ASTUDYONTEMPLEARCHITECTURE
ADISSERTATIONREPORT
Submittedby
S.MACVINAFERNANDO REGISTERNO:723818251033
inpartialfulfillmentfortheawardofthedegree Of
BACHELOROFARCHITECTURE
SASICREATIVESCHOOLOFARCHITECTURE COIMBATORE-641032
(AffiliatedtoAnnaUniversity,Chennai)
SASICREATIVESCHOOLOFARCHITECTURE
COIMBATORE-641032 (AffiliatedtoAnnaUniversity,Chennai)
ANNAUNIVERSITY:CHENNAI600025
BONAFIDECERTIFICATE
Certifiedthatthisdissertationreporttitled‘‘ASTUDYONTEMPLE ARCHITECTURE’’isthebonafideworkof“S.MACVINA FERNANDO,723818251033”whocarriedoutthedissertationworkundermy supervision.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
ThishasbeenaninterestingandinformativeexperienceIwouldliketo thankmyresearchguideAsstProfMatildaCorreyaandourDirector Prof.GayathriViswanathanwhogavemethepossibilitiesandencouragement tocompletethisreportondissertationSecondly,Iwouldalsoliketothankmy parentsandfriendswhohelpedmealotinfinalizingthisprojectwithinthe limitedtimeframe.
ABSTRACT
Aplacethatthrivestherelationshipwithgodandhumansisatemple. Atempleisaplacethathastheexistenceofancientbelieves,traditions, culture,communityandcustoms.Atemplestandsasasociety’sancestral andcivilizationmemoryandmarksbothit’sgloryanddownfallThe importanceoftemplesinIndiacanbeunderstoodbythenumberoftemplesin India,althoughtwentypercentofIndiantemplesweredestroyedbyforeign invadersmanyofthemstillremainsasheritagemonumentsTemples replicatesnotonlythelifeoftheroyalswhobuiltitbutalsothelifeofwarriors, scholars,artists,sculptures,craftsmenandthepeopleofalltimesTemples carryoutthevaluesandtraditionsofmanyreligionsallovertheworldInIndia HindutemplesaretestimoniesifIndianarchitecture.Templearchitecturein IndiaisclassifiedintothreetypesbasedontheirarchitecturalstylesThe NagarafromtheNorth,DravidianfromtheSouthandVesarawhichisamixed stylearethemaintypesofstylesbuttherearealsootherstylesofother regions
Dissertationaimsintellingtemplearchitectureindetailabouttheancient people,societytheirvaluesforartandarchitecture,planning,features, elements,craftsmanship,sculptinganditsdetailingandtheirwayoflivingin HinduismfollowsbyacasestudyofanancientHindutempleandtalksabout thehistoryofthedynasty,itscultureandreligion,society,literature,artand architecture,itsnatureandinfluenceandinmoredetailaboutmethodologyof construction,itsmaterialusage,planningandvariouselementsandfeatures thatistheentrance,shrine,nandhi,sanctum,mandapa,exteriorandinterior walls,pillarsandtheceilingofthetemple
INTRODUCTION
ArchitectureinIndianhistorystartedfromtheancientIndusvalley civilization.AlmostmostoftheIndianartandarchitectureareencouragedby thereligiouspracticesofdifferenterasoneofthemostimportantfeatureof theancientIndiantemplesweretheirdecorationsthatarereflectedinthe multitudedetailsofthesculpturesthatarefiguredandvariousother architecturalelementsandtheirdetailingsIndianhistoryisdeeplytiedwith Hinduism,ithasalwaysbeenareligionofconservativeritualpractice.
Traditionally,thetempleisasacredstructureandalsoanindicativeof adobeofGods.Hindutemplesreflectasynthesisofarts,beliefs,values,and wayoflifecherishedunderHinduismItisasacredsitewheretheambience andthedesignsymbolicallytellstheidealtenetsofHinduwayoflife. CHAPTER1
1.1AIM
ThestudyfocusesonTempleArchitectureToknowindetailaboutthe evolutionandhistoryofIndiantemplearchitectureandstudyandanalyzethe importanceofHoysaladynastyinIndianhistory,itsartandarchitecture, literature,culturalandreligiouspractices.
1.2OBJECTIVES
TostudytheimportanceoftemplesinIndianarchitecture
TostudyindepthaboutHindutempleplanning,elements,itsmaterial characteristicsanditsconstructiontechniques
TostudyaboutimportanceofHoysalaarchitectureinIndianarchitecture
TostudyindetailabouttheHoysaleshwaratemple
1.3LIMITATIONS
ThisdissertationscopesmainlyonthestylesoftemplearchitectureItlooks intotheaspectsoftheoriginofthetemples,itsdevelopmentthephilosophy underwhichitisbeingbuilttogainabetterunderstandingontheconstruction techniquesaswellastheperiodandculturethatdevelopedthem.
CHAPTER2
TEMPLEARCHITECTURE
2.1INTRODUCTIONTOTEMPLEARCHITECTURE
“Thetempleisthemostcharacteristicartistic expressionofHinduism,providingafocusforboththesocial andspirituallifeofthecommunityitserves”
-GeorgeMichellEverystyleofbuildingthatisbeenconstructedclearlydepictsthebasic principleofaparticularera.Atempleisalinkbetweenmanandasacred space.Thewordtempleisderivedfromalatinwordtemplummeansasacred placeofworshipTemplesserveasaplaceofprayerandsacrificesItsdirectly connectedtothephilosophyofIndianculture.Templesarethevisual represntaionofthecosmicpoweronearth
TemplesarethepinnacleofIndianarchitecturewhichisthesoulofIndian cultureArchitecturalremainsthatexisttilltodayaremostlyfromtheancient andmedievalageIndianhistorythatarereligiousinnature.Templesinherent notonlythereligioussystembutalsotheeducationalsystemTemplesalso havesocialandculturalsignificancesThedifferentarchitecturalstylesof templesresultedinthegeographical,climatic,ethinic,racial,historicaland linguisticchangesinallpartsofthenationInIndiatemplesarefound everywhereinallcitiesandvillages.
TherewasaveryhugedifferenceintheconstructionmaterialsAtfirst perishablematerialssuchaswood,clayandterracottaastimepassedthey usedtheycarvedonstonesespeciallysandstone,graniteandmarblesThe
garbha-griha,orthewombchamberisasignificantcomponentofIndian temples.Acirculationspacewasconstructedaroundthegarbha–griha,a commoncomponentinSouthIndiantemplesisthatithasmanyothershrines withinthetemplecomplex
2.1.1SPIRITUALITYANDMAN
TheideologybehindthearchitectureofHindutemplesistoconnectmanand godAHindutempleisaplacewhereonefeelbeingclosetogodithas evolvedovertwothousandyearsanddepictsboththeuniverseandtheinner spaceAccordingtoHinduismaman’slifeistheassumptionsofinnumerable individuallifespansthatisconnectedtocycleofrebirth.Enlightmentcanbe attainedbypurebehaviours,ideasandcommitment
2.1.2TEMPLEANDCULTURE
Theearlymanwhoworshipedanumberofnaturegodshassomeelements thatwasconnectedtoHinduism.Theearlyaryansocietywasdividedintofour classes(varnas)andtheirritualsinvolvedworshipingoftheabstractformsof naturalforcessuchasfire,waterandwind.Latertheritualsbecame complicatedtheyneededprieststoperformtheritualswhichpavedthewayto theriseofracesandclasssystemsTheygraduallygrewtheyworshipsby devotionalworshipthroughsculptedimagesthatmergedintothetrueformof HinduismTheythenneededaspaceforworshipingwheretheycould exchangethoughtsandgrowuptheirsociallife.Musicanddancewasalsoa partofritualsinHinduismwhichisfollowedonadailybasisThepresenceof theseactivitiesgavepeoplemoreknowledgeabouttheirculture,traditions andalsoappreciatedtheolderpractices.Schoolsandhospitalswere frequentlysituatedinsidethetempleboundaries,anditalsoservedasatownhall,wherepeoplegatheredtodiscusslocalissuesortoheartheexposition ofreligioustextsThevastendowmentsinlandandmoneyprovidedoneach templebysuccessivegenerationsofdevoutbenefactorstendedtomakeit bothagenerouslandlordandabanker,whoseassistancewasalways accessibletopeopleinneedThehabitofadorningpictures,particularlythose usedinprocessions,withcountlessjewelsstuddedwithvaluablestonesaided thejeweler'sskilltoalargeextentanditisnotanexaggerationtosaythatthe templetookeverythingthatwasbestincivilisedexistence'sartsand regularizedthemwiththehumanenessbornoftheDharmaspirit.The mediaevaltemplehasfewanaloguesasasocialwell-beingagency
Asaculturalcentre,thetemplewitnessedtheemergenceofseveralschools ofart,architecture,sculpture,painting,music,anddancethroughoutthe country,resultinginarangeofsystemsinplasticandperformingarts,despite thefactthattheyalloriginatedfromthesamespiritualsourceInthetemple grounds,culturaleventsrangingfrommusicandBhajanstotheatreand dramahavetakenplace.Thetemplehasalsoinspiredanumberofpoets, musicians,andartistswhohavemadesignificantcontributionstoBhakti literature,music,anddance.Asthenameimplies,the'Ranga-Sala'inthe middleareaofthemandapahasservedasasitefordancing.Thetemple becameanimportantcentreofreligiousandculturalactivitiesCultureisthe
contentofreligion,whilereligionistheshapeofcultureReligionmustemploy culturalformstoexpressitself,andeveryreligiousactisshapedbythe cultureofacountryAsareligiouscentre,thetemplethusembodiesthe cultureofthespecificplace
ThetempleremainedaneducationalfacilityTherecitalofthePuranas,which propagatedHinduideologyandcultureamongliteratesandilliteratesalike, remainedauniqueaspectoftempleactivitiesEndowmentsintemplesforthe recitalandexpositionoftheepicsandPuranasofferedadulteducationacross thecountry.Templesspecificallypromotedmusicanddance.Itwasa frequentforumforthecorrectdisplayofmusicians,actors,dancers,jesters, humorists,lecturers,entertainers,gestures,debaters,orators,pipers,and drummers'Afterthemainsequencewascompleted,musicalperformances andthepresentationofdance-itemswereaddedinthedailyandoccasional worshiproutine.Thesebecamemoresignificantthaneveratfestivaltimes, attractingvastnumberstothetempleThetemplesanddeitiesprovided spiritualanddevotionalinspirationforpoets,academics,andauthorsto produceworksofhighqualityinSanskritandotherlanguages,which contributedtothekings'andthemasses'religious,moral,spiritual,andethical values.
