TOWARDS AN ENVIRONMENTAL REGIONALISM
TOWARDS AN ENVIRONMENTAL REGIONALISM : Rethinking water in architecture: research, implementation and future perspectives on water harvesting and water architecture in Colombia
Lucie Krulichova Unit 18 MArch Thesis BARC0011
Word Count: 9888 Bartlett School of Architecture UCL 2
Acknowledgements I would like to sincerely thank Thesis Tutor: Stephen Gage (Bartlett) for his valuable guidance and experienced mind. Module Directors: Oliver Wilton (Bartlett) Edward Denison (Bartlett) Robin Wilson (Bartlett) PG 18 Tutors: Ricardo de Ostos (NaJa & deOstos / Bartlett) for the depth of his cultural thinking that is always inspiring. IsaĂŻe Bloch (Eragatory / Bartlett) for his practical approach that is always illuminating. Additional Support: Geraldine Holland (Mador Architects / Bartlett) for additional insight about the topic. Mario Enrique Espitia Lopez for enlightenment about the local context Fellow PG18 Students for exchange of thoughts and positivity. Friends and Family for always being there for me during the hardest times.
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Contents Glossary Methodology Introduction
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CHAPTER 1 - WATER IS PRECIOUS Investigates artistic and cultural attitudes to water. 1. Water in art and culture 2. Water, performance and science Conclusion
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CHAPTER 2 - CREATING MONUMENTS TO WATER Discusses different ways that architecture can contribute to change our perceptions about water and discusses and analyses specific monuments to water in relation to the artistic and cultural issues discussed in Chapter 1. 1. Celebrating water through roof design 2. Celebrating the water store 3. Celebrating water within the landscape Conclusion
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CHAPTER 3 - FOG COLLECTION
Describes the fog collection techniques and discusses how it might be incorporated into a monument to water in terms of chapters 1 and 2. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
Fog collecting technique Fog collecting in nature Some numbers Material performance Dew harvesting Conclusion
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CHAPTER 4 – SITE, BRIEF AND DESIGN EXPERIMENTS Aims to understand whether we can apply the discovered evidence to the context of northern Colombia, and if so, then how it could be done. 1. Region 2. Site for the builduing 3. Brief 4. Some detailed numbers 5. Design Experiments Conclusion Bibliography List of Figures
54 62 64 64 66 78 80 84
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Glossary Fog A thick cloud that appears very close or at the earth’s surface. Dew The condensation that forms on the earth’s surface, often visible on twigs, leaves, grass and surfaces.
Methodology This is a design-led theoretical paper that serves as a supporting document to an innovative proposal within a research and design framework. There is a close relationship between scholarly research and design output. There is a transition between conceptual and applied ideas for providing new perspectives on environmental values and, specifically, water collection. Disciplinary overlaps between geography, climate, environmental psychology, anthropology, landscape, sociology, water ethics, ecology, and architecture help to generate a holistic research approach towards architectural design.
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“Because life is a network, there is no nature or environment separate and apart from humans. We are part of the community of life, composed of relationships with others, so the human nature duality that lives near the heart of many philosophers is from a biological perspective, illusory. Our ethic must therefore be one belonging, an imperative made all the more urgent by the many ways that human actions are fraying, rewiring, and severing biological network worldwide.� D.G Haskell, 2018, The song of trees, preface
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Introduction
Can architecture educate people about the preciousness of water and the importance of water conservation in the northern part of Colombia?
“Thousands have lived without love, not one without water.� W.H Auden
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We all know that water is essential to life; however, too many of us think that it has no limits. “In the last 100 years, with the exponential increase of manmade impervious surfaces, industrialisation, mechanisation, and population growth, the hydrological cycle has been interrupted and impacted”. (Novak et al., 2014). It is essential to realize that rivers, lakes, and groundwater are secondary sources of water. Therefore, in present times, without alternative ways to harvest water, we depend entirely on those secondary sources that are rapidly becoming scarcer. In the process, we forget that rain and fog are the ultimate primary sources that feed secondary sources. The primary source of water does not have to go to waste if we make good use of rainwater and fog at the place where it is abundant. Today water has become undervalued, especially in countries with an abundance of it. We have become accustomed that we turn on the tap and water flows, and most of us give little thought to where the water came from or where it goes after it goes down the drain. Taking water for granted leads to misuse and misallocation. Although we do not realize at the given time, this misuse harms nature. Architecture often forgets to recognise the value of water and promote its conservation. This can be partly attributed to the way contemporary buildings are designed – they conceal water systems; therefore, it is rare to experience water in a more meaningful way. Released in 2017, the Bellagio Principles propose different ways to promote respect towards water. The principles encourage “the promotion of education and public awareness about the essential role of water and its intrinsic value”.
Furthermore, they promote “investing and innovating to realize the values and the potential of water” (Sara, 2017). Dreiseitl (2009, p. 43), argues that reducing water to simple functions like cleaning, washing and waste disposal creates simplified and imprecise images instead of emphasising its interplay. On the other hand, depending on how we represent its presence within a space can change the whole atmosphere of a space and bring us closer to it. Nevertheless, water also has many intangible meanings, and design involving water and architecture should remind us of this duality. Dr. Peter Gleick, an American scientist, working on issues related to the environment, has coined the term “peak water” in 2010. He then distinguishes three different ways that humans damage the environment when they exceed the healthy benchmarks for water exploitation. The first term is peak renewable water: this represents the limit reached when humans extract the entire renewable flow of a river or a stream. The second is peak non-renewable water, which is reached when groundwater aquifers are pumped out faster than nature recharges them. The last term is peak ecological water, which is the point where any further human uses causes more harm than benefit. For many watersheds around the world, we are reaching, or exceeding the point of peak ecological water. This is the case in Colombia, the second most biodiverse country in the world (fig.1), after Brazil (Bell, 2018). This biodiversity is currently under threat due to unsustainable water exploitation.
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Colombia may seem like a country awash with water resources. However, in reality, the country is facing economic water scarcity, caused by insufficient infrastructure and unsustainable water exploitation (Stratfor, 2019). Further on, deforestation (fig.1), illegal mining, and climate change many rivers and streams have dried out. According to estimates conducted by IDEAM in the national water study, 318 municipalities were judged to be at risk of water shortages in 2014. From these, there are eight municipalities with a notably high vulnerability, including Santa Marta in Magdalena province (Johnson, 2017). If architecture is to respond to the urgencies with respect to resources and climate change, then it must investigate the relationships between technology, ecology, and landscape to find solutions to minimize the impact of the built environment on earth. One of the key references for this thesis was the film Aluna and the book called the Elder Brothers, both made by the British director and author Alan Ereira. In this project, he collaborates with the indigenous civilization called the Kogis that live in the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta Mountains, located in the north of Colombia. Together they create a film in order to pass on their message. Their plight is clear: it is critical that we the younger brothers start respecting the earth, nature and water. Kogi leaders have been engaging in a consistent ecologicalpolitical activism to protect the Sierra Nevada from environmentally harmful developments. More specifically, they have attempted to raise awareness and understanding among the wider public about why and how these activities are destructive according to their knowledge and relation to the world (Witte, 2017). 10
With this in mind, adopting new design values to respond to the need of the era is a necessity. In the 21st century, more than ever before architecture should incorporate values that respond to climate change and care for the environment. However, rethinking what we want for ourselves and humanity should not be reduced to purely ‘environmental architecture,’ but it can also juxtapose environmental narratives for imagining the near future of our built environments. Hulme (2013, p.205) invites us to reconsider our relationship with the environment. He sees climate change as an idea around environmental justice that could be mobilized around the world to create new opportunities and re-examine our projects. In this sense, architecture should find new means for asking and answering questions concerning the imaginary and the real, where our climate plays a central role. Throughout history, humans have always had a complex relationship with water. Water by itself already carries meanings and values such as ecological, economic, cultural, spiritual, and social. The interest within this thesis is to discover the different means through which architecture can renew our water ethics. In architecture, we can intentionally intensify elements or features to invite viewers to establish a new relationship with them. Therefore, this thesis calls for the coproduction of nature and society to build a bridge between humans and natural. The same way as distributing persistent layers of carbon creates an environmentally negative impact we can strive for the opposite where consistently collecting water can bring a long term positive impact.
Architects are asked to be climatic actors capable of contributing to the world while exploring the role of climate as a design generator. For example, the British architectural theorist Jonathan Hill is particularly interested in the „investigation of authorship by identifying the weather as a creative architectural force alongside the designer and user. “ (Hill, 2012, p.3) The approach to passive performativity is also known to have ecologically responsive design objectives by building with minimal impact on the natural environment, to integrate the built environment and its systems with the ecological systems of the locality and if possible, to positively contribute to the ecological and energy productivity of the location. For example, if we would want architecture to attempt to be less anthropocentric, then it would need to be more in the service of the environment.
Hensel (2013, p.57) argues that performance-oriented architecture may focus on how the spatial and material organization of architecture interacts with the local physical environment and local ecosystems. This thesis takes this proposition further so that Architecture becomes a tool for inspiring people to change their world view and their view of water.
In his article called performance-oriented design: Precursors and Potentials, Hensel (2008, p.50) analyses performance orientated design with a focus on passive aspects. He gives the example of mashrabiyas in Islamic architecture that have an integrated approach to performance-orientated architecture because they are multifunctional while reflecting the aesthetic values of Islamic architecture and modulating the microclimate. According to Hensel (2008, p.51), buildings are always already subjected to and participate in climatic dynamics. However, this inevitable interaction between the climate and architecture can be intentionally intensified, manipulated, and harnessed. If architecture interacts with the local environment and uses the weather as a material, then it also participates in its variability. 11
COLOMBIA
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Fig. 1. Global Biodiversity Map
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CHAPTER 1 - WATER IS PRECIOUS
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“Water, you have no taste, no colour, no odour, you cannot be defined, you are relished while ever mysterious. Of the riches that exist in the world, you are the rarest and the most delicate, you water are a proud divinity.” Antoine de Saint-Exupéry, 1987, p.172, Wind, Sand and Stars
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Water in art and culture Water has a variety of qualities within the natural environment. Those qualities awaken different associations, and therefore different feelings. The world contains a vast range of water phenomena where its environment shapes water in different ways. Quiet northern lakes reflect the sky like mirrors. Waterholes in the savannahs patiently await the company. Forest streams rush down the mountains. Falling cascades fill the atmosphere with mist, drowning the humid air with thundering silence. Thick fog banks roll over and through the cloud forests, hills, and valleys like ghosts (fig.2). Clouds turn into vertical wisps of mist, then disappear. Ephemeral wetlands fill and dry again and again. Water pools inside bromeliads create sky lakes in the crowns of ceibo trees. The shooting rain transforms cities of stone into water coloured pools. Far beyond the penetration of light ocean depths seem to be places sequestered from time inhabited by our evolutionary ancestors. Fountains, with their marble lips smoothed by water’s persistent polish, gurgle peacefully late at night. Even though science dictates the action of water, the mental picture of different qualities is imprinted into our minds and evokes different types of sensations within people. The other observation is that water is very dependent on other elements and is connected to the circumstance.
