HC Fiddler- Fall 2017 vfinal by School of the Holy Child

The Fiddler and the Mermaid’s Purse

School of the Holy Child’s Guide to Cape Cod Fall 2017 Michael Clancy

The Fiddler and the Mermaid’s Purse School of the Holy Child’s Guide to Cape Cod Fall 2017 Michael Clancy

Contents Part 1: A Cape Cod Primer The Geography of Cape Cod Satellite photo of Cape Cod

Part 2: At Cape Cod 2

Before We Go

Safety Rules at Cape Cod

Chapter 1:

An Introduction to the Ocean

Chapter 2:

Understanding Tides

Chapter 3:

Ocean Waves and Currents

Chapter 4:

Cape Cod’s Weather

Chapter 5:

The Formation of Cape Cod

Chapter 6:

Marine Habitats

Chapter 7:

The Beach

Chapter 8:

The Salt Marsh

Chapter 9:

Marine Plants

Chapter 11: Whales Whale Chart

Woods Hole

Cape Cod Sea Camps 13

Whale Watch Journal Writing

17 21

Bibliography

35 39 45

On the Cover: Naiya Rookwood ’22 holds a fiddler crab. (Michael Clancy)

86 91 101

Notes and Drawings

Chapter 10: Marine Animals

103

Part 1: A Cape Cod Primerâ&#x20AC;Š

A common dolphin swims alongside our whale watching vessel. (Michael Clancy)

The Geography of Cape Cod 1. What type of land forma2on is Cape Cod? ___________________________________ 2. Use Google Maps to find out what bodies of water surround Cape Cod. Write the names of each in the boxes on the map. 3. People oBen describe Cape Cod as “an arm flexed at the elbow.” What town is found on the 2p of this elbow? ___________________________________ 4. Our first stop on our trip is Woods Hole. Label Woods Hole A. 5. We are staying at the Cape Cod Sea Camps in Brewster. Label the town of Brewster B. 6. We are scheduled to depart on a whale watch from Provincetown. Label Provincetown C.

â&#x20AC;Š

Sunglint on Cape Cod Bay as viewed from the International Space Station. (NASA Visible Earth)

Chapter 1: An Introduction to the Ocean

Earthrise (NASA)

“Suddenly, from behind the rim of the Moon, in long, slow-motion moments of immense majesty, there emerges a sparkling blue and white jewel, a light, delicate sky-blue sphere laced with slowly swirling veils of white, rising gradually like a small pearl in a thick sea of black mystery. It takes more than a moment to fully realize this is Earth … home.” --Astronaut Edgar Mitchell, Apollo 14

When Apollo 8 traveled to the Moon in December 1968, it marked the first time humans had viewed Earth in its entirety. Astronauts Jim Lovell, Frank Borman, and William Anders were struck by the magnificent panorama of color and bright clarity that filled the tiny window of their Apollo spacecraft. At one point, as they busily pinpointed and photographed various locations on the far side of the moon, they were distracted from their work by an electrifying sight: the Earth slowly rising from the bleached horizon of the moon. Anders grabbed his camera, quickly inserted color film, and took what became the iconic photograph shown at the previous page: Earthrise. For the astronauts, the Earth’s most dominant aspect was its oceans. Whatever name humans gave their home, it clearly deserved to be called the blue planet. If the Earth were the size of a basketball, the ocean would be a very thin film of water covering its surface. In fact, the ocean is a layer of water with an average depth of 2.3 miles on the surface of a sphere 8,000 miles in diameter. The Earth’s continents are not evenly distributed. Twothirds of its land area lies in the Northern Hemisphere, while the Southern Hemisphere contains 80 percent of the planet’s water. Today, the ocean covers 71 percent of the Earth. Traditionally, the ocean has been separated into what are called basins: the Atlantic, Pacific, Indian, and Arctic. The ocean is actually one large interconnecting system constantly mixed by winds, tide currents, waves, and upwellings from the ocean floor. Most humans live within a few hundred miles of the ocean. Twenty-three of the fifty United States are on the seacoast. Not including Alaska and Hawaii, the United States has nearly

Members of the Class of 2022 on the beach at Cape Cod Sea Camps. (Michael Clancy)

5,000 miles of shoreline. Florida accounts for 1,350 of these miles, while New Hampshire has only 18. (It should be noted that Alaska has more shoreline than the lower 48 states combined: 6,640 miles!) The shoreline of the eastern United States ranges from the rocky boreal coasts of Maine to the subtropical, Caribbean-influenced shore of the Florida Keys. Between these two extremes lie a variety of different marine habitats: salt marshes, sandy beaches, eel grass beds, and mangrove islands, to name a few. The ocean is a common link between these diverse shorelines and communities.

Sea Water Scientists believe that the oceans originated from water vapor that escaped from molten igneous rock early in the Earth’s history. Massive clouds of this vapor formed around the planet, and as the 6

A glass of water with one teaspoon of salt has approximately the same salt concentration, or salinity, as the ocean. The average salinity of the ocean is 35 parts per thousand (ppt). Exactly what does this mean? Think of it this way: If you have a large tank filled with 1,000 pounds of seawater, it will contain 35 pounds of salt, or 3.5 percent salt. The remaining 96.5 percent of sea water is pure H2O. The temperature of the ocean ranges from 12° Celsius (C) to over 30° C. Pure water freezes at 0° C (32° Fahrenheit) and boils at 100° C (212° Fahrenheit). When salt is added to water, the freezing point is lowered and the boiling point is raised. Sea water freezes at temperatures below -2° C, but the ice formed is nearly all fresh water. The salt is left behind, making the water under the ice very salty.

The Color of Water

Molly Trickett ’22 uses a Vernier LabQuest to measure the salinity of the salt marsh water. (Michael Clancy)

The blue coloring of the deep ocean is due to the scattering of light among the water molecules and is therefore similar to the color of the sky. The emptier the water, the bluer it appears, the bluest water containing little life of any kind. The deep-blue ocean is virtually a watery desert. On the other hand, greenish, murky ocean water, like that found along the northern stretches of the Atlantic and Pacific Coasts during the summer, is the result of an abundance of microscopic, single-celled plants called diatoms. Diatoms are tiny plant plankton, or phytoplankton, and they contain the green pigment chlorophyll, which is used for photosynthesis. Diatoms serve as food for many small creatures and even some of the larger fish like menhaden, and they give ocean water its characteristic greenish hue.

Earth’s surface temperature fell below the boiling point of water, it rained. Rain fell for many centuries and drained into great depressions in the Earth’s surface, taking with it mineral salts present on the land. This created the saltwater oceans. Since then, the oceans continue to get saltier due to gradual processes such as erosion of the land, the wearing down of mountains, and the dissolving action of rain and streams. These processes carry minerals to the sea. Sodium and chlorine, two elements that make up common table salt, make up 85 percent of the dissolved salts in ocean water (along with magnesium sulphate, or Epsom salt, they give it its distinctive taste). Sea salt, however, carries every natural element—more than 100 different chemical elements.

Ocean Pollution

one-third of the shellfish-growing waters of the United States are adversely affected by coastal pollution.

The Earth’s oceans are vast, and it would appear difficult for humans to have an adverse effect on them. Unfortunately, the oceans are suffering from increased pollution that is harming marine organisms and their habitats. Eighty percent of marine pollution comes from the land, the result of what is called runoff. Small sources such as septic tanks, cars, and boats, plus larger sources such as farms and ranches, produce wastes that make their way to the sea. Air pollution can also contribute to water pollution when it settles into waterways and oceans. In addition, top soil or silt from fields or construction sites can run off into waterways, harming fish and wildlife habitat. It is estimated that more than

What can you do to help save the ocean? Check out National Geographic’s web site at: http://ocean.nationalgeographic.com/ocean/take-action/10things-you-can-do-to-save-the-ocean/

Fun Fact for Parties and Dances: Life on Earth began in the ocean 3.1 to 3.4 billion years ago. Land dwellers appeared approximately 400 million years ago, relatively recently in geologic time.

Questions 1. How much of the Earth’s surface is covered by oceans? 2. How were the Earth’s oceans formed 3. Approximately 96.5 percent of sea water is pure water. What makes up the remaining 3.5 percent? 4. When we visit Cape Cod, you will observe that the ocean appears greenish-blue. Water in the Caribbean Sea, however, tends to be deep blue. Why are they different? Students from the Class of 2021 get up close and personal with a hungry dogfish at the Marine Resources Building in Woods Hole. (Michael Clancy)

Chapter 2: Understanding Tides

Picasaweb.google.com

â&#x20AC;&#x153;I derive from the celestial phenomena the forces of gravity with which bodies tend to the Sun and several planets. Then from these forces, by other propositions which are also mathematical, I deduce the motions of the planets, the comets, the Moon, and the sea.â&#x20AC;? ---Sir Isaac Newton Philosophy of Natural Mathematical Principles (1686) 9

In 1687, Sir Isaac Newton, the great English scientist and mathematician, proposed his law of universal gravitation. It was only after this that the effects of the Sun and Moon on the Earth’s tides were fully understood. The tide is the daily (diurnal) rising and falling of the surface of the ocean and connected bodies of water, such as bays, inlets, and gulfs. Tides are caused by the gravitational attraction between the Earth, Sun, and Moon. All surfaces of the Earth are pulled toward the Moon and Sun. (The Earth pulls on the surfaces of the Moon and Sun as well.) However, the land surface is not flexible, while the surface of the ocean is. The Moon has a stronger influence on the tides than the Sun because the Moon is closer to Earth. Thus, the observable tidal cycle is based on a lunar day rather than a solar day. As the Moon rotates around the Earth, tidal “bulges” are created. Water underneath the Moon is pulled toward it, forming a bulge. This bulge is actually a large wave that moves across the Earth. Even the open ocean has tides. High tide is most noticeable to us as the bulge reaches land and piles up. Between bulges, low tides occur. Tides occur roughly 50 minutes later each day because it takes the Moon 24 hours and 50 minutes to rotate around the Earth. Although the Sun is much larger than the Moon and should pull on the Earth with a greater force, it is also much farther away, so its tide-generating force is about half that of the Moon. Roughly twice each month, the Moon and Sun are aligned on either the same side of the Earth (new Moon) or on opposite sides of the Earth (full Moon). During these times, the tidegenerating forces of the Sun and Moon are combined, creating one big bulge. At this time, the high tides are very high, and the low tides are very low. Extreme high tides and extreme low

Spring tides and neap tides are determined by the positions of the Sun and Moon (bayoffundy.com)

tides are called spring tides because the coastal waters appear to spring, or accelerate, back up the beach after a low tide. A new-Moon tide is the highest of all because the Sun and the Moon are on the same side of the Earth. During the Moon’s quarter phases, the alignment of the Earth, Sun, and Moon forms a right angle, causing the bulges to cancel each other. This is known as neap tide. 10

The shoreline, like all of nature’s ecosystems, has specific zones, which are discussed later in greater detail. The area between the high and low tide lines is called the intertidal zone. The area above the high tide line is called the spray zone; the area below the low tide line is called the subtidal zone. You can explore the subtidal zone when the tide is relatively low. To better understand the role the sun and moon play in tides on Earth, visit the NOAA Ocean Service Education website: oceanser vice.noaa.gov/education/kits/tides/media/ supp_tide06a.html

Questions

Class of 2022 students take advantage of the low tide to search for intertidal organisms. (Michael Clancy)

1. Tides are the result of gravitational forces between what three objects?

Tidal cycles on Cape Cod occur twice a day (semidiurnal), meaning that there is a pattern of two high tides and two low tides every 24 hours and six minutes. Because the tides are so closely related to the Moon’s cycle and gravitational pull, tidal cycles occur 50 minutes later each day, a fact you can confirm by looking at local tide charts. Knowing the tide cycle is important for our trip; when planning to explore the tidal flats in Brewster, we want to schedule this activity during low tide.

2. If a high tide occurs at noon on Tuesday, at what time will the same high tide occur on Wednesday? Why does this happen? 3. What is the difference between a spring tide and a neap tide? What causes each? 4. Define intertidal zone.

Fun Fact for Parties and Dances:

5. If the gravity of the Sun and Moon causes tides in the Earth’s oceans, do you think there are tides in a lake? Is there a tide in a glass of water?

The highest tides in the world are found in the Bay of Fundy, which separates New Brunswick from Nova Scotia. At certain times of year, the difference between high and low tide is nearly 54 feet!

