Metabolism in Architecture - Architecture Diet by MahmoudElnaggar

METABOLISM IN ARCHITECTURE ARCHITECTURE DIET Mahmoud A. Elnaggar Maria Quittenbaum

A Master Thesis submitted to Hochschule Anhalt, Dessau, Bauhaus-Campus Department 3: Architecture, Facility Management and Geoinformation Course: Lean Style in an Automotive Environment

Metabolism in Architecture architecture diet

By Eng. Mahmoud A. Elnaggar, B.Sc. Architecture, Matr.-Nr.: 4066989 & Maria Quittenbaum, B.A. Architecture, Matr.-Nr.: 4066456

Supervision: 1st Advisor: 2nd Advisor: 2nd Advisor:

Prof. Eric Helter Prof. Ivan Kucina (Mahmoud Elnaggar) Prof. Axel Teichert (Maria Quittenbaum)

Declaration of originality

We confirm that this assignment is our own work and that we have not sought or used inadmissible help of third parties to produce this work and that we have clearly referenced all sources used in the work. We have clearly referenced in accordance with departmental requirements, in both the text and the bibliography or references, all sources (either from a printed source, internet or any other source) used in the work. This work has not yet been submitted to another examination institution, neither in Germany nor outside Germany, neither in the same nor in a similar way, and has not yet been published. Dessau, 25.06.2019

Mahmoud A. Elnaggar,

Maria Quittenbaum

contents 07

what is the purpose of this masterthesis?

part i - ARCHITECTURAL FLEXIBILITY

ABOUT LEAN

learning from the past

learning from the present

part ii - lean architecture

part iii - case study

ARCHITECTURE DIET

DESIGN

PART IV - CONCLUSION

appendix

what is the purpose of this masterthesis? Lean management is a methodology used mostly to optimize processes within a production line. The main goal of this thesis was using those management strategies to develop an architecture philosophy, which provides designs, with more flexibility, more efficiency, less effort, less invested capital, less time, and less mistakes; a fool proof architecture. Important for the development were the following main questions: What are the current problems and developments regarding industry and technology? How can we connect the issues to current design? What are the current problems in architecture? Where do they come from? Can the lean philosophy make a difference in architecture? Do we need a change of thinking? How to do Lean Architecture? How can architecture react to ecological, economic and social change? What does Architectural flexibility mean? What are the obstacles? How is the approach of flexibility affecting design? How can a durable system react to rapid changes and different requirements? Within those questions the authors developed a pilot project to investigate and improve their research by design. The pilot project or case study happened in collaboration with the automotive company BMW.

about lean Lean is a methodology, a philosophy or even a tool. It is a management approach about process optimization, advertised as an approach which can be applied to every process. Lean principles are not new. We can find numerous approaches towards that direction in history. The most important development came from the company Toyota, where the Toyota Production System (TPS) was developed to improve the car production. The system was introduced to an international audience in 1978 in Taiichi Ohno´s book “The Toyota Production System”. Perfection is the most achievable goal, to reach a production line with less human effort, less space, less capital, less invested time, fewer costs and fewer defects. Additionally the products or services should have a higher variety and a higher quality. The method is to identify and eliminate waste. Waste as in management terms means non-value adding activities.

Waste Taiichi Ohno, an engineer in Toyota determined the “Seven Deadly Wastes” as an equivalent to the deadly sins1: Overproduction Results from producing more (or faster) than required, and occurs when batch sizes are calculated incorrectly Excess Inventory Having more materials or information than is actually needed for the production Defective Product or Service Products or services need inspection and correction

George Alukal, Anthony Manos. Lean Kaizen - a simplified approach to process improvement. Milwaukee 53203: American society for quality, quality press, 2006.