Describing the way these water phenomena act within a natural setting reminds us of how much we are cognitively, physically, and emotionally connected to water and nature. In his book Biophilia, the naturalist Edward O.Wilson (1984), theorized that because we have spent 100,000 generations or more in nature, we have an innate love for it. In the Ted talk, “A Darwinian theory of beauty,� Dutton (2010) describes the same not only from the perspective of evolutionary psychology but also contemporary art. He argues that the desirability of a landscape for people always grows when there is an indication of water. And people tend to protect more what they love. When we experience water within architecture, it helps us to get in touch with nature, and we begin to care. We become invested writes river activist Christopher Swain. With immersion, our attachment deepens. Immersion moves us from disinterested appreciation into active participation.
Combinations of thoughts on water phenomena in nature inspired by the writings of Charles Moore and David George Haskell.
Fig. 2. Cloud forest, Chingaza Natural National Park
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The visual aspect of water within architecture can change the way we relate and think about water. People’s values are significantly influenced by their perception of their surroundings and not what may exist beyond their perception. People understand an architectural space based on their visual perception. Groenfeldt (2019, p. 207) believes that integrating water features to create a visual experience can remind us of the different values of water. For example, art and artists can deepen our aesthetic and emotional appreciation of water, along with conveying factual information which we might not have noticed without the art piece being aesthetically attractive. Eco artists contribute to building and ethnical sensibility through “critiquing the ways we frame nature” (Boetzkes, 2010, p.2). While art does not always provide answers about the solution to the problem, it can be good at offering questions: Is this right?
Fig.3. A Library of Glacial Water in Iceland
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Two ways that art and artists can contribute to the development of our water ethics is through representing water, water bodies or water infrastructure and showing these to us in a way that might play with our assumptions about how we view the landscape or waterscape. In her project Library of water (fig.3) Roni Horn displays water collected from twenty-four different glaciers all around Iceland in huge glass tubes. She claims that in a way, her idea is completely absurd, but reveals a painful reality that in a few years many of the water sources will no longer exist. This project is also a collective self-portrait of Icelanders with an active archive collecting the Icelanders stories of their weather.
This brings us to the symbolic, cultural and religious aspects of water. In his book Sapiens, Harari argues that humankind´s success as a species on earth was due to its ability to create and sustain collective myths. Myths are stories that we truly believe in, and if we collectively decide to change the myths, we can also change human behaviour dramatically and quickly. For example, Charles Moore (1997) tells an anecdotic story about a drinking fountain for people and donkeys in ancient Pompeii. He says that it had a straightforward shape and made water conveniently available for people. However, what made this fountain different was the relief depicting a cloud with a rain god on top. For the donkeys, the relief added nothing of value, but for the woman and men who came there to drink, it was a reminder of where the water had come from and how it got into their physical scheme of the world. When we seek to understand more about the natural world around us, when we can begin to see the interconnections between diverse kinds of life, between us, animals, climates, a deeper relationship is born. Not valuing water as a precious resource can also be connected to the fact that we do not understand the impact and the consequences of water overexploitation on the environment. Indigenous people have so much to teach us about water ethics. They have maintained their cultural and spiritual assumptions, beliefs, values, and ethics play in their perception of and decision about the natural world. Whether talking about the Hopi of the U.S, the Salish from Canada, the Australian aboriginals, the Ashanti of Africa, the Karaja of Brazil, or the Kogi of Colombia - water along with the earth and sky dominates the religious symbol system (Chamberlain, 2008, p.13).
They understand the place of water in human consciousness as well as the earth itself and therefore also understand the symbolic and unconscious meaning. Questions about water ontologies take a practical approach when it comes to project such as dams or mines. Highlighting multiple water realities and ways of being with water to take the possibility of multiplicity seriously. The cognitive neurologist Peter Janata (p.260) suggested that “People will form a stronger attachment to and will do more for an individual than they will for a group, so maybe we should think about water as an individual.� This suggestion is something people have been doing for centuries, amongst them, for example, the well-known Roman God of water and the sea Neptune, also known as Poseidon in Greek mythology. The well renowned Trevi fountain puts Neptune at the centre of the project (fig. 4) and, by doing so, highlights the importance of water. Furthermore, Kellert (2008) believes that a fusions between culture and ecology often provokes considerable loyalty, responsibility, and stewardship.
Fig. 4. The Trevi fountain with Neptune at the center
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Water, performance & science The notion of movement and sound of water is linked with the idea of performance. The performative aspect can be a tool to emphasize the preciousness of water because it shapes our behaviour by highlighting specific events. During the 1940s and 1950s an intellectual movement called the performative turn focused on the development of performance as a social and cultural expression. The British philosopher of language, John L. Austin argued that speech constitutes an active practice that can affect and transform realities. Due to the movement, performance can be a way not only to understand but also to shape human behaviour. Curiosity reflects the human need for exploration, discovery, mystery, and creativity. These qualities can engage a flywheel of imagination.
Kellert (2008) argues that buildings that facilitate such opportunities elicit considerable interest and appreciation even when these environmental features are largely revealed in representational ways. In 2015, the “Cosmo” art installation (fig.5) built in New York aimed to address the way society relates to water by making clean water an “aesthetic spectacle” to politicize water as an increasingly scarce resource. An intricate network of rings, tubes, and holding tanks circulates water through a series of purifying ecosystems until it’s clean enough to drink. Within weeks when the process is completed the phosphorescent microorganisms highly sensitive to water toxicity grow in the tubes until the whole structure glows in the dark (Kinney, 2015). Cosmo shows how to convey a problematic truth through art while inviting people to participate, be intrigued, and ask questions.
Fig . 5. Cosmo art installation politicizes water as an increasingly scarce resource
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The water cycle, from source to ocean to atmosphere, constitutes great rhythms within which a multitude of organisms exist. The vast circulation of water in all its states and movements from solid fluid and gaseous mediates rhythms of every kind within the total environment. These rhythms and sounds are endlessly attractive. We are compelled to stare at a river flowing through a forest, to touch water as it spills over the lip of a fountain, and to sit for hours hypnotized by the rhythmic pulse appearing in as the waves crash against a cliff. The key to understanding the architecture of water is to know what physical laws govern its behaviour, how the liquid acts and reacts with our senses. If we understand them, then we can manipulate them through architecture to achieve the desired effect.
This emphasis on its interplay is a unique quality that can inspire inner peace, create a feeling of immersion or inspiration. An essential element that forms the character of each sound is the mass of individual water units, the landing surface, and the slope of the surface. Large quantities to almost weightless droplets fall a variety of distances and land in deep water, shallow water (fig.7), or even on bare rock and generate a variety of sounds. In the middle of Rome, the Fontana delle Tartarughe only drips small squirts of water (fig.6) but it is just the right amount to inspire.
Fig.6. A detail of water trickling down the Fontana delle Tartarughe
Fig.7. Fontana delle Tartarughe: water falls into shallow pools generating sounds that inspire.
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Pools of water are natural reflectors; their mirror surfaces reflect the sky and the surroundings. In the land art project called Biotop Water Garden (fig.08), Ishigami creates an oasis made of small, shallow pools of water resting among a variety of trees. This carefully planned landscape (fig.9, fig.11, fig12) reflects the trees and, by doing so, creates a romantic repository of dreams. We can also manipulate water to interact with light. If the surface of a pool of water is disturbed the light is reflected from it in many beautiful ways. The artist Rebecca Horn plays with this interactivity in her installation called “Gesang des Lichts”: “Chant of Light”(fig.10). At long intervals, a metal rod pierces the smooth surface of the water. Stillness is followed by motion. The motion of water makes the light reflection dance and perform on the wall.
Fig. 10 “Chant of Light” installation by Rebecca Horn
Fig.8. Biotop Water Garden with pools reflecting trees
Fig.9. Diagrammatic plan showing a carefully planned landscape of Ishigami´s Biotop Water Garden
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Fig. 11. Pond section analysis of Junya Ishigami’s Water Garden
Fig. 12. Pond construction details of Junya Ishigami’s Water Garden
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The other effect described by Theodor Schwenk in his book Sensitive Chaos is the result of a straight line movement through still water, revealing what are called paths of vortices. Through his concept of “Flowform� Wilkes explores this further. He designs specifically shaped ceramic units that he connects to generate a wealth of diversity by the marriage of water with rhythms and surfaces. Through his expertise and experiments, he is able to control the movement of water fully. For example, in his sevenfold freeform water cascade (fig. 13), Wilkes creates seven FalltheDown patterns of motion that form of each creek bowl creates in flowing water. Water is funnelled clockwise and anti-clockwise through the bowls in a rocking, pulsating patterns, giving rise to a series of vortices (fig.14).
Fig. 13. Sevenfold cascade, Flowform project by John Wilkes
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Fig. 14. Diagram showing the path of vortices in the Sevenfold Cascade by John Wilkes
Moreover, for centuries beautiful structures and mechanisms have been created to channel, store, and use water and the inherent energy that exists in it. One such example are the giant Norias of Hama watermills in Syria (fig.15) that date back to the 5th century CE. These engineering structures lead us to the idea that nature can be performed in both a cultural and a scientific manner. The performative image of science is also emphasized by Bruno Latour and Steve Woolgar, sociologists and authors of Laboratory Life, when suggested that “the aim of science is not to provide facts or representation about nature but rather to ‘perform’ it” (Triscott, 2009, p. 157). In this sense, an architecture that collects water or fog would be a scientific way to perform nature by replicating a part of the hydrological process or mimicking the way plants such as moss absorb water. Thus, bringing the manmade and natural closer.