Chapter 3: Waves and Currents

A humpback whale surfaces in calm water near Stellwagen Bank. (Michael Clancy)

“Let the most absent-minded of men be plunged in his deepest reveries—stand that man on his legs, set his feet a-going, and he will infallibly lead you to water, if water there be in all that region.” ---Herman Melville Moby Dick

Waves form as a result of friction between the winds and the surface of the water. As they travel over water, winds transfer some of their energy to the water. The size of a wave depends on three factors: The distance along open water over which the wind blows, called the “fetch.” The strength of the wind. The amount of time the wind blows over the water. As a wave approaches the shore, its “bottom” comes in contact with the slope of the submerged portion of the beach. The front of the wave is slowed, but the back continues to move forward at a greater speed, forcing the wave to pile up on itself and increase its height. Eventually, the back of the wave overtakes the front, causing the wave to crest into what is called a breaker. The wave has literally tripped on the beach! The wrack line. (Michael Clancy)

But the energy transfer doesn’t stop there. The breaker creates a rush of water, called a swash, that flows up the slope of the beach until it slows down and stops. It deposits on the beach any material it was carrying, such as seaweed, in a row of marine debris called the wrack line or tidal wrack. Most of the water then sinks into the sand, while the rest flows back down the slope. This is called the backwash. The swash and backwash push sand, gravel, and rocks up and down the slope of the beach. The action of waves changes the shape of the beach daily; one day the beach may be covered with sand, and several days later the same beach may be partially covered with pebbles and rocks.

Breakers, swash, and backwash. (yourgeographyandhistoryworld.blogspot.com)

abundance of life in surface waters by promoting the growth of microscopic algae, which form the base of most food chains in the ocean. Currents also helped prehistoric peoples from Africa and Europe travel to the New World and the Pacific Ocean islands. Two current systems influence the waters off of Cape Cod. The Labrador Current begins in the Arctic Ocean and flows southward into the Atlantic, bringing cold water to the area. The Gulf Stream is a powerful current that originates in the Gulf of Mexico and brings warm water northward.

Fun Fact for Parties and Dances: The Gulf Stream moves one hundred times as much water as all the rivers on Earth. Ocean waves stir the sand on Marconi Beach, Cape Cod. (Michael Clancy)

To learn more about oceans, visit Oceans Alive! at: www.mos.org/oceans

Currents Ocean waters are always in motion. Ocean currents are masses of ocean water that flow from one place to another. They can be found near the surface and deep below. Surface currents are due mostly to wind, but rain, evaporation, tides, river runoff, and the shape of the land beneath the sea all affect the movement of ocean water. Huge current systems dominate the surfaces of the major oceans. These currents transfer heat from warmer to cooler areas of the Earth, just as the major wind belts of the world do. Currents have a huge effect on ocean life, especially organisms that live in the deep sea, where currents provide a continuing supply of oxygen. Ocean currents influence the

Questions 1. Distinguish between waves and currents. 2. List and describe the three factors that determine the size of a wave. 3. What causes waves to break near the shore? 4. How do waves help shape a beach? 5. Name the two major current systems that affect the waters off Cape Cod. Where do they come from and what kind of water do they bring?

Chapter 4: Cape Cod’s Weather

The Wood End Lighthouse in Provincetown. Can you identify the clouds in this photo? See page 19 for help. (Michael Clancy)

“Thrust forth as it is into the outer Atlantic, the Cape has a climate of island quality and island moderation. Low temperatures may occur, but the thermometer almost never falls as low as it does on the inner Massachusetts coast, nor do 'spells' of cold weather 'hang on' for any length of time.” ---Henry Beston The Outermost House 17

Although the distance from Boston to Cape Cod is a mere 71 miles, you would be wise to ignore any weather forecasts from Beantown. The weather at these two locations is very different. Because the Cape Cod peninsula is cradled on all sides by water, it is insulated against many weather extremes that characterize the rest of Massachusetts. During the summer for example, the waters of Cape Cod Bay, Nantucket Sound, and the Atlantic Ocean provide a large evaporation pool. This adds moisture to the air, increasing humidity. As this moisture condenses, clouds form. Clouds are frequent on the Cape from May through July. Most of Cape Cod’s weather patterns are caused by the two major ocean currents discussed in Chapter 2. The Gulf Stream is a 50-mile-wide flow of warm water traveling north up the Atlantic Coast. This warms Martha’s Vineyard, Nantucket, and the southeastern part of Cape Cod. When this warm water comes in contact with the surrounding cooler lands and seas, swirling fogs are created. A second current, the Labrador Current, is a cold, dense mass of water that flows south from the polar ice caps near Greenland. This Arctic water lowers the temperature on the bay side of Cape Cod dramatically. The Cape’s weather is constantly modified and moderated by the ocean. During the summer, cool ocean breezes keep the temperature lower than the rest of New England. In the winter, the ocean breezes keep Cape Cod warmer. The weather in Cape Cod is unpredictable and can vary from one town to the next. On a typical summer day, it can be sunny and beautiful in Provincetown but foggy in Brewster and muggy in Hyannis. In general, Cape Cod benefits from the warming effects of the ocean in the winter and its cooling effects in the summer. Why? Water absorbs and releases heat

The late afternoon sky at at Cape Cod Sea Camps. What types of clouds are present? (Michael Clancy)

energy much slower than land does. Thus, in the summer the cooler waters surrounding Cape Cod serve to cool the peninsula while the mainland heats up. In the winter, the mainland loses heat quickly while the ocean water does not, providing Cape Cod with relatively mild weather. This permits animals and 18

plants native to warmer southern climes to thrive in a region that would be too cold, under normal conditions, for them to survive. One example of this is the cattle egret. Best known as a bird of southern cow pastures, it has extended its territory north to Cape Cod. A second example is opuntia, a cactus with yellow blooms that is not found growing wild in inner Massachusetts or most of northern New England, but is common on the Cape. During your stay in Cape Cod, you may notice that the air is usually calm in the morning. As the day progresses, the wind will increase as the sun heats the land faster than it heats the surrounding water. The same conditions may result in an early morning fog that will burn off during the day. Cape Cod, like most of the United States, is located in the prevailing southwesterlies. What does this mean? The direction of wind is measured in terms of where the air is coming from. In this case, the wind blows air from the southwest to the northeast. Prevailing refers to the wind that blows most frequently across a particular area.

interactive.usc.edu

Clouds

Altocumulus: Thick, blue-gray blanket-like clouds made of ice and water at middle heights. These clouds indicate that rain or snow is likely.

Clouds are an excellent indication of the weather you will experience on a given day or the next day. Here is a brief description of some clouds and their related weather:

Cumulonimbus: Giant thunderhead clouds that tower to great heights. They indicate that thunderstorms with heavy rain, hail, winds, and lightning are on the way.

Cumulus: Puffy, white lower clouds that usually indicate good weather. During the summer, they can grow into thunderheads.

Cirrus: Thin, high, wispy clouds that usually mean the day will proceed without weather-related problems. However, if wispy â&#x20AC;&#x153;horsetailsâ&#x20AC;? gradually turn into a thin sheet of clouds, be prepared for some rain during the next 24 hours.

Stratocumulus: Dark, heavy water droplet clouds at low or lower-middle heights. They signal that rain or snow is likely.

Stratus: A low, flat sheet of clouds. Light rain, drizzle, or flurries are likely. At best, it will be overcast. 19

Fun Fact for Parties and Dances: Luke Howard, a British scientist, first classified clouds in 1802. He identified three basic shapes: cumulus (heap), stratus (layer), and cirrus (curl), names we still use today.

The Night Sky We can take advantage of the excellent viewing conditions at Cape Cod Sea Camps to look at the Milky Way and the circumpolar constellations. If the night is clear, join us on the beach as we lie beneath the stars. iPad apps such as Luminos, Star Chart, and Sky Guide are useful tools for viewing and identifying celestial objects. Can you find the Big Dipper, the Little Dipper, and the North Star?

We plan to use iPads to explore the heavens during our trip. (Sky Guide)

Questions 1. How do the Gulf Stream and Labrador Current influence weather on Cape Cod? 2. How is the direction of the wind measured? If you are experiencing a northwesterly wind, what does that mean? 3. If we wake up one morning at Cape Cod and see stratus clouds, how should we dress for the day ahead? 4. On a separate sheet of paper, make a sketch of the six types of clouds and label them. Briefly describe what each cloud type indicates. Christinamarie Nelson and Naiya Rookwood â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;22 enjoy an evening of stargazing on the beach at Cape Cod Sea Camps. (Michael Clancy)

Chapter 5: The Formation of Cape Cod

Amélie Kinsey, Ashley Clemens, Brianna Mahon, and Colette Travers ’22 take a break in the salt marsh in Wellfleet, Massachusetts. (Michael Clancy)

“Like all accounts of history, the early geologic story of the Cape and the Islands is uncertain and incomplete, but becomes clearer, more complete, more certain as present time is approached. However, even the geologic history of the past 20,000 years is not yet, and probably never will be, completely understood.” ---Robert Oldale Cape Cod, Martha’s Vineyard, and Nantucket: The Geologic Story

Cape Cod is a sandy peninsula jutting into the Atlantic Ocean at approximately 42 degrees north latitude and 70 degrees west longitude. Directions are often given to visitors by imagining Cape Cod as a flexed arm. The camp in Brewster in which we will stay is located in the crook of the “elbow.” Most of the landscape that we see there today owes its origin to the last glacial period of New England. The last continental ice sheet in North America formed during the Wisconsin glacial stage and is called the Laurentide, named after the Laurentian, or St. Lawrence, region of Canada where it formed. Cape Cod’s geologic history involves the advance and retreat of this huge ice sheet, which was more than a mile thick in some places. The continental ice sheet last advanced across the area about 23,000 years ago—a mere tick of the clock in geologic terms!— covering the land in glaciers. As the ice sheet pushed down from the north, it acted like a giant bulldozer, pushing great quantities of material into large piles at its front end. These piles are known as terminal moraines and show the southernmost extent of the ice sheet. Two familiar moraines are Long Island and Cape Cod. As the global climate began to warm a few thousand years later, the ice sheet began to retreat rapidly as melting at the glacier’s edge exceeded the rate of ice advance. By roughly 18,000 years ago, it had retreated away from Cape Cod and into the Gulf of Maine, which lies to the east and north of the Cape. This retreat of the ice from Nantucket and Martha’s Vineyard to a position north of Cape Cod may have taken only a few thousand years. By 12,000 years ago, the ice had retreated from the Gulf of Maine and all of southern New England. Unusually well-protected blocks of ice remained unmelted long after the main part of the glacier had retreated. As the

Cape Cod was formed by three lobes of ice that deposited sediment.

climate steadily grew warmer, these ice blocks melted as well, leaving holes known as kettles that ultimately filled with water. Today, the 300 or so of these holes are known as kettle ponds. Across the street from Cape Cod Sea Camps, Nickerson State Park is home to several kettle ponds. Early accounts and recent research suggest that Cape Cod was originally characterized by dense forests, with few large sandy beach areas. Beech, ash, red maple, and hemlock grew in the lowlands; oaks, pitch pine, and white pine grew on the ridges. Cranberry bogs nestled in low valleys, protected from the salty air. Native peoples lived on Cape Cod for more than 3,000 years. They hunted game, gathered nuts and berries from the 22

To learn more about the formation of Cape Cod, visit the United States Geological Survey at:

forests, and harvested fish and shellfish from saltwater marshes. The Pamet Indians, who inhabited Cape Cod when Europeans arrived, farmed the land to raise corn and squash. With the exception of man-made features, all of the features you observe on Cape Cod are the result of the forces of nature acting on the materials left here 12,000 years ago. As you spend time on Cape Cod, keep in mind that every inch of land you walk on was pushed there by glaciers.

http://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/capecod/index.html

Brianna Mahon and Lizzie Kelly ’22 empty water from their boots on the beach at Cape Cod Sea Camps. (Michael Clancy)

Questions 1. How did glaciers form Cape Cod? 2. Define terminal moraine. 3. How are kettle ponds formed? 4. In high school, Mr. Clancy’s nickname on the track team was “Glacier.” Is this a compliment or an insult? Why?

Ice from glaciers like this one in Alaska helped form many land features of Cape Cod. (Michael Clancy)

Chapter 6: Marine Habitats

Diamondback terrapins are the only turtles found in the salt marshes of Cape Cod. Salt marshes are critical areas for turtles to find food and to hibernate in winter, and they serve as nurseries for terrapin young. (Michael Clancy)

â&#x20AC;&#x153;Like the sea itself, the shore fascinates us who return to it, the place of our dim ancestral beginnings. The edge of the sea is a strange and beautiful place, and it always remains an elusive and indefinable boundary.â&#x20AC;? ---Rachel Carson The Edge of the Sea 25

The coasts are the most dynamic of the ocean habitats. The challenge here is to survive change--extreme change. The habitats found on Cape Cod vary according to their distance from the shore and whether the land is on the windward (facing the wind) or leeward (sheltered from the wind) side of the prevailing winds. Factors that play important roles in determining the types of life that will be found in a given area are wind, salt spray, availability of fresh water, and nutrients in the soil. The presence of life forms in different parts of the ocean varies primarily based on the movement of the water. The pounding surf on the ocean side limits the numbers and diversity of the life forms. On the bay side, with its relatively calm, warm waters, you will find an abundance of life.

