ground-up City: Play as a Design Tool, Amsterdam, Rotterdam : 010 Publishes, 2007, p. 53. 2 ibid, p. 56. 3 K. Jaschke, ‘City is House and House is City: Aldo van Eyck, Piet Blom and the Architecture of Homecoming’, in Intimate Metropolis: Urban Subjects in the Modern City, London, Routledge, p. 176. 4 ibid, pp. 191-192.

Disadvantages and consequences of misuse of playgrounds There have been many changes to the playground over the centuries; the end user, the visual look of the play space, the materials used and the places that playgrounds inhabit. From swings for ladies in China during the Tang Dynasty (618-907 AD) 1 to the elite ladies and gentlemen on seesaws in their garden playgrounds to concrete postwar play spaces to (Figure 18) the more familiar urban and adventure playgrounds (Figure 19) for children. Although these changes were extremely gradual, the overall shift from private to public is the most significant change. The element of play is seen to be a malleable element that is constantly redefined yet resistant to all the changes to the physical playground.

Figure 18 Photograph of popular North London adventure playground 1

Figure 19 Photograph of the Brutalist playground in Churchill Gardens Estate, Pimlico, London: childrenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s playground

B.E. Hendricks, Designing for Play, Vermont, U.S., Ashgate Publishing Company, 2001, p. 19.

The fear factor performs a key role in the designing of playgrounds and a clear indicator of this fear is the different materials that are used to create playgrounds. In general terms, we have shifted as a whole to a more cautious state by retiring from using concrete and “hard” surfaces to much softer, tarmacked surfaces. This shift into “safer” play environments may be a positive shift of thinking because it reduces injuries but it may also reduce the educational play which is so important yet increasing neglected.

Hubs for delinquent activity Aldo van Eyck wanted to use the playgrounds as an integral element to the rebuilding of Amsterdam and as with any architectural build, maintenance and repair is required. Unfortunately many of Van Eyck’s playgrounds have disappeared. En route to a playground’s demolition, there is usually a gradual fall in usage and consequent misuse. “’Street gangs’ do their ‘street fighting’ predominately in parks and playgrounds. When the New York Times in September 1959 summed up the worst adolescent gang outbreaks of the past decade in the city, each and every one was designated as having occurred in a park.“1 To begin to understand and explore how these playgrounds that tried to replicate the storm of playgrounds that had seen success years before Amsterdam failed, we need to investigate the society and culture as well as its geographical locations. Charles Guggenheim, a film maker in St Louis, Missouri observed how different groups of children would react as they faced the inevitable walk home after day care through either the “old streets” or the new project which Guggenheim described how “…boring, the project’s landscaped grounds and playgrounds were, how deserted they seemed…”2. The children who willingly left the day care centre came from the nearby “old streets” and had many secret alleyways to select from to evade the bully’s reach and would feel safe and enjoy the trip home. The other group of children would need to go through the housing project and through the gauntlet of bullies who awaited their next prey. Sandwiching playgrounds in a web of streets much like the polycentric model of Van Eyck’s playgrounds can lend itself to make it safer for the child. However, the reality is that children are not travelling home alone anymore and with the heightened fear in parents, children are given less freedom in the cities. It was clear that the community in St Louis was inappropriate to erect playgrounds because a web of streets were not fully formed in the new area. The PIP model of the Amsterdam playgrounds and Van Eyck’s theories were not employed properly in this instance. Rather than attempting to marry the city and these new playgrounds “fifty-seven acres of mostly grass, dotted with playgrounds and devoid of city streets” became “a prime breeding ground of delinquency”3. The playgrounds were isolated elements that did not sprout from the city itself unlike Van Eyck’s post-war playgrounds that were installed after diagnosing the surrounding area which informed the site specific playground designs. It is likely that in the haste of building enough houses and apartments to house the residents, they did not fully consider all the aspects that would allow for good, integrated playgrounds to be established. This shows that although, the council in St Louis attempted to imitate Van Eyck’s playgrounds, they needed to first understand not only the child but also the needs of the community. 1 J. Jacobs, The Death and Life of Great American Cities: The Failure of Town Planning, Great Britain, Pelican Books, 1964, p. 87. 2 ibid, p. 86. 3 ibid, p. 87.