Fig. 16. Performalism by Peter Arkle
Fig. 15. Hama watermills in Syria
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Conclusion - Embedding values to change perceptions The recent history of architecture provides many examples for both shifts in design values as a result of changes in societal values and vice versa shifts in societal values as a result of design values. Architecture can become a spatial representation of human values. We have seen that the visceral experience of water can be enriched by educational, artistic, scientific, or climatic functions in order to develop our sensibility towards water and the environment. The message that we have learned in this chapter is that art, science and culture can contribute to the enhancement of our water ethics and change our perception towards water.
In the following chapter, we seek to understand the different ways of how architecture can monumentalize the preciousness of water and how this might be achieved by analysing significant historical and contemporary examples of monuments to water.
“A value is not just a preference but is a preference which is felt and/or considered to be justified — “morally” or by reasoning or by aesthetic judgments, usually by two or all three of these.” Allport et al, 1951, p. 396, Toward A General Theory Of Action
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CHAPTER 2 – CREATING MONUMENTS TO WATER
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“Paul felt Chani’s hand on his arm, heard a faint dripping sound in the chill air, felt an utter stillness come over the Fremen in the cathedral presence of water.“ Frank Herbert, 1965, p.207, Dune
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Celebrating water through roof design People have celebrated the preciousness of water in different ways. During the Roman period, water was not glorified only through art but also through architecture. The most ancient rainwater roof catchment systems were used in the Roman houses called Domus. Inside the house, an atrium was composed of two parts called compluvium and an impluvium (fig.16). The compluvium had a roof sloping inwards towards the center of the courtyard. During a rainy day, water would fall into a shallow catchment basin called an impluvium. During warm days the standing water would also cool the interior spaces. A cistern beneath the impluvium stored water overflow for household purposes (fig.17). The combination formed an ingeniously efficient, and straightforward manner of collecting, filtering, and cooling (Maskin, 2014). It can be argued, that in contemporary architecture, water collection is rarely celebrated as part of the design intention. Rainwater collection is common practice today in many countries such as Germany, Denmark, India, Chile, Japan, and Australia (Lye, 2009). There are a few very inventive contemporary examples, such as the pavilion-like structure in the San Antonio’s Confluence Park (fig.18 and fig.19) where double-curved concrete “petals” were explicitly formed to collect and funnel rain into drains that feed into the basin to celebrate San Antonio´s shifting water management legacy (McGraw, 2018). Fig. 16. Herculaneum atrium with compluvium and impluvium Fig. 17. Section showing cistern underneath the impluvium
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compluvium
impluvium
Stormwater
3 Storage Cistern Water is reused for builduing and irriga�on
5 Treated water to toilets
4 Petals Collect water
From cistern
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Water filtra�on
To stormwater cistern To stormwater cistern
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To stormwater cistern
Fig. 18. Diagram showing the principles of roof water collection, San Antonio´s Confluence park pavilion
Fig. 19. San Antonio´s Confluence park structure with curved petals formed to collect water
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Celebrating the water store In other parts of the world, water is scarce. It could be argued that for this reason in drier regions of the world, people have celebrated the harvesting and storage of water all the more. For example, “in the arid regions of western India, nothing is more sacred than water. It defines the lives, myths, and rituals of people” (Livingston and Beach, 2002). Storing the water of the monsoons has been the challenge of five hundred years, and the mesmerizing stone cisterns known as step-wells have been the containers for capturing and preserving the valuable rains. The location of the step-wells within village settlements indicates that they were also used as a retreat for the villagers from the hot climate. For example in the Chan Baori stepwell (fig.20) the temperature drops about 5 degrees at the lower levels. This idea of retreat is also supported by the method of construction with platforms and galleries, where people can rest or congregate. In addition, step-wells are also instruments depicting the level of the water table. The watermarks on the stairs become a kind of record of previous conditions of the water table.
The analysis shows that step-wells are a great example of how culture and ecology have not been thought of as separate. The analysis shows that step-wells are a great example of how culture and ecology have not been thought of as separate. Through the lens of Kellert, Heerwagen, and Mador (2008) this fusions often provokes considerable loyalty, responsibility, and stewardship among the people. In addition, step-wells are also an example of passive performative architecture because as Hensel believes passive performative strategies openly and creatively participate in climate dynamics. Lautman (2017, p.2) says, “People do not even know they’re there. They are hiding in plain sight.” The visual contrast that the step-wells create between the seemingly simple street-level view and the disorienting grandeur of the monument upon entrance takes you by surprise(fig.23). If we take Kellert’s idea of contrasts and explorations, then the Chand Boari 3500 steps (fig.22) give time for reflection and a meaningful approach towards the water. Their symmetry is also a visual and geometric masterpiece (fig.21).
Fig.20. Section through the Chan Baori stepwell showing the depth that makes the teperature drop 5 degrees
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Fig.21. A symmetrical maze of steps, Chand boari Stepwell
Fig.22. Floor plan of the Chand Baori stepwell
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The Indian step-wells evoke reverence and spirituality, and through it, they achieve a feeling of connection with water. The stepwell is designed as an underground shrine or an inverted temple. It has spiritual significance and represents the sanctity of water (Mankodi, 2018). Many step-wells are also closely connected to another temple of religious worship. The stepwell in Gujarat called Rani Ki Vav has surpassed all the others in terms of its sculptural wealth. More than five hundred sculptures and over a thousand minor ones combine religious, mythological aspects depicting gods, goddesses, and other semi-divine beings all over its walls (fig.24). Viṣṇu and Pārvatī, outnumber all others. Viṣṇu is associated in mythology with cosmic waters: wells, tanks, and reservoirs used to be consecrated to him (Mankodi, 2018). The ritual of sacrifice and to make offerings are observed. Gifts such as coconuts, grains, and milk are given to the goddess of water to obtain progeny and prosperity.
Therefore as Harari suggests, Indian stepwells have managed to play an essential role in their ability to create and sustain collective myths about the gift of water through architecture. Although, according to Moore (1994, p. 122) still water in stepwells represents the contemplative and pervasive "indwelling spirit of nature," the water in step-wells can be seen as unclean for those who do not understand their spiritual importance. The British reign considered step-wells as unhygienic. This proves one of the points discussed in the first chapter: if water architecture wants to elevate the preciousness of water, then there has to be a system in place to keep it clean. Later on, the Indian government embarked on the construction of large dams, and step-wells became redundant. Despite no longer used for their utilitarian purposes, today, step-wells regained their status as places of worship.
Fig.24. Mythological aspects depicting gods, goddesses, and other semi-divine beings, Rani Ki Vav stepwell
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Fig.23. Rani Ki Vav stepwell - the relationship with the ground creates a visual contrast and a surprise upon entrance
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Celebrating water within the landscape Yet again, in other parts of the world water has been used as an element of continuity, visual guidance and sequence. Water can encourage movement and exploration of the situation, inviting the observer to be a participant. This emphasis on the sequence and visual continuity is often exhibited Islamic architecture where water leads the eye throughout the length of a garden or a courtyard and highlights specific moments through fountains, pools, and basins (fig.25). The Court of Lions in the Alhambra palace is one such example where water channels highlight the spatial composition (fig.26). as well as symbolize the four rivers and four gardens of Islamic paradise (Wylson, 2014, p.156).
Fig.25. The Court of Lions water channel leads the eye through the couryard.
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1. Patio 2. Court of the golden room 3. Hall of the Ambassadors 4. Court of Myrtles
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5. Court of Lions 6. Daraxa 7. Tower of the Queen Fig.26. Floor plan of the Alahambra Palace : water channels court of Lions
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According to Webb (2011), the buildings of the Colombian architect Rogelio Salemona refer to the use of water in Islamic architecture in a modern interpretation. For example, in the Quimbaya museum, dedicated to indigenous culture Salemona invites water into the formal vocabulary of his projects. Water streams, or “atarjeas� (fig.28) run across the exterior courtyards as well as the interior producing a constant natural whisper. The creation of subtle changes in the floor (fig.27) allows water to flow in through the centre of stairs. The narrative of water continues through a series of courtyards and by doing so creates an experiential value. Fig.27. Stairs leading to the Quimbaya museum have subtle changes in the floor and allow water flow through
Fig.28. Floor plan of the Quimbaya museum dedicated to indigenous culture by Rogelio Salemona with atarjeas running through the courtyards.
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Conclusion The analysis of monuments and historical attitudes toward water gave us an insight into how different cultures have elevated and celebrated the value of water through architecture. We have seen that the Romans already used roofs with integrated rainwater harvesting in the first century BC. We discovered that today rainwater collection is common practice; however, it is not always celebrated spatially within the design. We discovered that narratives and worldviews are encrypted into the fabric of monuments. However, only a few have managed to monumentalise water collection and the water store in such a spectacular way as the Indian culture. Only a few have manipulated the sound and the visual sequence of water so grandly and elegantly as the designers of the Alhambra. We have also seen that historical water monuments have inspired contemporary architects. The lessons learned from this chapter also gave an insight into how to create potential spaces of wonder and delight within a new design. However, in order to successfully rethink the existing paradigm of water collection and consequent use within architecture, we also have to identify areas with possibilities to pursue innovation.
This bring us to the idea of whether there are other ways of harvesting water. Research shows that there is indeed a different possibility: in some parts of the world, fog is a viable resource. The fog collection technique started in 1987, and there seems to be more space for innovation and speculation. In general, those devices remain quite simple objects located in open airfields. There have been a few attempts to create dew collectors with architectural qualities; however, there have not been studies that monumentalise the fog catching system. Neither has there been studies that create a hybrid system of both fog catching and rainwater harvesting within architecture. Therefore, the next chapter will investigate if it is possible to celebrate this technique in architecture, uncover its water conservation potential and discover how the mechanism works. As a side note it is important to mention that according to Beysens (2003, p .9) the air well condenser or the so called ancient stone heaps technique did not work.
Fig.29. Rogelio Salemona, Facultad de Ciencias Humanas, Bogota
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CHAPTER 3 – FOG COLLECTING
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“In the cloud-forests water is king. It hangs on the moss-covered trees like a thick wet coat. It drips from the canopy in globules, like prisms, that stick to upturned palm leaves and blades of sheer grass.� Aaron Millar, 2013, The hills are alive
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France
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Fig. 30. Locations of fog collection projects, operational since 1987.
