Scientific method & writing unal sept 2010 memories

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VICERRECTORÍA DE SEDE DIRECCIÓN ACADÉMICA DIRECCIÓN DE INVESTIGACIÓN BOGOTÁ, SEPTEMBER, 2010 ALBERT ORTIZ, PSY CITY COLLEGE OF THE CITY UNIVERSITY OF NEW YORK CENTER OF EXCELLENCE ON NOVEL MATERIALS – CENM INTERNATIONAL LOGISTICS – SOLUCIONES INTELIGENTES

“Interesting and unpublished is equivalent to nonexistent� George M. Whitesides, Adv. Mat., 16, 1375, 2004.

Scientists publish new ideas and concepts on established knowledge, not results.

Better writing for scientists, engineers, & students Effectiveness in any trade demands good writing. Accuracy, clarity, completeness, & simplicity are essentials in scientific writing.

Generally, we think writing is only necessary for communication; hence, we seldom remember other reasons for writing as part of our day-to-day work: to help us to observe remember think plan

organize

communicate

Writing well a scientific paper is not a matter of life or death;

it is something much more serious. Robert Day

A new scientific truth does not triumph by convincing its opponents and making them see the light, but rather because its opponents eventually die, and a new generation grows up that is familiar with it. [PLANCK, 1949, PP. 33–34]

Many authors have been rejected by editors or referees for Manuscripts, which would later earn them the Nobel Prize. Letter sent to Hideki Yukawa.

Rejecting and resisting Nobel class discoveries: accounts by Nobel Laureates. (2008) CAMPANARIO

Nobel class papers that had difficulties during the peer review process or rejected by editors (CAMPANARIO: Nobel class discoveries - Published online April 16, 2009,

Articles should have a Title, Authors, Abstract, Key words, Introduction, Materials and Methods, Results, Discussion, Acknowledgments, & References.

To place your research in perspective requires:     

summarizing the state of knowledge on the general topic relating your work to general body of knowledge on the topic stating the critical hypotheses toward which the study is addressed interpreting the results of the study in relation to these hypotheses and to the general state of knowledge identifying the scientific questions and procedural weaknesses that need to be addressed in the future. (Adapted from Cox (1990) http://biology.luther.edu/paper.htm)

Organization of papers Title, Authors, & Affiliations

Abstract General Specific

General

(What?)

Introduction

Materials & Methods Results Discussion

(How?)

(What was found?)

Conclusions

References Adapted from: Hill et al., Teaching ESL students to read and write experimental papers, TESOL Quarterly, 16: 333, 1982:

I. Title II. Authors and Institutions III. Abstract IV. Key words V. Introduction VI. Materials and Methods VII. Results VIII. Discussion IX. Conclusions X. Recommendations XI. Acknowledgments XII. References

A. Shortest statement possible to describe the contents of the article 1. Use descriptive words 2. Make use of the key words presented at the end of the abstract 3. Centered at the top of the first page (capitalized according to editorial policies)

A. Primary researcher gets listed first; highest ranking researcher or head of research group goes last 1. Centered two spaces below the title 2. Adhere to editorial policies

A. Short, one-paragraph summary of the complete contents of the article B. Does not use symbols or acronyms C. Does not use tables, figures, or references D. Does not refer to literature or to tables or figures within the body of the article E. Uses terms from the title and from the key words without repeating the title F. Answers the following questions in strict order: 1. What was done? a. Taken from the Introduction 2. How was it done? a. Taken from the Materials and Methods 3. What was obtained? a. Taken from the Results 4. What is its significance? a. Taken from the Discussion

A. Sufficiently specific to be associated with the Title and the Abstract

A. Sets general context within the area of knowledge of the current work B. Discusses the state-of-the-art C. Seeks support from previous work and uses extensive references D. Contextualizes from the general to the specific E. States specific problem being addressed, along with the methodology used and the focus and scope of the study

A. Details specific materials, apparatus, precursors, etc., used in the study B. Describes – in detail – methods, protocols, & procedures used C. Gives specific details of experimental design

A. Furnish raw data B. Use tables and figures (charts, illustrations, images, etc.) C. Do not interpret results obtained D. All data should be reported, even if results were unexpected

A. Interpret the significance of data obtained and how it relates to specific problems stated in the Introduction B. Give possible explanations for the outcome of the study

A. Draw conclusions regarding the study and the challenges it presented 1. Always refer to the questions initially raised in the Introduction

A. List possible next steps to be taken B. Recommendations for further action/study

A. Give credit for support received during the current study

A. Choose the citation style used in the specific field of knowledge B. References will appear in the order they appear in the body of the paper C. Adhere to Editorial policies

Running head: EFFECTS OF AGE ON DETECTION OF EMOTION 1

Effects of Age on Detection of Emotional Information Christina M. Leclerc and Elizabeth A. Kensinger Boston College Author Note Christina M . Leclerc and Elizabeth A. Kensinger, Department of Psychology, Boston College. This research was supported by National Science Foundation Grant BCS 0542694 awarded to Elizabeth A. Kensinger.

Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Christina M. Leclerc, Department of Psychology, Boston College, McGuinn Hall, Room 512, 140 Commonwealth Avenue, Chestnut Hill, MA 02467. E-mail: christina.leclerc.1@bc.edu

EFFECTS OF AGE ON DETECTION OF EMOTION

Abstract

Age differences were examined in affective processing, in the context of a visual search task. Young and older adults were faster to detect high arousal images compared with low arousal and neutral items. Younger adults were faster to detect positive high arousal targets compared with other categories. In contrast, older adults exhibited an overall detection advantage for emotional images compared with neutral images. Together, these findings suggest that older adults do not display valencebased effects on affective processing at relatively automatic stages. Key words: aging, attention, information processing, emotion, visual search

General

Contextualization Summarize previous research Purpose

Specific

Your work

Your Field

Effects of Age on Detection of Emotional Information

Frequently, people encounter situations in their environment in which it is impossible to attend to all available stimuli. It is therefore of great importance for one’s attentional processes to select only the most salient information in the environment to which one should attend. Previous research has suggested that emotional information is privy to attentional selection in young adults (e.g., Anderson, 2005; Calvo & Lang, 2004; Carretie, Hinojosa, Marin-Loeches, Mecado, & Tapia, 2004; Nummenmaa, Hyona, & Calvo, 2006), an obvious service to evolutionary drives to approach rewarding situations and to avoid threat and danger (Davis & Whalen, 2001; Dolan & Vuilleumier, 2003; Lang, Bradley, & Cuthbert, 1997; LeDoux, 1995). For example, Ohman, Flykt, and Esteves (2001) presented participants with 3 × 3 visual arrays with images representing four categories (snakes, spiders, flowers, mushrooms). In half the arrays, all nine images were from the same category, whereas in the remaining half of the arrays, eight images were from one category and one image was from a different category (e.g., eight flowers and one snake). Participants were asked to indicate whether the matrix included a discrepant stimulus. Results indicated that fear-relevant images were more quickly detected than fear-irrelevant items, and larger search facilitation effects were observed for participants who were fearful of the stimuli. A similar pattern of results has been observed when examining the attention-grabbing nature of negative facial expressions, with threatening faces (including those not attended to) identified more quickly than positive or neutral faces (Eastwood, Smilek, & Merikle, 2001; Hansen & Hansen, 1988). The enhanced detection of emotional information is not limited to threatening stimuli; there is evidence that any high-arousing stimulus can be‌