The fiddler crab is quite active during low tide in the salt marsh intertidal zone. (Michael Clancy)

The Intertidal Zone

marsh, for example, must tolerate this mixture of river and seawater, called brackish water. On the beach, the intertidal zone is readily apparent by looking at the wrack line, which is a distinct band made up of coarse brown seaweeds, debris, and driftwood. The high tide wrack line is the farthest up the beach; when examined patiently and carefully, it can reveal a number of sheltered organisms. The intertidal zone is itself divided into three areas: the low tide zone, located nearest the water, the middle tide zone, and the high tide zone. Clams, sea stars, and crabs are most frequently found in the low tide zone. In the middle tide zone, you will find bristle worms and ghost shrimp. Beach hoppers are most likely to be seen in the wrack line of the high tide zone.

One of the main areas of the seashore that you will investigate during our trip is the intertidal zone. This is the area that is found between the low-tide line and the high-tide line. The area can include several different types of habitats; the two we will focus on are tidal flats, which we will find at Cape Cod Sea Camps, and the salt marsh, which we will explore at the Audubon Wildlife Refuge in Wellfleet. Organisms in the intertidal zone endure harsh extremes. They must be able to survive desiccation, or drying out, during low tide and the incoming current at high tide. In addition, they are able to withstand changes in the makeup of the water, which varies depending on the amount of salt from the ocean and freshwater from rain and rivers. Plants and animals in the salt 26

The intertidal zone is harder to locate in a salt marsh, as there is rarely a wrack line present to identify it. However, since few plants can tolerate the brackish water in a salt marsh, look for the two that canâ&#x20AC;&#x201D;Spartina alterniflora and Spartina patens â&#x20AC;&#x201D;in order to identify the zone. Both are discussed in Chapter 8.

Ocean Zonation The ocean can be divided into many zones. The ocean bottom is called the benthic zone and the water itself (called the water column) is the pelagic zone. The neritic zone is that part of the pelagic zone that extends from the high tide line to

Jellyfish are a type of zooplankton that both drift in the ocean and have some swimming ability. (Michael Clancy)

an ocean bottom less than 600 feet deep. Water deeper than 600 feet is known as the oceanic zone. Over 200,000 different types of plants and animals live in the ocean. These marine organisms have the same four basic needs as organisms that live on land: water, food, air, and a place to live. Compared to the relatively unstable conditions on land, the ocean satisfies these four needs more uniformly because it is a more stable environment. Marine organisms live surrounded by water, which provides them with food, air, and support for their bodies. Compared with food on land, the food supply in the ocean is relatively dependable. Plants in the water grow year round, since water temperature changes are usually not extreme.

Ocean zonation (images.com)

Animals that cannot swim or crawl to obtain food can filter it out of the water as it flows by. Water also supports the bodies of organisms living in it. Because of the buoyant force of water, animals living in the ocean are nearly weightless. Little energy is used fighting gravity. Their bodies are designed with buoyancy in mind; a streamlined shark that appears imposing in the ocean resembles a somewhat shapeless blob out of the water that can be crushed by its own weight. The availability of shelter also plays an important role in the distribution of marine life. Areas with many nooks and crannies, such as rocky shores and coral reefs, attract organisms that need places to attach or hide.

plants and animals are known as plankton. Organisms that live on or in the ocean bottom, such as seaweeds and clams, are called the benthos. Strong-swimming animals that live in the open water, such as whales, squid, and adult fish, are called the nekton. Letâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s take a closer look. Plankton (Floaters) Plankton may be primitive single-celled organisms or complex multicellular plants or animals. All types of plankton are at the mercy of the currents, waves, and tides for transportation. Most of the organic matter in the ocean is plankton, and nearly all other marine creatures depend on it in some way as a source of food. Plant plankton, also known as phytoplankton, need to be near the surface where light is available for photosynthesis. Most animal plankton, also known as zooplankton, also need to be near the surface in order to feed on the phytoplankton. Phytoplankton are usually made up of single-celled algae such as diatoms. They are important producers and form the base of the marine food chain. Through photosynthesis, they manufacture their own food and release oxygen into the water. Scientists estimate that 80 percent of the oxygen on Earth is produced by phytoplankton. There are two categories of zooplankton. Species that spend their entire lives in a floating state are called holoplankton. Examples of holoplankton range from the microscopic protozoa you viewed under a microscope in class to the ocean sunfish, an ungainly animal that often floats with the current. Temporary zooplankton, such as eggs and larvae, are known as meroplankton. Meroplankton exist as plankton for only a

Lifestyles of Marine Organisms Marine life can be divided into three categories based on lifestyles of the organisms. Small floating or feebly-swimming

Krill are tiny holoplankton that are a primary food source for whales. (commons.wikimedia.org)

limited part of their development; later they become part of the nekton or benthos. Being planktonic for part of their lives allows these organisms to spread into new areas. The larvae of crabs and lobsters exist as plankton. Benthos (Bottom Dwellers) Plants and animals living on or in the ocean bottom are called benthos. The majority of benthic animals live in water of depths less than 600 feet because of the availability of food there. The larvae of benthic animals are an extremely important part of the meroplankton. It is estimated that 75 percent of the types of benthic invertebrates have a planktonic larval stage. Each animal may produce millions of eggs each year, but only Common dolphins are part of the nekton. (Michael Clancy)

one or two will survive into adulthood. Most will be eaten before settling to the bottom. Nekton (Swimmers) All animals that are capable of swimming powerfully make up the nekton. These animals are usually streamlined and move at speeds which make them independent of ocean currents. Nektonic creatures may begin as plankton; most fish have planktonic eggs or larvae. Examples of nekton are adult fish, marine mammals, and marine reptiles. When you go ocean swimming, you become nekton, too! Squid and octopi are the only invertebrates (animals without backbones) that are strong enough swimmers to be considered nekton.

Ashley Clemens â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;22 hums to a common periwinkle she found in the salt marsh. Why is she doing this? (Michael Clancy)

miles between their winter homes off the coast of Central America to their feeding grounds in Antarctic waters.â&#x20AC;Š

Fun Fact for Parties and Dances: Over 200 million tons of phytoplankton grow in our oceans every year. Thatâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s 10 times the weight of the human population. They are responsible for up to 80% of our oxygen supply.

Questions Measuring up to 85 feet, finback whales rank among the largest nekton in the ocean. (Michael Clancy)

1. What is the intertidal zone? 2. What conditions do organisms that live in the intertidal zone have to endure?

Although nekton seem capable of moving freely, they are unable to move throughout the entire ocean. Changes in water temperature and salinity, along with the availability of food, limit their range. Fish such as the common or striped mummichog, which you may catch during your field work at the Audubon Wildlife Refuge, spend their entire lives in the shallow waters of salt marshes, estuaries, and bays. Other organisms, such as the humpback whale, travel more than 5,000

3. What is brackish water? 4. Why is the ocean generally considered a more stable environment than environments on land? 5. List and describe the three lifestyles of marine organisms. 6. Distinguish between meroplankton and holoplankton.

Fun Fact for Parties and Dances:

7. Research the ocean sunfish, or Mola mola. Find a photo of it. Why is this fish considered planktonic by some researchers?

A mouthful of seawater may contain hundreds of thousands of phytoplankton and tens of thousands of zooplankton!

Chapter 7: The Beach

Ava Mogavero and Meg Bigelow ‘22 wade into the surf at Coast Guard Beach. (Michael Clancy)

“The beach calls to those seeking solitude or a brief respite from the struggles of life. It’s a place to go where you can put problems aside and be refreshed by salt air and sea breezes. The beach is a curious place, for it is one of contrasts. It is the same, yet it is always changing; it belongs both to the land and the sea. The sea both caresses the beach and unmercifully assaults it.” ---Elizabeth Lawlor At The Seashore 31

When people think of Cape Cod, they generally think of the beach. Sandy beaches make up most of the Cape’s habitat. Sand is the most familiar characteristic of the beach; however, while most beaches may look the same from a distance, there are differences. Sand from Long Island’s south shore, for example, appears tan due to the presence of feldspar and glistening quartz grains. In contrast, many beaches in Florida are white, the result of crushed coral and shells. When you look closely at sand, what you see depends in large part on where you are, because sand is not one thing, but many substances mixed together. In all sand you will see individual grains in a variety of shapes, sizes, and colors. In Cape Cod, these tiny particles, some millions of years old, have been eroded from granite and igneous rock. Ninety percent of these grains are quartz, the result of the weathering of granite left here by glaciers. Quartz is very hard (Moh’s Scale of 7); it is the principal mineral of the Earth’s crust and the main component of New England. Since it is so plentiful and virtually indestructible, it has become the main ingredient of the sandy beaches that line the northeastern and mid-Atlantic coastlines. The remaining 10 percent of Cape Cod sand is made up of sparkling mica, greenish-black hornblende, and purple garnet. If you run a magnet through the sand, you may also remove bits of dark magnetite and ilmenite, which are ironbearing minerals found in some igneous and metamorphic rocks. How did these minerals become sand? By definition, rocks are collections of minerals. Two processes, weathering and abrasion, slowly turned these collections of mineral matter into sand. During mechanical weathering, physical forces act on rock. For example, pressure caused by the rapid freezing and

thawing of water that seeps into cracks in rocks causes pieces of rock to break off. Another example of mechanical weathering is observed when the roots of trees snake into crevices, splitting rock. Abrasion occurs as flakes, chips, and chunks of rock enter streams and rivers. Pieces of rock are eroded by tumbling and grinding against boulders that line the stream bed. Most sand found on the beaches in New England was carried to the ocean by rivers such as the Merrimack in Massachusetts. Wind, waves, and currents are constantly moving the beach sand from one location to another. They can carry a load of sand gathered from the ocean floor or from an area of the

Yudelkis Cueva ‘22 records observations in her field guide at Cape Cod Sea Camps. (Michael Clancy)

beach. This weathering is unrelenting and changes the face of Cape Cod daily. By consulting maps, you can see which parts of Cape Cod are losing material and which parts are gaining material. The prime movers of this material are the longshore currents, which run parallel to the beaches. Each receding wave carries away sand and deposits it elsewhere. If the amount of sand deposited is equal to the amount of sand taken away, then the beach will remain unchanged. However, this perfect balance rarely occurs; thus, a beach is almost always shrinking or growing. Storms dramatically speed up this process. A storm thousands of miles out to sea contains a tremendous amount of energy that is released when its waves arrive at the shore. Communities near beaches often spend a great deal of time and

money trying to stop this cycle of erosion and deposition by building barriers and rock jetties, but a look at the history of our coastlines clearly shows that these structures only serve to delay the inevitable process of change.

Fun Fact for Parties and Dances: According to a study from the University of Hawaii, there are approximately seven quintrillion, five quadrillion grains of sand on all the beaches in the world (that’s a 75 with 17 zeros behind it; i.e., 7,500,000,000,000,000,000). If you think that’s a big number, consider that astronomers have postulated that there are 100 stars in the universe for every grain of sand on Earth’s beaches. The next time you’re on the beach, run those numbers through your head; it makes our little planet (and us) seem pretty insignificant, doesn’t it?

Questions 1. How is sand found on the beaches of Cape Cod different from sand found in Florida? 2. What minerals make up the sand found in Cape Cod? Which of these minerals is most abundant? 3. Describe the two processes that turn minerals into sand. 4. What three forces work to shape a beach?

Avery Lange, Willa Sarcone, and Christinamarie Nelson ‘22 search for organisms on the flats during low tide. (Michael Clancy)

Chapter 8: The Salt Marsh

Christinamarie Nelson, Avery Lange, and Naiya Rookwood ’22 examine a mud snail they found in the salt marsh. (Michael Clancy)

A closer look---the beginning of participation---reveals that a salt marsh is more than dominant swaths of grass.” ---Richard LeBlond A Guide to Nature on Cape Cod and the Islands

find huge fields of Spartina patens in salt marshes; during the summer, it has purple flowers at the top of its blades.

The salt marsh is a bridge between the open ocean, with its salt water and waves, and the quiet, fresh water inland. Protected by a barrier beach, the salt marsh is the most productive habitat in the world. But the marsh environment is hostile to a land plant, as its roots are required to be almost constantly in contact with salty water and its leaves may be submerged in a salt water bath. Twice each day the tide carries water from the ocean into the marsh to mix with fresh water from the streams surrounding it. Also twice each day, parts of the salt marsh are exposed during low tide. Even with these extremes of moisture, salinity, and temperature, the waters of the estuary contain an incredible diversity of plants and animals. As you look out over the salt marsh, be sure to notice the grasses that are so important to this area. Salt marsh grasses must have strong stems to withstand the tides and must also have a method for getting rid of excess salt. They provide homes for many animals, help clean the water of pollutants, and trap sediment. These are special grasses! There are two main types of salt marsh grasses:

These young diamondback terrapins will burrow into the matted Spartina patens for protection from predators. (Michael Clancy)

Why Salt Marshes Matter

Spartina alterniflora grows to 1.2 to 1.5 meters (4 or 5 feet). It is found in the lower parts of the marsh and lines the waterâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s edge. Also called salt marsh cordgrass, it grows closely together in groups in the mud of marshes or saltwater riverbanks.