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Fog collection technique This chapter aims to understand the fog catching technique through the research done by Robert S. Schemenauer, Pilar Cereceda and Pablo Osses from FogQuest, a non-profit, registered Canadian charity dedicated at implementing water projects for rural communities in developing countries, by using fog to make optimum use of natural atmospheric sources of water. Fog collection is a proven technology for the supply of substantial amounts of potable water in certain regions. Real scale projects were tested in South America, the Middle East, South Africa and India (fig. 30). The quantity of water produced depends on the number of fog collectors installed and the collection rate at the site. One of the longest-running sites in the coastal desert of Chile supplied a village with clean water for ten years (S. Schemenauer, Cereceda, and Osses, 2019, p.3). Currently, fog-collection methods are simple and inexpensive. Two-dimensional large fog collectors (Fig.31) with polymer meshes are most widely used. When fog carrying air passes through the mesh, the fog droplets are deposited on the fibres of the mesh, which then drop into a gutter. The water is then transported to a collection reservoir. Apart from the twodimensional devices, a more spatial pavilion was made by the architect Arturo Vittori. His project Warka Water (fig.32, fig. 33 and fig.34) deals with the drinking issue of an isolated village in Ethiopia where women and children have to walk long hours to get water. Arturo Vittori says that each tower is capable of providing 50 litres of water every day (Dezeen, 2016).
The net captures fog particles
The fog passes through the net
Then gravity drips the water through the rain gauge Fig. 31. Diagram of rectangular fog collecting device
Structure
Mesh
Funnel Storage
Fig. 32.Exploded diagram showing components of the Warka Water project by Arturo Vittori
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Fig. 33. Warka Water project version 3.2 by Arturo Vittori, Ethiopia
The triagulated structure provides a framework for the net
The permeable mesh allows air to pass through the material capturing water wich roll down
The collector catches the water and is channled to the water tank The canopy provides shade creating a gathering place for the community. Fig. 34. Diagram explaining the design principles behind the Warka Water project
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Fog collection in nature The initial idea of a fog collecting mesh was inspired by the different ways plants and animals in nature collect water. For example, in regions with limited rain but regular fog events, plants follow fog interception (Burgess and Dawson 2004; Limm et al. 2009) by their foliage. For example, the cactus Opuntia Microdasys can survive in harsh climatic conditions thanks to its efficient fog collection system. Conical shapes of the cactus spine, gather water droplets that grow on tips of small barbs (fig.35) (Ju et al., 2012). Further on, animals such as the Stenocara Gracipes beetles grow water drops on wax-free hydrophilic bumps before being transported towards the mouth by waxy hydrophobic valleys (fig.38) (Norgaad and Dacke, 2010).
Fig.35. Diagram of cactus Opuntia Microdasys showing how the water drops grow on tips of small barbs Fig.36. Bromeliad water ecosystem with aquatic organisms. Fig.37. The leaves of some bromeliads capture water and nutrients in a storage tank via hydrophobic leaf surfaces.
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In wet ecosystems, plants absorb water by their foliage. For example, mosses and lichens take water up by porous surfaces. Moss works like a carpet that will slow down and retain water, therefore reducing soil erosion and helping to prevent water loss during dry periods (fig.39, fig. 40 and fig 41). Plants such as bromeliads take water up by their super hydrophilic leaf surfaces. In the centre of the leaf rosette (fig.37) the bromeliad forms an aquarium, which can contain up to 20 litres of water. Several hundred species of aquatic organisms can be found in these habitats (fig.36). Through the lens of Bruno Latour and Steve Woolgar, fog, dew, and rain-catching devices are perfect examples of how architecture can perform nature.
HYDROPHILIC BUMP
HYDROPHOBIC VALLEYS
Fig. 38. Diagram showing the growing of water drops on the beetles back
Fig. 39. Beetle Stenocara Gracipes exposing the body for the dew condensation process to take place
Fig. 40. Bumps on the beetles back
Fig. 41 Moss retaining water, Colombia
Fig 42. Diagram showing the roots of moss able to absorb and retain water Fig 43. Waterfalls in Colombia created by moss carpets
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Some numbers
Material performance
The amount of water that can be collected by a fog collector is directly related to the fog liquid water content and the wind speed. The liquid water content values typically encountered in fog collection projects range from 0.1 to 0.7 g m-3, with 0.2 g m-3 being a representative value. Practical wind speeds for projects range from 2 to 12 m s-1. A typical wind speed is 6 m s-1. In addition, the number of hours per day with fog can vary from 0 to 24. A typical value would be 6 hours per day. The combination of these typical values would produce about 5 L of water from a square meter of double Raschel mesh per day (S. Schemenauer, Cereceda, and Osses, 2019, p.8). However, sites have been examined by FogQuest where values range from 1 to 70 L m-2 day-1 for a portion of the year. A collection rate of 5 L m-2 day-1 will generate 10,000 L a day from an array with a surface area of 2000 m2. This would be a typical village scale project. This means that wind and air movement are vital qualities that the architecture where the fog catchment occurs needs to have. This leads us to the idea that in tropical climate, porosity and transitions to encourage air movement are beneficial for thermal comfort. Therefore incorporating fog collection into the heart of the design could create interesting relationships between porous and solid.
The lightweight and tensile raschel mesh (Fig. 44) is a net material used in most fog collecting applications. The weave consists of triangles (Fig. 45), enabling rapid run-off of the water (Estrela et al., 2012). According to Hensel (2013, p.57), the specific structure and composition of materials yields their properties, and, in interaction with a given environment, material behaviour. The latter constitutes material performance capacity that can be put to task. This means that the fog collecting mesh constitutes the smallest but hugely effective scale of performanceorientated architecture.
Fig. 44. Rashchel Mesh Fig. 45. Diagram explaining the principles behind the geometry of the mesh.
5.0
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Dew harvesting Fog is composed of liquid droplets in the air; however, dew is the liquid of water formed on the surface of an object resulting from the condensation of water vapour present in the air; therefore, one should speak of dew formation and measurements of the amount of dew (S. Schemenauer, Cereceda, and Osses, 2019, p.8). In the Kutch district of Gujarat in India, a dew collecting project started in 2013 (fig.46). The dew harvesting plant can produce, on average, 500 litres per day. In appearance, it is similar to a 38 array of panels of solar power installation. Mounts have a side slope of 30° from horizontal, the appropriate angle to enhance dew droplet recovery by gravity while not lowering radiative cooling (Beysens et al., 2003). The total surface area of all these "V" shaped rows of mounts is 540 m2 and represents the catchment area.
The dew collection has also been tested through a three-dimensional device called Aquair (fig.46) by students from the National Cheng Kung University in Taiwan. This project was aimed to be used in remote mountainous areas in tropical latitudes. Aquair collects water with a waterproof mesh fabric stretched across a bamboo structure to maximize airflow. The key to its design is the fan and a small centrifuge that uses gravity. In addition, a 30-kilogram weight is attached to the structure to draw collected water vapour down a tube and into a bucket (fig.47).
Fig. 46 Dew collecting plant in Gujarat, India, 2013
Fig. 47 Aquair device being tested in the forest.
Fig. 48. The centrifugal form is more efficient at channelling water than the rectangular shape
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Conclusion This chapter suggests a way of how the ‘performative capacity’ of architecture can be actualised. The fog collecting technique can be used as a spatial and material organisation complex to harness, perform and understand the environment, ultimately, producing a ‘culture of environment’. In this chapter the aim was to analyse the existing fog collecting prototypes in order to gain a technical understanding of the requirements for its successful application in different scenarios. The fog collection mesh is based on biomimetic principles. Understanding the science behind fog and water collection of plants could lead to more innovative solutions. Nature optimizes rather than maximizes and uses the least energy for maximum performance.
We have seen that the majority of fog collectors are simple objects. The architect Arturo Vittori has made a step further with the pavilion like structure called Warka Tower. This thesis aims to extend this another step further by monumentalising and integrating fog collectors into a building. The other aspect that we will add to the discussion is the interrelation between water, art, culture, science, and architecture within the Colombian environment.
“It is a moving experience to see water flow from a fog collector” Dr. Robert S Schemenauer, 2017, p.vi, Fogquest
Fig. 49. Warka Water tower version 1.7, by Arturo Vittori
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CHAPTER 4 – SITE, BRIEF & DESIGN EXPERIMENTS
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“The life of water become the life of everything, and over and over and over again they spoke to us of the water that is shared by plants, animal, and earth - a water that is the essence of life and indeed aluna itself.� Alana Ereira, The Elder Brothers, 1993, p.208
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Region Due to the range of altitudes and its geographical location, the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta contains a mosaic of all the globally significant ecosystems that can be found in tropical Latin America. It is rich in biodiversity, with numerous endemic reptiles, plants, and bird species. However, the environmental and natural base of the Sierra Nevada has suffered a severe impact through the destruction of its ecosystems, in particular, due to unsustainable farming and land-use practices. This has had a serious effect on water sources and ecosystems. The situation has been aggravated due to climatic change, which has led to the rapid deterioration of the high pĂĄramo, which acts as a giant waterholding sponge feeding all the rivers. Whereas previously the forest cover and local indigenous practices for the use and management of land and natural resources served to regulate the water flow of the rivers and streams, there are now bare, eroded slopes, which result in alternate flooding and drought.
In brief, human settlement, mining, agricultural expansion, deforestation (fig 51, fig.52), pollution, damming and deviation of rivers (fig.50), an advancing agricultural frontier, and the cultivation of illegal crops have contributed to the destruction of 72% of the area’s original forests. (Mayr, de Merode, Smeets and Westrik, 2003 p. 155). Environmentally controversial development projects continue to be developed. This means that the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta needs protection. It can be argued that a project to create awareness about the importance of biodiversity and the preciousness of water would benefit the area to cultivate the relationship between water, nature, and people.
Fig. 50. A Kogi showing the lands memory of the Talado spring, Rio Gaira river
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The Kogi territory The Arhuaco territory The Kankuamo territory Primary forest Deforestation / Tree cover Loss Fig. 51. Map showing deforestation and the different indigenous territories in the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta region which has lost nearly all of its lowland primary forest. Satellite data indicate the region’s deforestation rate increased in 2019.