Method

Participants Younger adults (14 women, 10 men, Mage = 19.5 years, age range: 18–22 years) were recruited with flyers posted on the Boston College campus. Older adults (15 women, nine men, Mage = 76.1 years, age range: 68–84 years) were recruited through the Harvard Cooperative on Aging (see Table 1, for demographics and test scores). 1 Participants were compensated $10 per hour for their participation. There were 30 additional participants, recruited in the same way as described above, who provided pilot rating values: five young and five old participants for the assignment of items within individual categories (i.e., images depicting cats), and 10 young and 10 old participants for the assignment of images within valence and arousal categories. All participants were asked to bring corrective eyewear if needed, resulting in normal or corrected to normal vision for all participants.

Materials and Procedure The visual search task was adapted from Ohman et al. (2001). There were 10 different types of items (two each of five Valence Ă— Arousal categories: positive high arousal, positive low arousal, neutral, negative low arousal, negative high arousal), each containing nine individual exemplars that were used to construct 3 Ă— 3 stimulus matrices. A total of 90 images were used, each appearing as a target and as a member of a distracting array. A total of 360 matrices were presented to each participant; half contained a target item (i.e., eight items of one type and one target item of another type) and half did not (i.e., all nine images of the same type). Within the 180 nontarget trials, the location of each item rotated twice through the nine locations in a given matrix. Within the 180 target trials, each of the five emotion categories (e.g., positive high arousal, neutral, etc.) was represented in 36 trials. Further, within each of the 36 trials for each emotion category, nine trials were created for each of the combinations with the remaining four other emotion categories (e.g., nine trials with eight positive high arousal items and one neutral item).

Location of the target was randomly varied such that no target within an emotion category was presented in the same location in arrays of more than one other emotion category (i.e., a negative high arousal target appeared in a different location when presented with positive high arousal array images than when presented with neutral array images). The items within each category of grayscale images shared the same verbal label (e.g., mushroom, snake), and the items were selected from online databases and photo clipart packages. Each image depicted a photo of the actual object. Ten pilot participants were asked to write down the name corresponding to each object; any object that did not consistently generate the intended response was eliminated from the set. For the remaining images, an additional 20 pilot participants rated the emotional valence and arousal of the objects and assessed the degree of visual similarity among objects within a set (i.e., how similar the mushrooms were to one another) and between objects across sets (i.e., how similar the mushrooms were to the snakes).

Valence and arousal ratings. Valence and arousal were judged on 7-point scales (1 = negative valence or low arousal and 7 = positive valence or high arousal). Negative objects received mean valence ratings of 2.5 or lower, neutral objects received mean valence ratings of 3.5 to 4.5, and positive objects received mean valence ratings of 5.5 or higher. High arousal objects received mean arousal ratings greater than 5, and low arousal objects (including all neutral stimuli) received mean arousal ratings of less than 4. We selected categories for which both young and older adults agreed on the valence and arousal classifications, and stimuli were selected such that the arousal difference between positive low arousal and positive high arousal was equal to the difference between negative low arousal and negative high arousal.

Similarity ratings. Each item was rated for within-category and between-categories similarity. For within-category similarity, participants were shown a set of exemplars (e.g., a set of mushrooms) and were asked to rate how similar each mushroom was to the rest of the mushrooms, on a 1 (entirely dissimilar) to 7 (nearly identical) scale. Participants made these ratings on the basis of overall similarity and on the basis of the specific visual dimensions in which the objects could differ (size, shape, orientation). Participants also rated how similar objects of one category were to objects of another category (e.g., how similar the mushrooms were to the snakes). Items were selected to assure that the categories were equated on within-category and between-categories similarity of specific visual dimensions, as well as for the overall similarity of the object categories (ps > .20). For example, we selected particular mushrooms and particular cats so that the mushrooms were as similar to one another as were the cats (i.e., withingroup similarity was held constant across the categories). Our object selection also assured that the categories differed from one another to a similar degree (e.g., that the mushrooms were as similar to the snakes as the cats were similar to the snakes).

Procedure

Each trial began with a white fixation cross presented on a black screen for 1,000 ms; the matrix was then presented, and it remained on the screen until a participant response was recorded. Participants were instructed to respond as quickly as possible with a button marked yes if there was a target present, or a button marked no if no target was present. Response latencies and accuracy for each trial were automatically recorded with E-Prime (Version 1.2) experimental software. Before beginning the actual task, participants performed 20 practice trials to assure compliance with the task instructions.

Results Analyses focus on participants’ RTs to the 120 trials in which a target was present and was from a different emotional category from the distractor (e.g., RTs were not included for arrays containing eight images of a cat and one image of a butterfly because cats and butterflies are both positive low arousal items). RTs were analyzed for 24 trials of each target emotion category. RTs for error trials were excluded (fewer than 5% of all responses) as were RTs that were ±3 SD from each participant’s mean (approximately 1.5% of responses). Median RTs were then calculated for each of the five emotional target categories, collapsing across array type (see Table 2 for raw RT values for each of the two age groups). This allowed us to examine, for example, whether participants were faster to detect images of snakes than images of mushrooms, regardless of the type of array in which they were presented.

Because our main interest was in examining the effects of valence and arousal on participants’ target detection times, we created scores for each emotional target category that controlled for the participant’s RTs to detect neutral targets (e.g., subtracting the RT to detect neutral targets from the RT to detect positive high arousal targets). These difference scores were then examined with a 2 × 2 × 2 (Age [young, older] × Valence [positive, negative] × Arousal [high, low]) analysis of variance (ANOVA). This ANOVA revealed only a significant main effect of arousal, F(1, 46) = 8.41, p = .006, ηp 2 = .16, with larger differences between neutral and high arousal images (M = 137) than between neutral and low arousal images (M = 93; i.e., high arousal items processed more quickly across both age groups compared with low arousal items; see Figure 1). There was no significant main effect for valence, nor was there an interaction between valence and arousal. It is critical that the analysis revealed only a main effect of age but no interactions with age. Thus, the arousal-mediated effects on detection time appeared stable in young and older adults.