InmedievalIndia,templesevolvedintomuseumsThemassiveandtowering templehousedavarietyofstoneandmetalsculpturesandsymbols,allowing thegreatestsculptorstoshowcasetheirskillsAnothertemplefunctionedasa townhallwherepeoplegatheredtodiscusslocalissuesortohearthe expositionofreligioustextsItalsoservesasagatheringspaceforstudents andothersIntemplecomplexes,monarchsandroyalswouldalsointeract withcivilians.Onoccasion,thetemplehostedcelebrationsthatwereattended bypeoplefromallwalksoflifeTheseentertainmentsbenefitedboththe affluentandthepoor.Duringthecelebrations,pilgrimswereprovidedfree foodandaccommodationintemplerestroomsAtemplehastwofunctions: religiousandadministrativeAsareligiousinstitution,thetempleiswhere worshipisperformedforthebenefitandwell-beingoftheentirecommunity. Anotherissueisthemanagementofthetemple,whichrequiredalargesum ofmoneyinordertoperformitsall-encompassingfunctioninsociety.In general,royalpatrons,affluentdevotees,andothersfundedtempleswith villagegrants,landgrants,differentduesandlevies,moneydonations,and miscellaneousgifts,includingendowmentsofanimals,oilmills,andothers. Onthedayofhiscoronation,themonarchandotherswouldofferdonationsto atemple.
InmedievalIndia,thetempleservedasabankTemplewasofferedan annualinterestrateoftwelvetofifteenpercent.Templesusedtomake interest-freeloansbackthenThetempleplayedanimportantrolein generatingregionaldevelopmentfundingbymakingloanstovillagecouncils fordevelopmentpurposes.Themajorityoftheloansweregrantedfor productiveenterprisessuchasagriculture,livestockraising,andtradeThere werenumerousservantsinthetemplecomplex,whowereessentially groupedintothreecategories:thoseengagedinpurelyspiritualactivities, thoseworkingintempleadministration,andthoseappointedtoperform
variousotherservicesInadditiontoformalemployment,thetempleindirectly employedahugenumberofindividuals.Manyotherswerealsoengagedona temporaryorpart-timebasisbythetempleThetemple,forexample,the Kesavatemple,wasakeysourceofworkforthepeople
2.1.2TEMPLEANDSOCIETY
TheHindutemplesalsoprovidedmeansoflivelihoodforalargenumberof people.ThecharacterofHindutemplesreflectedlocalarchitecturalstylesand thematerialsandskillstowhichtheywererelatedApartfromtheroyalsand themerchants,everyindividualalsodonatedsomethingtothetemple. TemplesweremaintainedbytheBrahmins,fundedbythekings,protectedby theKshatriyas,cleanedbytheshudrasandfoodwasprovidedbythefarmers
TheShilpaShastrasandVastuSastrasdescribesmoreabouttheprinciples ofarchitecturethatwerewritteninthemedivelage.Theculturehaspromoted artisticfreedomandhasmadearchitectsoccasionallyexercisecreative expressionsusinggeometricandmathematicalconceptsindesigningthe MandirtosymbolisetheHinduwayofliving.RegardingHindutemplesand theirarchitectswhichislargelyetchedonthestoneslabsandmetalplates andmanuscriptsontheplatleaves
2.2HINDUTEMPLEARCHITECTURE
2.2.1HINDUISM
HinduismistheoldestreligionintheworldthatoriginatedfromtheCentral AsiaandtheIndusValleyCivilizationThewordHinduismisderivedfromthe PersiantermSindusthattellsaboutthosewholivedacrosstheIndusRiver. Brahma(thecreator),Vishnu(thesaviour)andShiva(thedestroyer)arethe threemostimportantgodsintheHinduphilosophyandtheirworshiprequire atempletoexpresstheirgratitudeandshowcasetheirdreamsofabetterlife. AlargevarietyofHindutempleswereconstructedalloverthecountrywith differencesinscale,techniquesofconstructionandveryparticularlythegods theyworshiped,whichmaddifferencesinthepoliticalculturalandprosperity intownsandvillages
2.2.2DESIGN
ThebasiccoreofHindutempleisthefaiththathasevolvedandtheideology thatoneandeverythingareconnectedThebasicfourandcrucialprinciples ofIndianphilosophywhichisthegoalofhumanexistencearethearthathatis therichesandsuccess,kamathatissexandpleasure,dharmathatismoral lifeandvirtuesandmokshathatisselfknowledgeandrealisationSuchbeliefs areillustratedintheHindutempleshasgeometricallyplannedrooms, exquisiteartworks,adornedandcarvedpillarsandsculpturesAhollowarea withnoornamentationislocatedinthecentreofthetempleusuallyunderthe deitythatrepresentsthecomplicatedideaofthepurusha,whichisthe
universalprinciple,conciousness,orthesupremebeingThetemplesare designedintheseways.
2.2.3THEELEMENTSOFHINDUTEMPLES
AstheHindutemplestylesvariesindifferentpartsthebasicelements remainsthesameeverywhere.
SHIKARAorVIMANA
Thetermshikharareferstoadomeshapedvimanaisastructurethatis abovethegarbha-griha.Itisapyramidalroofthathasseveralstoreysortala thatrepresentsthemythological“Meru”thatisthehighestmountainpeakThe shapeandsizeofthetowerstructurevariesfromregiontoregionalloverthe country.TheShikaraiscurveshapedandtheVimanaisinapyramidalshape. TheShikarainthetemplesoftheNorthandtheWesternregionsarethe higheststructures,intheSouthernregionitissmallerthanthegatehousesor thegopurams.TheVimanaisclassifiedintojativimanathathasfourtalasand mukhyavimanathathasfiveormoretalas
GARBHA-GRIHA
Agarbha-grihaorsannidhanamwhichliterallymeansawombchambera sanskritword,garbhaforwombandgrihaforhouse,isthesanctum sanctorum,theinnermostsanctuaryofaHindutemple.Thegarbha-grihais thehousethatismadeforthemaindeityorgodtobeplacedIntheearly templesthegarbha-grihawasasmallcubicalstructurewithaonlyone entranceandlateritgrewintolargercomplexes.Itissquareshapedandhas itsentrancedoorfacingtheeastdirection,onlythepriestsareallowedto enterthischamberdevoteesandvisitorsarenotallowedinthegarbha-griha.
PRADHIKSHANAPATHA
Thewordcomesfromthesanskritwordthatrefers“totheright”fortheritual ofwalkingtowardstheright.ThePradhikshanaPathaisreferedtoapassage aroundthegarbha-grihaorthesanctumsanctoroumUsuallythedevotee willbeginintheeast,asthemovetothesouthadthenthewesttowardsthe deityagain.Thedevoteeswalkinclockwisedirectionasaworshipritualand symbolofrespecttothetemplegodorgoddessItcomprisesofanenclosed corridorthatiscarriedaroundtheexteriorofthegarbha-griha.
MANDAPA
AmandapausuallyistheentrancetothetempleItisalsotheporticoor colonnadedhallthatincorporatesspaceforalargenumberofworshipersto sit,chantandmeditateItispillaredhallinfrontofthegarbhagrihaInmostof thetemplestheseporcheswereaddedseparatelyaftertheconstructionof temples.Latertheyevolvedintomandapasthatareenclosedbythickwalls, oropenlikeanextendedporchInsomeoftheearliertemplesthemandapas werealsoanisolatedandseperatestructureformthegarbhagriha.They
wereatfirstbuiltforthepurposeofservingprasadasInlargetemplesthere morethanoneortwomandapaswithinthetemplecompound.