Over processing Too much effort, where less would be more economic Waiting Waiting time for staff, materials, machinery, production line People Not using people‘s abilities as a resource (mental, creative, skills, experience, …) Motion Movement of people, tooling and equipment, which does not add value to the product Transportation Transporting information, parts or materials around the facility Due to the main goal of achieving perfection, people are required to always ask for the necessity of an action. To optimize the production line and the products through people’s insights, human abilities and skills are seen as a resource.

Visual Controls In the production hall visual indicators are applied, which show the status of tooling, parts, production activities and information, so that everyone involved can understand the system´s status at one glance. Streamlined Layout The layout of the workplace is designed and arranged in the optimum way, according to studies of the production (value-stream-mapping), so that the production can take place without errors and obstacles. Standard Work The production takes place in prescribed methods, without waste and focused on human movement (ergonomics), in a consistent performance. Batch-size-reduction The most efficient method is the “one-piece-flow” (make one, move one). The main idea is to focus on one product, without distraction. This method keeps the workers focused and motivated, as they don’t fall in a movement routine, which gets them more distracted. Teams

Tools and strategies Several tools and strategies were developed to decrease the probability of errors, defects and waste2:

In a lean production environment the focus is on team work. The team members work within only their strengths to deliver the best results. Quality at the source

5S Method This method is a system to standardize and organize a workplace. The steps are starting with an S in Japanese (seiri, seiton, seison, seiktsu, shitsuke) and are roughly translated Sort, Set in order, Shine, Standardize and Sustain.

George Alukal, Anthony Manos. Lean Kaizen - a simplified approach to process improvement. Milwaukee 53203: American society for quality, quality press, 2006. 2

The product and the production process gets inspected (and improved), before the next step in the production line can be reached. So the person, who works on the next step can be certain that product or information is of high quality. Point-of-use-storage Only the exact amount of materials, parts, tools, supplies, etc., which is needed for the production, are stored within the stream line, exactly where it’s needed. 11

Quick changeover Within the production the ability to quickly change tooling and features (sometimes within minutes) is important, so several products in smaller batches can be produced with the same equipment. For the changeover there are multiple strategies and manoeuvres, trained by the workers.

1. Why did the machine stop?

Pull/Kanban The Pull-principle is a production method, where the several stations are communicating with each other in that way, that the first station only produces, if the second station communicates a need. This happens through visual information signals (Kanban). Total Productive Maintenance

It blew a fuse. Replace the fuse. 2. Why was there an overload? The bearing lubricant wasn’t adequate.

This is a lean equipment maintenance strategy for maximizing the effectiveness. Just-In-Time-Method With that method only what is needed at that time will be produced and delivered.

Add more lube. 3. Why was the lube inadequate? The pump wasn’t working right.

Poka-Yoke With that error-proving method possible future problems can be analyzed and avoided by applying a strategy beforehand.

Replace the pump. 4. Why was the pump not working right? The axle wore out.

Problem Solving Toyota believes in simple tools and simple solutions wherever possible. The lean management philosophy determines a way of problem solving by not only treating the symptom, but going back to the root or the cause and eliminate in that way the probability of new problems. It’s called the root cause analysis and problem solving strategy. One technique is the 5Why 3 method, where the main source of the problem gets investigated through asking a Why question (see Fg. 1).

George Alukal, Anthony Manos. Lean Kaizen - a simplified approach to process improvement. Milwaukee 53203: American society for quality, quality press, 2006.

Replace the axle. 5. Why was the axle worn out? Because sludge got in. Replace the gasket.