The results described above suggested that there was no influence of age on the influences of emotion. To further test the validity of this hypothesis, we submitted the RTs to the five categories of targets to a 2 × 5 (Age [young, old] × Target Category [positive high arousal, positive low arousal, neutral, negative low arousal, negative high arousal]) repeated measures ANOVA.2 Both the age group, F(1, 46) = 540.32, p < .001, ηp 2 = .92, and the target category, F(4, 184) = 8.98, p < .001, ηp 2 = .16, main effects were significant, as well as the Age Group × Target Category interaction, F(4, 184) = 3.59, p = .008, ηp 2 = .07. This interaction appeared to reflect the fact that for the younger adults, positive high arousal targets were detected faster than targets from all other categories, ts(23) < −1.90, p < .001, with no other target categories differing significantly from one another (although there were trends for negative high arousal and negative low arousal targets to be detected more rapidly than neutral targets (p < .12).

For older adults, all emotional categories of targets were detected more rapidly than were neutral targets, ts(23) > 2.56, p < .017, and RTs to the different emotion categories of targets did not differ significantly from one another. Thus, these results provided some evidence that older adults may show a broader advantage for detection of any type of emotional information, whereas young adults’ benefit may be more narrowly restricted to only certain categories of emotional information.

Discussion As outlined previously, there were three plausible alternatives for young and older adults’ performance on the visual search task: The two age groups could show a similar pattern of enhanced detection of emotional information, older adults could show a greater advantage for emotional detection than young adults, or older adults could show a greater facilitation than young adults only for the detection of positive information. The results lent some support to the first two alternatives, but no evidence was found to support the third alternative. In line with the first alternative, no effects of age were found when the influence of valence and arousal on target detection times was examined; both age groups showed only an arousal effect.

This result is consistent with prior studies that indicated that arousing information can be detected rapidly and automatically by young adults (Anderson, Christoff, Panitz, De Rosa, & Gabrieli, 2003; Ohman & Mineka, 2001) and that older adults, like younger adults, continue to display a threat detection advantage when searching for negative facial targets in arrays of positive and neutral distractors (Hahn et al., 2006; Mather & Knight, 2006). Given the relative preservation of automatic processing with aging (Fleischman, Wilson, Gabrieli, Bienias, & Bennett, 2004; Jennings & Jacoby, 1993), it makes sense that older adults would remain able to take advantage of these automatic alerting systems for detecting high arousal information.

However, despite the similarity in arousal-mediated effects on detection between the two age groups, the present study did provide some evidence for age-related change (specifically, age-related enhancement) in the detection of emotional information. When examining RTs for the five categories of emotional targets, younger adults were more efficient in detecting positive high arousal images (as presented in Table 2), whereas older adults displayed an overall advantage for detecting all emotional images compared with neutral images. This pattern suggests a broader influence of emotion on older adults’ detection of stimuli, providing support for the hypothesis that as individuals age, emotional information becomes more salient. It is interesting that this second set of findings is clearly inconsistent with the hypothesis that the positivity effect in older adults operates at relatively automatic stages of information processing, given that no effects of valence were observed in older adults’ detection speed.

In the present study, older adults were equally fast to detect positive and negative information, consistent with prior research that indicated that older adults often attend equally to positive and negative stimuli (Rosler et al., 2005). Although the pattern of results for the young adults has differed across studies – in the present study and in some past research, young adults have shown facilitated detection of positive information (e.g., Anderson, 2005; Calvo & Lang, 2004; Carretie et al., 2004; Juth et al., 2005; Nummenmaa et al., 2006), whereas in other studies, young adults have shown an advantage for negative information (e.g., Armony & Dolan, 2002; Hansen & Hansen, 1988; Mogg, Bradley, de Bono, & Painter, 1997; Pratto & John, 1991; Reimann & McNally, 1995; Williams, Mathews, & MacLeod, 1996) – what is important to note is that the older adults detected both positive and negative stimuli at equal rates.

This equivalent detection of positive and negative information provides evidence that older adults display an advantage for the detection of emotional information that is not valence-specific. Thus, although younger and older adults exhibited somewhat divergent patterns of emotional detection on a task reliant on early, relatively automatic stages of processing, we found no evidence of an age-related positivity effect. The lack of a positivity focus in the older adults is in keeping with the proposal (e.g., Mather & Knight, 2006) that the positivity effect does not arise through automatic attentional influences. Rather, when this effect is observed in older adults, it is likely due to age-related changes in emotion regulation goals that operate at later stages of processing (i.e., during consciously controlled processing), once information has been attended to and once the emotional nature of the stimulus has been discerned.

When reading references, look at how each journal handles its references.

Journals use a different styles for referencing information. The following format should be used: To cite a journal article with one author: Howe, H.F. 1995. Succession and fire season in experimental prairie plantings. Ecology 76: 1917-1925. (This is the author, date, title of an article in the journal Ecology. The volume is 76 and the page numbers 1917-1925.)

(Adapted from Cox (1990) http://biology.luther.edu/paper.htm)

with two authors: Larsen, K.J. & R.E. Lee. 1994. Cold tolerance including rapid cold-hardening and inoculative freezing of all migrant Monarch butterflies in Ohio. Journal of Insect Physiology 40: 859-864.

with three (or more) authors: Larsen, K.J., S.E. Heady & L.R. Nault. 1992. Influence of ants (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) on honeydew excretion and escape behaviors in a myrmecophile, Dalbulus quinquenotatus (Homoptera: Cicadellidae), and its congeners. Journal of Insect Behavior 5: 109122.

To cite a book: Southwood, T.R.E. 1984. Ecological Methods with Particular Reference to the Study of Insect Populations, 2nd edition. Chapman & Hall, New York.

To cite an article in an edited volume (book): Loreau, M. 1986. Niche differentiation and community organization in forest carabid beetles, pp. 465-487. In: Carabid Beetles, their Adaptations and Dynamics,, P.J. den Boer, M. Luff, D. Mossakowski & F. Weber (eds). Gustav Fisher, Stuttgart, Germany.

Numbering system Second, the sHSP-associated proteins could be released from the Hsp16.6 immunoprecipitate by the ATP-dependent activity of the chaperones DnaK, DnaJ, and GrpE, as has been observed for sHSP-bound substrates in vitro (8–10, 31).

Although we found that the plasma concentration of fructose was only about 1/500 of that of glucose as a free monosaccharide, we expected that fructose might be comparable to glucose in terms of mediating pathology through nonenzymatic reactions and downstream processes, because it has been reported that fructose is much more reactive in glycation than glucose. (1,7)

The existence of crystallization inhibitors was first observed in the 1960s. (Bliznakov, 1965) Because we demonstrated that this molecule exhibited a potent capacity as crystallization inhibitor of calcium salts in urine (Grases et al., 1996; Grases et al., 1998a and Grases et al., 1998b). Previous work had established a direct relationship between plaque weight and precipitation of hydroxyapatite (Cooper and Sallis, 1993 and Demadis et al., 2001).