Salt marshes form the base of an intricate food web. They serve as a nursery and spawning area for hundreds of animals. In addition, salt marshes shield and protect coastal shorelines from storms by reducing the force of waves and holding sediment in place with their strong root systems. Salt marshes also improve the quality of sea water by filtering out sediments, nutrients, and other pollutants. Sadly, it is estimated that 50 percent of our salt marshes over the past 200 years have been destroyed, and many of the remaining ones are affected by human activities. While many of

Spartina patens grows to about 0.7 meters (2 feet). Thinner than Spartina alterniflora, it is found in the higher parts of the marsh. It is also known as salt meadow cordgrass and has a tousled appearance, much like unkempt hair. You can 36

these marshes appear small and insignificant, even narrow ones that fringe the shoreline provide a vital habitat for fish and wildlife. They serve as nursery areas and spawning grounds for two-thirds of all fish caught commercially in the United States. Richer than the most fertile farmland, salt marshes are the largest producer of food per acre anywhere on Earth, averaging 10 tons of organic material per acre each year. Small changes to our remaining salt marshes have cumulative effects that degrade and threaten these treasured resources. For example, many salt marshes are polluted by substances from storm drains, nearby lawns, and road runoff. If you live near a salt

marsh, you enjoy a special privilege; it is your responsibility to protect it. â&#x20AC;Š

Fun Fact for Parties and Dances: You will probably know when you are getting close to a salt marsh because it will smell like rotten eggs. This odor is caused by hypoxia (low oxygen level). Class of 2022 students experiment with a model of a salt marsh prior to their trip. (Michael Clancy)

Questions 1. Why is the salt marsh environment considered hostile to most plants? 2. Name the two types of salt marsh grasses and briefly describe each. 3. What important functions do salt marshes serve? 4. If humans were to destroy all salt marshes on the planet, what would be the result? This bird finds protection in the tall salt marsh grass. (Michael Clancy)

Chapter 9: Marine Plants

The Class of 2021 assembles between the dunes at Coast Guard Beach in Eastham. Beach grass plays a vital role in stabilizing dunes. (Michael Clancy)

â&#x20AC;&#x153;Cape Cod is anchored to the heavens, as it were, by myriad little cables of beach grass, and if they should fail, would become a total wreck and erelong go to the bottom.â&#x20AC;? ---Henry David Thoreau Cape Cod

The ocean is home to spectacular gardens of plants, commonly called seaweed. Marine animals need seaweed just as land animals need land plants; seaweed provides food and shelter. On land, there are many varieties of flowering, or vascular, plants. Recall that vascular means these plants have tubes that move water and nutrients up and down the plant. Vascular plants have true leaves, stems, roots, and flowers. There are relatively few flowering plants in the ocean, common exceptions being marine grasses and mangrove trees. Most marine plants are called algae. They have no roots, stems, leaves, or flowers, though they have structures that appear similar. Phytoplankton are free-floating and usually single-celled algae. While they are often microscopic in size, their numbers are vast, and they produce up to 80 percent of the oxygen in the Earthâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s atmosphere. Phytoplankton produce their own food and form the base of the ocean food chain. Animal life depends on algae as its primary food source. For example, phytoplankton are eaten by tiny krill, which in turn are eaten by huge baleen whales. While single-celled phytoplankton play a vital role in the Earthâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s ecology, most algae are multicellular and easy to see.

common near the shore, in the intertidal zone, and in shallow water. Most green seaweeds are attached plants; they are fixed to an object or the ground by a structure called a holdfast. A holdfast may look like a root, but it has a different function: to anchor the plant. It does not absorb water or nutrients like roots do. You will see many kinds of plants during your hikes of the salt marshes, beaches, and tidal flats of Cape Cod. Here are a few to search for and identify.

On the Shore Sea Lettuce (Ulva lactaca)

Sea lettuce is a bright green algae that grows near or below the low-tide mark. It has flat, thin leaves that are ruffled on the edges. It has the feel of wet wax paper. Sea lettuce is edible

Types of Algae Alga is the Latin word for seaweed, which makes sense because all seaweeds are algae. Seaweeds that grow near the surface of the water are green. (Brown, red, and purple seaweeds are found in deeper, colder water.) Green seaweeds come in a variety of shapes: thin strands, sheets, cylinders, and spheres. Since they need sunlight to produce food, they are

Sea lettuce (Michael Clancy)

and is sometimes added to salads or dried and powdered for use as a seasoning. Rockweeds

Those large, slippery brown seaweeds that grow in dense beds along the Atlantic coast are known as rockweeds. They contain structures called air bladders, jellybean-sized floats that act like water wings to keep the seaweed afloat on the surface of the water. This allows the plant to get enough sunlight for photosynthesis. Rockweeds secrete a slimy substance that keeps them from drying out during low tide, but this substance also makes them slippery. Take care when walking over rockweeds! Knotted wrack (Michael Clancy)

There are two types of rockweeds to look for during our trip: Bladder wrack (Fucus vesiculosus): The blades of bladder

wrack are flat and have a rib that runs down the center. Its air bladders are arranged in pairs. It is made of thick, strong material that allows it to withstand the crashing waves of the intertidal zone. Knotted wrack (Ascophyllum nodosum): In contrast to

bladder wrack, knotted wrack has leaves that are thinner and contain no midrib. Its air bladders grow singly on the branches, rather than in pairs. Because it is not as strong as bladderwrack, knotted rack is usually found in calmer waters and on rocks in salt marshes.

Bladder wrack (picasaweb.google.com)

Eelgrass (Zostera marina)

Eelgrass is a flowering plant with true leaves, roots, stems, fruit, and seeds. It is found in large mats just below the low tide line. It has long, ribbonlike leaves that can grow up to four feet long. Eelgrass plays an important role in the environment. Many animals, such as scallops and blue crabs, depend on it for food and shelter. Its tightly-bunched roots stabilize the ocean floor beneath it. Early settlers on Long Island used eelgrass to insulate their homes as well as a bedding material for livestock and mulch for gardens.

Codium or “dead man’s fingers.” (Michael Clancy)

color and thick, round branches that have earned it the nickname “dead man’s fingers.” Codium grows on rocks, gravel, and even the shells of mollusks. Scientists believe it originated in the Pacific Ocean, perhaps near Japan. It is considered an invasive species in Cape Cod, the Gulf of Maine, and in other areas of the world’s oceans because it displaces native plants and disrupts natural ecosystems. Codium has altered kelp forests, which are important habitats for young fish, as they provide food and shelter from predators. How, you ask? Sea urchins feed on kelp, essentially “mowing” it away and forming an urchin barren, an area in the subtidal zone where the population growth of sea urchins has gone unchecked. Codium has overgrown these urchin barrens, altering the original kelp beds that were once productive habitats for juvenile fish and shellfish.

Bay scallops find shelter in a bed of eelgrass. (noaa.gov)

Codium (Codium fragile)

Codium is green alga that grows in sheltered low tide pools and the subtidal zone. It is easily identified by its forest green 42

In the Salt Marsh Spartina alterniflora (salt marsh cordgrass) and Spartina patens (salt meadow grass) were discussed in Chapter 8. These are the dominant plants of New England salt marshes. Their productivity cannot be overestimated. Biotic communities such as marshes, tropical rain forests, woodlands, and savannahs have been studied to compare how efficiently energy from the sun is passed through the food chain from plants to animals. Salt marshes were found to be the most fertile biotic community of all, producing ten tons of organic matter per acre each year. By comparison, a typical wheat field produces 1.5 tons of organic material per acre each year. In addition, twothirds of all fish and shellfish harvested along the Atlantic coast depend in some way on salt marsh grasses for survival. Remember to look for Spartina alterniflora near the waterâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s edge; Spartina patens will usually be found on higher ground.

The beach grass near Cape Cod Sea Camps helps prevent ocean waves from washing away the dunes during storms. (Michael Clancy)

On the Sand Dunes American Beach Grass (Ammophilia breviligulata)

This native beach grass is well suited for the dunes. It can withstand both heat and cold and thrives when thin layers of sand are blown over it. It sends out runners called stolons that take root in the sand to form new plants. The grass blades catch the blowing sand and deposit it at the roots to fortify the plant. The roots of beach grass act to stabilize dunes, forming a framework to prevent sand from blowing away. As dunes grow and stabilize, larger shrubs and trees can grow, allowing the succession of plants to continue. Beach grass aided native peoples of Cape Cod as well. They weaved dried brown leaves into mats, baskets, tote sacks, and ropes, and utilized the sharply pointed ends as â&#x20AC;&#x153;needles and threadâ&#x20AC;? for sewing.

Spartina patens on the left, foreground, and Spartina alterniflora on the right. (Michael Clancy)

Glasswort (Salicornia europea)

can crowd out other plants. This often reduces the diversity of plant and animal wildlife species in the area.â&#x20AC;Š

Also known as sea pickle, this rubbery plant has swollen, sausage-shaped stems. Its branches are green in the summer but turn bright red in the fall, making them easy to spot in the dying, straw-colored salt meadow grass. Like a cactus, glasswort does not need much water; it stores it in its branches. If you are trekking through the salt marsh and feel hunger pangs coming on, ask a naturalist to spot some glasswort to munch on. It has a salty taste to it, but it is delicious!

Common reed, or Phragmites (Michael Clancy)

Questions 1. What do you think would happen if large amounts of phytoplankton died? 2. Why is the presence of beach grass vital for the growth of a stable beach community? Glasswort (Michael Clancy)

3. List and briefly describe two functions of a salt marsh.

Common Reed (Phragmites australis)

4. What are the two dominant plants of the salt marsh? How can you tell them apart?

This non-native, invasive species has created significant problems in wetlands throughout North America. Originating from Eurasia, phragmites is a large perennial grass that is found in many Cape Cod marshes. Stem heights range from two to six meters (six to 20 feet). These plants grow so densely that they

5. You are walking on the beach with Mildred, who picks up a seaweed and asks you if it is bladder wrack or knotted wrack. How can you tell the difference between the two? 44

Chapter 10: Marine Animals

Ava Mogavero ‘22 holds an Atlantic rock crab she found in the intertidal zone in Brewster. She is actually grasping the crab by a slipper snail attached to its carapace. (Michael Clancy.)

“From however great a depth we may be able to bring the mud and stones of the bed of the ocean, we shall find them teeming with animal life.” --Sir James Clark Ross (circa 1840)

Since the ocean is so immense, it is difficult to determine how much of the marine environment is inhabited. What is known, however, is that there are over 1,750,000 species of plants and animals on Earth, and only 14 percent of these known species live in the ocean. This difference in numbers may arise because the ocean environment is more stable than the land environment. Scientists believe that the relatively stable conditions of the open ocean do not pressure organisms to adapt, or change. The need for adaptation is thought to be responsible for the creation of new species. While the diversity of life in the ocean may be less than that on land, there is still a huge number of organisms to be studied in the seas, particularly in the benthic environment where rocky, sandy, muddy, flat, sloped, and irregular bottoms create different habitats for animals to adapt to. In the pages that follow, we will study several of these marine animals, ones that we are likely to see during our trip.

A sea star at the Woods Hole Aquarium. Sea stars are echinoderms. (Michael Clancy)

burrowing into the ground, crawling, and swimming. Organs for breathing, blood circulation, reproduction, digestion, and excretion are all located in the visceral mass. Some organs you will find in the visceral mass are the heart, stomach, and intestines. Most mollusks have a shell. Just as we have a skeleton to provide a place for muscles to attach, so does the shell of a mollusk function. Since many mollusks are slow-moving and soft-bodied, their shells also protect them not only from predators, but from desiccation (drying out). Mud snails, for example, are subjected to pounding waves, scorching sun, and dry periods between tides. By withdrawing into their shells, mud snails protect themselves from these forces of nature. The shell is produced by a thin layer of tissue called the mantle. The mantle manufactures a substance called calcium

Mollusks There are over 100,000 species of mollusks, divided into seven classes, four of which are found near the shore: Gastropods (snails), bivalves (mollusks with two shells), chitons (armadillo-like mollusks), and cephalopods (squid and octopi). For the purposes of our trip, we will focus on two of these groups: gastropods and bivalves. All mollusks have several things in common. Their bodies are divided into three parts: the head, the foot, and the main part, called the visceral mass. The head contains the mouth and sensory organs in all classes except for bivalves, in which the head is hard to distinguish. The fleshy foot is used for 46

carbonate and organic chemicals in layers that criss-cross, making the shell stronger. When a mollusk dies, its shell remains behind, perhaps to be used by a hermit crab or other organism that uses empty shells as a habitat or hiding place. As the empty shell deteriorates, the minerals in it are returned to the ocean. All mollusks except for bivalves have a feeding organ called a radula. The radula is a tonguelike structure covered with fine teeth. It can be used for grating, scraping, grasping, or even cutting. The common periwinkle, for example, uses its radula to scrape tiny bits of algae off rocks. Most bivalves, however, are filter feeders. The soft-shell clam, or steamer, sucks water through its siphon, filtering it through its gills for food particles and oxygen. Mud snails search for food near a clump of codium during low tide. (Michael Clancy)

they have one shell, they are sometimes called univalves. Some gastropods have no shell, but for those that do, it is usually spiral. This class can be loosely referred to as snails. Most gastropods have a well-developed head with tentacles and eyes, along with a radula. Gastropods usually have a muscular foot adapted for crawling. Tiny hairs called cilia on the bottom of the foot secrete a mucus trail over which the snail moves. A snailâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s shell serves as a portable shelter, but they cannot leave it. There are muscles attached to the shell that allow the head and foot to extend out or withdraw completely inside.