Specificity of Amsterdam’s post-war playgrounds A disadvantage of the Amsterdam playgrounds by Van Eyck were that they were very specific to the time, place and culture there were created in and for. After fifty years, most of Van Eyck’s playgrounds have disappeared, having been replaced by other pieces of architecture. This might mean that the playgrounds may once again appear when the need arises although the crux of Van Eyck’s main writings is to raise the profile and importance of the child in the cities permanently. This idea of the playgrounds being designed to suit the surrounding environment was replicated in many places across the world. Despite the success the playgrounds had in Amsterdam, the rise in the use of the motorcar globally affects playgrounds negatively. An additional issue was the journey to get to the playgrounds; there was a fear that the playgrounds were too close to the roads and it was beginning to pose serious risks for young children. As a result of this, the play spaces were becoming less desirable with the increase of the motorcars. A case study conducted by Jane Jacobs in America argues “…that the huge increase of motor cars has hugely affected the way we treat our children and where we allow them to play outside.”1 Although she also sees an even greater failure than the automobiles saying that the “destructive effects of the automobiles are much less a cause than a symptom of our incompetence at city building” This alerts architects and city planners to the vital point of building more strategically to incorporate the increase of the motorcar, using it as another challenge rather than a hindrance.

Dislocating play from the city Although there is a lot of scope for the design of cities to make a big difference, the fear that is incurred when there are road accidents than during the post war period, may hinder the intended usage of a well-designed playground2. With the popular emergence of the more trendy playgrounds called ‘Adventure Playgrounds’, which are usually located further from the city centre and are a considerable commute, children can no longer travel to play spaces themselves and are dependent on parents or guardians. These have seemingly answered the fears of parents by removing cars from the immediate vicinity of the play areas but also from the cluster of inner city roads. This dislocation of play, although is a practical move, may not be the most beneficial if the aim is to reinstate the role of the child in the city.

The background of designers directly influence the playground An issue that has come to the forefront of playground design is the understanding that we are adults attempting to make sense of play and a child’s attempt at making sense of the world. This requires not only empathy, but also creativity. There is a discrepancy with what designers want to design as an adult and want the end users want and need. This a regular design problem in the architectural world but by employing Van Eyck’s frame of mind to designing, it makes it easier to formulate a sensitive, end user centric solution. The design of playgrounds and for play is something that Van Eyck suggests is almost innate to 1 J. Jacobs, The Death and Life of Great American Cities: The Failure of Town Planning, Great Britain, Pelican Books, 1964, p. 17. 2 Department for Transport, Annual road fatalities, https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/annual-road-fatalities, 2014, (accessed: 18 January 2016).

us since we all were once children, and we all possess the potential to be creative and artistic and lastly we are all live with others. This corresponds to his theory in his book which suggest the child, the city and the artist are all equal variables in the same equation.1 The Dutch architect makes a bold claim that “what the child needs is what we need- just that: places where we can be what we really are: children unto ourselves…”2 He places this responsibility to establish place to architects. Current playgrounds have changed so drastically since fifty years ago with valid reason, the demographic of designers, city planners and architects are changing. Jacobs noted “Most city architectural designers and planners are men. Curiously, they design and plan to exclude men as part of normal life. They plan, in short, strictly for a matriarchal society”3 This gender bias has much deeper roots than simply designers being male, however, this is still important to observe since the designer and their personal impressions on a design will most likely come through and this could introduce positive or negative change. Since Jacobs’ writings in 1964, the gender ratio of students pursuing architecture, building and planning courses in higher education is 1:2 female to male, correct in 2010–11 in the Patterns and Trends in UK Higher Education 2012 document for universitiesuk4 which still suggests more males but this gender gap is closing. We cannot assume that playgrounds always make for closer knit communities since there have been numerous cases which show the clear correlation between playgrounds and delinquency and violence which have led to deaths.5 There is a possibility that the success of Aldo van Eyck’s playgrounds can be imitated, but this depends on having a very extensive understanding the surroundings, not only physically but also socially and economically.

1 V. Ligtelijn and F. Strauven (eds.), Aldo van Eyck Writings, The Child, the City and the Artist: An essay on architecture, The in-between realm, Amsterdam, SUN Publishers, 2008, p. 20. 2 ibid, p 24. 3 J. Jacobs, The Death and Life of Great American Cities: The Failure of Town Planning, Great Britain, Pelican Books, 1964, p. 94. 4 Universities UK, Higher Education: analysing a decade of change patterns and trends, 2012, http://www.universitiesuk.ac.uk/highereducation/Documents/2012/PatternsAndTrendsinUKHigherEducation2012.pdf (accessed: 6 January 2016). 5 J. Jacobs, The Death and Life of Great American Cities: The Failure of Town Planning, Great Britain, Pelican Books, 1964, p. 86.