Fg. 1: 5Why Method as example 13

Another technique is the DMAIC method or also called Lean Six Sigma method4. There the focus is on improving existing process problems with unknown causes through five steps. The steps are

Define – Define the problem

Measure – Quantify the problem

Analyse – Identify the cause of the problem

Improve – Implement and verify the solution

Control – Maintain the problem

Fg. 3: The brothers McDonald draw their kitchen layout on a tennis court

FUN FACT McDonalds invented the Fast Food System based on lean principles. The first McDonalds restaurant was opened in 1940 in San Bernardino, California. On the menu were mostly barbecue items, served by carhops directly to the cars of the costumers. This business model was quite popular around that time, but it had many flaws. Dishes got broken, the food took a long time to arrive, and the restaurant yard was dirty. From over 25 items on the menu most of the profit came from burgers. So the owners, the brothers Richard and Maurice McDonald, decided to improve their restaurant. They banned everything from the menu, except for burgers, fries and drinks, they analysed the workflow in the kitchen and improved the kitchen layout as well as the choreography of the employees (see Fgs. 3, 4, 5). In 1948 the new McDonalds restaurant was opened with a custom built kitchen and a new service model. With problem analysis and improvement strategies they reached the goal of fast service with good quality products (at that time). In the new Speedy Service System a burger took only take 30 seconds to be produced.

Fg. 2: Original McDonalds Logo

GoLeanSixSigma.com. https://goleansixsigma.com/lean-six-sigma-step-by-step/

Fg. 4: The brothers McDonald draw their kitchen layout on a tennis court

Fg. 5: The McDonalds employees try out their work coreography 15

part i - architectural flexibility 18 19

Bauhaus - the origin of style revolution

architectural metabolsm

systems OF construction and architecture

learning from the past

learning from the present

sustainability

sustainabile building and energy efficiency

the process of architectural project management

architectural flexibility

bauhaus - the origin of style revolution

How will office work be in 20 years? What kind of machinery is needed for car production in 50 years? Will there even be a car production, or will cars become extinct? What happens to the facility if the production changes from cars to another product or gets another purpose? We don’t know. Due to that fact for a lot of companies it is now important to have facilities that are adaptable to change. We as planners are in need to react to changing requirements, to achieve an architecture that is flexible. We have to consider space layouts and structural items to be able to be adapted.

The importance of Bauhaus comes from the approach and reaction to the change in industry, the change in politics and most importantly to change in society with a new way of designing. During the time of industrialization and urbanisation in the beginning of the 20th century, the focus in society in Germany moved from the high class to the working class. Left-winged movements and socialism fought against the patriotic Prussian “Kaiser”-mentality. The working class lived under bad conditions and worked for unfair salaries. During that time the need of industrial architecture and cheap housing came to the surface. The founders of the Bauhaus in Weimar reacted to the zeitgeist with demands for reforms in politics, society, art and craftsmanship.

Fg. 6: A night in the opera in the year 2000, by Albert Robida (around 1882), the futuristic imagination of flying cars

learning from the past The attempt to achieve architectural flexibility is not new. Several people and institutions tried to invent new systems that should be resilient in the future. The Bauhaus is to mention as one of the most important institutions, which introduced a radical change in design philosophy. From Japan comes a philosophical thought of the biological analogy of metabolism, which also originated from Buddhism. Next to this Philosophy, which sees change and adaptation as a natural process and emulates living beings with architecture and urbanism, are several other examples, which guide us through the everlasting question of how to deal with change in an architectural way. 18

Fg. 7: Dessau Törten, cheap housing for workers, built in 1926-28 19

Fg. 8: Lesson in the Bauhaus Design School

In their philosophy they wanted to start over, but don’t forget what was before. They wanted to design in an honest way, not cheat, the design should follow logic, not an old standard. The material should be shown and the form should follow the materials character. They demanded a cooperation and collaboration between craftsmanship, art and industry. Designers, Planers and Builders should work together in harmony. Interdisciplinary work was the key to a good product.