Anatomy of a mollusk (bio.miami.edu)

Common Periwinkle (Littorina littorea)

Gastropods

Periwinkles arrived in the United States from Europe in the mid-19th century. (Their meat is considered a delicacy in

Gastropods (which literally means â&#x20AC;&#x153;stomach footâ&#x20AC;?) make up the largest class of mollusks, with over 75,000 species. Since 47

Europe.) Periwinkles are herbivores that are well-suited to the rocky intertidal zone. They are big eaters, scraping algae off rocks using their radula. Even though they are small, periwinkles gradually erode rock surfaces with their relentless scraping. Because the tide recedes twice a day, many of these gastropods are out of the water for hours at a time. To prevent desiccation, periwinkles seal themselves to rocks with mucus produced by their foot. How do they breathe during this time? Periwinkles have an adaptation that allows them to obtain oxygen from the air, rather than the water, for short periods. When the tide comes back in, periwinkles resume crawling over rocks, leaving a trail of mucus. Slipper shells. (Michael Clancy)

Slipper Shells (Crepidula fornicata)

Slipper shells are snails that look like half a bivalve. Although they have a foot on which they can move, most slipper shells are sessile, meaning they are fixed to one place. They are often found clinging to rocks in the intertidal zone, and also attach themselves to the insides of empty snail shells and are often found on horseshoe crab molts. Slipper shells reproduce in a most unusual way. When necessary, they will change sexes. As pictured above, slipper shells often exist in stacks, sometimes called â&#x20AC;&#x153;totem poles.â&#x20AC;? The bottom shell in the stack is a female, and the top shells are males. They fertilize the female at the bottom. The larvae then either attach to more stacks of slipper shells or venture off on their own. If a larva attaches to another stack, it remains a male, but if it attaches on its own, it becomes a female. It then attempts to attract male slipper shells by secreting a chemical.

A cluster of periwinkles at low tide. (Michael Clancy)

It gets better! If the bottom female dies, the next slipper shell up (a male) will change into a female, continuing the pattern. Mud Snail (Ilyanassa obsoleta)

The mud snail is an abundant intertidal gastropod found in mud flats and in the lower reaches of marsh channels. It has a plain, dark brown or black shell. Look for the grooved trail that it leaves behind as it crawls over the mud surface. Mud snails feed on algal detritus (organic matter produced by decaying organisms) and the bodies of dead animals. They have a keen sense of smell and use it to locate carcasses.

The shell of a moon snail. (Michael Clancy)

Northern Moon Snail (Lunatia heros)

Using its large, muscular foot, a moon snail plows beneath the surface of the sand in search of unsuspecting bivalves. When it finds a clam, the moon snail uses its foot to engulf its prey while it drills though its shell, leaving a neat round hole. It then sucks out the soft tissue of the clam. In addition to bivalves, moon snails eat dead fish, and they have a tendency to be cannibalistic. They get their name from their round, whitish shell. Knobbed whelk (Busycon carica)

The knobbed whelk is a large predatory snail. It uses its foot to engulf a bivalve and then forces open the two shells by using the

Mud snails are plentiful in the salt marsh at low tide. (Michael Clancy)

edge of its own shell as a wedge. Finally, it utilizes its radula to consume the contents of the clam. Female knobbed whelks lay their eggs in long strings of capsules that look like plastic. Each capsule holds from 20 to 100 eggs and has an escape hole near the top where the young snails exit upon hatching. Empty whelk egg cases are frequently found on the beaches of Cape Cod during low tide.

Most bivalves are filter feeders. To obtain food, they extend two tubular siphons to the surface of the sand. One siphon brings in water; tiny hairs called cilia send this water over the gills, where mucus traps food particles. Water is then expelled through the other siphon. Soft-shell clam (Mya arenaria)

The soft-shell clam, also called the longneck, steamer, or gaper, is fished commercially and often used in chowders. It lives buried in the sand with the tops of its siphons at the surface. It sucks in water, filtering out food particles and oxygen. Soft-shell clams can pass up to a quart of water an hour through their bodies.

A knobbed whelk and its egg case. (Michael Clancy)

Bivalves Bivalves are mollusks with a shell made of two halves, called valves, that come together at a hinge on top. One or two large muscles keep the shells pulled shut. The soft body of a bivalve is found inside the shell. Unlike gastropods, bivalves have no head or radula, though they usually have a small foot used for burrowing.

Quahog or hard-shell clam. (Michael Clancy)

Quahog (Mercenaria mercenaria)

than you can dig! (Until the spring of 2016, Mr. Clancy had never seen a living one in the wild!) Jackknife clams can also swim by contracting their shell halves and stroking with their foot. Look at the photo of a jackknife clam on the left. How do you think this clam got its name?

Also known as the hard-shell clam, the quahog is a New England favorite. Since the quahog has short siphons, it burrows just beneath the sand, where clammers can easily collect them with a rake or shovel. The inside of a quahog is purplish in color and was used by Native Americans for beads and currency.

Eastern Oyster (Crassostrea virginica)

This common edible oyster is the basis of an extensive fishing industry. It is found intertidally from the Gulf of Maine to the Gulf of Mexico. Eastern oysters live with one shell permanently cemented to a rock or other hard surface. Oysters reproduce in great numbers; a single female routinely produces 10 to 20 million eggs. They can tolerate water with little salt in it and thrive in estuaries. Oysters have many enemies: oyster drill snails and sea stars are two of the most voracious.

Lily Newman holds a jackknife clam she found on the beach. It was the first live one Mr. Clancy ever saw in the wild! (Michael Clancy)

Atlantic Jackknife Clam (Ensis directus)

The Atlantic jackknife clam, commonly called the razor clam, is one of the most agile clams. Like the quahog, the jackknife clam has short siphons and must live close to the surface. As the tide recedes, they burrow deeper. Jackknife clams are edible if you can catch them; they can burrow faster

A cluster of eastern oysters. (Michael Clancy)

Scallops

The Atlantic deep-sea scallop (Placopecten magellanicus) lives from Maine to North Carolina and can be identified by noting its finely-ribbed shell. The bay scallop (Argopecten irradians) has a coarsely-ribbed shell. It is found from Maine to the Gulf of Mexico.

Most bivalves live buried in the sand or attached to rocks. Scallops are exceptions to this rule. They are mobile bivalves that live on the ocean bottom, though not attached to it. Since they do not burrow, they have little need for a foot; thus, theirs is quite small. Scallops are fast swimmers. With a quick clap of their shell halves, water is ejected from their mantle cavity, propelling the scallop forward. (Newton’s third law of motion in action!) Scallops swim primarily to escape predators, especially sea stars. They have beautiful blue eyes that line the frilled edge of their mantle. However, they are not able to detect images, only shadows.

Kate Leach and Isabelle Dolce ’21 examine a deep-sea scallop at the Marine Resources Building in Woods Hole. (Michael Clancy)

Mussels

Mussels are another example of non-burrowing bivalves. They attach themselves to rocks, the bases of plants, and sea pilings by producing tough threads. The blue mussel (Mytilus edulis) grows in clumps in the intertidal zone. Life in this zone is tough, but blue mussels are tougher. They can withstand excessive heat, freezing, and drying out. When the tide moves

Kate Hoesterey ’22 holds a bay scallop shell. (Michael Clancy)

Arthropods have jointed structures (“arthro” means joint and “pod” means leg”) that serve a number of functions: swimming, walking, handling food, and gathering information about the environment. Crustaceans make up the largest group of marine arthropods. Typically, the body of a crustacean is made up of two parts: the head and trunk. In turn, the trunk is divided into a thorax and abdomen. Most often, an arthropod’s gills are located where the legs attach to the thorax. Since arthropods grow but their skeletons do not, they need to shed them from time to time, a process called molting. A new skeleton forms under the old one, and the old one eventually splits. The animal pulls out of its old skeleton, leaving it entirely intact except for the split. Before molting, most crustaceans become a bit sluggish. They usually hide, as their new soft skeleton will make them easy prey until it hardens. While crustaceans molt throughout their lives, they molt less frequently as they age.

The blue mussel (left) and ribbed mussel (right). (Michael Clancy)

out, they breathe by passing air over their moist gills. Blue mussels are edible, but Europeans seem to appreciate them more than Americans. The ribbed mussel (Ischadium demissum) is found in salt marshes and brackish, muddy estuaries. It can be distinguished from the blue mussel by ridges on its shell. Like the blue mussel, it is a rugged species; it can tolerate water that is twice as salty as normal sea water.

Horseshoe Crab (Limulus polyphemus)

Horseshoe crabs have lived on Earth since the dinosaurs. While they may appear a bit scary, they are totally harmless. The top side of its shell contains two large compound eyes and two small simple eyes. When you gently turn a horseshoe crab over, you will notice five pairs of walking legs; the mouth is located in the center of these legs. In front of its mouth, the horseshoe crab has a small set of pincers for handling food. It uses its tail spike as a rudder and to turn itself over if it is flipped onto its back. Horseshoe crabs are discussed in greater detail on pages 59-61.

Arthropods Seventy-five percent of all animals on Earth are arthropods. This group includes spiders, insects, crabs, shrimps, and lobsters. All arthropods have an outer skeleton called an exoskeleton. In addition to giving an arthropod protection, it provides a place for muscles to attach, allowing for movement. 53

anchors them to something solid. The larvae then begin to change into adults. When feeding, barnacles use muscles to open their shell plates and extend their feathery feet into the water, trapping plankton. Their legs also have gills for breathing.

A young horseshoe crab is fed a worm at the Cape Cod Museum of Natural Histor y. Notice that its mouth is located between its legs. (Michael Clancy)

Northern Rock Barnacle (Balanus balanoides)

Louis Agazziz, a 19th-century Harvard naturalist, described a barnacle as “a shrimp-like animal, standing on its head in a limestone house kicking food into its mouth.” These unusual creatures live in colonies on rocks, pilings, floating logs, whales, shellfish, and even penguin toes. They are the only sessile (attached) crustaceans. Most barnacles are hermaphrodites; one barnacle has both male and female reproductive organs. Newborns emerge from their parents’ shells as bristly, one-eyed larvae. They float in the water, voraciously eating plankton. As they continue to grow, barnacles eventually settle to the ocean floor, searching for a home. Within a few hours, they secrete a brown glue that

Giuliana Lategui ’20 displays a cluster of rock barnacles. (Michael Clancy)

Rock Crab (Cancer irroratus)

Along with the green crab, the rock crab is one of the most common crabs found intertidally in New England. You can locate them on rock, sand, or gravel bottoms in estuaries and on the shore. Rock crabs are identified by their reddish, D-shaped carapace. This crab likes to enter lobster pots, and until recently it was considered by lobstermen to be a pest and bait-stealer. Nowadays, the rise in seafood prices has made it profitable to market the crabs as well as the lobsters.

better than the other crabs. It can withstand brackish waters, drying out during low tide, and cold temperatures. Look for these crabs scurrying about intertidal creeks. Their molts are often found washed ashore.

Avery Lange â&#x20AC;&#x2122;22 examines a rock crab. (Michael Clancy) The green crab. (Michael Clancy)

Green Crab (Carcinus maenas)

Lady Crab (Ovalipes ocellatus)

The green crab is an invasive species, introduced from Europe in the mid 1800s. It is now the most common crab along the shores of the Gulf of Maine. This crab has a squarish, green carapace, or shell. It forages for small worms, mollusks, and crustaceans, but it will scavenge as well. Like many invaders, the green crab tolerates changes in its environment

If you spot a lady crab at low tide, approach it with care. Also known as calico crabs, they are aggressive and have quick reflexes. They can inflict painful pinches if stepped on or not handled carefully. Lady crabs are characterized by their circular shell that is pale beige color with purplish speckles. It has 55

spinelike protrusions on each side of its carapace. Its last pair of legs are flat and paddle-shaped, allowing the crab to swim.