Whichever system you use, the reference itself must include the following: all of the authors listed on the publication (or on the chapter if citing a book) the title of the paper (or chapter if citing a book) the name of the journal (or book) editors if a book is cited volume number complete pagination (first and last page of the work cited) year of publication

Kearse KP, Kaplan AM, Cohen DA. Role of cell surface glycoproteins in the formation of T-cell: APC conjugates In: Schook LB, Tew JG, eds. Antigen presenting cells: diversity, differentiation, and regulation. New York: Alan R. Liss, 1988:221-34. Virella G, Goust JM, Fudenberg HH. Introduction to medical immunology, 2nd Edn. New York: Marcel Dekker, 1990

Scientific Paper Evaluation Form

Some of the most important considerations to keep in mind for indexed publications: 1. Quality of the science; very careful treatment of the data and statistics 2. Pertinent, relevant, and interesting material 3. Clear, concise, and precise writing 4. Report reproducible results 5. Report original research 6. Keep your writing and grammar flawless

Questions from editors to referees evaluating the merits of an article for publication Technical Scientific merit: Is the work scientifically rigorous, accurate and correct? Appropriateness: Is the material appropriate for the journal? Clarity: Are ideas expressed clearly and concisely? Are the concepts understandable? Is the discussion written in a way that is easy to read and understand? Referencing: Has the author made reference to the most recent and most appropriate work? Is the present work set in the context of the previous work? Balance: Do you think the overall balance and structure of the paper is good? Should the authors concentrate more on a specific area of the paper, or are there sections which are unnecessary and which could be reduced or eliminated?

English: In general, you do not need to make corrections to the English in an article. It is, however, helpful if you correct the English where the scientific meaning is unclear. IOP Publishing’s production staff will ensure that spelling, punctuation, grammar and format are corrected when the article is accepted for publication.

Quality Originality: Is the work relevant and novel? Does the work contain significant additional material to that already published? If you feel that the work presented is unoriginal, it is useful if you can supply references for transmission to the authors. Is this paper likely to be cited in future? Motivation: Does the problem considered have a sound motivation? All papers should clearly demonstrate the scientific interest of the results. Papers should not rely solely on previous literature or novelty to motivate publication. Repetition: Have significant parts of the manuscript already been published? Serial publications are not encouraged and follow-up papers must contain significant additional new material to that already reported. Length: Is the content of the work of sufficient scientific interest to justify its length? Each article should be of the shortest length required to contain all useful and relevant information, and no longer. If you recommend shortening, it is useful to the author(s) if you can indicate specific areas where you think that reduction is required.

Presentation Title: Is it adequate and appropriate for the content of the article? Abstract: Does it contain the essential information of the article? Is it complete? Is it suitable for inclusion by itself in an abstracting service? Diagrams, figures, tables and captions: Are they essential and clear? Text and mathematics: Are they brief but still clear? If you recommend shortening, please suggest what should be omitted. Conclusion: Does the paper contain a carefully written conclusion, summarizing what has been learned and why it is interesting and useful?

Complex thoughts expressed in impenetrable prose can be inaccessible and unclear. Examples of scientific writing ranging from the merely cloudy to the virtually opaque; all could be made significantly more comprehensible by observing the following structural principles:

Substance of thought and the expression of thought are so inextricably intertwined that changes in either will affect the quality of the other.

Big words name little things. Big things have simple names, like life, death, war, peace, dawn, day, night, love, home. Learn to use simple words in a big way; it is difficult, but they say what you set out to communicate. “When you have no idea what you are talking about, use big words: they often fool simple people.� SSC Booknews , July 1981

“El amontonamiento es la enfermedad del estilo de escribir de algunos. Somos una sociedad que se ahoga en palabras innecesarias, circunloquios, adornos pomposos y superfluos, y jerga sin sentido.� William Zinsser

The best writing is simple and direct – it is most easily understood and tends to be most forceful & memorable.

Use no more words than necessary; never use complicated words if simpler ones will do.

Information is interpreted more easily and more uniformly if it is placed where most readers expect to find it.

Beginning with the exciting material and ending with a lack of luster often leaves us disappointed and destroys our sense of momentum.

The information that begins a sentence establishes for the reader a perspective for viewing the sentence as a unit.

Experience shows that the misplacement of old and new information turns out to be the No. 1 problem in professional writing today.

As critical scientific readers, we would like to concentrate our energy on whether the experiments prove the hypotheses not on trying to decipher the writer’s intent.

Description of an outline

An outline is: • A logical, general description • A schematic summary • An organizational pattern • A visual & conceptual design of your writing

Outlines reflect logical thinking & clear classification

INFORMAL OUTLINE Brainstorm to develop a list of topics, which are then put into some order. The following is an informal outline of a short theoretical report for a review of the current state of photoelectric conversion chemistry.

Title: Thermodynamics and Kinetics of Semiconductor-Based Photoelectric Cells Introduction: Converting solar to chemical energy Absorption of light: Optimizing efficiency Energetics for photoredox processes Durability of semiconductor electrodes Kinetics for fuel-forming redox reactions Examples of semiconductor-based photochemical processes – Photoelectrolysis of H2O (SrTiO3-based cell) – Photooxidation of Cl(MY2) – Photoreduction of water to H2 – Reduction of CO3H- to formate

Numbering system accompanies topics Create & sequence topics; critical in developing the paper Resulting plan determines paper's internal logic & order Helps design a writing strategy

When reviewing papers, outlines help reviewers understand the writer's goals

1 1.1 1.2 2 2.1 2.2 2.3 3 3.1 3.2 3.3 4 4.1 4.2 4.3

Progress in tool technology is largely speed-based Materials Automation Tool failure mechanisms Fracture Deformation Wear Strategies for developing tooling systems for high-speed machining Chemically stable materials Diffusion-limited wear regimes Isolation of the tool from the workplace Conclusions Aluminum alloys Hard steels Titanium alloys

Aids in writing process

Organizes ideas Snapshot of the flow of each section

Presents material in logical manner Shows the relationships among ideas in the writing Constructs an ordered overview of the writing Defines boundaries and groups

Before you begin: Determine the paper purpose Determine your audience Develop the paper thesis

Brainstorm: List all the ideas you want to include in the paper Summarize the question/problem List key points/elements pertaining to the question/problem Organize: Group related ideas together; place each key point/element in a separate file

Order: Arrange material in subsections from general to specific or from abstract to concrete Make sure the organizing scheme is clear and well-structured Identify the important details that contribute to each key point/element Label: Create main and sub headings

Note the sources pertaining to each detail

Subjects and Predicates Parts of speech have specific tasks to perform when they are put together in a sentence. A noun or pronoun functions as the sentence subject when it is paired with a verb functioning as the sentence predicate. Every sentence has a subject and predicate.