The developed style focused on efficiency and usefulness of products. Aesthetics and artistic expression should only come from the function of the product. Ornaments and opulence were seen as a lie. The designers worked with the basic geometrical forms and the basic colours. They used grid standards on their products, which had mostly cubic and orthogonal design approaches. The goal was to produce affordable and useful products for everyone.

architectural metabolsim As metabolism we define the chemical processes that occur within a living organism in order to maintain life5. The word has its origin in the Greek word “metabolē”, which means “change”. Architectural metabolism surfaced in the 1950s in Japan in the Metabolic Movement, which began in the preparation for the upcoming World Design Conference in 1960. It was a collaboration of Japanese architects, who developed this biological analogy as a utopian “proposal for a new urbanism”6. They compared buildings and cities to an energy process, which can be found in all life. The cycles of change and unending growth are addressed as the metabolic cycle. Architectural metabolism distinguishes between parts of buildings and cities which have different rates of obsolescence. It separates the parts that don’t change, the parts that have to be preserved, and the parts that have to be replaced every now and then. The philosophy is focused by the principle of replace ability and changeability of members in a system, and is influenced by the Buddhist philosophy of reincarnation. The ideal, the main goal is the design of a city, which is so flexible in its connections, that its parts can grow, transform themselves, or even die, while the whole system stays alive. Architectural metabolism is a theoretical and philosophical thought, an approach, not a style.

Fg. 10: Metabolism, every member in the system serves a different function to fulfill the function of the whole union 5

Fg. 9: Unknown woman on Wassily Chair, by Marcel Breuer 1925-26 20

Oxford Dictionary. https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/metabolism Kurokawa, Kisho. Metabolsim in Architecture. Studio Vista, 1977. 21

systems OF construction and architecture

CULTURAL BACKGROUND Japanese people are not as bound to their homes as the westeners. It is the custom of mobility which keeps the Japanese moving, almost 10% of Japans population changes their place of residence every year, it is also normal to have to commute to work or to school. People are not as fixed to certain regions, since Japan always had a centralized authority. The traditional Japanese society is equalitarian and homogenous as a contrast to the western society, which formed through unification of city states and principalities. Individualism is a western concept, it does not occur in a Buddhist culture, in Japan the people have a different concept of community and communal responsibility. So in many ways metabolism is not an entire new concept in Japan, since it is basically an ancient Taoist philosophy of cosmic change and eternal growth, which has always been included in the society. NAGAKIN CAPSULE TOWER One of the most popular metabolist building is the Nagakin Capsule Tower (1972) by the architect Kisho Kurokawa. It was designed to host traveling businessmen and commuters in Tokyo. With its small apartment capsules it was the first capsule architecture design approach. In the concept of modular architecture, the modules or capsules could be plugged in into a central core. They were attached in a way, that they could be easily replaced and exchanged if necessary. The capsules would be delivered by a truck and attached to the core by a crane.

Fg. 11: Nagakin Capsule Tower, K. Kurokawa, 1972

In total 140 capsules are stacked and rotated at varying angles around the central core, they are arranged 14 storeys high. The capsules can be plugged into the central core with only 4 high-tension bolts, which allows the replacement. The capsules themselves have a size fitting for one person (4 x 2.5m), but could be connected to other capsules to provide more space. The interior provides a circular window, a built-in bed, a built-in bathroom, TV, radio and an alarm clock. 22

Systematic thinking has been used in construction and architecture throughout history, as seen in the following examples. A system is a set of things working together as parts of a mechanism or an interconnecting network, a complex whole. It is also a set of principles or procedures according to which something is done, it is an organized schedule or method7.

THE DOCTRINE OF DURAND The doctrine of Durand had a big influence on Germany and Northern Europe in the 19th century. J.N.L. Durand determined the goal and principles of architecture and defined the proper employment of materials in buildings. He also investigated the possibilities of combining architectural elements in his architectural building system. In his doctrine Durand claims, that columns should be equally spaced, the spacing would be determined by the given circumstances. They should be arranged along parallel axes, which all have the same distance. The grid is therefore squared. While all the columns should be positioned on the intersections of the axes, walls would be arranged along the axes. Those axes were not only used on the horizontal level, but also in the vertical level. The grid is used in all three dimensions.