Big Cities The sacred Cites of the Kogi people
Fig. 52. Deforestation in the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta, CiĂŠnaga Grande
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From a cultural perspective, the Sierra has three native communities called the Kogi, the Arhuaco, and the Kankuamo (fig.51), who believe that their rituals keep the earth alive. Kogi leaders have been engaging in consistent ecological-political activism to protect the Sierra Nevada from environmentally harmful developments (Witte, 2017, p.III). The native population consists of about 32,000 members. There are also approximately 150,000 peasants and one and a half million urban dwellers in the lowlands. The indigenous people have a worldview, social organization, and a settlement pattern (fig.56, fig 57) that revolves around the management and conservation of a unique ecosystem that they call the ‘Heart of the World.’
The other Colombian people do not necessarily appreciate the philosophical depth of indigenous people. The foreign nature of these underlying ontological understandings, statements, and practices, has created difficulties in conveying them the Colombian scientific society. (Witte, 2017, p.III). The Kogi people have a strong relationship with water (fig. 53). They speak of the new born river water as a baby cradled in the river and say that it begins its life being carried down the mountain, chuckling and gurgling. The life of water becomes the life of everything (Ereira, 1990, p.207). The Kogi integrate this way of thinking into their total perception of the cycle of life and water. They believe that the waters of life bind the Sierra together.
Fig.54. The Kogi form of divination is reading the patterns of bubbles formed by hollow beads dropped into a gourd full of water.
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Snowy ecosystem Paramo ecosystem Cloud Forest ecosystem Jungle humid ecosystem Humid equtorial ecosystem Tropical ecosystem Site Location Kogi indigenous settlements Fig.53. Ecosystems in the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta
Fig. 55. Typical Kogi settlment in the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta mountains
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The presence of fog in the coastal Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta Mountains is caused by multiple effects. Radiation fog off the ocean is even more prevalent on hills and mountains (fig.56). In these locations, fog is produced by both the movement of clouds over the terrain and by the effects of the topography, which forces the air upwards where water vapour condenses to form fog on the hills. Orographic fog (fig.57) is formed when warm, humid air moves up a mountain slope; as it rises along the slope, it expands and is cooled.If it is sufficiently humid, then the fog will be formed on the surface. When coastal fog is associated with highpressure systems, a thermal inversion, cold oceanic currents, and marine upwellings,
there is often a combination of types of fog. The terrain intercepts this cloud deck. This fog is reinforced by the orographic effect of coastal mountain ranges. Even during the dry season the Sierra is refreshed almost daily by fog banks, caused by the condensation of the moisture carried by the trade winds from the north east (fig. 56 and fig 60) (Carbono, 2017). The wet and foggy season lasts from May to December (fig. 58) and based on conversation with locals, fog is usually present during mornings and afternoons, however sometimes it’s all day long. The climate is tropical and humid with temperature ranging between 20 to 35 degrees (fig. 59).
TRADE WINDS SANTA MARTA
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Fig.56. Map showing the relationship between Santa Marta, Cienaga, Minca and the presence of fog
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Fig. 57. Diagram showing advection and orographic fog in the mountains 63.2 mm 80%
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Fig.60. Wind Diagram 2012 -2109
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The other reasons for fog presence are the two ecosystems called the cloud forest and the páramo wetland. In the cloud forest located above 700 m of altitude, fog spills and rolls over the treetops and over some of the best hiking paths in Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta (fig.64). This fog is created when cold mountain air mixes with tropical condensation. The other unique ecosystem of interest is the páramo ecosystem, which is located high up in the mountains, usually above 3000 m. The so-called frailejón (fig. 61) is an important plant for the ecosystem because the fog sticks to its skin and form water droplets, which fall to the ground when they grow sufficiently heavy (Ray, 2018). The accumulated water flows into the lakes and rivers that act as reservoirs for water for most of the country (fig.62, fig.65, fig. 66).
Fig. 61. Diagrammatic section through the frailejón
páramo wetland pond páramo aquifier
Fig. 62. Diagrammatic section through the páramo wetland
Fig. 63 Close up of the frailejón's hairy surface
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Fig. 64. Cloud forest in San Lorenzo located on one of the hiking paths around the site
Fig. 65. Lakes within the mountain and the pรกramo ecosytem
Fig. 66. A backpacker experiencing the pรกramo ecosystem
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Site for the builduing The site lays within the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta Mountains, in a town called Minca at an elevation of 700 m above sea level (fig. 69, fig.70). The Rio Gaira River runs in proximity to the site. Just ten years ago, the middle basin of the Gaira River was the birthplace of about 30 springs, but today, there are only about three permanent watercourses left (fig.50). In the town of Minca, the Kogi are starting a new project where they are collaborating with ecologists to protect water streams and restore the forests (Cultivating Water, 2019). The site is located in proximity to the El Dorado Cloud Forest nature reserve, a reserve with cabanas to house scientists and birdwatchers (Hernandez, 2011). In Minca, the Kogi are integrated in agriculture and tourism, and take care of the environmental problems,
Fig. 68. Backpacker hiking around the site.
Fig. 69. Aerial view of the site
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therefore it is convenient for them to have a space where they can collaborate with the scientists and ecologists. The idea to celebrate the preciousness of water within this setting is to show how the local ecosystems and their plants contribute to the production of water and therefore educate people about the importance of water for their survival. In addition the act of celebrating water and fog harvesting aims to create awareness about the need of a better water management within the region and show that water is not infinite and large water exploitations have a negative impacts for the local environment. Finally, the project also celebrates the cultural and spiritual aspects of water that are unique to the local indigenous people.
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Fig 70.Site map of Minca
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Brief
Some detailed numbers
In response to the issues discussed in this chapter, my project Fogscapes aims to be an experimental centre where the issues of water, plant and forest conservation, sustainable development, environmental water management are discussed. Through collaboration, action and discussion between indigenous knowledge and scientific knowledge, this project will actively try to mitigate biodiversity loss, deforestation and promote sustainable water exploitation. This cultural, research and interpretation centre will use monumentalised fog catchers to collect a substantial amount of water for tree reforestation. The trees will be specifically selected to contribute to the biodiversity. Furthermore, the building will promote sustainable agroforestry practices. Other programmatic function such as a herbarium and a seed bank will conserve the endemic plants. Water and vegetation will manifest themselves within the architecture and landscape to create spaces of delight and wonder, thus combining the aesthetic, the scientific, the ecological and the spiritual paradigm of water and nature. This is in line with the ideas of Charles Moore (1994), who believes that architecture should reflect the attitude about the natural world held by the people who inhabit the building.
The prototype layout shown opposite (fig. 71) is for a medium-sized nursery with an annual capacity of about 60,000 containerised plants using pots of 8 cm diameter when filled. Each bed is 6 m2 big and in this set up there are 40 beds. The production of a 60,000 containerised plants will require 240 m2 of space for the seedlings (calculation: 6 m2 x 40 m2 =240 m2). According to Howell (1999, p.160), a 10-20 L of water per day per 1 m2 of productive area is needed for a successful growth of the plants. From the Fogquest handbook we know that the fog collector can generate in average 5 L per square meter per day, therefore we need to solve an equation in order to know how big the fog collectors need to be in order to sustain the water requirements for the tree nursery. 1 m2 x
5 L PER DAY 3600 L PER DAY
x = (3600 X 1) / 5 = 720 m2 From the calculation we can conclude that the fog collectors need to have a minimum surface area of 720 m2 in order to supply enough water for a nursery of 240 m2. By placing a 720 m2 fog collector, it is concluded that the surface area needs to be divided into multiple objects to not appear too large compared to the surrounding buildings. In the final design I have a total of 8 fog collectors within the overall project. Together they have a surface area of 2580 m2 and can produce 12,900 L of water per day if the weather conditions are favorable. Producing more water will give the possibility to use part of the water within the landscape and the building.
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FOG COLLECTOR OF 720 M2 SEEDLINGS OF 240 M2
3.6 M3 VOLUME CONTAINER FOR 3600 L OF WATER PRODUCED PER DAY
SCENARIO 1 - SIZE WITH 1 FOG COLECTORS
FOG COLLECTORS OF 360 M2
SEEDLINGS OF 240 M2
2 X 1.8 M3 VOLUME CONTAINER FOR 3600 L OF WATER PRODUCED PER DAY
SCENARIO 2 - SIZE WITH 2 FOG COLECTORS
500 M2
360 M2
SEEDLINGS OF 180 M2
SEEDLINGS OF 180 M2 250 M2 250 M2 250 M2 250 M2 360 M2 360 M2
SCENARIO 3 - FINAL LAYOUT
Fig 71. Diagrammatic explanation showing the relationship between the size of the tree nursery size and the required size of the fog collector
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Design experiments In the second chapter, I have explored the ideas of celebrating water through roof design, celebrating water within the landscape and celebrating the water store. These ideas have proven to be important in gaining understanding of the different ways that architecture can put emphasis on the preciousness of water. The third chapter has been instrumental in understanding how the fog collecting technique works and why this might be the appropriate way to emphasize the importance of water conservation. In this chapter, the same ideas will be used as guidelines in order to translate the studied concepts into an architectural proposal. The first project was conceived before the final brief and site were decided upon. However, it is interesting to include it as it shows how the thinking about the integrated fog collecting evolved. This project intends to be a meeting space where two streams of knowledge come together : the traditional native knowledge about nature and the western scientific knowledge. The images show how the fog collector could be integrated within a timber roof structure. A funnel shaped catchment and conveyance system collects the water droplets. The narrower end of the funnel descends into the middle of the meeting space (fig 73 and fig.74) and exposes the fog collecting process.
Fig.72. The fog collector hiding in plain sight upon approach
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The building is located on an existing path and acts as a passageway on the ground level. The roof structure is conceived of two streams that join together to form one stream. One stream enables continuation upon the same existing path, while the second leads to a view point overlooking and framing the river that is in risk of drying out (fig.75). In this concept, both the fog collector and the catchment surface are conceived as funnels. The funnel shaped fog catcher is hidden within the timber structure despite its openness and porosity (fig.72). Similarly to the stepwells the fog collector is hidden in plain sight. The openness and the porosity of the structure is required in order to let the wind pass through the fog collecting net (see chapter 3). This means that the ground level acts as an open structure and the lower level is a sheltered space beneath the fog collector. However having two layers of the timber structure (the first being the roof structure and the second being the structure for the mesh of the fog collector), could mean that less wind can pass through which could have an impact on the efficiency of fog collection. This was a valuable lesson for the second project where this is taken into account to create a more realistic solution.