SometempleshavemultiplemandapasindifferentsizesnamedasArtha mandapa,mandapaandMahamandapaArthamandapaisahalfopenhallis alsocalledasardhamandapa.Itisanentryporchthatservesasatransitional areabetweentheexteriorandthetemple’smandapa.Themahamandapaisa largepillaredhallnexttotheArthamandapainatemple,itisalsoknownas themukha-mandapa.TheMahaMandapawasthemainhallofthetemple, wheredanceswereconductedMandapasarecharacterizedas"open"or "closed"accordingonwhetherornottheyhavewallsOneormoremandapas aretypicallyseenintemplesonthesameaxisasthesanctuaryandthe templeentrance
ANTHARALA
MeaningthevestibuleortheintermediatechamberItunitesthemain sanctuaryandthepillaredhallofthetempleAntharalaaretypicallyseenin Chalukyan-styletemples,wherethe'Vimana'andthe'Mandapa'arelinked bytheAntarala
AMALAKA
Itisastonedisc-likestructureatthetopofthetempleshikarathatistypicalin NorthIndiantemples
KALASHA
AmandirkalashisametalorstonespireusedtocapHindutempledomes.It hasbeenemployedforthisfunctionsincetheChalukya,Gupta,andMauriya dynastiesTheKalashapotontopofaHindutemple'ssanctumsanctorum reflectstherootsoftheUpanishadsinvertedtreemetaphor.Accordingto Puranas,Kalashaisoneofthefourteenvaluablejewelsthatemergedfrom themilkyoceanwhenitwaschurned(SamudraManthan).Sometemplesuse stoneblocksasKalashaTheKalasha'sformrepresentsthepossibilitiesof life
Theuppermostbudrepresentsfreshlifeandexpansion.Sometemplesuse stoneblocksasKalashaHowever,mostareconstructedofcopperorbronze, andincertaintemples,theyaregoldplated.Thefoot-hold,egg,neck,lotusband,rid,andbudareallpartsoftheKalashaThefootholdisoftenformed likealotuswhosepetalsopenupandanegg-shapedpotrestsonitFroma distance,theKalasharesemblesaflowerbudorapot.InsidetheKalasha, cerealsandpreciousstonesaredepositedThe'goldenperson'whois housedinsidethepot,isanothercrucialhiddencomponentintheKalasha. InsidethepotisagoldeniconofSuvarnaPurushaThesymbolicmeaningof Kalashaatopatemplediffersbyarea
GOPURAM
Agopuraisanentrygatewithanoddnumberofkalasaontop.Ithasoneor morestoreysTempletowersaredetailedwithmarveloussculptures expresssingmanythingsrelatingtothedevotee’slife.Themagnificient externalartandgopuramelementsdemonstartethepowerofdravidianand IndianarchitectureThetemplegopuram,throughtwhichthedevoteesenter thetempleenclosure,itdepictthedivinity’sfeet,whilethegarbhagriha depictsthedivinity’shead
Theconstructionofgopuramsbecamepopularinthe11thcentury,duringthe Pallavaperiod,theconstructionofGopuramconstructionsbecameimportant EventheCholasvaluedthegopuramsintemplearchitecture,butthey prioritisedtheconstructionofenormousVimanasabovetheGopurams,which aretypicallysmallerinmostofthetemplestheybuilt.Pandyasinotherhand concentratedonthegrandeurdecorationoftheGopuramsAgopuramis constructedwithamassivestonebaseinarectangulardesignandabrick superstructureaboveitwithsupport.Ithasabarrel-vaultroofwithaseriesof finialsontopHeight,size,andsoforthchangefromtempletotemple However,thetemple'soveralldesignremainsconsistent.It'sworthnotingthat
theheightoftheVimanaovertheinnersanctuaryvariesacrossIndiaThe VimanaisthehighestbuildinginEastIndia'stempleswheretheKalingastyle ofarchitectureispopularThisisalsotrueinnorthandwestIndia,wherethe towerwithVimanatowersabovethesanctuary
PITHA
Pithasare‘seats’or‘benches’ofthegoddessgenerallynumbered108and linkedwithvariouselementsofherdivinefemalepowerorshakti,manyofthe 108pitahshavebecomemajorpilgrimagesitesforHindus.Itisaplinthorthe platformofthetempleTheShaktiPithawascameintoexixtencefromthe well-knownstorybasedonthedeathofthegoddessSati,Thenarrativeis abouttheGoddessSati,daughterofDaksaandbrideofShivaSatitook offencewhenDaksadeclinedtoinviteShivaandSatitoabigsacrificeand thencommittedsuicidethere.Shivagrewinfuriated,murderedDaksa,and destroyedtheofferingOutofsorrow,LordShivacarriedSati'sbodyacross theuniverse,rememberingabouttheirtimestogether.LordVishnuusedhis SudarshanaChakratocutherbodyinto51pieces,whichdroppedtoEarth andbecamesacredspotswhereallpeoplemightpayreverencetothe Goddess.LordShivaassumedtheshapeofBhairavatofulfilthis tremendouslylengthymission
TORANAS
Atoranaisafreestandingdecorativearcheddoorwayforceremonial purposesasfoundinHindutemplesToranasarenormallymadeupoftwo pillarswithtwoorthreetransversebeamsthatextendbeyondthepillarson eitherside.Toranasarefrequentlycoveredfromtoptobottomwithfine sculpting,givingthemastrongresemblancetotimberstructureThefour toranasofSanchi'sGreatStupaareoutstandingexamples.Toranasare believedtobringgoodfortuneandtorepresentausiousandfestiveoccasions Toranasoftentakestheshapeofaprojectingcross-piecesupportedbytwo uprightsorposts.Itisbuiltofwoodorstone,andthecross-pieceisusually composedofthreebarsstackedoneontopoftheother;boththecross-piece andthepostsareusuallycarved.Symbolictoranasmadeofflowersandeven leavescanalsobehungoverdoorwaysandatentrances,especiallyin WesternandSouthernIndia
Therearemanydifferenttypesoftoranas,includingpatra-torana(onthe scrollsorgatewayadornmentmadeofleaves),puspa-torana(madeof flowers),ratna-torana(madeofpreciousstones),stambha-torana(madeof pillars),citra-torana(madeofpaintings),bhitti-torana(adornmentmadeon walls,suchasoverthewallrecess
STYLES
3.1EVOLUTIONOFARCHITECTURALSTYLES
IndiahasadiversecultureandheritagethatoriginatedfromtheIndusValley civilization.ArchitecturerevealsIndia'sculturaldiversity.Differentformsof Indianarchitecturalstylescompriseavarietyofmanifestationsthroughout placeandtime,changedbyforcesofhistoryacknowledgeduniquetoIndia.A widerangeofarchitecturalexhibitshaveemergedasaresultofimmense diversities,keepingsomedegreeofcontinuitythroughouthistoryIndian architecturefromvariouserasretainstheimprintoftheerainissue.The majorityofIndianartisinfluencedbyreligionThoughthetownsoftheIndus Valleyshowsignificantevidenceofcomprehensivetownplanning,theorigins ofIndianarchitecturemaybetracedbacktothearrivalofBuddhisminIndia. Indiahasseenavarietyofarchitecturalstylesemergeandevolveoverits history.TherehavebeenseveralarchitecturalstylesinIndiancivilization,they aretheNagaraor‘northern’style,theDravidianor‘southern‘style,andthe VesaraorhybridstylewhichisseenintheDeccanbetweentheothertwo.
3.2NAGARASTYLE
NortherntemplehistorybeginswiththeGuptasandtheirsuccessors(5thto 7thcentury)andprogressestotheEarlyChalukyas(7thto8thcentury), KalingasandEasternGangas(8thto13thcentury),Pratiharasand Chandellas(8thto11thcentury),MaitrakasandSolankis(8thto13thcentury), andRajputanas(8thto12thcentury).
3.2.1FEATURES
ThetemplesweregenerallyconstructedinPanchayatanarchitecture,which consistedofsubordinateshrinesorganizedinacrucifiedgroundplanin relationtothemainshrineTheprominentfeaturesoftheNagarastylearethe shikara,garbhagriha,mandapa,groundplanandthecurvilineartower.The superstructureinthisdesignconsistsoftwostructures,themaintallershrine andashorterborderingmandapa.Thegarbhagrihaisalwayssituated beneaththehigheststructureThemaindistinctionbetweenthesetwo structuresistheformoftheshikaraAbell-shapedstructurehasbeenerected tothemainshrine.Outsidethegarbhagriha,imagesoftherivergoddesses GangaandYamunawereplaced,therewerenowatertanksorreservoirson thetemplegrounds,andmosttempleswerebuiltonhighplatforms.The porticoswereapproachedthroughapillaredapproachThetemplesare generallymadeupoffourroomsTheyareGarbhagriha,Jagmohan, Natyamandir,Bhogamandir.Theporticoapproachwerethroughapillared approachShikarasareclassifiedintothreetypes:
LatinaorRekha-prasad-.BasedonRekha-PrasadaLatinaStyleSimple shikharawithasquarebaseandinward-slopingwallsthatleadtoapointat thetop.LatertheLatinashapegrowintoamoreintricateconstructionwith severaltowersclusteredtogetherThegarbhagrihawaslocatedjustbeneath thetallestbuildinginthecentre.
Phamsana-Roofswereformedoutofmanyslabsthatgraduallyascendedto asinglepointabovethestructure'scentre.Roofsdonotcurveinwardslike Latinaroofs,butratherslopeupwardsinastraightlineLatinastructuresare broaderandlongerthanPhamsanastructuresThegarbhagrihainmany
templesisdesignedintheLatinastyle,whereasthemandapaismadeinthe Phamsanastyle.
Valabhi-Theywererectangularinshapeandhadavaultedceilingthat ascendedintorooms.Theywerealsoknownaswagon-vaultedrisingfromthe roof
Theshikara'sverticalendendedinahorizontalfluteddiscknownasthe Amalak,whichwasalsoknownaswagon-vaultedroofsTheKalash,a sphericalshape,wasplacedontopofthat.ItdisplaystheShikara-Atower, whichisgraduallyincliningtotheright,therewerenopillarsinNagarastyle Theinternalwallofthetemplewasdividedbythreerathas,orverticalplanes. ThesemonumentswereknownasTrirathatemplesLater,templeslikeas pancharatha,saptaratha,andevennavarathadevelopedThepradakshina walkway,whichsurroundsthesanctumsanctorum,wascovered,andthe verticalplaneswereusedasindividualpanelstoformstorysculpturesIn general,thetemplegroundslackedornamentalboundarywallsandgates.