A subject can be a noun or pronoun that is partnered with an action verb. Example: Colombians donated millions to the people of Haiti.

Sometimes a verb will express being or existence instead of action. Example: Good friends are loyal people.

Sometimes we use imperative sentences in which a subject is not actually stated, but is, nevertheless, understood in the meaning.

Example: Call the plumber, please. A sentence like this gives an order or a request to someone.

Because these statements are used when talking directly to someone, omit the word you. It is understood in the sentence. Therefore, in statements like this one, the subject is you (understood). This is an imperative sentence.

A phrase is a group of related words that: 1. does not express a complete thought 2. does not have a subject and predicate pair One type of phrase is a prepositional phrase. Examples: at the store by next year near home

Another kind of phrase is a verbal phrase. Examples: To fly in a plane Building a large home Even though these phrases contain nouns (pronouns) and/or verb forms, none of the nouns/pronouns/verbs are subjects or predicates. None of them work as a partnership. Also, these phrases do NOT express complete thoughts.

Words and phrases can be put together to make clauses. A clause is a group of related words that contain a subject and predicate. Note the difference between phrases and clauses in the following examples:

Phrase: 1. flew the plane

Clause: 1. Nathan flew the plane. 2. after Nathan flew the plane.

Only one of the clauses is a sentence. Clause #1 is a complete thought or idea, stands by itself, independent of other words. However, clause #2 is an INCOMPLETE thought or idea, cannot stand by itself; needs more words to make it whole. The word after changes the meaning, making the thought incomplete. After reading this clause, we are left hanging. These 2 clauses illustrate the 2 kinds of clauses: independent clauses & dependent clauses The question is: What happened after Nathan flew the plane?

Independent clause contains a subject, a predicate, and a complete thought. Dependent clause contains a subject and a predicate, but does NOT express a complete thought.

A complete sentence needs only 2 elements: a subject - predicate unit AND a complete thought i.e., a simple sentence is actually the SAME thing as an independent clause. Dependent clauses or phrases are fragments because they are missing 1 or more parts needed to make a sentence. They are only pieces or fragments of complete sentences.

Sometimes two independent clauses (simple sentences) can be joined to form another kind of sentence: the compound sentence. 2 major errors can occur when constructing compound sentences

When trying to separate two independent clauses in a compound sentence with a comma alone. A comma is not a strong enough punctuation mark to separate two independent clauses by itself; thus, using it causes the clauses to be spliced together.

Example of a comma splice: Joe read the book, his wife saw the movie. This sentence can be repaired in three ways: 1. by adding an appropriate coordinating conjunction Joe read the book, but his wife saw the movie. 2. by changing the comma to a semicolon Joe read the book; his wife saw the movie. 3. by changing the punctuation and adding an appropriate conjunctive adverb Joe read the book; however, his wife saw the movie.

Joining two independent clauses into a compound sentence without using any punctuation between them. No punctuation between two independent clauses causes them to "fuse" into an INCORRECT compound sentence.

Example of a fused sentence: Roy cooked lunch, his friend took a nap. Three ways to repair this sentence: 1. add an appropriate coordinating conjunction Roy cooked lunch, but his friend took a nap. 2. change comma to semicolon Roy cooked lunch; his friend took a nap. 3. change punctuation and add appropriate conjunctive adverb Roy cooked lunch; however, his friend took a nap.

Also repair a comma splice or fused sentence by turning each independent clause into a simple sentence. ď‚ž Roy

cooked lunch. ď‚ž His friend took a nap.

These conjunctions join independent clauses together: after all in addition next also incidentally nonetheless as a result indeed on the contrary besides in fact on the other hand consequently in other words otherwise finally Instead still for example likewise then furthermore meanwhile therefore hence moreover thus however nevertheless Punctuation: Place a semicolon before the conjunctive adverb and a comma after the conjunctive adverb. We wanted to go to Mexico; however, we ended up vacationing in Arizona.

Words commonly used as subordinating conjunctions after

in order (that)

unless

although

insofar as

until

as

in that

when

as far as

lest

whenever

as soon as

no matter how where

as if

now that

wherever

as though

once

whether

because

provided (that)

while

before

since

why

even if

so that

even though

supposing (that)

how

that

inasmuch as

than though

if in case (that)

till

Subordinating conjunctions also join 2 clauses together, but in doing so, they make 1 clause dependent (or "subordinate") upon the other.

A subordinating conjunction may appear at the beginning of a sentence or between two clauses in a sentence. A subordinate conjunction usually provides a tighter connection between clauses than a coordinating conjunctions does. Loose: It is raining, so we have an umbrella. Tight: Because it is raining, we have an umbrella. Punctuation Note: When the dependent clause is placed first in a sentence, use a comma between the 2 clauses. When the independent clause is placed first and the dependent clause second, do not separate the 2 clauses with a comma. Because it is raining, we have an umbrella. We have an umbrella because it is raining.

Grammar and Spelling 1. Check spelling 2. Check grammar 3. Read essay again 4. Make sure each sentence has a subject 5. Make sure subjects & verbs agree with each other 6. Check the verb tenses of each sentence 7. Make sure each sentence makes sense

Style and Organization 1. Essay must have: introduction, supporting paragraphs, & summary paragraph. 2. Check for thesis statement identifying the main idea of the essay.

3. Do paragraphs follow the proper paragraph format? 4. Is essay interesting?

Begin writing in English, even if it is difficult! Take your notes in English (keep lab notes in English)

Final version of a paper translated into English

Durante muchos años, en nuestro medio, ha sido común que los equipos del área biomédica estén expuestos al deterioro progresivo y acelerado por la no presencia de personal técnico especializado. (PLEASE TRANSLATE)

For many years, in our realm, biomedical equipment is commonly exposed to progressive and accelerated deterioration because of the lack of specialized technical personnel. Durante muchos años, en nuestro medio, ha sido común que los equipos del área biomédica estén expuestos al deterioro progresivo y acelerado por la no presencia de personal técnico especializado.

Translation Services: Durante muchos años, en nuestro medio, ha sido común que los equipos del área biomédica estén expuestos al deterioro progresivo y acelerado por la no presencia de personal técnico especializado.

Other Translation Services (Google):

Professional Translation and Interpretation Services (International

For many years, in our environment, has been common for biomedical equipment are exposed to progressive deterioration and accelerated by the non-presence of personnel.

For many years, in our realm, biomedical equipment is commonly exposed to progressive and accelerated deterioration because of the lack of specialized technical personnel.

Logistics – Soluciones Inteligentes™)

Scientific Writing is not an Agatha Christie’s thriller! Provide the reader with your most important findings/contributions from the start.