This hermit crab is living in a discarded periwinkle shell. (Michael Clancy)

and antennae. If it deems the new shell appropriate, it will get as close to it as possible and instantly switch shells. A hermit crab never leaves an old shell without first finding a new one. Sand Fiddler Crab (Uca pugilator)

The lady crab. Note the paddle-shaped hind legs. (Michael Clancy)

Large colonies of fiddler crabs can be found in the sand, mud flats, salt marshes, and tidal creeks. The forbiddinglooking large claw of a male sand fiddler is not at all dangerous (though it can give you a bit of a pinch!). It is used in a courtship display prior to mating. To attract a female, the male fiddler rises on his tiptoes, extends its large claw and waves it up and down, hoping to attract a female into his burrow. Fiddler crabs have small gills capable of extracting oxygen from the air as long as the gills are kept moist.

Hermit Crab (Pagarus [multiple species])

Out of its shell, a hermit crab looks pretty wimpy. It resembles a tiny lobster, but its abdomen is very soft and a prime target for predators. As a result, hermit crabs live in the empty shells of snails. While scavenging for food, hermit crabs are always on the lookout for a new shell, regardless of how content they seem with their present one. When a hermit crab spots a new piece of real estate, it checks it out with its claws 56

A male sand fiddler crab brandishes its large claw. (Michael Clancy)

AmĂŠlie Kinsey â&#x20AC;&#x2122;22 holds a spider crab. Do not be intimidated by the spider crabâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s fearsome appearance. (Michael Clancy)

Spider Crab (Libinia emarginata)

Marine Resources Building in Woods Hole. Like stingrays and manta rays, skates are cartilaginous fish. They have flat bodies with winglike pectoral fins attached to the head. A skate is a harmless, bottom-dwelling fish that feeds on shellfish, worms, and crabs. If it breathed by taking water in through its mouth like most fish do, a skate would choke on sand. Instead, it inhales water through two openings called spiracles located just behind its eyes. Ah, the eyes! Skate peepers are one of the most thoroughly studied organs in Woods Hole, due to the fact that they have retinas consisting of all cones and no rods. Cones are photoreceptors that detect color and perform well in bright light, while rods are more sensitive in dim light. For more than three decades, scientists have been trying to unravel the

Despite their gangly, spiny appearance, spider crabs are harmless, slow-moving scavengers found below the intertidal zone on rocks and rubble. They are rather sluggish and prefer to defend themselves by using camouflage rather than fighting. They attach algae and debris to their shells with hook-like hairs. Spider crabs have cup-like claws that make it easy for them to collect algae and detritus for food.

Fish Skates (Raja erinacea)

It is unlikely that you will encounter a skate on the beach at Cape Cod Sea Camps, but you will probably see them in the 57

mysteries of night blindness and a group of inherited eye disorders collectively known as retinitis pigmentosa, and the use of skates has been central to their research. While you won’t see a skate swimming at your feet during low tide, you will most likely find empty skate egg cases scattered along the wrack line. When fresh, they are olive green in color. Dried egg cases turn black and wrinkle.

A skate egg case at the Woods Hole Aquarium. Empty skate egg cases are a common sight on the beaches of Cape Cod. (Michael Clancy)

shore, rarely straying more than 100 yards from the coastline. They are omnivores and scavengers; they be found in salt marshes feeding on phytoplankton, mollusks, crustaceans, mosquito larvae, and dead fish. During low tide, they are often stranded in tide pools and puddles and can flop head over tail to reach the water when puddles dry up. Researchers believe they can travel in this fashion for several yards. Since they are able to withstand conditions of low oxygen levels and extreme variations in salinity, killifish are well-suited to life in the salt marsh. In fact, they are so resistant to the presence of carbon dioxide that they can survive in very foul water. Killifish are ecologically important because of the role they play in the food web. They are prey for wading birds, seabirds, and predatory fish.

Holy Child students examine a young skate at the Marine Resources Building in Woods Hole. (Michael Clancy)

Killifish The name killifish is often used to describe small fish of the genus Fundulus. In Massachusetts, at least two species of Fundulus can be found: the common mummichog and the striped killifish. (“Mummighog” is a Native American word that means “going in crowds,” a name that aptly describes the schooling behaviors of these fish.) Killifish live close to the 58

Striped killifish. (Gulf of Maine Research Institute) Common mummichog. (Gulf of Maine Research Institute)

centimeters (6 to 7 inches). When attempting to identify one, look for a silvery sheen on its sides along with 15 to 20 black vertical lines. Like its cousin the common mummichog, the striped killifish can be found in salt water or brackish water. However, they prefer sandier sediments and higher-salinity water.

Common mummichog (Fundulus heteroclitis)

Common mummichogs can be identified by their olive green color, white, rounded belly, and rounded caudal (tail) fin. It has a stout body and flattened head They average in size from 9 to 10.2 centimeters (3.5 to 4 inches). Mummichogs are often sold to fisherman as live bait.

Questions

Striped killifish (Fundulus majoris)

1. What reason do scientists give for the fact that there is less diversity among marine organisms than land organisms?

This widely distributed species is found in coastal habitats, including bays, beaches, and marshes. The striped killifish is the largest member of its genus, reading lengths of 15.2 to 17.8

2. Name three functions of a mollusk’s shell. 3. What is a radula? What do mollusks use it for?

Fun Facts for Parties and Dances:

4. How does a gastropod’s foot function differently from a bivalve’s foot?

A shrimp’s heart is located in its head. Another one! Fish never stop growing. The older they get, the bigger they grow.

5. Why is it so difficult to find a living jackknife clam? 6. Why do arthropods need to molt?

Primeval Warriors: Horseshoe Crabs At first glance, a horseshoe crab (Limulus polyphemus) can appear intimidating, perhaps downright frightening. With its helmet-shaped shell and long tail spike, it cannot be confused with any other animal. Upon closer examination, however, you will find that they are totally harmless. Their five pairs of walking legs contain pincers, but they are not dangerous. (In his book Horseshoe Crabs and Velvet Worms, paleontologist Richard Fortey wrote, “I am reminded of the manual toolkit owned by the eponymous hero of the movie Edward Scissorhands. They are indeed picky little tools.”) This is important, because should you find one during your explorations along the beach, you will want to look closely at this fascinating creature. Take a moment to observe the horseshoe crab. You will notice that it moves slowly through the sand. Fortey described its behavior as “at once strangely determined, but also apparently random, like the slow progress of a confused old lady on a walker.” Although they seem ungainly on land, under water the crabs are more streamlined and can move quite fast. The horseshoe crab has a unique and primitive body structure. It is composed of three parts: the head-shield, central area, and telson or tail. Its name is derived from its headshield, which resembles the shape of a horseshoe. The tail spike is used as a rudder and to turn the crab over if it is flipped onto its back, a task it accomplishes more effectively in water than it does on land. On the head-shield you will find several pairs of compound eyes. Two large compound eyes

A horseshoe crab found on the beach at Cape Cod Sea Camps. Notice the tag; it was being tracked by the U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service. (Michael Clancy)

near the sides of the shell are sensitive to polarized light and can magnify sunlight ten times. A pair of simple eyes are found nearer the middle of the shell; they are sensitive to ultraviolet light from the moon. In addition, multiple eye spots are located under the shell, with more on the underside of the tail. Horseshoe crabs occasionally swim upside down and may once have used these eyes more than they do today. When you gently turn a horseshoe crab over, you will notice five pairs of walking legs. It has no jaws or teeth; rather, it possesses an array of spiny mouth bristles at the base of its legs. The mouth is actually located between its legs! These 60

bristles maneuver food items such as marine worms, softshelled clams, and razor clams into its mouth. To chew its food, the crab must simulate walking movements. If need be, the strong inner parts of the legs can crush the thick shells of mollusks. Horseshoe crabs have lived on Earth since the dinosaurs. They have remained relatively unchanged in appearance for 350 million years. Note that they are not true crabs; rather, they are a member of an ancient group of arthropods, closely related to spiders and scorpions. Horseshoe crabs were contemporaries of trilobites, one of the earliest known groups of arthropods. Unlike trilobites, however, they survived the mass extinctions that drastically changed the biological face of our planet. Many

scientists believe that horseshoe crabs are the closest living relatives of trilobites. A trilobite fossil. (wikipedia.org) Since horseshoe crabs have a shell, they must molt in order to grow. They will shed their shells approximately 18 times before reaching adulthood, which takes about 10 years. Horseshoe crabs differ from most other arthropods in that they can move immediately after molting. Other freshly molted arthropods are virtually motionless until their new shells harden, often forcing them into hiding. During spawning, the female crab partially buries herself in the sand while she deposits a golf ball-sized cluster of about 4,000 tiny green eggs. In a single evening, a female crab can lay several egg clusters, and she may spawn repeatedly over several nights to lay over 100,000 eggs. (Amazingly, only about three of the 100,000 eggs will survive until adulthood.) These eggs play a huge role in the ecosystem, serving as a vital food source for many migrating birds. The largest population of horseshoe crabs in the world is found in Delaware Bay, located between the borders of Delaware and New Jersey. Each year, more than a million shorebirds fly from South America to the Arctic. They stop in Delaware Bay to consume exposed horseshoe crab eggs, nearly doubling their weight in two weeks, then continue on to their summer breeding grounds in the Arctic. Writes Fortey: â&#x20AC;&#x153;The birds would not survive without these countless horseshoe crabs performing their mass spectacular mating ritual. These inelegant invertebrates are completely unaware of the gift they are providing to an animal many million years their evolutionary junior.â&#x20AC;? Horseshoe crabs are beneficial to humans as well. Of all marine species, they have contributed the most to medical

A trilobite fossil. (wikipedia.org)

bacterial contamination. No other test works as easily or reliably for this purpose. As a result, horseshoe crab blood is in great demand. Crabs are collected in shallow water and transported to specially equipped laboratories where they are bled. During this process, up to 30 percent of the animal’s blood is removed. Research has shown that once returned to the water, a horseshoe crab’s blood volume returns to normal in approximately one week. Clearly, horseshoe crabs are fascinating and vital creatures. Should you see one during our trip, be sure to treat it with reverence. This is one of our planet’s great organisms, truly an evolutionary warrior. After examining a large female horseshoe crab and setting it back on the sand, Fortey observed, “It heaves itself along like a battered tank; slowly and undignified, as if to signal ‘I have survived endless battles, and survival is all.’”

Sarina Culaj, Isabella Pagan, Emily Clemens, and Claire Furio ’19 examine a horseshoe crab. (Michael Clancy)

research. Much of what we know about human vision was drawn from a Nobel Prize-winning scientists’s work with cells found in a horseshoe crab’s eyes. In addition, horseshoe crab blood plays a vital, if little-known, role in human

“It heaves itself along like a battered tank, slowly and undignified.” medicine. Its copper-based blue blood contains primitive cells called amoebocytes that protect the crab from bacteria. A clotting agent called Limulus Amoebocyte Lysate, discovered by Woods Hole scientist Frederik Bang in 1956, is extracted from these amoebocytes and used by the pharmaceutical and medical industries to ensure that their products, such as intravenous drugs, vaccines, and medical devices are free of

Class of 2022 students with a large female horseshoe crab they discovered on the beach at Cape Cod Sea Camps. (Michael Clancy)

Chapter 11: Whales

Mouths agape, two humpback whales surface while feeding just off the bow of a whale watching vessel. (Michael Clancy)

“I read before my journey to Baha of what happens to people when they come in contact with a whale, how they tend to go, literally and figuratively, a bit overboard: nearly tipping over boats for a passing touch; spontaneously breaking into song; crying out in ecstasy; or just flat-out crying.” --Charles Siebert “Watching Whales Watching Us.”