SubdivisionsofNagaraStyle
TemplesofNagaraStyleArchitecturecanbefurthercategorisedasfollows:
TemplesoftheCentralIndians,TemplesoftheWesternIndians,Templesin EasternIndiaSub-SchoolsintheHillTemplesOdishaNagaraTemple ArchitectureSchool.Thistemple-buildingstylearoseinseveralpartsofthe KalingakingdomIthadthefollowingcharacteristics:
Theexternalwallswereornatelydecoratedwithexcellentcarvings,whilstthe insidewallswereplainTherewerenopillarsintheporch,andtheroofwas supportedbyirongirdersinstead.Rekhadeulwasthenameoftheshikhara attheOdishaschoolTheirroofswerevirtuallyverticalandabruptlycurved inwardsSunTempleatKonark(alsoknownastheBlackPagoda),Jagannath TempleinPuri,LingarajTempleinBhubaneswar,andsoon.Schoolof KhajurahoBoththeinteriorandexteriorwallsofthesetempleswererichly embellishedwithcarvings.Thesculptureswereofteneroticinthesubjectand tookinfluencefromVatsyayana'sKamasutraThetempleswerecomposedof sandstone
3.3DRAVIDASTYLE
TempleconstructioninsouthernIndiabeganintheearlyseventhcentury, undertheChalukyaempire.ThesetempleswereinfluencedbyBuddhist architectureTemplesprogressedfrommodestrockcutshrinestoenormous andcomplexbuildingsDuringthistimeperiod,templeswereenormous squarestructures.WithaprojectingporchandornamentalpillarsThetemple's rooffeaturedatinystructurethatwaslaterremovedThesikharaevolved Theentiretempleismodestandunadorned.TheAihole'sLadKhanshrineand Durgatemplearefromthiseraisagreatexample.Therockcutconstructions aroseduringthereignofPallavasduringthe7thand9thcenturiesThe
emperorspavedthegroundworkforthedravidianstyleoftempledesignand erectedthetemples.Mahabalipuram.DuringthePandyadynasty,southIndian templeswereerectedtothetoweringstructureThebasictemplecomposition includesgatesandgopuramsattheentrywayThegopuramswere responsibleforthetemplephysicallyappealingandalsocreatedanenclosure forthetemplesThegopuramsdevelopedfromarectangularfoundationtoa pyramidcappedbyabarrelvaultedshapeIntheeleventhcentury,the BrihadeshvaratempleatThanjavur,erectedbyCholamonarchs,wasoneof thetallesttemplesoftheperiod60-meterheightLater,thetemplesexpanded andbecamemoreelaborate.ThePallavasbuiltsplendidmonumentsinthe southinthe7thCEADMahendravarmanandhissonNarasimhavarman weremajorsupportersofartandarchitecture.TheMahabalipurambeach templewaserectedlater,mostlikelyduringthetimeofNarasimhavarmanII, alsoknownasRajasimhaItcontainsShivaandVishnushrines
3.3.1FEATURES
TheDravidatempleissurroundedbyacompoundwallAGopuram,orentry doorway,islocatedinthecentreofthefrontwallThemaintempletower, knownasvimanainTamilNadu,isshapedlikeasteppedpyramidthatclimbs upmathematically,asopposedtothebendingshikaraofNorthIndia.The term'shikara'isexclusivelyusedforthecrowningpartatthetopofaSouth Indiantemple,whichisgenerallyformedlikeaminiaturestupikaoran octagonalcupola,thisisanalogoustotheamalakandkalashaofNorthIndian temples.ThegatewayofGarbhagrihaisadornedwithfierceDvarapalas,or templedoorkeepersThisarchitecturalstylemakesextensiveuseofpillars andpilastersPradakshinaisperformedinacircularhallwayencirclingthe garbhagrihaTheMandapaisapillaredhallwithintricatelycarvedpillarsThe entirestructurewasenclosedbyhighwallsinacourtyardAmassivewater reservoir,sometimesknownasatempletank,iscommonlyseeninsidethe complex.ThemaintempleatsomeofthemostreveredtemplesinSouth Indiahasoneofthetiniesttowers.Thisisduetothefactthatitisgenerally thetemple'soldestsection.Itiscommontofindalargewaterreservoir,ora templetank,enclosedwithinthecomplex.Subsidiaryshrinesareeither
incorporatedwithinthemaintempletower,orlocatedasdistinct,seperate smallshrinesbesidethemaintempleKailashnathtempleatElloraisa famousexampleofatemplebuiltincompleteDravidianstyle
3.3.2CLASSIFICATIONOFDRAVIDIANTEMPLES
Dravidatemples,likeNagaratemples,havemultiplesubdivisionsTheseare basicallyoffivedifferentshapes:square,alsoknownascaturasra; rectangularorshalaorayatasra;elliptical,alsoknownasGaja-Prishtaor elephant-backed,oralsoknownvrittayata,derivingfromwagon-vaulted shapesofapsidalchaityaswithahorse-shoeshapedentrancefacadecalled anasiThefollowingdescriptionisoversimplifiedsincevariousdifferentforms canbemergedincertainerasandregionstoproducetheirowndistinctstyle
3.3.3THECONTRIBUTIONOFPALLAVASTODRAVIDIAN ARCHITECTURE
ThePallavasbuiltsplendidmonumentsinthesouthinthe7thCE MahendravarmanandhissonNarasimhavarmanweremajorsupportersofart andarchitectureTheMahabalipurambeachtemplewaserectedlater,most likelyduringthetimeofNarasimhavarmanII,alsoknownasRajasimha.It containsShivaandVishnushrines.
3.3.4THECONTRIBUTIONOFCHOLASTODRAVIDIANARCHITECTURE
TheCholasmasteredthePallava-inheritedDravidiantemplestyle.During thisperiod,architecturebecameincreasinglyornate,movingawayfromthe Pallavas'earlycavetemples.Stoneeventuallybecamethedominating materialfortempleconstructionGopuramsbecamemorepopularaboutthis periodTheywereadornedwithsculpturesofdifferentPuranasDuringthe Choladynasty,theVimanasrosetogreaterprominence.Brihadeshwara temple'stempletower,forexample,is66metrestallMorefocuswasplaced ontheusageofsculpturesinthetemple'sconstruction.
3.4VESARASTYLE
ThetermVesaraisbelievedtohavebeenderivedfromtheSanskritword vishrameaninganareatotakealongwalk.ThequartersofBuddhistandJain monkswholefturbanareastoliveincavetempleswerecalled viharasVesarastyletemplearchitectureintheDeccanandcentralparts Hybridoftwo.Inplan,itresemblesDravidastylewhereasintheshapeofits detailsitresemblesNagarastyleManyhistoriansagreethattheVesarastyle originatedinwhatistodayKarnataka.Thesetempleswerebuiltbythe HoysaladynastyinMysore.AndbylaterChalukyas.TemplesatBelur, Halebid,andSomnathpuraaresupremeexamplesofthisstyleTheChalukyas ofBadami(500-753AD)startedthetrendbybuildingtemplesinastylethat wasessentiallyamixtureoftheNagaraandDravidastyles,whichwasrefined bytheRashtrakutasofManyakheta(750-983AD)inEllora,Chalukyasof Kalyani(983-1195AD)inLakkundi,Dambal,Gadag,wasepitomisedbythe
(1000-1330AD)ThisstyleisseenintheHoysalatemplesatBelur,Halebidu, andSomnathpur.Theheightofthetempletowershasbeenloweredalthough thenumberoflevelshasnotThisisaccomplishedbyloweringtheheightof individuallayersThisformisalsousedtoimitatethesemi-circularerections ofBuddhistchaityas.Structuresinthisstylearewellcompleted,andfigures areheavilyadornedandpolished
3.4.1FEATURES
Thecomplex'sborderwall:Itwasbuiltlater,intheSouthIndianstyle,with littleCellasinthewallasenclosuresandfacingthemainshrineina rectangularcourtyard.Therearealsoafewuniquefeaturestheyare,
Decorating-Theornamentationofthetemplewallsandpillarsofthe ChalukyantempledemonstratesindigenousexcellenceTheChalukyan buildersalteredtheDravidatowersbyreducingtheheightofeachstoryand placingthemindecliningorderofheightfrombasetotop,withextensive embellishmentineachfloorNagaratowertransformation:Insteadofan inclinedfloor,theverticalshapeofthetowerhasbeenmodified.
3.4.2UNIQUEFEATURES
MantapaandPillarsaretwodistinctcharacteristicsofChalukyatemples.
Mantapa-Themantapahastwotypesofroofs:dome-likeceilings(which standonfourpillarsandareparticularlyappealing)andsquareceilings(these arevigorouslyornamentedwithmythologicalpictures)
Pillars-EachofthesmallornamentalpillarsfoundinChalukyatempleshas itsuniqueaestheticworth
4.1GEOMETRYOFHINDUTEMPLE
GeometryentersthepicturewhennumbersaregivenshapeandformThere wasaneedtodevelopaspecificgeometrythatwouldcaptivatetheeyesand awakenthebraininordertoconveysymbolicmeaningstotheobserver's thoughtsthroughtheeyesandbrainTobeabletotransmittheseideas throughform,astronglinkbetweenformandmeaninginadecipherable languageneedstobeconstructedThisinteractionthatformsandmeanings buildwithintheHindutempleiscriticaltoitsroleasalinkbetweenthegods andman.Itisclearthattemplestylesvariedgreatlyfromplacetoregion.A templelayout,forexample,mightbesetalongasinglelinearaxisorin concentricrings.HindutemplegeometryinrelationtoHinducosmologyand philosophybasedontheholy'Vastupurushamandala'anditsapplicationto templebuildingAlthoughthecomponentsofIndiantemplesvarybyarea,the truemotivationwasdrawnfromasinglearchitecturalconcept.Sinceancient times,allHindutemples,greatandsmall,havefollowedthesameideaThis ideologyappearstohavespreadtothemostdistantcornersofIndiaThe VastushastraandShipshastra,aswellasothergeneric.
4.2FRACTALGEOMETRY
Thefunctionoffractalgeometryinthebuildingandphysicalmanifestationof theHindutemplewasnotcompletelyrecognizeduntilrecentadvancesinthe fieldoffractalsoftwarecontributedtoapartialcomprehensionoftheprofound linkbetweenthem.Thissuccessionofintriguingdetailasoneapproaches, enters,andsousesastructureexemplifiesthefractalaspectofan architecturalcompositionThisillustratesanobservationalprocessfrom acrossthestreettoinsidearoom.Thenotionthattemplebuildingprogresses indetailfromgreattosmallsizeiswidelyacknowledgedFractalanalysis,on theotherhand,givesameasurableassessmentoftheevolutionofdetail,as wellasmeasuringthecombinationoforderandsurpriseinarhythmicpiece
Manypracticalapplicationsrequiretemporalandspatialanalysisto characterizeandquantifythelatentorderincomplexpatterns;fractal geometryisanidealtoolforexaminingsuchcomplexityatseveralscalesfor naturaloccurrences.Althoughusedinavarietyofindustriesandprofessions, fractalgeometryhasbeenusedmostprominentlyinarchitectureasa languagethattransformsthebeautyofcomplexityaswellasarchitects conceptsintovisibledynamicsItalsoreflectstheuniverse'sprocessand energyviathebuildingsTheHindutempleisoneoftheoutstanding instancesoffractalarchitecturebuiltinthepast,longbeforetheadventof Christ
4.3COSMOLOGYOFHINDUTEMPLE
Thetemple,accordingtoancientHindutexts,isamicrocosmoftheworld, andcosmicorderisregardedasfundamentaltothehumanbody,mind,and soulAmicrocosmisthehumanpersonThetempleconstructionconveys importantinformationaboutthescienceandcosmologyofthetimeperiodhad beenbuiltItrepresentstheoutsideandinnerworlds.Wheretheoutside universeisdescribedintermsofanumberofastronomicallinksconnecting thetemplestructure,aswellasthemotionsofthesun,moon,andstars planets,whilsttheinneruniverseisdepictedintermsofawarenessinthe temple'swombanddifferentSuperstructurelevelscorrelatetoawareness level.Thetempleconnectsman'sphysicalworldtothespiritualrealm.Inorder toconnectthem,theplanofbasisofthecosmoswasvividly reproducedTemplesknownasVastupurashamandalaAncientbuilding,
whetherreligiousorvernacularwerebasedontheVastupurashamandala's geometry.