Fg. 12: Doctrine of Durand, Grid System

Oxford Dictionary. https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/system 23

THE CRYSTAL PALACE OF JOSEPH PAXTON For the first international exhibition in 1850 in England, the revolutionary Crystal Palace was erected in less than four months. It is a modular building system. The designer of the building Joseph Paxton was first known for his glass and iron green houses. He was inspired by the veins in lily leaves, so he set glass into metal frames to build light and bright building structures. The Crystal palace was constructed with hollow cast iron frames and glass panels, which were placed within them. The building was planned on a modular grid, all connections were standardized and identical, although there was a range of members in different variations.

Fg. 14: Unistrut System, Section

Fg. 13: Crystal Palace, by Joseph Paxton, 1850

THE UNISTRUT SYSTEM The Unistrut System is a construction system which consists of standardized and interchangeable parts. It offers durability, flexibility, it is expandable, demountable and reusable. For the production of the system members mass production techniques can be used. The steel members follow a three dimensional grid, which consists of interlocking pentahedrons and tetrahedrons. The system is held simple, all framing members are identical, and every connection is identical and requires only one bolt at each end of each member. 24

Fg. 15: Unistrut System, Top View 25

PREFABRICATED â&#x20AC;&#x153;TECHBUILTâ&#x20AC;? HOUSE BY KARL KOCH

CLASP

The modular building system consists of: An exterior wall system, which were prefinished panels with an invisible joint between interlocking panels; A window wall system with a variety of wall panels; A stressed-skin roof truss, which was covered by heat-reflecting aluminized steel; And an intermediate floor and ceiling system.

The CLASP-System was developed after World War II to provide temporary buildings for educational purposes in the UK. The components were factory produced and offered an almost unlimited range of combination possibilities. The components include steel frame units, parts for the heating system, precast concrete panels, window frames, aluminium sliding windows, finished rubber floors, roof lights, internal doors, prefabricated partitions, and sanitary fittings. The system provided a grid to interlock the components.

Fg. 16: Techbuilt House System, K. Koch

Fg. 17: CLASP System, UK

THE DOME OF BUCKMINSTER FULLER

USM HALLER

The by Buckminster Fuller developed structural system is a geodesic dome. Fuller described his concept with the word “synergy” to emphasize on the way the whole system acts, that his systems are more than the simple sum of their parts. He focused on the theory of precession (lines of force are not straight, but tend to follow curvilinear paths) and geodesy, where the lines forces on a curved or spherical surface tend to triangulate to reach the shortest distance between points. To find the most economic structure for energy flow, Fuller combined the sphere with tetrahedrons. The sphere encloses the most volume with the least surface area, and is geometrically strong against internal pressure, while the tetrahedron encloses the least space with the most surface, and is strong against external pressure. He combined to opposites to reach the most efficient result.

This modular furniture system was developed in 1963 Switzerland by Ulrich Schärer, Paul Schärer and the architect Fritz Haller. It consists of metal rods, which can be screwed together with a spherical connection component to build the core, and additional parts like slabs, panels, drawers, doors, etc. The assembly system was intended to be applied to different scales, to furniture, to bigger buildings, and to huge industrial complexes.

Fg. 20: USM Haller Connector

Fg. 18: Buckmister Fuller, Dome, Structure

Fg. 19: Buckmister Fuller, Dome 28

Fg. 21: USM Haller, Fritz Haller 29

BUILDING SYSTEMS DEVELOPED BY KONRAD WACHSMANN Konrad Wachsmann focused in his work on the industrialization of the building industry with the prefabrication of building elements, the standardization of building parts, and mass production. Building became in that focus a question of assembly. In his theory in a system of assembly, joints and connections or connectors are of great importance. They are the essential elements in a modular system. Wachsmann developed several building systems. The “packaged house system” or “General Panel House”, which he developed together with Walter Gropius was designed, that just a few tools like a hammer were needed to assemble the modular house. The goal was, that it is so simple to erect, that anyone could assemble it without any special education. The design was based on an axial modular grid. The different elements were connected with a hook type metal clip. Fg. 25: Space Structure, USAF

During World War II Wachsmann developed a transportable plane hangar, the “mobilar system”. It was a design of tubular steel members in various standard lengths, which had offset eye plates welded at each end, so they could be assembled in any combination in a truss joint. This design was never built.