Fig. 73. The open timber structure and the fog collector on the ground level.
Fig. 74. The funnel of the fog collector descending into the meeting space
Fig. 75. Overlooking the water stream
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An indicative plan of the proposed experimental centre is shown in (fig.77). The following concepts are studied 1) Hybrid rainwater and fog collection 2) The sound of water arriving into the atrium 3) Water arriving into the auditorium as an “aesthetic spectacle� 4) Pools of water and reflection 5) Water as a visual guidance within the landscape 6) Celebrating the water store
Fig. 76. Approaching the building
When approaching the building, visitors and users see the fog collectors sitting above the roofscape (fig 76). A contrast between the solid roof and the porous fog collector aims to spark an interest to explore further the inside. In line with Kellert’s (2008) thoughts explored in chapter 1 visual differentiation of the fog collectors hovering above the roof aim to engage a flywheel of human intellect and imagination. The cone shaped fog collectors are geometrically different from the funnel shaped catchment and conveyance system. The funnels will not only catch the droplets falling from the net, but will also collect rainwater during the wet season. The rest of the pitched roof will also collect water. There will be classic gutters at the edge that will transport the water through pipes to the central water cistern. This solution is not original in any way from the usual system. However, in this case the design priority was given to reference the timber pitched roofs of the indigenous vernacular houses and temples (see fig.56).
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4 2
Fig. 77. Roof plan of the experimental centre
7 5
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Programatic zones 1) Research builduing 2) Agroforestry education and training builduing 3) Interpretation and ecotourism builduing 4) Tree nursury for agroforesty with shading canopy 5) Tree nursury for research with shading canopy 6) Study and resting pods 7) Lookout tower
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In each building the fog collector occupies a central position within the roofscape in order to make it the focal point and become a jewel of the project. However, within the interiors, the funnels of the fog collectors are conceived differently. In the research building the funnel descends into an atrium. The tip of the funnel ends midway through the space. This means that the sound of the water dripping down into the shallow pool will be emphasized by the longer fall distance. (fig. 80) During a foggy day the collector will drip small trickles of water generating just the right amount of sound to inspire similarly to what we saw at the Fontana delle Tartarughe in Rome. In the building for agroforestry training, the funnel in the auditorium partially reveals the water passing through by making part of the funnel transparent (fig. 78 and fig 79). Thus, creating an “aesthetic spectacle� from fog and water collection similarly to the Cosmo art installation (see chapter 1).
Fig. 78. Funnel passing through the auditorium
Fig. 79. Funnel passing through the auditorium revealing the passage of water
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Fig. 80. Funnel ending midway through the space to create sounds of water trickling down.
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The landscape between the buildings has pathways leading from different sides of the site. In between the pathways green islands contain shallow pools of water resting among the Colombian endemic frailejรณn cactus found in the pรกramo ecosystem as seen at the beginning of this chapter. This carefully planned landscape is conceived as a condensed version of the pรกramo wetland. Furthermore, similarly to the project of Ishigami the pools will reflect the vegetation and sky to create a time-based piece of art as well as being a by-product of the water collecting architecture (fig 81).
Fig. 81. Water pools reflecting the sky and the frailejรณn
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Ceramic bowls with the same geometrical shape as the pools of water will sit within some parts of the greenery to generate rhythms and patterns of motions inspired by the ideas of Wilkes project seen in the first chapter (fig 84).In this scenario the cistern is located underneath the fog collector and feeds the pools with a pressure pump and pipes (fig 82 and fig 83).
Fig. 82. Plan showing how the interconnected pipes between the pools of water could work.
Fig. 83. Section showing how the cistern could feed the pools
Fig. 84. Ceramic bowls with sit within some parts of the greenery to generate rhythms and patterns of motions
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Water channels run across the landscape surrounding the project. Some of the channels guide the visitors and users towards a bigger pool of water with a seating area (fig. 86, fig 87, fig.88). Other water channels guide people towards tree nurseries. Furthermore, the shape of the pool of water is inspired by the sinkhole-like features found in the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta landscape (fig. 85). The Kogi and the Arhuaco indigenous people believe that when the world was created, their people emerged from those sinkholes (Steffens, 2019). Furthermore, the use of water channels is also a reference to well renowned Colombian architect Rogelio Salemona (see chapter 2).
Fig. 85. Sinkhole in the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta mountains
Fig. 86. Seating area with pools of water
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Fig. 87. Overview of the water channels highlighting the spatial composition
Fig.88. The channel guiding the visitor and users to experience the landscape
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Each fog collector has its own water cistern. However, some of them are designed to create a particular experience for the users and visitors. The roofscape of the interpretation and visitor centre wraps around the fog collector and water cistern (fig.91). A swirling ramp leads the visitors on a journey around the water cistern into a coffee space. The water cistern will be decorated with the indigenous symbols carved into its surface (fig.92). The Kogi people weave these symbols into their bags called Mochilas (fig 89). Each symbol has a different meanings related to the surrounding nature, landscape or the local culture (fig. 90). In this scenario the spiritual and cultural aspects of celebrating the water store were inspired by the analysis of the Indian stepwells from the second chapter. Fig.89. Kogis with to so called mochila bags with symbols weaved into them.
Vulture
Scorpion tail
Frog and water
Father of fire
The peaks of sierra nevada de santa marta
Rattlesnake
Mans thinking
Centipede
Tree leaf
Fig.90. Kogi and Arhuaco symbols and their meaning.
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Month of pregnancy
hills and lagoons
Sacared house
Fig.91. View from the entrance of the visitor center with the roof wrapping around the cistern and inviting the visitors to embark upon a journey to discover what is hidden behind.
Fig.92. Celebrating the water cistern: The spiritual aspects of water, nature and culture of the indigenous people is engraved into the water cistern through symbols.
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Conclusion Through the thesis the idea of celebrating water has been addressed and it has been argued that it is possible to educate people about the preciousness of water and the importance of water conservation through architecture and landscape in Colombia. The four chapters allow for gathering of knowledge through a comprehensive literature review, the generation of themes and ultimately a proposal of a viable scenario to engage people in an inventive way to question our current water ethics.
The final project hopes to act as catalyst by exposing ethical inconsistencies towards water and therefore provide a valuable service to the local environment. It is also aimed to educate people about the way the local environment and water interrelate.
The thesis began by considering our relationship with water and understanding that water has been and will be a technical, cultural and artistic necessity for people.
However, this research could potentially act as a base argument and guideline for how to create spaces that enhance our relationship to water and by doing so inspire the protection, restoration of our waters. The belief is that we need to stay connected with nature and understand the blessings water provides for it. We can be reminded about this conection through stories encrypted in the architecture and begin to care.
The architectural monuments to water discussed in the second chapter all demonstrate different ways of how architecture can create compelling and emotive experiences of water. The discovered methods and concepts have then been applied to the final project.
An important part for further investigation would be to test the fog collecting system on site, in order to have more accurate data about the water collection quantities.
However, this thesis argues that today there is a need to translate innovation and to find new ways to create architecture that is in the service of the environment. The analysis of existing fog collectors revealed the untapped potential to celebrate and monumentalise this technique.
“The real voyage of discovery consists not so much in seeking new territory, but possibly in having new sets of eyesâ€? Marcel Proust, Ă€ la recherche du temps perdu,1913
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Fig.93. Channel leading to the tree nursery
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Bibilography Books Allport, G., Kluckhohn, C., Murray, H., Parsons, T., Shils, E., Stouffer, S. and Tolman, E., 1951. Toward A General Theory Of Action. [Erscheinungsort nicht ermittelbar]: Harvard University Press, p.p.396. Boetzkes, A., 2010. The Ethics Of Earth Art. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, pp.2-3. Chamberlain, G., 2008. Troubled Waters. Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield, pp.p.13-15.
Kellert, S., Heerwagen, J. and Mador, M., 2008. Elements Of Biophilic Design. Hoboken: Wiley. Lautman, V. and Gupta, D., 2017. The Vanishing Stepwells Of India. London: Merrell Publishers, pp.p.1-2.
Dreiseitl, H. and Grau, D., 2009. New Waterscapes. Basel: Birkhäuser.
Livingston, M. and Beach, M., 2002. Steps To Water. New York: Princeton Architectural Press.
Ereira, A. 1993. The Elder Brothers, London: Vintage Books, pp.207-208
Moore, C., 1997. Water And Architecture. London: Thames and Hudson Ltd.
Grafman, L. 2017. To catch the rain. Humboldt State University Press.
Novak, C., Giesen, G., DeBusk, K. and Rutkowski, M. (2014). Designing rainwater harvesting systems. Hoboken, New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons.
Graham, J., 2016. Climates. 1st ed. Zurich: Lars Müller, pp.9-14. Groenfeldt, D., 2013. Water Ethics. New York: Routledge, p.155-173. Haskell, D., 2018. The Songs Of Trees. New York: Penguin Books, pp.3-10.
Proust, M., 1913. A La Recherche Du Temps Perdu. Saint-Exupéry, A. and Galantière, L., 1987. Wind, Sand And Stars. London: Pan Books.
Heerwagen, J., Kellert, S. and Mador, M., 2013. Biophilic Design. Hoboken, N.J.: Wiley.
Schemenauer, R., Cereceda, P. and Osses, P., 2017. Fogquest FOG WATER COLLECTION MANUAL. 2nd ed. Ontario: FogQuest.
Hensel, M., 2013. Performance-Oriented Architecture. Hoboken: Wiley & Sons, pp.p.57-59
Wilkes, A., 2003. Flowforms. 2nd ed. Edinburgh: Floris Books, pp.p.25-p.71.
Herbert, F., 1965. Dune. New York: The Berkley Publishing Group, p.p.207. Howell, J., 1999. Roadside Bio-Engineering. Nepal: Department of Roads, p.p.160. 80
Hulme, M., 2013. Exploring Climate Change Through Science And In Society. New York: Taylor and Francis.
Wilson, E., 1984. Biophilia. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Wylson, A., 2014. Aquatecture. Kent: Elsevier Science, pp.156-161.