4.4THECONCEPT-VASTUPURSHAMANDALA
Vastu,whichmeaning'dwelling'inSanskrit,referstothelivingplaceforgods andmanfromSamathevastustudyisbasedonthefivenaturalelementsor Panchabhutas:Vayu(air),Agni(fire),Jal(water),Bhumi(earth),and Vyom/Aakash(space)ElementsofVastuShastraisascienceofdirections thatcombinesthefiveelementsofnatureandthecosmos,providinga balancebetweenmanandmatterandassistinghiminachievingwealth,good health,andsuccess.
Thefivecomponentsrelatedwiththefoursub-directionsandthecentre (brahmasthana)accordingtotheVastusashtra(AtharvaVeda)areNorthEast(Ishaan)–Water,South-East(Agneya)–Fire,South-West(Nirrti)–Earth,North-West(Vayaya)–Air,Centre-Space/Vyom/Akash
Atemple,morethananyotherstructureutilizedbyhumanity,requirescareful considerationofVastuelementswhenitisbeingcreated.Inthatsense,some ofthekeydirectionalelementstoconsiderwhileconstructingatemplearethe ideallocationfortheconstructionofatempleThegroundorPrithvi/Earthis animportantfactorinVastuandtendstohaveanaffectonhumanlives relatedwiththetemple,henceacarefulinvestigationoftheplot,soiltype,and landsizeandformmustbedonebeforecommencingtheconstruction.In reality,ourscripturesspecifynotonlytheexactroutesfortemples,butalso theappropriatesites(suchaswhetheratempleshouldbesituatedinthe
centreoftown,justbeyondthetownborders,orinawoodedregion,etc)that aredistinctivetoeachgodandtheirmanyattributes.Theorientationand placementofthetemple'smainentrance,whichisnormallyeastfacing Themajordeity'sorientationandpositioning,whichisincrediblyessential Theorientationandpositioningoftemplewalls,pillars,doorways,and windows(gavakshas/vatayanas)Theorientationandpositioningofthepuja mandapa,aswellasthelocationofotherreligiousrituals.
TheVastupurashamandala,whichpossessedallmathematical,astronomical, andhumancharacteristics,servedasthefoundationforallHindutemple groundfloorplansThetempleplan'sfundamentalshapeistheoutermostring ofsquaresofthemandala,whichdeterminesthethicknessofthemain shrine'swallsThemiddlefoursquareshousethemajordeity,whiletheinner ringoftwelvesquaresformsthewallsofthegarbhagrihaandthenext16to 28constitutethepradkshinapatha.Thesebasicsquaredivisionswithvarious permutationsandcombinationswerethefoundationforthetemple'scomplex structures;intheformoforthogonalandstellateplansofthetemple.Asa result,theenormoussquaresofthemandalaweredividedintothousand squaresmakingagraphpaperforthearchitecttouseinaddingaunitonone sideandsettingbackontheother.
45THEPLAN
ThetempleplansareaduplicateoftheVastupurashamandala,withgridsof 8X8squareswherethecellaisdoublethewidthofthecellawalls.The NagaratemplearchitectureinwesternandcentralIndiawasinspiredbythe mandala'sorthogonalgridsThesquaregridwasadjustedinthe7thcentury attheVishnuTempleDeogarhinMadhyaPradeshbyextendingonetimeon eachsideoutsideFurthermore,aroundthe10thcentury,thesquaregridof Modhera'sSuryashrinewaschangedbyexpandingtwiceoneachside outwardsLaterinthe11thcentury,theHindutempleplanbecamemore intricateandtookonitsultimateshape.Thesquaregridwasadjustedthistime byextendingthriceoneachsideoutwardsthegreatestexampleisthe KhandriyaMahadevTempleinKhajuraho,MadhyaPradesh
ItsfixedcentreanddiagonallythroughasuccessionofequalanglesAsa resultofoverlappingsomanysquares,thecornerscreatedastarThe numberofpointsandtheirproportionsmaybechangedsimplybyadjusting theangleatwhichthediagonalwasraisedateachstage.Thetemple'splan wasoftenmadeupof8,16,24,and32pointsBybisectingtheanglesofan 8-pointstar,the16and32-pointstarplanswerecreated.The6pointstarplan alsoachievesthe24pointedstarplan.TheChennaKesavatempleinBeluris agreatexampleofthestellateplan
CHAPTER-5
CONSTUCTIONTECHNIQUESANDMATERIALS
5.1THECONSTRUCTIONTECHNOLOGYOFHINDUTEMPLE
Theconstructionoftempleisanart,ascienceandacomplicatedcreative studywithablendofmathematics,logic,geography,geology,science, ecology,art,sculpting,music,lightandsound,religion,socialsciencesand astrologyThemajorityofthehistoricalknowledgeregardingtemplebuilding thatisknowntodayisengravedonstoneslabs,metalplates,palmleaves, andmanuscripts.Thetemplearchitects'knowledgeandtalentsinconstruction procedureswerepasseddownverballyfromgenerationtogenerationOneof themostimportantsurvivingtextsregardingtempleconstructionisapalmleaf bookthatcoverstheintricaciesofthe13thcenturySuryaTempleconstruction atKonark,OrissaThisdocumentincludesalistofworkers,theirwages,and normsofconduct,aswellasanaccountofnumerousbuildingactivitiesovera periodofmanyyears
5.2CONSTRUCTIONSTAGES
Thebuildingofthetemplewasalengthyprocessthattookdecades.The temple'sconstructionwasdividedintothreestagesThefirststageistemple planning,whichcomprisestheselectionandinvestigationofthesite,layouts andmeasurements,materialselection,stonequarrying,templeorientation, listoftemplesections,andassignmentoftaskstothedesignatedpeopleThe sthapati,incollaborationwiththesthapakaandotherteammembers,plans anddeterminesthegeneralarchitecturalideaofthetempleThesutragrahin followsthesthapati'sinstructions,supervisestheentireconstruction,and designedthetemple'slayoutonthesite.Thesecondstageisthecarvingof thetemple'svarioussections,whichcomprisesstonecarvingandcutting, brick,stone,andtimberconstruction,andthetakshakacommandedthe sculptorsandshilpistocarvethepartsaccordingtotheplans,specifications, andrulesThethirdandfinalstepistheassemblyofthetemple'spieces,or theactualconstructionofthetemple.Thisprocedureisbeingfollowedtoday, withminoralterationsduetotheavailabilityofcurrentbuildingtechnologies Thearchitectisstillvisualisingeverylastaspectofthetemple.Currently,the secondstage,whichinvolvescarvingandcuttingoperations,providesenough opportunityforcorrectionandextra-supervision,howeverthisstageslows downtheprocessbutresultsintheeradicationofpotentialflawsandaccuracy attheend
5.3CRAFTSMANSHIP
Templeswerethoughttobethedwellingsofgodsandgoddesses.Asaresult, therulerswereunabletomaintainthetemplesfreeofartandcrafts.Hindu templesusedtobequitelargeinsize,andtheywerealsothelargest
employersofartistsandcraftspeopleTheHindutemplesprovidethemost protectionandsupporttoartisansandartists.TheHindutempleincorporatesa lotofsymbolismsIntruth,theHindutempleisanintentionalunionof archetypesskillfullyfashionedintobuildingsofabstractgeometryand particularnumbers.Itisagreatsynthesisthatanswersarchitecturaldifficulties bydrawingonprinciplesfromtheHindureligionworldviewofcosmicorder Thetempleisavisualmanifestationofthatmystery,aportalcreatedto answerlife'sissuesTheseartistsandcraftspeoplecreatedvariousartworks andcraftswithinthesetemplesanddisplayedthemthereOtherartsand craftsassociatedwithtemplesincludedmusic,dance,thepreparationof musicalinstruments,embroideryworkoncloth,tailoring,thepreparationof perfumesandscents,themakingofflower-garlands,thecookingofspecial dishes,astrology,thebuildingoftheratha,etchingorembossingonmetal platesusedinvariousways,themakingoflamp-postsandstands,aswellas pujavesselsinbrass,bronze,andcopper,painting,goldandsilversmithy, ivoryTheseartworksblossomedinthesetemplesandeventuallybecamea lucrativeenterpriseasaresultofthesetemples.Thevestigesofthewonderful artworksandcraftsmaystillbefoundtodayinvariousHindutemples. Workmenfromvariousassociationssetupcamparoundtheconstructionsite andatetheirmealsinthesharedmess.Theconstructionofthetempletookye ars,andduringtherainyseason,whenworkwassuspended,theyweregiven timeoffLawandorderweremaintained,andinternalconflictswereresolved Fineswereleviedaspunishmentforjobdelays,materialdeliveries,andtask completionTheworkerswhoquarriedandbroughtthestonetothesite,thebl acksmithswhoremovedandcastequipment,thecarpenters,sculptors,anda varietyofotherserviceproviderswereallinvolvedinthetemple'sconstruction
Themainarchitectwasthemostprominentmemberofthegroupinvolvedin thetemple'sbuildingEachareaofthenationhaditsownheadarchitectand association,knownassompurasinthewest,mahapatarasintheeast,and sthapatisinthesouthThenorthofIndiahaditsown,butitnolonger existsThearchitect'sworkwasacollaborativeeffortthatwasalsoconstrained byprevioustraditions.BothduringandafterconstructionThebuildingcrew wasmadeofoffourclasses:sthapati,vardhakin,sutragrahin,andtaksaka Thesquadfollowedthesthapaka'sdirections.PriestarchitectBrahminseveral labourerslabouredunderthesefourheadingstoconstructthetemple
5.4CONSTRUCTIONMATERIALS
TheIndiantempleswerebuiltwithalltypesofmaterialsdependinguponthe availabilityfromregiontoregion.Therangeofmaterialvariedfromtimberto mud,plaster,brickandstoneduringallperiodsandthroughoutIndiaThe materialsplayanimportantroleintheoverallappearance,construction techniquesandmonumentalcharacterofthesetemplesAstheearlier structureswerefashionedfromlessdurablematerialssuchastimber,brick andplastertheearlyexamplesofHinduarchitectureandarthavemostly disappearedoraredetectableonlybythemostfragmentaryremains HoweversomeofthereliefcarvingsandpaintingsshowthattheearlierHindu templeswereconstructedintimberandbamboo.Manyofthelaterstone templesweremodelledonwoodandbambooarchitectureisapparentfrom
thecarvings,roofformsandwindowshapesThisusageoftimberand bamboogovernstheformoftemplesmostlyintheHimalayanvalleysand regionsofKeralaandBengalTheremainsoftemplesconstructedinbrick datesbacktothecenturiesbeforetheChristianeraThebrickandmortar templeswereconstructedintheregionweretherewaseasyavailabilityof brickandtheavailabilityofsuitablestonewerelimitedTheconstructionof templeinstoneisthemostdistinctiveexpressionofHinduarchitecture.The highlyevolvedtechniquesofexcavatingandcuttingblocksofstoneconstitute oneofthemajortechnicalachievementsassociatedwiththehistoryofthe Hindutemple.Theconstructioninstonedatesbackto2ndand3rdcenturies intheformofrockcutsanctuariesandlaterintheformoftempleswithuseof stoneslikegranite,marble,soapstone,sandstoneandlocallyavailable stonesThestoneswereusedwithmostintricateandornatecarvingsand sculptorsthroughoutIndia
6.1HOYSALAARCHITECTURE
6.1.1HOYSALADYNASTY
TheHoysalaera(1026CE–1343CE)wasnotableforitsaccomplishmentsin art,architecture,andcultureTheheartofthisactivitywaslocatedinthe modern-dayHassandistrictofKarnataka,India.Themostnotable achievementofthisage,withoutaquestion,isintherealmofarchitecture ThedesiretooutperformtheWesternChalukyanEmpire(973CE–1189CE) initsowndomaincreatedfurtherdriveforarchitecturalexcellence.