How do we design and imagine for play in architecture currently? This chapter will explore the ways in which we specifically approach design for play and design more broadly; the ways it is done presently and to understand the impact playgrounds can have on design. From the previous chapters, two main issues were brought to the fore that altered the design of playgrounds: firstly, the fear that is induced by delinquent activity and violence in playgrounds and the inappropriateness of playgrounds in a cities where there is heavy reliance on automobiles. Despite the statistics of child fatalities on the road decreasing significantly since 1994-1998, there is still a scar of fear that remains.1

Fear and risk Both issues that have been raised increase the fear that parents and guardians have stem from the fact that street gang related murders have occurred predominantly in playgrounds and parks. In Great Britain, the child fatality rate is “…1.3 per 100,000 population”.2 These statistics coupled with the fears already in people’s minds affect what architects choose to design in the city, or how they choose to rebuild or renovate the playgrounds. In the time it takes from a casualty or fatality to be accepted in a community to the time that that area where the incident occurred is used again, the playgrounds will inevitably be unused or misused allowing it to fall into disrepair. Fear is closely associated to risk which attempts to find resolution in certainty by adding more 1 NBURKI, Child fact sheet -child casualties in road accidents great Britain: 2006, 2006, http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/+/http://www.dft.gov.uk/pgr/statistics/datatablespublications/accidents/casualtiesgbar/suppletablesfactsheets/childfact2006.pdf (accessed: 5 January 2016). 2 ibid

safety measures. Fear and risk are broad topics but we will specifically look at their relationships in terms of architecture. Van Eyck is referred to in many books as the ‘humanist rebel’ seeking to reveal that the raw forces of life,1 in children particularly, hold something of worth that is countercultural to society that is forgotten. Due to the fears created by the misuse of playgrounds, there is a culture of less risk taking which is reflected in the heightened safe precautions of playgrounds that are built. The soft surfaces used to cushion falls contrasts to the hard, less forgiving concrete (figure… and figure… show the vast difference) and there are numerous books written about the health and safety of the playground. Minimising accidents is necessary and beneficial however, it should be re-evaluated if when the main function of play is affected. Prue Walsh, an Early Childhood Educator shares her fears that play and play spaces show “frequent practice of uncritically copying designs from one area and imposing them in many others”2. She also critiques these spaces because they “show little understanding of how children play, or why one space is inviting and another is boring”3. An interstitial approach that embraces the child is required to form enlivened spaces that engage the children of the city and their perceptions. Whilst American playgrounds have been stigmatised by gang violence, Dutch post-war urban playgrounds have thrived. From these international examples, lessons can be learnt from these provisions of community spaces. In both cases, the needs of the community changed over time and since then “design errors greatly compromise the possibilities for any future design solutions.”4 It may be the most opportune time to rethink playgrounds in the city, quenching the fear to design, to trust the successes as well as learn from the errors made. “Before we throw away playgrounds we must develop alternative spaces that have good quality play possibilities” and simply because the design of the playgrounds have not been satisfactory, we should assess why that particular playground has not been effective and try again.5 Playground design is in need of a revival.

Adult instigated form versus child centric function The bright colours that are used in adventure playgrounds can be used as a tool for learning and stimulation if deployed correctly. However, the desire for designs to be aesthetically pleasing, which was the premise of one the Amsterdam resident’s letter shows that we can sometimes be more concerned with form. Walsh’s planning principles that she outlines can form almost a checklist of things to consider whilst designing. 6 By using Van Eyck’s frame of mind to design and Walsh’s principles paired with an understanding of play, there is great potential for a successful play space. Many issues can also find benefits in making space for successful play for example, more space to run safely and to play physically can minimise the increasingly expensive issue of childhood obesity.7 1 V. Ligtelijn and F. Strauven (eds.), Aldo van Eyck Writings, The Child, the City and the Artist: An essay on architecture, The in-between realm, Amsterdam, SUN Publishers, 2008, p. 21. 2 B. Gleeson and N. Sipe (eds.), Creating child friendly cities: reinstating kids into the city, London, Routledge, 2006, p. 139. 3 ibid, p. 139. 4 ibid, p. 141. 5 B.E. Hendricks, Designing for Play, Vermont, U.S., Ashgate Publishing Company, 2001, p. 236. 6 ibid, p. 142. 7 ibid, p. 143.