Bibilography Research Papers
Articles
Beysens. D., Milimouk, I., Nikolayev, V, Berkowicz, S., Muselli, M., Heusinkveld, B., Jacobs,A,. 2006., Comment on ‘‘The moisture from the air as water resource in arid region: Hopes, doubt and facts’’. Journal of Arid Environments. Elsevier
Moore, R., 2018. Forests That Drink From The Clouds - Global Wildlife Conservation. [online] Global Wildlife Conservation. Available at: <https://www.globalwildlife. org/blog/forests-that-drink-from-theclouds/> [Accessed 29 March 2020].
Hoyos, N., Correa-Metrio, A., M. Jepsen, S., Wemple, B., Valencia, S., Marsik, M., Doria, R., Escobar, J., Restrepo, J. and I. Velez, M., 2019. Modeling Streamflow Response To Persistent Drought In A Coastal Tropical Mountainous Watershed, Sierra Nevada De Santa Marta, Colombia. Basel, Switzerland: MDPI.
Hensel, M. 2008. Performance‐ Orientated Design Precursors and Potentials. [online] Architectural Design Available. at< file:///E:/2008_AD_VV_ PODPrecursersPotentials%20(1).pdf> [Accessed 30 March 2020]. pp.78(2):48 - 53
Estrela M., Klemm O., Schemenauer R., Lummerich A., Cereceda P., Marzol V., Corell D., Heerden J., Reinhard D., Gherezghiher T., Olivier J., Osses P., Sarsour J., Frost E., Valiente J. and Fessehaye G., 2012. Fog as a Fresh-Water Resource: Overview and Perspectives. Ambio, Springer. pp.221-234
Mayr, J., de Merode,, E., Smeets, R. and Westrik, C., 2003. Linking Universal and Local Values: Managing a Sustainable Future for World Heritage. In: Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta, Colombia: Indigenous Territories in a Complex Scenario. Unesco World Heritage Center, pp.153-157.
Nørgaard, T., Dacke M., 2010. Fog-basking behaviour and water collection efficiency in Namib Desert Darkling beetles. Frontiers in Zoology
Films and Videos
Ju, J., Bai, H., Zheng, Y., Zhao3, T., Fang, R. and Jiang, L., 2012. A Multi-Structural And Multi-Functional Integrated Fog Collection System In Cactus. Nature Communications. [online] Macmillan Publishers Limited, pp.1-5. Available at: <http://file:///E:/ ncomms2253.pdf> [Accessed 8 April 2020].
Cultivating Water. 2019. [video] Directed by A. Ereira. Youtube: Alan AlunaTheMovie.
Conferences
Aluna. 2012. [film] Directed by A. Ereira. BBC.
Dezeen, 2016. Warka Water Towers Harvest Drinkable Water From The Air. [image] Available at: <https://www. youtube.com/watch?v=THJVuinPbc0> [Accessed 8 April 2020].
Witte, P, 2017. Living the Law of Origin: The Cosmological, Ontological, Epistemological, and Ecological Framework of Kogi Environmental Politics. University of Cambridge 81
Bibilography Websites Carbono, E., 2017. Northern South America: Northern Colombia | Ecoregions | WWF. [online] World Wildlife Fund. Available at: <https://www.worldwildlife. org/ecoregions/nt0159> [Accessed 29 March 2020]. Bell, C., 2018. Here's Why Colombia Is One Of The Most Biodiverse Countries On Earth. [online] Culture Trip. Available at: <https://theculturetrip.com/southamerica/colombia/articles/heres-whycolombia-is-one-of-the-most-biodiversecountries-on-earth/> [Accessed 2 February 2020]. Dutton, D., 2010. A Darwinian Theory Of Beauty. [online] Ted.com. Available at: <https://www.ted.com/talks/denis_ dutton_a_darwinian_theory_of_beauty> [Accessed 30 April 2020]. Kinney, J., 2015. Architect Wants To Change Your Mind About Water With Glowing Filtration Tower. [online] Nextcity.org. Available at: <https://nextcity.org/daily/ entry/cosmo-water-filter-art-moma-ps1> [Accessed 1 April 2020]. Millar, A., 2013. The Hills Are Alive Journey Latin America. [online] Journey Latin America. Available at: <https:// www.journeylatinamerica.co.uk/travelinspiration/travel/the-hills-are-alive> [Accessed 6 May 2020]. Ray, F., 2018. Colombian Soldiers Lead Ecological Mission In High-Altitude Wetlands. [online] Earth Island Journal. Available at: <https://www.earthisland. org/journal/index.php/articles/entry/ colombian_soldiers_ecological_mission_ wetlands/P12> [Accessed 10 April 2020]. 82
Sara, J., 2017. Standing For The Value Of Water. [online] World Bank Blogs. Available at: <https://blogs.worldbank.org/water/ standing-value-water> [Accessed 3 May 2020]. Steffens, G., 2019. Indigenous Protectors Of These Sacred Peaks Have Kept Others Out—Until Now. [online] National Geographic. Available at: <https:// www.nationalgeographic.co.uk/historyand-civilisation/2019/11/indigenousprotectors-these-sacred-peaks-have-keptothers-out> [Accessed 19 March 2020]. Stratfor. 2016. In Colombia, Abundant Water Brings No Security. [online] Available at: <https://worldview.stratfor.com/article/ colombia-abundant-water-brings-nosecurity> [Accessed 6 March 2020]. Vaughan Johnson, J. (2019). Colombia headed for serious water shortage by 2050. [online] Colombia News | Colombia Reports. Available at: https:// colombiareports.com/colombia-headedserious-water-shortage-2050/ [Accessed 31 Dec. 2019]. Webb, M., 2011. A Tribute To Rogelio Salmona, The Greatest Of Colombian Modernists And Bogotá’S Maestro Of Brick. [online] Architectural Review. Available at: <https://www.architectural-review.com/ architects/a-tribute-to-rogelio-salmonathe-greatest-of-colombian-modernistsand-bogots-maestro-of-brick/8610320. article> [Accessed 7 April 2020].
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List of figures Fig. 1. Global Biodiversity Map (Drawing by author, after on Myers, N., Mittermeir, C.G., da Fonseca, G.A.B., Kent, J., 2000. Biodiversity hotspots for conservation priorities. Nature 403, 218222.)
Fig. 10 “Chant of Light” installation by Rebecca Horn, 2008 steel, copper, motor, water, and projected light Locks Gallery, Philadelphia, 2011 [https://i.pinimg.com/ originals/50/66/41/506641f0a934a40dcd1f0882428828b2.jpg])
Fig. 2. Cloud forest, Chingaza Natural National Park (Photograph by Author), 2020
Fig.8. Biotop Water Garden with pools reflecting trees (Photograph, [https://www. dezeen.com/2019/10/24/junya-ishigamiart-biotop-water-garden-obel-award/])
Fig.3. A Library of Glacial Water in Iceland, (Photograph, Brian Philips [https://www. picfair.com/pics/04726965-library-ofwater-iceland])
Fig.9. Diagrammatic plan showing a carefully planned landscape of Ishigami´s Biotop Water Garden Drawing by author after Trees soft scape of Junya Ishigami’s Water Garden [https://publicdelivery.org/wp-content/ uploads/2019/11/Junya-Ishigami-WaterGarden-2018-Nasu-Mountains-Tochigi-Prefecture-Japan-soft-scape-trees.jpg])
Fig. 4. The Trevi fountain with Neptune in the central position (Photograph, 2013, https://pt.wikipedia. org/wiki/Ficheiro:Detail_Neptune_Trevi_ fountain_Rome_Italy.jpg]) Fig . 5. Cosmo art installation politicizes water as an increasingly scarce resource (Photograph, [https://www.archdaily. com/645883/cosmo-andres-jaque-officefor-political-innovation/5589756be58ecef4 b500012e-cosmo-andres-jaque-office-forpolitical-innovation-photo]) Fig.6. A detail of water trickling down the Fontana delle Tartarughe (Photograph, Mark Mansfield, 2009, [https://www. flickr.com/photos/mm38/3456115237/in/ photostream]) Fig.7. Fontana delle Tartarughe: water falls into shallow pools generating sounds that inspire. (Photograph, Bertozzi Stefano, [https://www.pinterest.co.kr/ pin/818388563512162428/])
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Fig. 11. Pond section analysis of Junya Ishigami’s (Drawring, [https://publicdelivery.org/ wp-content/uploads/2019/11/Junya-Ishigami-Water-Garden-2018-Nasu-Mountains-Tochigi-Prefecture-Japan-Pond-section-analysis..jpg]) Fig. 12. Pond construction details of Junya Ishigami’s Water Garden (Photograph, [https://publicdelivery.org/ wp-content/uploads/2019/11/Junya-Ishigami-Water-Garden-2018-Nasu-Mountains-Tochigi-Prefecture-Japan-Pond-construction-details..jpg]) Fig. 13. Sevenfold cascade, Flowform project by John Wilkes (Photograph, [http://flowform.info/product/sevenfoldii/])
Fig. 14. Diagram showing the path of vortices in the Sevenfold Cascade by John Wilkes (Drawing by author after Wilkes, 2003, p.129) Fig. 16. Performalism by Peter Arkle Peter Arkle, (Illustration, [https://www. architectmagazine.com/technology/howdoes-architecture-perform_o])
Fig.21. A symmetrical maze of steps, Chand boari Stepwell (Photograph, [https:// engineeringdiscoveries.com/2019/12/04/ do-you-know-about-stepwell-located-inrajasthan-india/])
Fig. 15. Hama watermills in Syria (Photograph, [https://wanderlustings.files. wordpress.com/2010/09/dscf0991.jpg])
Fig.22. Floor plan of the Chand Baori stepwell showing the 3500 steps allowing for a meaningful approach (Photograph, [https:// engineeringdiscoveries.com/2019/12/04/ do-you-know-about-stepwell-located-inrajasthan-india/])
Fig. 16. Herculaneum atrium with compluvium and impluvium (Photograph, Dave Tonkin [https://www.flickr.com/photos/ davetonkin/6177318799/])
Fig.23. Rani ki vav stepwell and its relationship with the ground creates a visual contrast and surprise upon entrance (Photograph, [https://www.gujarattourism. com/hub/2])
Fig. 17. Section showing cistern underneath the impluvium [Illustration, https://www.romanoimpero. com/2017/11/idraulica-romana.html])
Fig.24. Mythological aspects depicting gods, goddesses, and other semi-divine beings, Rani Ki Vav stepwell (Photograph, [https://www.incredibleindia. org/content/incredible-india-v2/en/ destinations/patan/rani-ki-vav.html])