6.1.2HISTORY
HoysalaDynastywasaprominentSouthIndianKannadigaempirethatruled mostofmoderndaystateofKarnatakafrom10thto14thcenturies.Initially thecapitaloftheHoysalaswaslocatedatBelurbutwaslatermovedto Halebidu.TheHoysalaswereoriginallyhillpeopleofMalnadKarnataka,an elevatedregionintheWesternGhatsrange.In12thcentury,taking advantageofthewarfarebetweenthethenWesternChalukyasandKalachuri kingdoms,theyalsotookoverpresentdayKarnatakaandthefertileareas northoftheKaveriRiverdeltaofthepresentdayTamilNaduBy13thcentury, theygovernedmostofpresent-dayKarnataka,minorpartsofTamilNaduand partsofwesternAndhraPradeshinDeccanIndia.Standingonthetopof Benneguddahill,itisreallyinterestingtoviewineverydirectionSpreadingto thenorthwefindtheruinsofancientcityofDwarasamudraanditstemplesof stone.ThecityofDwarasamudrathatonceencompassedofBennegudda wasbuiltbythekingsofthousand-yearoldHoysalaDynastyTheHoysalas
cameintoexistenceintheperiodwhentheChalukyaKingsdominatedthe northernpartsofKarnataka,whiletheirwasstrugglebetweentheCholasand Gangasfordominioninthesouth
TheancestorsoftheHoysalasjoinedhandswiththeGangasinthewar againstCholas,andeventuallybuilttheirownEmpireontheedgeofMalnad region.TheymadethecapitalasDwarasamudrainlaterhalfof11thcentury, whichisnowcalledHalebeeduTheirkingdomspreadacrossinsouthto MaduraiandLakkundiinthenorthTheHoysalaDyanstywasestablishedand foundbyNripaKamaII,cameintopoliticalprominenceduringtheruleofKing Vishnuvardhana(1108-1152)Inthedaysoftheirprime,Vishnuvardhana,the Hoysalaking,defeatedtheCholasinTalakaduwhoruledinthefirsthalfof twelfthcenturyandhesupportedconstructionofornatetemplesofstoneall alonghiskingdomTheKingdomdeclinedgraduallyafteritsdefeatbythe Khiljidynastyinvadersin1311.ThefamousHoysaleshwaraTempleandthe largelakeoftheHoysalaDynastyattracttravellersindronesfromalloverthe world.South,notfarfromHoysaleshwaraTemple,isanothercomplexof finelycarvedstructuresofstonethathaveweatheredthetimes.Finallywestis anopenexpanseofvillagesandfields,withtallhillsofWesternGhatsvisible inthehorizon.Thebestsculpturesareseenonthesouthdoorofthetemple, whichwasusedbythekingandtheroyalfamilyThedoorkeepershereare framedtoafinedetail,witheverybeadintheirornamenthighlighteddistinctly TotheeastaretwoNandiMantapas,eachofthemfacingadeityofthe templeTheNandisarethesixthandseventhlargeststatuesofthebullinthe country.SouthofHoysaleshwaratempleisthesmallerKedareshwaratemple, whichsharesarchitecturalelementswithitsneighbourWhiletheformeris buzzingwithactivityoftourgroupsandguides,KedareshwaraTemplehasa desertedcalm,allowingthevisitortoexploreatone'sownpace.
6.1.3ADMINISTRATION
TheframeworkofHosalyaDynastywasinheritedfromChalukyasThe HosalyasdividedthekingdomintoNadus,Kampanas,VishayasandDeshas. Theofficerwhomanagedsmallterritoriesunitslikenadusinthekingdom werecalledasNadaprabhu,NadagaudaandNadasenabhovaEachwas governedbyaministercalledMahapradhanawhoheadedthelocalbody.The treasureBhandariwhoreportedtotheprovincewasknownasDandanyaka Dandanyakaswereinresponsibleforchargeofarmiesandthechiefjustice namelytheDharmadhikarioftheHoysalaCourtThesupervisorsorofficials HeggaddesandGavundasusedtosupervisethelocalfarmersandlabourers Thepersonwholookedafterthetownsandwhohadbothcivil&military functionswascalledthePattanaswami
6.1.4ECONOMY
TheeconomyduringtheHoysalasperiodwaspredominantlyAgrarianThere wereveryfewbasicindustrieswhichflourishedThetradewasverydecent andorganizedintoguilds,whichhelpedinthegrowthandpromotionoffair tradeTheHoysalashadcontactsandtradewithChola,Chera,Magdha, Malaya,Pandya,Kosala,Persia,Nepal,Arabiaandothercountries.
6.1.5RELIGION
TheHoysalaspractisedHinduism,Jainism,andBuddhismTheproofmaybe foundintheJainPlacesofShravanbelagolaandKambadahalli.Thereligious movementsprevalentunderHoysalareignwereidentifiedbythesignificant inspiredphilosophersBasavvana,Madhavacharya,andRamanajacharya TheHoysalaswerethemoststrongandbrave.TheDynastyisnotedforits tremendouscombinationofcourageandculturalrichness,whichisahigh pointinIndianhistory.
6.1.6LITERATURE
Hoysalaliteraturereferstothehugeamountofliteraturecreatedbythe HoysalaEmpire(1025–1343)inwhatisnowsouthernIndiaintheKannada andSanskritlanguages.TheempirewasfoundedbyNripaKamaII,roseto politicalprominenceunderthereignofKingVishnuvardhana(1108–1152), andsteadilydeteriorateduntilitsdefeatbyKhaljidynastyinvadersin1311. Duringthistime,Kannadaliteraturewasdominatedbywritingsaboutthe socio-religiousdevelopmentsoftheJainandVeerashaivafaiths,aswellas,to alesserextent,theVaishnavafaith.TheHoysalacourtproducedthefirstwellknownbrahminauthorsinKannadaWhilemostcourtlytextualcreationwasin Kannada,thegreatphilosopherMadhvacharyawroteanextensivecorpusof monasticVaishnavaliteratureconnectedtoDvaita(dualistic)theoryin SanskritThecourtpoetswerethefirsttopopularisewritingKannada literatureinlocalmetres.Thesemetresweresangatya,whichweresongs performedtotheaccompanimentofamusicalinstrument;shatpadi,which weresix-lineverses;ragale,whichwerelyricalworksinblankverse;and tripadi,whichwerethree-lineversesJainauthors,ontheotherhand, continuedtoemploythetraditionalchampu,whichwasmadeofproseand verse.Notjustcourtpoetsbutalsonoblemen,commanders,ministers, ascetics,andsaintslinkedwithmonasteriesproducedsignificantliterary contributionsinKannada.
6.2ARTANDARCHITECTURE
HoysalasholdaspecialpositioninIndianarchitecturalhistoryHoysalas adaptedtheVesaraandDravidianstylestocreateanewarchitecturalstyle Sothe'Hoysalastyle'ofarchitectureisnothingmorethantheclimaxof ChalukyanarchitectureDasoja,Chavana,Kedaraja,Nagoja,Jakkanna, Mallitamma,Byroja,andotherswererenownedsculptorswhoerectedthe majorityoftheHoysalatemples.