Whales, dolphins, and porpoises are known collectively as cetaceans, from the Latin cetus (a large sea animal) and the Greek ketos (sea monster). Currently, there are 80 species recognized, and it is very likely more will be discovered. They come in a variety of shapes and sizes, ranging from tiny dolphins just over three feet long to the blue whale, which is typically 90 feet long and is the largest known animal to have ever lived on Earth. Whales probably evolved from land mammals with four legs that returned to the sea. The first real whalelike animals, called Archaeocetes, appeared about 55 million years ago. They were not the direct ancestors of modern cetaceans, but they were probably very similar. Their bodies have made many adaptations through the ages: flukes (tail fins) for propulsion

Stellwagen Bank (bu.edu)

have replaced hind limbs, forelimbs have become pectoral fins (flippers) used as stabilizers and for steering, and a thick layer of blubber is used for streamlining and providing insulation. Specialized structures such as a blowhole and a collapsible rib cage allow for breathing and diving. There are two major suborders of cetaceans: the Odontoceti (toothed) whales and the Mysticeti (baleen) whales. Members of the toothed whales include porpoises, dolphins, sperm whales, and orcas. These animals use their teeth to catch prey. Members of the baleen whales include the blue, humpback, finback, and right whales. This group gets its name from the large baleen plates on the top part of the mouth. They have no teeth. Baleen plates are made of stiff material

Baleen plates hang from the upper jaw of a humpback whale. (Michael Clancy)

called keratin and hang in rows from the upper jaw. Keratin is the same material that makes up our hair and fingernails. The function of baleen is to filter food from the water. A whale uses its tongue to transfer food from the baleen to its throat and stomach. Cetaceans eat a variety of food. Their choice depends primarily on their size and whether or not they have teeth. Baleen whales feed on huge shoals of fish or tiny, shrimplike creatures called krill.

them very difficult animals to study. As a result, a whalewatching excursion can yield a wide range of results. On some outings, a group of humpback whales can surround the ship, curiously checking out the humans gawking from the ship’s railings. On other trips, only a flipper or fluke is spotted from a distance. Here are the whales we hope to see: Humpback Whale (Megaptera novaeangliae)

One of the most energetic and commonly observed whales in North Atlantic waters, humpback whales are known for their spectacular breaching, lobtailing, and flipper-slapping. (See pages 86-89 for a full description of whale behaviors.) They show little fear of boats and can be highly inquisitive. Humpbacks are easily recognized by their stocky dark gray bodies, long white or partly white pectoral fins, knobby bumps called “stovebolts” on their

Knobby bumps called stovebolts are unique to humpback whales. (Michael Clancy)

Abundant sea life on Stellwagen Bank, a 150-mile underwater plateau located at the mouth of Massachusetts Bay, provides a rich feeding ground for whales from spring through fall. Baleen whales migrate to the area during spring after mating and calving in warmer Caribbean waters. Whales are elusive creatures. They spend most of their lives underwater, sometimes in remote areas far out to sea, making

The markings on the underside of a humpback whale’s fluke are as distinctive as our fingerprints and are used for identification. Note the barnacles on the tips. (Michael Clancy)

heads, and their single, tall, bushy blow. Individual humpbacks can be identified by distinctive black and white markings on the underside of their flukes. This is a relatively easy task, as humpbacks show their flukes before diving. These patterns are as unique as a human fingerprint. Whale experts have been able to distinguish among and name thousands of humpback whales around the world. During the 1800s, more than 250,000 humpbacks were killed by whalers, and although some stocks appear to be recovering, today’s population is a fraction of its original size.

beneath a shoal of fish or krill, blowing out air from its blowhole. This forms a “net” of bubbles that surrounds the shoal. The prey seem confused by the bubbles and do not try to escape. The whales then swim up through the center of the net toward the surface with their mouths open, enjoying a bountiful feast.

Humpback whales are popular with whale watchers because of their spectacular breaching. (Michael Clancy)

Fun Fact for Parties and Dances:

A pod of humpback whales engage in bubble net feeding. (Michael Clancy)

The killer whale, or orca, is the fastest of all whale species and among the swiftest of all marine animals with a swimming speed of up to 35 miles per hour. Only tuna, marlin, swordfish, and sailfish are faster.

Humpbacks have developed some of the most sophisticated and spectacular feeding techniques of all baleen whales. The most intriguing of these is a method of corralling prey called bubble net feeding. Working with the rest of a pod, one whale swims in a spiral 66

body to quickly gain speed. Then, the whale suddenly opens its huge mouth. When fully open, the lower jaw creates massive drag and the finback grinds to a halt. In the process, it engulfs about 20 pounds of krill and more than its own weight in water.

The arrow shows the white “lips” of the finback whale. (Michael Clancy)

Finback or Fin Whale (Balaenoptera physalus)

The finback whale is one of largest animals on Earth, second only to the blue whale. It can grow up to 85 feet long, though the average length is about 60 feet. Finbacks are easily identified by their long, streamlined body; they are among the fastest swimmers in the sea. They have unusual markings on their heads: the left side is dark, while the right side is white. Their white “lips” can easily be seen when they swim just below the surface. Finbacks can also be identified by a grayishwhite chevron, or V-shaped stripe, behind their blowholes, and their tall, narrow blow. Unlike humpback whales, finbacks do not show their flukes when diving. A finback will neither avoid nor approach boats. Recent research has shown that finback whales engage in a food-gathering method called lunge feeding. A finback begins by accelerating into a school of krill, using its streamlined

A 60-foot finback whale beached itself at Breezy Point in Queens, New York in December 2012. (Reuters)

M i n ke W h a l e ( B a l a e n o p t e r a acutorostrata)

Minke whales are the smallest and most abundant of the baleen whales. The best way to identify one is to look for the tip of its sharply pointed snout as it breaks surface. It has no distinctive blow, but its head has a unique longitudinal ridge. A minke’s blowhole and dorsal fin are visible simultaneously as it surfaces; you should also be able to observe a distinctive white patch on its flippers. Some minke whales are inquisitive and will investigate boats, but in most cases it is difficult to get a good view of them. On occasion they will spyhop or breach. 67

Right whales are characterized by a square chin and highly arched upper jaw. They have distinctive callosities—thickened patches of skin—on the top of the head, behind the blowhole, over the eyes, on the corners of the chin, and along the lower lip and jaw. Researchers use callosity patterns to identify right whales, much the same way they rely on the unique tail patterns on humpbacks. Callosities are gray but appear white against the black skin of the whale. However, a closer look reveals that their color can be yellow, pink, or orange. These shades come from whale lice that live on right whales.

Minke whales have a dorsal fin that resembles a dolphin’s. (Michael Clancy)

North Atlantic Right Whale (Eubalaena glacialis)

The right whale got its name from 19th-Century whalers, who felt it was the “right” whale to hunt because it was a slow swimmer, easy to approach, lived close to shore, and floated after it was killed. These blubber-rich whales provided large quantities of valuable oil, meat, and whalebone. The North Atlantic right whale was hunted close to extinction, and they have been protected since 1937. All vessels in U.S. waters are required to stay at least 500 yards away to provide protection for them. Today, they remain closer to extinction than any other large whale. It is estimated that only 470 remain, and some scientists fear they may never recover. Why? Right whales are slow breeders. Females produce their first calves at six to 12 years of age and give birth only every three to four years.

A special treat: Two North Atlantic right whales skim the surface of the ocean for plankton during the spring 2013 whale watch. (Michael Clancy)

Of all the mysticeti, right whales have the longest baleen plates—up to eight feet in length. (In contrast, humpback baleen averages two to two-and-a-half feet.) Their long baleen allows right whales to strain a larger mouthful of water in 68

search of copepods, their favorite food. Copepods are tiny crustaceans less than a quarter of an inch long. It would take more than 200,000 of them to fill a coffee mug--quite a tiny morsel for one of the largest animals on Earth! If we are fortunate enough to see this magnificent creature during our trip, it will most likely be skimming the surface of the water with its giant baleen in search of food.

A life-size model of a right whale on display at the Smithsonian Natural History Museum. (Michael Clancy)

each time they need to breathe instead of swimming along the surface. This is known as “porpoising.” Some can reach speeds of 25 miles per hour. There are several species of dolphins found off of Cape Cod. On occasion, you can see large pods of 100 or more leaping over the waves. These are the two species we are most likely to see:

They are hard to see from a distance, but callosities are visible on this right whale’s head. (Michael Clancy)

Dolphins

Common Dolphin (Delphinus delphis)

Dolphins are whales too! They are members of the suborder Odontoceti—toothed whales—that includes orcas and sperm whales. In fact, they make up the largest and most diverse family of cetaceans. Some species of dolphins are able to achieve high swimming speeds by leaping from the water in a series of arcs

This dolphin is easily recognized by the tan or yellowish hourglass pattern on its sides. You will often see common dolphins in large, active schools; they are one of the more gregarious whale species and will even associate with other dolphin schools at productive feeding grounds.

Provincetown Center for Coastal Studies: http://www.coastalstudies.org/what-we-do/humpback-whales/ whale-sightings.htmâ&#x20AC;Š

Fun Fact for Parties and Dances: There is an ongoing debate among scientists as to why dolphins jump out of the water. Some think they do so to conserve energy; it is easier to move through the air than through water. Others believe they jump as a form of communication. Still others theorize that they do so simply because it is fun!

Atlantic white-sided dolphins swim alongside our whale-watching ship. (Michael Clancy)

Atlantic White-sided Dolphin (Lagenorhynchus acutus)

Questions

This dolphin is another sociable cetacean. It is often seen accompanying humpback and finback whales. Sometimes they will ride the bow waves of fast-moving boats, and they may even ride the bow waves of large whales. It can be difficult to distinguish between Atlantic white-sided and common dolphins, since they both have a similar color pattern of gray, white, black, and yellow. Look carefully, though; this dolphin has no distinctive hourglass pattern.

1. Briefly describe the characteristics of the two main groups of whales. 2. How do Mysticeti whales obtain food? 3. Why do many baleen whales spend the summer in Stellwagen Bank? 4. How did the right whale get its name?

Learn more about whales and whale behavior by visiting the following web sites:

5. Of the four types of baleen whales described in this chapter, which one are we most likely to see? Which one are we least likely to see?

Smithsonian Institution: Right Whales: http://ocean.si.edu/north-atlantic-right-whale

6. The humpback whaleâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s scientific name is Megaptera novaeangliae. Research what this name means.

Stellagen Bank National Marine Sunctuary: http://stellwagen.noaa.gov/

The Grande Dame of Stellwagen Bank Each year when we visit Cape Cod, we hope to enjoy the company of a special guest. She is a celebrity, known all over the globe, and she has been appearing for more than 40 years. If she graces us with her presence, it won’t be at Woods Hole, Cape Cod Sea Camps, or any other place on land. Her name is Salt, and she is perhaps the most famous humpback whale in world. First identified in 1975 off the New England coast, Salt was seen feeding with another female humpback. At that time, modern whale watching was in its infancy. On an early whale watching expedition, Captain Aaron Avellar, who along with his father Al pioneered whale watching in New England, noticed a humpback whale with an unusual amount of white on its dorsal fin. The coloring distinguished the whale from the others. Captain Avellar joked that it looked as if someone had sprinkled salt on the back of this cetacean, so he referred to her as “Salt.” The name stuck, and a tradition began. Salt

(Center for Coastal Studies, Provincetown)

was the first whale on the planet to be given a name instead of a number. Today, over 3,000 humpback whales have been named and are tracked by researchers as they migrate. The naming of whales is now a longstanding community tradition in the Gulf of Maine region. Individual humpback whales continue to be named for their unique traits, though these are most often found in the pigmentation on the underside of their flukes. The Avellar family still has the unique honor of naming Salt’s calves. Their names are all related to salt (or some other condiment) in some way. Salt is considered the “Grande Dame” of humpback whales that visit Stellwagen Bank National Marine Sanctuary. She has been studied more than any other whale, both in the Gulf of Maine and at her breeding grounds in the Caribbean Sea. Logging more than 3,000 miles each year, she leaves cold New England in the winter for warmer waters off the coast of the Dominican Republic. Her migration takes her past Boston, New York, Baltimore, Charleston, Savannah, Jacksonville, the Everglades, and Miami. By studying Salt’s movements, marine biologists are able to better understand the migration route of the North Atlantic humpback whale. Why the long journey? Humpback whales spend the summer feeding off the rich food supply on Stellwagen Bank. Here they enjoy an abundance of their favorite food: a tiny, oil-rich fish called a sand lance. In one day, a mature humpback can consume up to a ton of these eel-like fish. As the waters cool in late fall, humpbacks head south to warmer waters to breed and give birth. Salt was the first humpback to

be sighted in the Gulf of Maine and re-sighted in the Caribbean. She has been seen almost every year since 1975. How do humpbacks know where to go? Scientists believe they learn important habits, such as migration routes, from their mother during the first year of life. Though studies of tagged whales show that they sometimes make very precise and direct movements between the Gulf of Maine and the Caribbean Sea, scientists are still not sure how whales find their way. Salt produces a new calf every two to three years, the average reproduction rate for humpbacks. To date, she has given birth to 13 calves and is now a grandmother. Saltâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s exalted status is well earned. She was the first humpback whale to have her genome sequenced. Scientists compared her DNA to that of her calves, concluding for the first time that whales have different partners. In 1999, Salt and Cardhu, an adult female, were seen together from June to November. This broke the record for the longest known association between humpbacks. Such long-lasting relationships are not common among baleen whales. Decades after the first sighting, Salt continues to teach researchers about the inner world of the humpback whale. Long-term studies provide critical information for humpback whale science and conservation. The study of Salt and other members of the whale population has helped improve our understanding of humpback whale biology, population changes, and threats. Will Salt make an appearance during our whale watch this year? Keep your eyes peeled on deck! (Center for Coastal Studies, Provincetown)

Relative sizes of whales (Cape Cod Times)

Part 2: At Cape Codâ&#x20AC;Š

The historic Nauset Lighthouse in Eastham, Cape Cod. It is also famous for appearing on the package of a well-known product. Do you know where you have seen it before? (Michael Clancy)

Before We Go Complete this page before arriving in Cape Cod 1. What do you already know about this trip?