Beauty and pleasing aesthetics drive much of commercial architecture, however this is not and cannot be the primary driving force of play design. A collaborative project by an international team of architects and designers who are concerned with exploring the link between how children learn and practical design ideas is titled “The Third Teacher”. The thinking behind this exploration is that the design of a building is intrinsically linked to the learning and informs the player of that environment.1 Adult designers need to be well equipped in order to design faithfully to the child. The input of the designer is key but the designers in the book suggest a more inclusive approach that incorporates the child. This creative exercise of incorporating the end users alongside the experienced architects, helps both parties to become more involved and the different ideas help spur on better solutions. Pallasmaa notes that “Creative work calls for a double perspective: one needs to focus simultaneously on the world and on oneself, the external space and one’s inner mental space.”2 I would take this a step further and add that the focus is on the world, on ourselves and the client.

Re-imagining the banal A reason given by Hurtwood for why new playgrounds were stagnant was “…there is no obvious central body whose job it is…”3 At this point in time, there are playground experts but it is hardly well paid to be a playground designer. She suggests that the architects who pick up the pieces try to “…fit the children into the playground, rather than the reverse.”4 As a response to the higher importance of the role of the city child, the profession of playground designer should be more heavily funded making it a viable and attractive job. Architectural education is interdisciplinary in its approach so there is a responsibility to instil the importance of play and children in the education of architects. By understanding the child, the architect will begin to empathise with the child and possibly even use the unlimited imagination that children have in their own work.5 Unfortunately, at present, there is no required module taught or emphasis put on inclusive design of children at undergraduate level.

OWP/P Architects + VS Furniture + Bruce Mau Design, The Third Teacher, New York, Abrams, 2010, p. 15. J. Pallasmaa, The Thinking hand: Existential and embodied wisdom in architecture, Chichester, John Wiley and Son Publication, 2009, p. 19. 3 Lady Allen of Hurtwood, Planning for Play, London, Thames and Hudson, 1968, p. 15 4 ibid, p. 15. 5 B. Gleeson and N. Sipe (eds.), Creating child friendly cities: reinstating kids into the city, London, Routledge, 2006, p. 149. 1 2

Applications The nature of play has been unpacked to form a basis for the designing of playgrounds appropriately to suit the place, the child and the adult. Play is a highly complex and not yet fully understood part of design, there is much further to go in order to cement the importance of playgrounds in design. Aldo van Eyckâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s post-war playgrounds, as we have uncovered, showed huge success in Amsterdam and his ideas were imitated across the world but unfortunately only some gained success, others failed miserably. One of the reasons for failure was because the playgrounds were badly imitated and did not fully embody Van Eyck theories. This is understandable since we also came to the conclusion that although his theories were open and inclusive, they were very abstract and therefore hard to apply to their full potential.

Stigma of playgrounds need to be overcome through design We understand that playgrounds can have a profound and lasting effect on the community but dependent on the situation, results could vary greatly. Parks and playgrounds have found themselves becoming an iconic location for delinquent youths and violent behaviour. Do the negatives outweigh the potential positives? This may only be answered case by case. Much of the delinquent behaviour derives from an older cohort of youths, a group that is slightly more independent and misuse the playgrounds they still gather in. There needs to be spaces made for various ages that provide specific and open play.1 This, of course, is a very simplistic approach and may well only be the beginning of many conversations and hopefully inspire further research. With younger generations growing up quicker and the emergence of the â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;tweenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; age which is a pre-adolescent category, designing age appropriate play spaces becomes trickier and 1 B. Gleeson and N. Sipe (eds.), Creating child friendly cities: reinstating kids into the city, London, Routledge, 2006, p. 142.

more necessary.1 As more research is carried out, more knowledge is accumulated about the complexities of play, designers, city planners and educationalists are in an improved position to build new playgrounds.