In reporting and recording research, try to be as accurate & precise in describing it as in doing it. Avoid the ambiguous and "faddish."

because instead of based on the fact that; for or to instead of for the purpose of. there were several subjects who completed‌; it is suggested that a relationship may exist‌; both alike; one and the same; a total of n subjects; four different groups; absolutely essential; found previously;

small in size; in close proximity; very close to zero; much better; period of time; summarize briefly; the reason is because; also included; except for.

patient or gymnast instead of subject; concentration or frequency instead of level.

Do not say some if you know of only one instance.  This on its own is an ambiguous antecedent. Use this test or this problem.  Avoid

hype (hyperbole)… very and extremely are usually unnecessary.

singular and plural forms: criterion, criteria; datum, data; medium, media; phenomenon, phenomena.

Do not use however or its synonyms twice in one paragraph, because changing the direction of an argument twice in one paragraph may annoy readers. Do not use however more than once every 10 paragraphs. Try a thesaurus for synonyms.

However – Place it more often within a sentence or major element rather than at the beginning or end. "But" serves better at the beginning.

Avoid the non-human agent, i.e., use the authors concluded that‌ rather than the study concluded that‌. Avoid colloquialisms, such as steer clear of.

Avoid as such. Poor: The SCAT is a reliable test of state anxiety. As such, it is suitable for experimental studies. Better: The SCAT is a reliable test of state anxiety; it is therefore suitable for experimental studies. Avoid her, his and any other sexist language, even if the subjects are clearly of one gender.

Above ("the above method," "mentioned above," etc.) – Often, you are referring to something preceding, but not necessarily above; a loose reference, convenient for writers, but not for readers.

Be specific. You know exactly what and where, but your readers may have to search (sometimes through much preceding material).

Affect, effect – Affect is a verb and means to influence. Effect, as a verb, means to bring about; as a noun, effect means result.

All of, both of – Just "all" or "both" will serve in most instances. Alternate, alternative – Be sure which you mean.

And (to begin a sentence) – Quite proper; either "and" or "but" may be used to begin complete sentences. And both are useful transitional words between related or contrasting statements.

Apparently (apparent) – means obviously, clearly, plainly evident, but also means seemingly or ostensibly, as well as observably. You know the meaning that you intend, but readers may not. Ambiguity results. Use obvious(ly), clear(ly), seeming(ly), evident(ly), observable or observably, to remove doubt.

Appear, appears – Seem(s)? “He always appears on the scene, but never seems to know what to do.” “Marley's ghost appeared but seemed harmless.” As – Dialectal when used in place of that or whether; do not use as to mean because or inasmuch as. At the present time, at this point in time – Say "at present" or "now" if necessary at all.

Below – See comment about above. But (to begin a sentence) – Go right ahead (see "And" and "However").

By means of – Most often, just "by" will serve and save words.

Case – Can be ambiguous, misleading, or ludicrous because of different connotations; e.g., "In the case of Scotch whiskey,...." Case also is a frequent offender in padded, drawn-out sentences. For "in this case," try "in this instance."

Compare with, Compare to – Compare with means to examine differences and similarities; Compare to means to represent as similar. One may conclude that the music of Brahms compares to that of Beethoven, but to do that, one must first compare the music of Brahms with that of Beethoven.

Comprise – use to mean to contain, include, or encompass (not to constitute or compose) and still does, despite two now opposite meanings. Use and meanings now are so confused and mixed that "comprise" is best avoided altogether. Correlated with, correlated to – Although things may be related to one another, things are correlated with one another.

Different from, different than – Different from! Also, one thing differs from another, although you may differ with your colleagues.

Due to – Make sure that you do not mean because of. Due is an adjective modifier and must be directly related to a noun, not to a concept or series of ideas gleaned from the rest of a statement. "Due to the fact that..." is an attempt to weasel out.

During the course of, in the course of – Just use "during" or "in." Either…or, neither...nor – Apply to no more than two items or categories.

Similarly, former and latter refer only to the first and second of only two items or categories. Experience(d) – To experience something is sensory; inanimate, non-sensing things (lakes, soils, enzymes, streambeds, farm fields, etc.) do not experience anything.

Following – "After" is more precise if "after" is the meaning intended. "After [not following] the procession, the leader announced that the ceremony was over."

High(er), low(er) – Much too often used, frequently ambiguously or imprecisely, for other words such as greater, lesser, larger, smaller, more, fewer; e.g., "Occurrences of higher concentrations were lower at higher levels of effluent outflow." One interpretation is that greater concentrations were fewer or less frequent as effluent volume(s) increased, but others also are possible.

Often needed to clarify what is modifying what; e.g., a small-grain harvest (harvest of small grain) is different from a small grain harvest (small harvest of all grain), a fast acting dean is not necessarily as effective as a fast-acting dean

a batch of (say, 20) 10-liter containers is different from a batch of 10 [1-] liter containers a man eating fish is very different from a maneating fish!

Grammatically, adjectives are noun modifiers, and the problem is when adjectives and nouns are used to modify other adjectives and nouns. Adverbs (usually with "ly" endings), however, are adjective modifiers.

In order to – For brevity, just use "to". Irregardless – No, regardless. But irrespective might do. It should be mentioned, noted, pointed out, emphasized, etc. – Such preambles often add nothing but words. Just say what is to be said. It was found, determined, decided, felt, etc. – Are you being evasive? Why not put it frankly and directly?

"Less" refers to quantity “Fewer" to number Majority, vast majority – See if most will do as well or better. Look up "vast."

Not a substitute for me "This paper has been reviewed by Dr. Smith and myself" and "The report enclosed was prepared by Dr. Jones and myself" are incorrect as is "Do not hesitate to call Dr. Doe or myself"; me would have been correct in all instances. (Use of I also would have been wrong in those examples.)

Some correct uses of myself: I I I I I

found the error myself. myself saw it happen. am not myself today. cannot convince myself. locked myself out of the car.

Partially, partly – Compare the meanings (see also impartially). Partly is the better, simpler, and more precise word when partly is meant. Percent, percentage – Not the same; use percent only with a number. Predominate, predominant – Predominate is a verb. Predominant is the adjective; as an adverb, predominantly (not "predominately").

(mid, non, pre, pro, re, semi, un, etc.) – Usually not hyphened in U.S. usage except before a proper name (pro-Iowa) or numerals (mid-60s), or when lack of a hyphen makes a word ambiguous or awkward. Recover a fumble, but perhaps re-cover a sofa. Preengineered is better hyphened as preengineered, one of the few exceptions so hyphened. Breaking pairs such as predoctoral and postdoctoral into pre- and post-doctoral "forces" hyphening of both otherwise unhyphened words.

Principle, principal – They are different; make sure which you mean. Prior to, previous to – Use before, preceding, or ahead of. There are prior and subsequent events that occur before or after something else, but prior to is the same kind of atrocious use that attempts to substitute "subsequent to" for "after."