2. What do you want to know about this trip?

3. What are you most excited to do on this trip?

Safety Rules at Cape Cod In order for everyone to have a fun and worthwhile time on this trip, it is important to follow some simple safety rules. By observing the following guidelines, we can ensure that everyone will be safe.

Use insect repellent carefully; never spray any directly on your or a classmate’s face. At Cape Cod Sea Camps, walk only in the cabin area and on the paths. Do not take shortcuts.

Give any medications you are taking during the trip to Ms. Tudor. It is your responsibility to see her when you are scheduled to take it.

If you injure yourself in any way, tell Mr. Clancy or one of the other teachers immediately.

Never wander off by yourself, particularly during free time in the afternoons. Make sure you are at the place where you signed up to be.

While we have never had anyone affected by poison ivy (Toxicodendron radicans), be on the lookout for it. It has rash consequences for those who cannot identify it. Leaves of three, beware of thee!

When working in teams, always be aware of your group’s location. Use only those facilities of the camp that have been reserved for us. Mr. Clancy will inform you as to what is considered “out of bounds.” Always wear footwear when you are outside the cabin. Use sunscreen when outside. Be sure to dress properly for each activity. Your teachers will make recommendations before we begin. As a rule it is better to dress too warmly. (Healthwise, Incorporated)

Woods Hole, Massachusetts 3. What are the two main causes of death for Northern right whales? ___________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________ 4. How did the right whale get its name? ___________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________ WHOI Exhibit Center (Michael Clancy)

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Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution Exhibit Center

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1. What is the current estimated population of the Northern right whale?

5. Name one WHOI marine mammal â&#x20AC;&#x153;firstâ&#x20AC;?:

_______________________________

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2. How do researchers tell right whales apart?

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6. Which two scientists first recorded whale sounds, and in what year did they do this? ___________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________ 7. What is hydrostatic pressure? ___________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________ 8. How did the “black smoker” get its name? Students learn about phytoplankton at the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution Exhibit Center. (Michael Clancy)

___________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________

10. The basement display states that the zoracid fish is a vertebrate. What does this mean?

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9. What is a symbiotic relationship? What are the three types of symbiosis?

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11. The exhibit also notes that the zoracid fish is an apex predator. What do you think this means?

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12. Why do scientists study ocean color? __________________ ___________________________________________________ 13. Give two reasons why phytoplankton are important. ___________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________ 14. What is the Alvin? ___________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________

Gabby Grasso, Kate Leach, and Hannah O’Shea ‘21 explore a mockup of the Alvin. (Michael Clancy)

15. In what year was the Alvin launched? _________________ 16. How is Jason different from Alvin? ___________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________ 17. In what year did the Titanic sink? _______________ 18. In what year was the Titanic found? _______________ 19. What is IFREMER? _______________________________ ___________________________________________________ Lizzie Ford, Ashley Clemens, Brianna Mahon, and Colette Travers ‘22 investigate the Titanic at the WHOI Exhibit Center. (Michael Clancy)

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Along Water Street

4. In what year was the Marine Biological Laboratory established? _______________ 5. Where does the Woods Hole ferry take you? ___________________________________________________ 6. What does NOAA stand for? ___________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________ 7. How many examples of marine life are represented around the sundial? _________________

Woods Hole sundial (Michael Clancy)

1. What kind of ship is carved above the entrance to the Candle House? ____________________________________________ 2. How did the Candle House get its name? ___________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________ 3. When was the Helical Man made? _____________________

Members of the Class of 2022 enjoy a break outside the Woods Hole Aquarium. (Michael Clancy)

Woods Hole Science Aquarium

2. Make a sketch of one marine organism you saw at the aquarium in the space below:

A striped burrfish at the Woods Hole Science Aquarium. (Michael Clancy)

1. Locate three different kinds of fish and complete the following chart: Name of Organism

Name of organism: _____________________________________________

Range and Habitat

Comments

Cape Cod Sea Camps 3. The motto of the outdoor theater is __________________________________________________. 4. Name five people with whom you are sharing your dorm this week: a. _________________________________________________ b. _________________________________________________ c. _________________________________________________ d. _________________________________________________ e. _________________________________________________ The entrance to the camp. (Michael Clancy)

Cape Cod Sea Camps is your home away from home. Complete the following questions by Thursday morning.

The Dorm 1. What is the number of your dorm? __________ 2. In which direction does your front door face? ____________ How do you know? ___________________________________ ___________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________

Late afternoon on the beach at Cape Cod Sea Camps. (Michael Clancy)

5. Write one new thing you learned about each of the dorm mates you listed on the previous page. Keep the comments friendly and readable.

6. Write the names of all the teachers on this trip. Next to each name, record one thing you learned about her or him this week.

a. _________________________________________________

___________________________________________________

b. _________________________________________________

___________________________________________________

c. _________________________________________________

___________________________________________________

d. _________________________________________________

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e. _________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________ 85

Whale Watch

A playful humpback whale slaps its fluke on the water near a whale watching ship. (Michael Clancy)

sand lance, a small fish that resembles an eel. Sand lance are a favorite food of humpback, minke, and finback whales. As you can see, many members of this area’s food web benefit from upwelling.

Willa Sarcone and Kate Hoesterey ’22 demonstrate the proper way to dress for a whale watch. (Michael Clancy)

Our whale watch will attempt to bring you very close to the largest animals on Earth. The area we will be visiting is Stellwagen Bank, a sand and gravel plateau on the ocean floor. Stellwagen Bank is 19 miles long and six miles across at its widest point. The water over Stellwagen Bank is approximately 100 feet deep. This area is one of the most popular feeding grounds for whales in the Atlantic Ocean. Why? As deep ocean currents strike and then rise up the slopes of Stellwagen Bank, they bring with them many nutrients resting on the bottom. This process is called upwelling. Phytoplankton take advantage of upwelling nutrients to multiply rapidly in the sunlit shallow water. Zooplankton eat the phytoplankton, and in turn they are consumed by larger marine animals such as right whales and

Common dolphins swimming alongside our ship last fall. (Michael Clancy)

Whale Behaviors

Whale Watching Tips

Spyhopping: A whale rises out of the water until its eyes

1. Wear warm clothes. It can get cold on the water.

break the surface. The whale appears curious to take a look at the world above.

2. If you feel ill during the trip, stay outside and go to the stern (back) of the boat. 3. If you are taking pictures during the voyage, be sure to use the neck strap of your camera. 4. There is no running or jumping on the boat. 5. When a whale is spotted during a whale watch, giving its location is like using the numbers on a clock, with “12 o’clock” being the bow (front) of the boat. Try to be the first person to call out the location of a whale as it surfaces.

“Whale at one o’clock!” (Michael Clancy)

Blow: Usually the first thing you see when a whale surfaces. As

Flipper slapping: A whale rolls onto its back, raises one or both

warm, moist air from the whaleâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s lungs comes in contact with cooler air, a visible spray is produced that rises up to 10 feet. Different species of whales can be identified by the shape of their blow.

pectoral fins above the water, and brings them down with a resounding slap that can be heard for miles. Why whales do this is still debated; theories include communication and play.

Breaching: A whale launches itself headfirst above the surface,

Lobtailing: A whale pounds the water with its tail, or fluke. Also known as “tail slapping,” it may be repeated many times in a row. Scientists speculate that lobtailing is a form of non-vocal communication, like flipper slapping, and may even signal aggression.

then crashes back to the water in spectacular fashion. Whether it is for courting, herding fish, playing, or attempting to shake barnacles from its body, no one knows.

Fluking: A whale raises its tail before a dive. Whales dive to great depths when feeding, staying down for as long as 30 minutes. In humpbacks, the underside of the tail is unique to each whale and is used for identification.

Round-out or peduncle arch: This usually indicates that the

whale is going to dive deep. Unlike humpbacks, most other whales do not show their fluke.

Journal Writing

Sunset in Wellfleet. (Michael Clancy)

Before you go to bed each night, you are instructed to write in your journal. Do not simply list the day’s activities. Rather, address each day’s question by selecting an activity you enjoyed or an event that is on your mind and describe it in detail. Because there will be no opportunity to revise or rewrite your journal entries, be sure to think very carefully about your topic before you write. Then, using writing techniques you have learned such as paragraph indentation, specific details, and well-chosen verbs and modifiers (descriptive words), try to recapture each day’s most meaningful experience.

Day 1: Tuesday

__________________________________________________

Date: ___________________________

Write about your thoughts on the bus ride to Cape Cod. What are some reflections you had about this trip? What are some things you were excited about? What were some things you were anxious about? Look at the answers you wrote to the questions on page 77. Which of your questions have been answered? What else would you like to accomplish on this trip? Add to your list.

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__________________________________________________ __________________________________________________ __________________________________________________ __________________________________________________

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Day 2: Wednesday

__________________________________________________

Date: ___________________________

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Select one activity you took part in today and write about it. What were some of the sights, sounds, and smells of this experience?

__________________________________________________ __________________________________________________

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Day 3: Thursday

__________________________________________________

Date: ___________________________

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Reflect on your three days at Cape Cod. What was the most interesting place you visited? What was the best activity? Which day was the most exciting?

__________________________________________________ __________________________________________________

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Day 4: Friday

__________________________________________________

Date: ___________________________

Hopefully you have enjoyed a good nightâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s sleep back in your own bed. What are your thoughts about this trip as a whole? Should we do this trip again next year? Why or why not? What things did you do this week that you really looked forward to?

__________________________________________________

__________________________________________________ __________________________________________________

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Bibliography Meinkoth, Norman. National Audubon Society Field Guide to North American Seashore Creatures. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, Inc, 1981.

Berrill, N.J., and Berrill, Jacquelyn. 1001 Questions Answered About the Seashore. New York: Dover Publications, 1957. Beston, Henry. The Outermost House. 1928. New York: Henry Holt and Company, 1992.

Melville, Herman. Moby Dick. 1851. New York: Penguin Books U.S.A, 1992.

Carson, Rachel. The Edge of the Sea. New York: Mariner Books, 1998.

Newton, Gilbert. Seaweeds of Cape Cod Shores. Brewster, Massachusetts: Gilbert Newton, 2008.

Carwardine, Mark. Whales, Dolphins, and Porpoises. New York: Dorling Kindersley Publishing, 2002.

O’Brien, Greg. A Guide to Nature on Cape Cod and the Islands. Cape Cod, Massachusetts: On Cape Publications, 1990.

Chaiken, Andrew. A Man on the Moon: The Voyages of the Apollo Astronauts. New York: Penguin Books, 1994. Coulombe, Deborah. The Seaside Naturalist. New York: Fireside Books, 1984.

Oldale, Robert. Cape Cod Martha’s Vineyard and Nantucket: The Geologic Story. Cape Cod, Massachusetts: On Cape Publications, 2001.

Fortey, Richard. Horseshoe Crabs and Velvet Worms: The Story of Animals and Plants That Time Has Left Behind. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2011.

Philbrick, Nathanial. Mayflower. New York: Viking Press, 2006.

Hansen, Judith. Seashells In My Pocket. Boston: Appalachian Mountain Club Books, 2008.

Sargent, William. Crab Wars. A Tale of Horseshoe Crabs, Bioterrorism, and Human Health. Lebanon, New Hampshire: University Press of New England, 2002.

Hoyt, Erich. Seasons of the Whale: Riding the Currents of the North Atlantic. Post Mills, Vermont: Chelsea Green Publishing Company, 1990.

Schwarzman, Beth. The Nature of Cape Cod. New Hampshire: University Press of New England, 2002.

Lawlor, Elizabeth. At the Seashore: Things to Know and Things to Do. Harrisburg, Pennsylvania: Stackpole Books, 1992.

Shumay, Scott. The Naturalist’s Guide to the Atlantic Seashore. Guilford, Connecticut: The Globe Pequot Press: 2008.

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Siebert, Charles. “What Are The Whales Trying To Tell Us?” The New York Times Magazine, July 12, 2009. Stokes, Donald and Lillian. Beginner’s Guide to Shorebirds. New York: Little, Brown and Company, 2001. Teal, John, and Teal, Mildred. Life and Death in the Salt Marsh. New York: Ballantine Books, 1969. Thoreau, Henry David. Cape Cod. 1865. Stillwell, Kansas: Digireads Publishing, 2006. Thurman, Harold, and Trujillo, Alan. Introductory Oceanography, 10th Edition. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Pearson Prentice Hall, 2004. Whitehead, Hal. “The Whale That Captured Me.” Whalewatcher Magazine. Spring 2012. Zimmer, Carl. “Fin Whales at Feeding Time: Dive Deep, Stop Short, Open Wide.” The New York Times. December 11, 2007. Page F3.

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Notes and Drawings

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