Van Eyck’s theories in practise Aldo van Eyck’s inclusive approach may not be as relative as it set out to be and Kurt Iveson questions “the usefulness of opposing exclusion with inclusion. It seems to me…they are too often only alternative routes to an agreed destination – a city that is orderly, conflict-free and controllable.”2 This means that there needs to be an acceptance that play, in its essence is messy, which may go against the grain of architectural forms but it should be seen as a challenge in the designing of playgrounds. By beginning to empathise with the past and its downfalls and adopting a frame of mind that allows for an interdisciplinary and re-inventive approach, playgrounds as a concept may see improvement that allows you to take the essence of play and use it as part of the designing process from the outset and not an afterthought. The designs of many of Van Eyck’s playgrounds were made after a recommendation from resident was sent in to the municipality where he was working. This very open communication from municipality and resident allowed the end users to input and influence their surroundings which is desirable but not always achievable in other countries. The post-war period embraced changes and the Dutch culture towards children may be quite different to our own in the UK. This may mean that the desire to truly be engaged in changes in the community may be deterred, especially with the rise of individualism. “The playgrounds were shaped by the city but they also shaped the city”3 nevertheless, the aim is not only to raise the profile of the child in the city but to give the parents a voice to influence and improve the community. Residents, politicians and the local authorities need to understand that open communication offers a chance for successful local environments. Van Eyck’s theories were not for theories’ sake, instead as design tools to aid us in better more thoughtful design. This strategy of post-war urban playgrounds may only have been successful Amsterdam where there was a desperate need for change. I would argue that we are once again in a state that requires swift action because the child’s place in the city is minimised to the extent that a reform must take place to counteract all the spaces that being used for housing. I would propose that, dependent on the density of children in the area, there should be a proportionate number of playgrounds within a walkable distance away. Additionally, I also recommend the playgrounds to be planned for longevity, as a reaction not only to our current needs but also to our human need. Putting the role of play and inevitably children higher on the city planner’s agenda, allows playgrounds to be designed better by architects since it will hopefully be better funded which should reflect positively into the community since “playgrounds should be community spaces and their social atmosphere is far more important than their mechanical equipment.”4 1 C. Mitchell and J. Reid-Walsh, Seven going on seventeen : tween studies in the culture of girlhood, New York, Peter Lang, 2005. 2 B. Gleeson and N. Sipe (eds.), Creating child friendly cities: reinstating kids into the city, London, Routledge, 2006, p. 49. 3 J. Jacobs, The Death and Life of Great American Cities: The Failure of Town Planning, Great Britain, Pelican Books, 1964, p. 45. 4 P. F. Wilkinson, Innovation in Play Environments: Toward the perfect play experience, Guildford, Surrey, Biddles Ltd ,1980, p. 23.

A change that may have the greatest effectiveness is to highlight the role of the child and the city child to architects early in the architectural education. At present, there is little to no emphasis on the child in architectural design education and this is not useful since we cannot exclusively design for the adult and exclude the other vulnerable groups. Hendricks suggests that the design of play spaces “requires some form of union or marriage between the adult designers’ sophisticated good taste and the children’s immediate sensory response to their environment.”1 There needs to be a union between the designer as an adult and the end user as the child. In the light of union, there is also a requirement for there to be mutual understanding between, architect, builder and city planner. The frame work of Van Eyck to think of the ‘in-between’ frees us to explore the space between the playgrounds. Adults and parents may try to confine the child to the designated ‘play space’ when in actual fact, all the spaces, destination and journey alike can be seen as a potential play for the child. In an abstracted way, play can be used and inform our understanding of design and if we understand the nature of play and the potential for it, it would be extremely powerful if we use it constructively and are able to mould it for our own use and designs, allowing it to take us further. There is an aspect of play that contradicts fear and I strongly feel that it is possible for architects and planners alike to use this elemental force of play to our own advantage specifically in design for play but also in all realms of design.

B.E. Hendricks, Designing for Play, Vermont, U.S., Ashgate Publishing Company, 2001, p. 46, p. 96.

Bibliography

Books

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Image credits Figure 1, Lefaivre, L. and De Roode, I., Aldo van Eyck, the playgrounds and the city, Amsterdam, Stedelijk Museum Amsterdam; NAi Publishers Rotterdam, 2002, Figure 2, Lefaivre, L. and De Roode, I., Aldo van Eyck, the playgrounds and the city, Amsterdam,

Stedelijk Museum Amsterdam; NAi Publishers Rotterdam, 2002. Figure 3, Hendricks, B.E., Designing for Play, Vermont, U.S., Ashgate Publishing Company, 2001. Figure 4, Hendricks, B.E., Designing for Play, Vermont, U.S., Ashgate Publishing Company, 2001. Figure 5, Children’s games (Bruegel), 2016, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Children%27s_Games_ (Bruegel)#/media/File:Pieter_Bruegel_the_Elder_-_Children%E2%80%99s_Games_-_Google_ Art_Project.jpg (accessed 24 November 2015). Figures 6 -17, Lefaivre, L. and De Roode, I., Aldo van Eyck, the playgrounds and the city, Amsterdam, Stedelijk Museum Amsterdam; NAi Publishers Rotterdam, 2002, Figure 18, A&A | playground, Churchill Gardens Estate, no date, http://www.artandarchitecture.org. uk/images/conway/b6210055.html (accessed: 14 January 2016). Figure 19 Oasis Play, no date, http://oasisplay.org.uk/galleries/gallery2/gallery.php, accessed: 14 January 2016).

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Loretta So 120506365 Architecture Newcastle University