6.2.1NATUREANDINFLUENCE
TheancestorsoftheHoysalasinSouthernKarnataka,theNolamaba(late8th –11thcentury)andWesternGanga(350CE–1000CE)empires,builtboth HinduandJaintemplesinspiredbyTamilhistory.TheHoysalamonarchs,on theotherhand,wereinfluencedbyWesternChalukyanarchitectureand engagedtheircraftsmenaswell.AlmostallHoysalatemplesarecoveredin figuresculptureSoapstone,whichallowsforfinedetailsandclarity,alsohad aroleinthispreferenceIncomparisontosubsequentWesternChalukyan architecture,thisisareturntoamorethoroughiconographicportrayalof incidentsfrompopularepicsItshouldbenoted,however,thatintemple design,theyarenotonlyornamental,butarenecessaryforthestructure's stabilityandcomposition
6.2.2ARTANDARCHITECTURE
AlmostallHoysalatemplesarecoveredinfiguresculpture.Soapstone,which allowsforfinedetailsandclarity,alsohadaroleinthispreference.In comparisontosubsequentWesternChalukyanarchitecture,thisisareturnto amorethoroughiconographicportrayalofincidentsfrompopularepics.It shouldbenoted,however,thatintempledesign,theyarenotonlyornamental, butarenecessaryforthestructure'sstabilityandcompositionThegarbha griha(sanctumsanctorum)isacuboidcompartmentthatholdsacentrally positionedmurti(enshrinedimage)onapitha(pedestal)Thevimana(or mulaprasada)ofatempleisformedbytheshikhara(superstructure)rising abovethegarbhagrihaandtheshrineAribbedstone,amalaka,withakalash atitsfinial,isputatoptheshikharaAnintermediaryantarala(vestibule) connectsthegarbhagrihatoalargepillaredmandapa(porch)infront,which facesmostlyeast(ornorth)Thetemplemaybereachedbymassive gopurams(ornateentrytowers)thattoweraboveeachdoorway.Severaltiny shrinesandstructuresarefrequentlyfoundintheprakaram(temple courtyard)Inplan,thevimanasareeitherstellate,semi–stellate,ororthogonal
ThefinelycarvedbandedplinthsthatidentifyHoysalatemplesaremadeupof anumberofhorizontalcoursesthatrunasrectangularstripswithnarrow nichesbetweenthemFurthermore,templesareoccasionallyerectedonan elevatedplatformorjagatithatservesasapradakshinapatha (circumambulation).ChennakesavaTempleComplexisanekakuta,ortemple withonlyoneshrineUnfortunately,theshikharahasperishedtotheravages oftime.ThegarbhagrihahasanencasedpictureofKrishna(Kesavais anothernameforKrishna).Theentiretemple,whichwasconstructedona vastscale,followstheoverallpatternofHoysalaarchitectureItisoriented east–westandisbuiltonajagati.Thehallcontains60baysanda10-meterlongshrineoneachsideUndertheeavecorniceofthemandapa(outside ceremonialhall)are38exquisitelycarvedfigurinesknownassalabhanjikaor madanika(bracketfigures).Theirplacementandinscriptionsindicatethat theywereaddedlater(mainlyduringthereignofVeerBallalaII)Tothesouth ofthismajortempleisKappechennigaraya,whichwasconsecratedthesame yearbyShantala,thequeenofVishnuvardhan.Asubshrinecontainingthe pictureofVenugopalislocatedbesidethemainshrineThestellateplanis
followedbythistemple,butitislessornateTothewestofChennakesava,the sameenclosureincludesanothertemplecalledViranarayan.Itisanekakuta, orVaishnavatemple,thatwasmostlikelybuiltlaterinthe12thcenturyCEIt isconstructedonjagatiandfollowsthefundamentalpatternofagarbhagriha andanantaralaopeninguptothemandapa.Thistempleisunusualinthatit lacksthenarrativefriezesthatcanbeseeninChennakesavatempleThe Saumyanayakatempleisatinyedificelocatedsouthwestofthemaintemple. AministerunderVijaynagarKingHariharaIIrebuilttheruinedshikharain 1387CE
6.2.3FEATURES
Makartorana-Itleadstothetemples'mantapaItisconstructedwithcarved representationsofMakarainlintelformthathangsoverthetempleHoysala templescontainbothopen(outermantapa)andclosed(innermantapa) mantapas(innnermantapa)Themantapa'sceilingsareornatelydecorated withmythicalcharactersandfloraldesigns.Circularpillarsmaybefoundin themantapasofHoysalatemples.Eachpillarhasfourbracketswithcarved figurinesonthetop
Cella(vimana)-ThedefiningtraitofvimanainHoysalatemplesisthatthey aresimpleontheinteriorbutlavishlydecoratedontheoutside Shrine-MostHoysalatemplesincludeoneormoreshrines.Accordingtothe numberofshrines,templesareclassedasekakuta(oneshrine),dvikuta(two shrines),andsoon.
Kalasadevelopment-TheHoysalatempleshaveabeautifulvase-shaped watercontainerthatstandsonthetopmostsectionofthetempletower.
Salabhanjika-ThisisadistinctivecharacteristicofHoysalasculpture.The originsofthismythologicalwomanformmaybetracedbacktoBuddhistart SalabhanjikaorMadanikaisalegendarywomanfigurewithstylizedfeminine featureswhostandscloseorgraspsatreelimb.Theyaresometimesseen participatingincreativepursuitssuchasmusic,dancing,andsoforthThese carvedfigurinesmaybeseenineachofthefourbracketsthatsitatopthe pillarsofHoysalatemplesAsidefromthat,eachsideofthemakartoranais extensivelycarvedwithsalabhanjikafigures
Kirtimukh-AkirtimukhhfigureadornsthevimanaofvariousHoysala temples.
Mythicalpresentation-TheHoysalakingdomwasthefirsttoexhibitHindu mythologyinsculpturalandarchitecturalform.ThewallsofHoysalatemples areadornedwithimagesfromtheRamayana,Mahabharata,andPuranas VariousincidentsfromHindumythologyarerepresentedinaclockwise sequenceattheentrywayofthemakartorana.Inadditiontomythical presentations,thewallsofHoysalatemplesarecoveredwithlivepanelsof musicians,dancers,animals,andsoon.TheshrinesoftheHoysalatemples aremainlystellateindesign,howeverastaggeredsquarelayoutisalsoseen.
Erotica-EroticsculpturesmaybeseeninvariousHoysaladynastytemples, influencedbythesaktatraditionprevalentattheperiod.
CHAPTER-7
HOYSALESHWARATEMPLE,HALEBIDU
7.1HOYSALESHWARATEMPLE
HoysaleswaraTempleisaLordShivatemplefoundinHalebidu(Halebeedu orHalebid),HassanTheHoysaleswaratempleisaround150kilometresfrom MysoreTheKingofHoysalabeganbuildingonthetempleinthe12thcentury Thistemplewasstoleninthe14thcenturyandeventuallyfellintoruins.
7.2HALEBIDU
Halebiduisahistoricalplaceandcontemporaryvillageinsouth-central Karnataka,IndiaHalebiduislocatedtothenorth-northwestofHassanItwas constructednexttoDorasamudra(Dvarasamudra),amassiveartificiallake likelyerectedbytheRashtrakutasinthe9thcenturyCETheHoysalasmade ittheircapitalintheearly12thcentury,anditwasfamedforitsrichnessand magnificenceforabouttwocenturiesItwassackedtwicebyMuslims,in1311 and1326,andafterwardsdeterioratedThecitywasencircledbyamassive stonewallandmoat,theremnantsofwhichhavesurvived,althoughlittle excavationhastakenplacewithinThereareotherruins,someofwhichhave notbeeninvestigated,inadditiontothesurvivingtemples.Themaintemple, Hoysaleshvara,waserectedin1121andislavishlyembellishedwith sculpturesTheKedareshvaratemple,whichwascompletedroughlya
centurylater,issimilarlyimpressiveTherearealsoanumberofJaina monumentsandothertemplesofnoteinthevicinity.
7.3HISTORY
Fromthe10ththroughthe14thcenturies,theHoysalaEmpiredominatedthe IndianstateofKarnataka.Duringthistime,thekingsoftheSouthIndian kingdomerectedover1500beautifultemplesin958distinctlocationsEven thoughthearmiesoftheDelhiSultanateravagedandruinedHalebidu,the templesretainedtheirbeautyandlustre.
Previously,BelurwasthecapitaloftheHoysalaEmpire,butVishnuvardhana relocatedittoHalebidu,whichservedastheempire'scapitalforabout300 yearsDuringtheconquestoftheDelhiSultanate,muchofthetemple's inscriptionsandsculpturesweredamaged.BothBelurandHalebiduwere raided,burnt,anddevastatedunderthereignofAlauddinKhilijiHowever, thelandwastakenoverbytheVijayanagaraEmpire,whorestoredseveral templesinBelurandHalebidu.Thetempleissaidtohavebeenerectedby Ketamalla,anofficialinKingVishnuvardhana'scourt,basedontheremnants discovered.HoysaleshwaraTemplewasoneofthegreatesttempleserected inSouthIndiabytheHoysalaEmpire
7.4ARCHITECTURE
Thetemplehasfourentrances,withthenorthgateservingasthemajorentry pointfortouristsThetemple'sarchitectureisahybridofNorthIndianNagara andSouthIndianKarnatakastylesItisdesignedinthestyleofanekakuta vimana.Dvarapalaswereaddedtothefourentrances.Thesedvarapalsare adornedwithmassivegemsandhavefourarmsOnthesouthernentrance, thereisabigpictureofLordGanesha.Hoyasala'sarchitectureisamongthe mostimpressiveandmagnificentHoyasalaerectedthetemples,whichare stillfamoustoday,betweenthe10thand14thcenturiesTemplesinBelurand HalebiduareexcellentexamplesofHoysalaarchitecture.TheHoysalas primarilyconsecratedtheirtemplestoLordVishnuandLordShiva,butthey alsoerectedtemplesforJaindevotees.TheHoysalassculptedmotifsbased onHindumythologyinthemajorityoftheirtemplesThehoysaleshwara templeiserectedonanelevatedplatformknownasthejagati,whichis approximately15feetwidearoundthetemple'sexteriorwalls.Thisisalsothe temple'spradhakshinapatha
Thistemple,liketheBelurtemple,iserectedonastar-shapedpedestalThe templeismadeofsoapstone,whichallowedtheartisanstocreate magnificentcarvingsonthetemple'swallsThetowersonbothsidesofthe sanctuaryaregone,asisthesuperstructurethatlinkedthetempletothe mantapaknownasSukanasi.Allofthemweremostlikelydestroyedduring theMuslimkings'invasionThetemple'soutsidewallsareitsmoststunning feature.Theyhaveexquisitecarvingsallovertheplace.Thebottomhalfof theoutsidewallfeatureshorizontalstripsorFriezesofanimalslikeas elephantsandlions,aswellasimagesfromHinduliteratureThehorizontal
bandontheexteriorwallmostlydepictsRamayanaandMahabharata tales.Thehorizontalstripontheoutsidewalldepictsepisodesfromthe Ramayana,Mahabharata,andBhagavadPuranaTherearenotwo sculpturesthatarealike
7.4.1FEATURES
1HoysalatemplesareformedlikestarsAbovethesanctuaryisatower (sikhara)inthetemples(Garbhagriha)Thisskyscraperisshapedlikea pyramid.
2Hoysalatemplesarebuiltonanelevatedplatform(jagati)thatis4to5feet high.Thebasementwallsareadornedwithstonesculptures.