Fg. 22: Clip Connection System

Fg. 23: Clip Connector

Afterwards Wachmann developed a space structure for the U.S. Air Force, which was a prefabricated, demountable assembly system. It could be combined into buildings of any size or shape with a minimum number of joint types. Therefore he developed the system of the “Universal Knot”, which contained a connector, which closed around the main members like a ring, from which other members radiated in all directions, in any combination, at any angle. With this structure one connection point could connect twenty different members.

Fg. 26: Universal Knot System

Fg. 24: Clip Connection - connected walls 30

Wachsmann believed in building as science. He said, that “[time], motion and energy determine the framework within which a building can be conceived and developed”8. In his theory elements could be combined throughout mathematical operations with a single formula of construction, a universal building formula.

PLUG-IN CITY BY PETER COOK Peter Cook was part of the avant-garde group “archigram”, which developed utopian projects and combined in architecture, technology and society in their work. As a new approach in urbanism, as an urban system, the concept of the Plug-In City was developed and this hypothetical fantasy city reversed the traditional perceptions of the role of infrastructure in a city. It contains modular residential units, which plug in to a central infrastructural mega machine. It is indeed a constantly evolving megastructure that incorporates residences, transportation and other essential services, which are moveable by a giant crane.

“A PATTERN LANGUAGE” BY CHRISTOPHER ALEXANDER The book “A Pattern Language” is a book about architecture, design and community liveability, and introduces basically a coding language for architectural design. The goal is, to give ordinary people, not only professionals, a way to work with their neighbours to improve a town or neighbourhood, design a house for themselves, or work with colleagues to design an office, workshop or public building, like a school. conclusion systems Those described systems are systems of architecture, construction, concept, development and also process. Every system made the attempt of reacting to the current question of architecture according to its time. While the Doctrine of Durand and the Unistrut System are dealing with different grid concepts in 2D as well as in 3D, the question of complex member systems is included in the Chrystal Palace of Joseph Paxton, the Techbuilt House, CLASP and the Dome of Buckminster Fuller. Members in different variation built a union, the system members themselves have internal systems included (system of ∑X = system of a + system of b + system of c + system of d + (…)). The Joint and its giving possibilities are worked out in the system of USM Haller and the different attempts of Konrad Wachsmann. While USM Haller gives different flexible design outcomes according to the building system members, but with one simple connector, Konrad Wachsmann’s joint systems (e.g. see Fg. 28) are focused on the question of the joints capability. His developed joint systems where an important achievement for the development of architecture and construction.

Fg. 27: Plug-In City, Peter Cook

The Plug-In City introduces the concept of collective living as well as the integration of transportation and the accommodation of rapid change in the urban environment. It suggested a nomadic way of life.

Alonso, Pedro Ignacio. Diagrams of a Universal System of Construction in the Work of Konrad Wachsmann: between Representation and Technology.

Fg. 28: Konrad Wachsmanns connection, General Panel House 33

learning from the present From the Age of Industrialization we go now to the Age of Information. Globalization, the Internet, a severe technological development, Climate Change and several social movements affect our daily life. With the movement “Fridays for Future” introduced by Greta Thunberg (students go instead to school every Friday to demonstrate against climate change all over the world) the global awareness and radical movement against climate change and towards the direction of the zero waste movement increased. Additionally social media is full with pictures and videos of plastic waste polluting the ocean. People see an urgent need to work for the environment instead destroying it.