Proven – Although a proven adjective, stick to proved for the past participle. "A proven guilty person must first have been proved guilty in court."

Provided, providing – Provided (usually followed by "that") = conjunction; providing = participle. Reason why – Omit why if reason is used as a noun. The reason is...; or, the reason is that...

Since – has a time connotation; use "because" or "inasmuch as" when either is the intended meaning. Small in size, rectangular in shape, blue in color, tenuous in nature, etc. – Redundant.

Two words that can help, when needed, to make intended meanings and relationships unmistakable, which is important in reporting scientific information. If the clause can be omitted without leaving the modified noun incomplete, use which and enclose the clause within commas or parentheses; otherwise, use that.

Example: "The ladder, which is broken, is in the garage." But, "The ladder that is broken is in the garage; so is the good ladder.“ ...That is broken specifies the particular ladder being discussed, whereas which is broken merely adds information to the sentence.

To be – Frequently unnecessary. "The differences were [found] [to be] significant." Varying – Be careful to distinguish from various or differing. In saying that you used varying amounts or varying conditions, you are implying individually changing amounts or conditions rather than a selection of various or different ones. Where – Use when you mean where, but not for "in which," "for which," etc.

Often not needed. Example: "the data that were related to age were analyzed first" means that the data related to age were analyzed first. Similarly, for "the store, which is located near Unicentro," try "the store, located near Unicentro" or "the store, near Unicentro."

Rather than: "all persons who were present voted," just say: "all persons present voted."

Rephrasing sometimes can help. Instead of: "a survey, which was conducted in 1974" or "a survey conducted in 1974," try: "a 1974 survey."

While – Preferably not if, while writing, you mean and, but, although, or whereas.

Research reports should communicate and record information as accurately & concisely as possible. The purpose is to report, not to impress with elegance.

Excess wordage, tortuous construction, unnecessary detail, duplication, repetition, thirdperson passive pseudo-objectivism, etc., obstruct rather than facilitate communication. The message is important, not the amount of words. Use precise words and expressions of unmistakable meaning; avoid the clouded, ambiguous, vague, and needlessly complex.

Write well-formed sentences and keep their structure simple. Use the first person (I or we tested six runners ) rather than the passive voice (Six runners were tested ). Similarly, say Smith reported instead of reported by Smith.

With comparatives (more than, less than), than may need to be than that of or than with or than by etc. to clarify the meaning. Similarly, similar to may need to be similar to that of.

Examples:

The measure was more valid than that of Smith et al. (1994). We experienced fewer problems with the revised instrument than with the published version. The method was similar to that of an earlier study.

Do not use a long string of qualifiers in front of a noun: A modified test of cognitive function. is better than A modified cognitive-function test.

Avoid grammatically questionable formal clichĂŠs, such as: Based on these results, it is concluded that, and The results showed that

Use the past tense to report results. Use the present tense to discuss them. We have found that‌; Smith (1989) reported a similar result. A simple explanation of these findings is that‌

Put only, partly, and mainly next to the word they modify: The test consists only of new items.

Simple rule: Which always follows a comma (and a pause), but that never does. This study, which cost $10,000, was a success. The study that cost $10,000 was a success.

Simple rule: Owing to always has a comma, due to never does. The data were lost, owing to computer malfunction. The loss of data was due to computer malfunction.

An adverb is placed usually after the verb. Placing it before the verb creates a split infinitive (to boldly go‌ is acceptable if emphasizing go; if the emphasis is on boldly, to go boldly is better).

In the active voice, the grammatical subject is the doer of the action, and the sentence tells, “who’s doing what.” The passive voice tells what is done to the subject of the sentence. The person or thing doing the action may or may not be mentioned but is always implied.

Verbs are also said to be either active (The executive committee approved the new policy) or passive (The new policy was approved by the executive committee) in voice. In the active voice, the subject and verb relationship is straightforward: the grammatical subject is the doer of the action, and the sentence tells, “who’s doing what”. The verb 'actively' moves the sentence along.

The passive voice tells what is done to the subject of the sentence. The subject of the sentence is acted upon by some other agent or by something unnamed (The new policy was approved). Computerized grammar checkers can pick out a passive voice construction and ask you to revise it to a more active construction.

There is nothing inherently wrong with the passive voice, but if you can say the same thing in the active mode, do so (see exceptions below). Your text will have more pizzazz as a result.

"Cigarette ads were designed to appeal especially to children" places the burden on the ads – as opposed to: "We designed the cigarette ads to appeal especially to children," in which "we" accepts responsibility

Do not mix active and passive constructions in the same sentence: "The executive committee approved the new policy, and the calendar for next year's meetings was revised" should be: "The executive committee approved the new policy and revised the calendar for next year's meeting."

In general, writing should be composed in the active voice because of the sense of immediacy and conciseness conveyed when the subject of the sentence carries out the action.

In addition, fewer words are usually required for the active voice, it is more efficient, and it takes the reader from point A to point B in a “straight line.�

The passive voice may be particularly useful (even recommended) in two situations: When it is more important to draw our attention to the person or thing acted upon: The unidentified victim was apparently struck during the early morning hours. When the actor in the situation is not important: The aurora borealis can be observed in the early morning hours.

In scientific writing, overuse of passive voice or use of passive voice in long and complicated sentences can cause readers to lose interest or to become confused. Sentences in active voice are generally – though not always – clearer and more direct than those in passive voice.

The passive voice is especially helpful (and even mandatory) in scientific or technical writing or lab reports, where the actor is not really important but the process or principle being described is of ultimate importance. Instead of writing "I poured 20 cc of acid into the beaker," we would write "Twenty cc of acid was poured into the beaker."

The passive voice is useful when describing a mechanical process in which the details of process are more important than anyone's taking responsibility for the action: "The first coat of primer paint is applied immediately after the acid rinse."

Thus, in scientific writing, the passive voice is preferred to indicate objective procedures Scientists are interested in analyzing data and in performing studies that other researchers can replicate The individual doing the experiment is relatively unimportant and usually is not the subject of the sentence

In the passive-voice, the verb phrase will always include a form of be, such as am, is, was, were, are, or been. The use of a be-verb does not necessarily mean the sentence is in passive voice. Passive-voice sentences may include a "by the..." phrase after the verb; the agent performing the action, if named, is the object of the preposition in this phrase.

The active voice enhances the authority of the writer, while the passive voice can obscure it. Passive voice: It is understood by students that good writing is essential in college. Active voice: Students understand that good writing is essential in college.

The report was read by Betty. Betty read the report.

A decision was made to stop the project. We decided to stop the project. The passive voice should be avoided. Avoid the passive voice. Experiments are conducted by scientists to test hypotheses. Scientists conduct experiments to test hypotheses.

The active voice is preferable to the passive voice because the active voice tends to be simpler, clearer, and more direct.