3Spaceisleftallaroundthetemple,justabovetheplatform,for pradakshana,alsoknownasPradhakshinapatha
4.Thetemplescontaincarvedstonewindowswithaperturesandbeautiful decorationsonthewalls
5.Thetemples'outsidewallsareadornedwithstonesculptures.Thebottom sectionfeaturesarowofelephants,horses,flowerpatterns,swans,and storiesfromtheepicsandpuranas
6.Thetempledoorscontainmagnificentstonesculpturesandapairof dwarapalakasstandoneitherside
7Thehall'sceilingcontainsbeautifulsculpturesofBhuvaneshwariinthe centre.Onthebracketsabovethepillarsstandsculpturesofdancingfemales invariousattitudes
8.Hoysalatemplesarecategorisedaccordingtothenumberofcells(kutas), rangingfromonecell(ekakuta)tofivecells(panchakuta)Thesanctums (Garbhagriha)aretiny
7.5ELEMENTS
7.5.1ENTRANCEANDMANDAPA
TherearefourentrancestothetempleThenortherndoornearesttothe parkinglotiscurrentlythemajorentranceutilisedbyguestsTherearetwo entriesonthesouthsideandoneontheeastside,whichfacetwoenormous detachedopenpavilionswithlatheturnedpillarssupportingtheroof Originally,thetemplefeaturedanopennavaranga,withthemantapapavilions viewablefromoutsideshrinesandtheoutsidevisibletothoseinthemandapa Accordingtoaninscriptionunearthedinthetemple,themantapawasclosed, doorswereerected,andperforatedstonescreenswereinstalledduringthe reignofHoysalamonarchNarasimhaAlongwiththefourentrances,the subsequentpaintersaddedthefollowingdvarapalasanddecorations.Awell maintaineddvarapalaneartheMantapaentrance(handsbroken)
Southernentrance-six-foot-talldvarapalaswearingjewelsonbothsidesof thedoorwayEachhasfourhands(twobroken,theothersinjured),wears jatamakuta,hasathirdeyeandfangs,andstandsinanS-shapedtribhanga posture.TheyhaveShivaimageslikeasDamaru,Cobra,Trisula,andothers. TheyweredefiledatsometimeAttemptsweremadeinthetwentiethcentury totrim,repair,andre-polishthedvarapalafaces,buttheresultswere disproportionateandunnaturalAbovetheentrancelintel,thereisartwork depictingaNataraja(Tandava)withNandiandotherdancersandmusicians
Southeasternentrance-twohandsareshattered,butthefacesarebetter maintainedthanthesouthernentry.Thesculptureabovethedoorlintelisthe bestpreservedentrywayNatarajawith10hands(onebroken),flankedonthe leftbyNarasimha,Saraswati,Brahma,Ganesha,Parvati,onegoddamaged andunclear,andShiva,whileShiva,Parvati,Bhairava,Indrani,Keshava, Surya,andParvatiflanktheright
Northeasternentrance-Theentrywayisbroken,andthedvarapalasare gone,butthepedestalandpanelssurviveThecarvingsabovetheentrance lintelhavebeentamperedwith.
Northernentrance-Modern-daytouristsutilisethenorthernentrance.The originaldvarapalashavebeenlost,andtworeplacementmismatched dvarapalashavebeensalvagedfromtheregion'sruinsfortouristsThescene abovetheentrancelintelissimilarlybrokenandexecutedpoorly.
TherearebigsculpturesofGaneshaoutsidethesouthernentrywayinthe park.Thestatuewasinitiallylocatednearthetemple'soutergate,butwas damagedandgatheredfromtheruinsthereTheywererescuedand relocatedneartheshrine.Thenavarangaconsistsoftwotinynichesthatface eachotherbetweenthetwotemples,whicharelinkedatthetranseptThese includecarvingsandartwork,butthesculpturesaregonefromeachAstone panelinthewesternnichehasabigSanskritinscriptioninbothNorthand SouthIndianscript
7.5.2EXTERIORANDINTERIORWALLS
Thetemple'soutsidewallsareornatelysculptedItslowestlevelsarebands withfriezesofelephants,lions,scrollswithnatureandtinydancers,horses, scrolls,scenesfromHinduliterature,legendarymonsters(makara),and swans(frombottomtotop)AccordingtoShadakshariSettar,theartwork "capturestheRamayanaandtheMahabharata,aswellastheimportanttales oftheBhagavata,"and"notwolionsaresameinthewholespanthatextends morethanafurlong(200metres)"Settardescribesthetemple'sexteriorwall asagraphicnarrativeofHinduepics,anditsinnerhalfas"thecomplete pantheonofHindudivinitiesaredisplayed,itisatextbookofHindu iconography."
Fig73Exteriorwalldetails
AccordingtoFoekemaandotherarthistorians,thequalityandquantityofthe epics-related"friezes"arefantastic,butthepanelseriesdonotconcludethe taleinastretch;rather,newtextisinterwoveninforatimeafterastretch.340 hugereliefsadorntheoutsidewallsoftheHoysaleswaratempleshrinesThe exteriorwallfriezesandwallpicturesmostlytellthestoriesoftheRamayana, Mahabharata,BhagavataPurana,andothermajorShaivaandVaishnava PuranasSomeoftheprimaryexhibitsareasfollows(clockwise):Courtscene, Bhairava,Bharavi,Samudramanthan,musicianswith12thcenturymusical instruments,Sukracharya,Kacha-Devayanilegend,Lakshmi,Umamahesvara, Vamana-Bali-Trivikramasaga,Indralegend,Virabhadra,Shivainyogaare depictedonthenorth-eastoutsidewallofthenorthernShivatemple Dancers,Bhairava,Bhairavi,andUmamahesvaraaredepictedonthesoutheastoutsidewallofthenorthernShivatemple.Dancers,Bhairava,Bhairavi, andUmamahesvaraaredepictedonthesouth-eastoutsidewallofthe northernShivatemple.Onthenorth-eastouterwallofthesouthernShiva temple:Krishna'slilafromBhagavata,Vasudevainprisonfollowedby carryingnewbornKrishnaacrosstheYamunalegend,KrishnaslayingPutani andotherasuri,Krishnastealingbutter,Krishnaplayingflutewithhumansand animalsdancing,KrishnaandPradyumnalegend,Krishnaliftsthe goverdhana,YudhisthiraandSakuniplayingdice,KichakamolestsDrau. Moreromanceandkissingsequences;KaliShaktitraditions;Arjunalegends [46]StandingfiguresofBrahma,Shiva,Vishnu,Durga,Saraswati,Kamaand
Rati,Parvati,Indrakilatale;Parvatipractisingyoga;ShivaissmittenbyMohini onthesouth-westoutsidewallofthenorthernShivatemple;Thegoldendeer, theinitialencounterwithHanumanandSugriva,Ramafiringanarrowthrough sevenpalms,andHanumandeliveringRama'sringtoSitaareallRamayana legends.Vamanamythology;avatarsofVishnu;ShivaandGaneshadancing together;twelveAdityasfromtheVedas;Arjuna-Bhismastories;Shivaand Vishnu'sfemaleavatarMohinidancingtogether.NatarajainTandavadance; DurgaandtheSaptamatrikaonthenorth-westoutsidewallofthenorthern Shivatemple;Nataraja;eightformsofRudra;Mohinidancing;Bharavi; Sarasvatidancing,ShivaandGaneshadancing,furiousNarasimha, numerousformsofVishnu,dancingGaneshawithGajasuramardanaShiva; Kartikeya;Parvati;dancersandmusicians.
TheinteriorsoftheHalebidutempleareasbeautifulastheouterwallsThere are4entrancestoeachofthetempleshrine.Andthedoorsalsohadtwo doorkeepersstatuesoneithersideWhileoneofthedoorkeeperstatueis intact.But,somearedamagedandoneiscompletelymissing.Acrossthe northandsouthentrance,pillarsrunoneithersideinparallelinsidethe templeMostofthesepillarsarealsoplainAndsoarethewallsParticularly whencomparedtooutsidewalls.Butthefourpillarsrightinfrontoftheshrine havecarvingsontopofthem
Exceptforthelatheworkedpillarsthatruninrowsbetweenthenorthand southdoors,theinternalwallsofthetemplearefairlysimpleincomparisonto theoutsidewalls.Thefourpillarsinfrontofeachshrinearethemost elaborate,withmadanikasculpturesintheirpillarbracketsCarvingsonpillars andceilings,includingabrokenmadanakai.Arowofpillarsrunsalongthe north-westaxisofthefusedmandapa.Eachtemple'smandapahasfour pillarsandanartisticallycarvedelevatedroofinthecentrenavarangaEach ofthefourcentralnavarangapillarshousedfourstandingmadanakai (Salabhanjika,predominantlyfemale)statues,foratotalof16standingfigures pertempleElevenofthe32figurinesonthecentralpillarsofthetwotemples havesurvived.Onlysixdamagedonesinthenorthtempleandfiveinthe southtemplehavesurvivedAcloserlookatthepillar'scapitalrevealsthat therewasafigureoneachpillarintheeasternrowfacingthedawn,butallof themhavebeendestroyedandnopictureshaveremainedThepillarnearthe
secondeasternentrancehastwodamagedmadanakai,althoughthoseinthe centrenavarangaarewellmaintained.
7.5.4SANCTUM
TheideaofTwinTemples
TheHalebidutempleisatwintemple.Twoshrinesandtwo.uperspectrums makeupatwintempleAndthesetwoarelinkedtooneanotherFurthermore, eachtemplecontainsaShivlingaThetwintemplesatHalebiduarethought tobededicatedtotheShivalingasofOysaleswaraandSantaleswara.These shivlingasarecalledafterthemasculineandfemininepartsofthegodShiva Theyarealsoequalandlinkedattheirtransept.Itisreportedthatthe monarchpreferredprayinginthemasculineformThequeenwasdevotedto thefeminineoneANandishrinemaybeseenoutsideeachofthewin temples.WithamassiveNandistatuefacingtheShivlingaintherespective temple
8.INFERENCE
TheIndiansubcontinent'slengthyandvariedhistory,rangingfrom2500BCto thecolonialperiod,hasleftalegacyofmanysortsofstructuresinarangeof architecturalstyles.ThevariouskindsofcreativeexpressioninIndianculture demonstratethevarietyofitscultureconstructedheritageAmongthemis Indiantemplearchitecture,whichhasgivenIndiaagenuinelywonderful appearanceArchitecturalstyleTemplesmaybefoundallacrossIndia,from smallvillagestolargecitiesMetropolitanareasTheIndianTemplesarenot onlyGod'shome,butalsoalinkbetweenGodandhumanity.Theyarethe cradleofscience,art,architecture,andman,aswellasaplaceofdevotion Templecustomsandtraditionshaveanimpactonthesocial,economic,and politicallandscapeEvennow,thetraditionalvaluesysteminIndiaisas strongasitwasinancienttimesEventhoughnewtemplesarestillbeing constructed,thoughitsappearanceismodern,Hindutemplesadheretoageoldcustoms
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