Fig. 18. Diagram showing the principles of roof water collection, San Antonio´s Confluence park pavilion Adapted by author after [https://www. archdaily.com/896460/confluence-parklake-flato-architects/5b2349b3f197cc fa27000193-confluence-park-lake-flatoarchitects-axonometric-view]) Fig. 19. San Antonio´s Confluence park structure with curved petals formed to collect water (Photograph, [https://www.matsys.design/ confluence-park]) Fig.20. Section through the Chan Baori stepwell (Photograph, [https:// engineeringdiscoveries.com/2019/12/04/ do-you-know-about-stepwell-located-inrajasthan-india/])
Fig.25. The Court of Lions water channel leads the eye through the courtyard. (Photograph, Raffaelo Bencini, [https:// www.britannica.com/place/Court-of-theLions]) Fig.26. Floor plan of the Alahambra Palace : water channels court of Lions Adapted by author after [https:// en.wikiarquitectura.com/building/thealhambra/])
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List of figures Fig.27. Stairs leading to the Quimbaya museum have subtle changes in the floor and allow water flow through (Photograph, [http://obra.fundacionrogeliosalmona.org/obra/proyecto/museo-quimbaya/]) Fig.28. Floor plan of the Quimbaya museum dedicated to indigenous culture by Rogelio Salemona with atarjeas running through the courtyards. Adapted by author after [http://bdigital. unal.edu.co/5494/34/79533068.2011_12. pdf]) Fig.29. Rogelio Salemona, Facultad de Ciencias Humanas, Bogota (Photograph by Author, 2020) Fig. 30. Locations of fog collection projects, operational since 1987. Drawing by author after Schemenauer, R., Cereceda, P. and Osses, P., 2017 Fig. 31. Diagram of rectangular fog collecting device (Drawing by Author) Fig. 32.Exploded diagram showing components of the Warka Water project by Arturo Vittori (Drawing by Author) Fig. 33. Warka Water project version 3.2 by Arturo Vittori, Ethiopia (Photograph, [https://www.dezeen. com/2016/11/10/video-interview-arturo-vittori-warka-water-tower-ethiopia-sustainable-clean-drinking-water-movie/]) Fig. 34. Diagram explaining the design principles behind the Warka Water project (Drawing by author, 2020)
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Fig.35. Diagram of cactus Opuntia Microdasys showing how the water drops grow on tips of small barbs (Drawing by author, 2020) Fig.36. Bromeliad water ecosystem with aquatic organisms. (Drawing by author, 2020) Fig.37. The leaves of some bromeliads capture water and nutrients in a storage tank via hydrophobic leaf surfaces. (Photograph by Author, 2020) Fig. 38. Diagram showing the growing of water drops on the beetles back (Drawing by author, 2020]) Fig. 39. Beetle Stenocara Gracipes exposing the body for the dew condensation process to take place (Photograph, [https://happy-ape. com/2014/05/19/the-namibian-fog-basking-beetle/]) Fig. 40. Bumps on the beetles back (Photograph, [https://www.mnn.com/ green-tech/research-innovations/blogs/ scientists-steal-designs-nature-new-water-collecting-material]) Fig. 41 Moss retaining water, Colombia (Photograph by Author, 2020) Fig 42. Diagram showing the roots of moss able to absorb and retain water (Drawing by author, 2020) Fig 43. Waterfalls in Colombia created by moss carpets (Photograph by author, 2020) Fig. 44. Rashchel Mesh (Photograph Schemenauer, R., Cereceda, P. and Osses, P., 2017)
Fig. 45. Diagram explaining the principles behind the geometry of the mesh. (Drawing by author, after Rajaram M., et all., 2016) Fig. 46 Dew collecting plant in Gujarat, India, 2013 (Photograph, [https://www.downtoearth. org.in/news/science-technology/indian-scientists-develop-technology-for-harvesting-water-from-dew-58616]) Fig. 47 Aquair device being tested in the forest. (Photograph, [https://www.pinterest.com. au/pin/333547916144184125/]) Fig. 48. The centrifugal form is more efficient at channelling water than the rectangular shape (Drawing by author, 2020) Fig. 49. Warka Water tower version 1.7, by Arturo Vittori (Photograph, [https://materialdistrict.com/ article/tower-potable-water-air/]) Fig. 50. A Kogi showing the lands memory of the Talado spring, Rio Gaira river (Photograph, Cultivating Water. 2019) Fig. 51. Map showing deforestation and the different indigenous territories in the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta region which has lost nearly all of its lowland primary forest. (Drawing by Author after Satellite data, Source: GLAD/UMD, accessed through Global Forest Watch. [https://imgs.mongabay.com/wp-content/uploads/sites/20/2 020/01/15164653/0115-santamarta-map. png])
Fig. 52. Deforestation in the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta, CiĂŠnaga Grande (Photograph, https://laotracara.co/destacados/la-deforestacion-y-ocupacion-dela-cienaga-grande-de-santa-marta/) Fig.53. Ecosystems in the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta (Drawing by author, 2020) Fig.54. The Kogi form of divination is reading the patterns of bubbles formed by hollow beads dropped into a gourd full of water. Fig. 55. Typical Kogi settlment in the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta Mountains (Photograph, Javier Pimentel [https:// www.flickr.com/photos/jpimentelc/35885635023]) Fig.56. Map showing the relationship between Santa Marta, Cienaga, Minca and the presence of fog (Drawing by author) Fig. 57. Diagram showing advection and orographic fog in the mountains (Drawing by author) Fig.58. Average rainfall Santa Marta, Colombia Drawing by author after [https://www. weather-col.com/en/colombia/santa-marta-climate]) Fig.59. Average temperature Santa Marta, Colombia Drawing by author after [https://www. weather-col.com/en/colombia/santa-marta-climate]) Fig.60. Wind Diagram 2012 -2109 Drawing by author after [https://windy. app/forecast2/spot/288562/Santa+Marta/ statistics]) 87
Fig. 61. Diagrammatic section through the frailejรณn (Drawing by author) Fig. 62. Diagrammatic section through the pรกramo wetland (Drawing by author) Fig. 63 Close up of the frailejรณn hairy surface (Photograph by author) Fig. 64. Cloud forest in San Lorenzo located on one of the hiking paths around the site (Photograph http://www.alpec.org/ AICA_San_Lorenzo.html?fbclid=IwAR358It6TIqQq3uHaz6cY4ePL-3kfJpbwKhfzJT682zrviMWfY7eLth0BXA) Fig. 65. Lakes within the mountain and the pรกramo ecosystem (Photograph [https://www.colombia.co/ visita-colombia/experiencias-unicas/5-lugares-ideales-para-acampar-en-colombia/]) Fig. 66. A backpacker experiencing the pรกramo ecosystem (Photograph [https://www.thetravel.com/ stunning-photos-travelers-colombia/]) Fig. 68. Backpacker hiking around the site. (Photograph, Jonathan Frakes, [shorturl. at/xOU39]) Fig. 69. Aerial view of the site (Photograph [https://stock.adobe.com/uk/ search/images?k=sierra+nevada+colombia&asset_id=257077346]) Fig 70. Site map of Minca (Drawing by author after [shorturl.at/ lmIQ9])
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Fig 71. Diagrammatic explanation showing the relationship between the size of the tree nursery size and the required size of the fog collector (Drawing by author) Fig.72. The fog collector hiding in plain sight upon approach (Drawing by author) Fig. 73. The open timber structure and the fog collector on the ground level. (Drawing by author) Fig. 74. The funnel of the fog collector descending into the meeting space (Drawing by author) Fig. 75. Overlooking the water stream (Drawing by author) Fig. 76. Approaching the building (Drawing by author) Fig. 77. Roof plan of the experimental centre (Drawing by author) Fig. 78. Funnel passing through the auditorium (Drawing by author) Fig. 78. Funnel passing through the auditorium (Drawing by author) Fig. 79. Funnel passing through the auditorium revealing the passage of water (Drawing by author) Fig. 80. Funnel ending midway through the space to create sounds of water trickling down. (Drawing by author)
Fig. 81. Water pools reflecting the sky and the frailejรณn (Drawing by author) Fig. 82. Plan showing how the interconnected pipes between the pools of water could work. (Drawing, [https://publicdelivery.org/ wp-content/uploads/2019/11/Junya-Ishigami-Water-Garden-2018-Nasu-Mountains-Tochigi-Prefecture-Japan-Pond-construction-details..jpg]) Fig. 83. Fig. 83. Section showing how the cistern could feed the pools (Drawing, Dreiseitl, H. and Grau, D., 2009, p.157) Fig. 84. Ceramic bowls with sit within some parts of the greenery to generate rhythms and patterns of motions (Drawing by author) Fig. 85. Sinkhole in the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta mountains (Photograph, Stephen Ferry, [https://www.nationalgeographic.com/ history/2019/11/indigenous-protectors-sacred-peaks-secret-until-now/])
Fig.89. Kogis with to so called mochila bags with symbols weaved into them. (Photograph, [https://documentaryweekly.com/ home/2019/10/7/the-kogi-an-ancienttribe-with-a-modern-message ]) Fig.90. Kogi and Arhuaco symbols and their meaning. (Diagrams, [https://www.behance.net/ gallery/56046043/Arhuaca]) Fig.91. View from the entrance of the visitor center with the roof wrapping around the cistern and inviting the visitors to embark upon a journey to discover what is hidden behind. (Drawing by author, 2020) Fig.92. Celebrating the water cistern: The spiritual aspects of water, nature and culture of the indigenous people is engraved into the water cistern through symbols. (Drawing by author, 2020) Fig.93. Channel leading to the tree nursery (Drawing by author, 2020)
Fig. 86. Seating area with pools of water (Drawing by author, 2020) Fig. 87. Overview of the water channels highlighting the spatial composition (Drawing by author, 2020) Fig.88. The channel guiding the visitor and users to experience the landscape (Drawing by author, 2020)
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