The active voice also makes for more forceful and interesting writing.

Posters should communicate clearly and directly with your audience. Eliminate anything that distracts from this. Plot the relationship you want to show. If you want to see the change in population through time, the X-axis should be time and the Y-axis should be population. Nothing else makes sense.

(Modified from http://www.ncsu.edu/project/posters/resources.html)

Posters are a special type of presentation. When designed well, they are not simply journal papers pasted onto boards. Nor are they mounted sets of presentation visuals.

(Modified from http://www.writing.engr.psu.edu/posters.html)

What makes for an effective poster? This is not an easy question because audience expectations vary significantly from discipline to discipline. There are general guidelines that apply to most situations in science and engineering.

1. 2.

3.

Make the title the most prominent block of text on the poster (either center or left justify at the top). Do not typeset the title in all capital letters (such text is difficult to read). Use small words such as of, from, with, to, the, a, an, & and to separate details in the title. While phrase titles are most common, some scientists effectively use sentence titles for posters that present one main result. In such titles, state the result in the title and capitalize the words as you would in a sentence.

One good test is whether the audience recognizes the subject and purpose within 20 seconds of seeing the poster. Usually, a poster accomplishes this goal with a well-crafted title and with supporting images. Also, make sure that the type is large enough to be read and that enough contrast exist between the color of the type and poster's background.

Given the distractions while reading posters in a symposium, the poster should not contain large blocks of text. Neither should the poster contain long sentences. If possible, the sections should rely on images: photographs, drawings, and graphs.

Well-designed poster [Couch et al., 2003].

Poster of a laboratory overview [Thole, 2004].

http://www.organicworldwide.net/writing.html http://www.ag.iastate.edu/aginfo/checklist.html - Word Usage In Scientific Writing http://www.sportsci.org/jour/9901/wghstyle.html - Guidelines On Style For Scientific Writing http://www.mang.canterbury.ac.nz/courseinfo/AcademicWriting/Scientifi c.htm The Science of Scientific Writing; George D. Gopen and Judith A. Swan American Scientist, Volume 78 http://mason.gmu.edu/~arichar6/logic.htm - Logical Fallacies In Scientific Writing; A. Stephen Richardson http://www.stark.kent.edu/writing/outline.htm - outlines http://bio.winona.edu/delong/EcoLab/21%20Suggestions.html - TwentyOne Suggestions for Writing Good Scientific Papers: http://www.mco.edu/lib/instr/libinsta.html - Instructions to Authors in the Health Sciences (a plethora of journals)

Journal Articles: Villalobos AR, Parmelee JT, and Renfro JL. Choline uptake across the ventricular membrane of neonate rat choroid plexus. Am J Physiol Cell Physiol 276: C1288-C1296, 1999.

Book References: Ausubel FM, Brent R, Kingston RE, Moore DD, Seidman JG, Smith JA, and Struhl K. Current Protocols in Molecular Biology. New York: Wiley, 1995, p. 25-26.

Dudoit S, Yang YH, Callow MJ, and Speed TJ. Statistical methods for identifying differentially expressed genes in replicated cDNA microarray experiments [Online]. Dept. of Statistics, Univ. of California at Berkeley. http://www.stat.berkeley.edu/users/terry/zarray /Html/matt.html [3 Sept. 2000].

Note that the date may be general or specific to the day.

Journal Articles: Yalow, R.S., and S.A. Berson. 1960. Immunoassay of endogenous plasma insulin in man. J. Clin. Invest. 39:1157-1175. Benditt, E.P., N. Ericksen, and R.H. Hanson. 1979. Amyloid protein SAA is an apoprotein of mouse plasma high density lipoprotein. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. 76:4092-4096. Brown, W., and A. Nelson. 1983. Phosphorus content of lipids. J. Lipid Res. In press.

Lopez-Soler, R.I., R.D. Moir, T.P. Spann, R. Stick, and R.D. Goldman. 2001. A role for nuclear lamins in nuclear envelope assembly. (July 9, 2001) J. Cell Biol. 10.1083/jcb.200101025.

Myant, N.B. 1981. The Biology of Cholesterol and Related Steroids. Heinemann Medical Books, London. 882 pp.

Innerarity, T.L., D.Y. Hui, and R.W. Mahley. 1982. Hepatic apoprotein E (remnant) receptor. In Lipoproteins and Coronary Atherosclerosis. G. Noseda, C. Fragiacomo, R. Fumagalli, and R. Paoletti, editors. Elsevier/North Holland, Amsterdam. 173-181.

Journal Articles: Sun J, Koto H, Chung KF: Interaction of ozone and allergen challenges on bronchial responsiveness and inflammation in sensitized guinea pigs. Int Arch Allergy Immunol 1997;112:191–195.

Parren PWHI, Burton DR: Antibodies against HIV1 from phage display libraries: Mapping of an immune response and progress towards antiviral immunotherapy; in Capra JD (ed): Antibody Engineering. Chem Immunol. Basel, Karger, 1997, vol 65, pp 18–56.

Journal Articles: Shingu M, Hurd ER. Sera from patients with systemic lupus, erythematosus reactive with human endothelial cells. J Rheumatol 1981; 8:581-6. Zavazava M, Halene M, Westphal E et al. Expression of MHC class I and II molecules by cadaver retinal; pigment cells: optimization of post-mortem HLA typing. Clin Exp Immunol 1991; 84: 163-6.

American Medical Association Manual of Style: a Guide for Authors and Editors, 9th ed.; Williams & Wilkins: Baltimore, 1998. Atlas, Michel C. Author's Handbook of Styles for Life Science Journals; Iverson, Cheryl, Ed.; CRC Press: Boca Raton, 1996. Byrne, Daniel W. Publishing your Medical Research Paper: What They Don't Teach You in Medical School; Williams & Wilkins: Baltimore, 1998. Gehlbach, Stephen H. Interpreting the Medical Literature, 4th ed.; McGraw Hill Medical Publishing Division: New York, 2002.

Matthews, Janice R.; Bowen, John M.; Matthews, Robert W. Successful Scientific Writing: a Step-by-step Guide for Biomedical Scientists, 2nd ed; Cambridge University Press: New York, 2000. McMillan, Vicky. Writing Papers in the Biological Sciences, 3rd ed.; Bedford Books: Boston, 2001. Pechenik, Jan A. A Short Guide to Writing about Biology, 4th ed.; Longman: New York, 2001.

Zeiger, Mimi. Essentials of Writing Biomedical Research Papers, 2nd ed.; McGraw-Hill, Health Professions Division: New York, 2000.

Remember‌

Keep writing concise, clear, precise, and interesting Adhere to established editorial guidelines in your given area of knowledge Work towards increasing high-impact publications

albertor@univalle.edu.co mind3050@gmail.com

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