We have ecological values, which include action of resource protection, usage optimization, energy management and efficiency, and waste reduction; Economic values, which include the evaluation of the grey energy of a product, the financial aspect of a product and most importantly the effort behind it; and Social values, which focus on subjective human values like comfort, health, desires and the feeling of need9. But most importantly the main idea of sustainability is to reach resilience10. The evaluation of a product, service or action is therefore very complex.

In architecture and construction the movement towards waste reduction is also visible. As following the current process of sustainable architecture and architectural project management in Germany is discussed as an example of a political and economic approach to decrease waste.

sustainability Sustainability became something political, some statement for people to claim that they act especially sustainable by buying their coffee only in a reusable container. What most people forget is that this coffee has a long process behind it, the coffee plant has to be planted (in countries around the equator, like Brazil, Mexico, Colombia, Indonesia or Vietnam and even Uganda), and the coffee berries have to be harvested. Those berries will be put out in the sun to dry so that the coffee beans can be extracted easier, afterwards they will be pealed and washed to extract the precious beans. Those get washed, rinsed, dried and polished. At this point the still green beans get exported to the destination continent, where they will be distributed to different retailers. Now the coffee beans will be put in a big kettle and get roasted by 200°C. Then they will be ground to different fine powder, depending on the kind of coffee they are supposed to be made into.

Fg. 29: Dependencies of sustainable values

Several steps of packaging and transportation have to be made to get the ready coffee in the coffee shop in our beloved reusable container. What this story is all about, is the complexity of the topic of sustainability. It’s about the union of several values, which determine the sustainable capacity of a product or service. 34

Höhne, Prof. Matthias. „Lecture „Gestalt Technologie und Material - Architektur und Nachhaltigkeit“.“ Dessau, 05. 10 2018. 10 Grober, Ullrich. Die Entdeckung der Nachhaltigkeit: Kulturgeschichte eines Begriffs. Kunstmann Antje GmbH , 2013. 9

Going back to the question, whether drinking coffee in general is a sustainable habit, we can ask several questions: Is the production causing any environmental problems? How much water is used, what kinds of pesticides are used, do the workers need to wear protective clothing? Are the plants annual, biennial, or perennial plants? Do the plants need special soil? How much time effort is needed to plant, harvest and treat the product? How far has the product to be transported? What transportation method is used? How much CO2 gets in the atmosphere by the method of transport? What kind of packaging is used to sell the product? What kind of effort is needed to process the goods to the end product? What kind of additives are added? What are the effects and side effects on the human body after consuming? Are there any long term effects? … In general there are so many factors to consider, that not the question Is that sustainable? Should be used, but rather How sustainable is that?, a rating system, that quantifies the sustainable capacity of a product or service. A sustainability questionnaire contains mostly following questions: Are natural resources addressed? Are the resources renewable or non-renewable? Are the resources local or non-local? Are ecosystem services addressed? Are wetlands, farmlands and fisheries used in a sustainable way?

Is built capital addressed? Can the community maintain and enhance human made materials (needed for quality of life) with existing resources? Is there a long term view? Is the long term goal fitting in a sustainable global view? Is the progress being measured? Is the issue of economic, social or biological diversity addressed? Is considered that a diverse system is more resilient than a homogeneous system? Is the community‘s ability to understand addressed? Is there a method used, that can be understood by everyone? Are the links between economy and environment, environment and society, and society and economy addressed?

Are the goals on the expense of another community or at the expense of global sustainability?

Are aesthetic qualities addressed? Which effect has the action on the beauty and life-affirming qualities of the nature? Is human capital addressed? Are skills, abilities, health and the education of the people considered? Is social capital addressed? Is considered how the community is connected and the community‘s ability to cooperate, work together and interact? 36

sustainable building and energy efficiency Sustainable building contains planning, execution and usage processes of buildings, which are determined to follow sustainable guidelines. It includes the valuation of the sustainability values of ecology, economy and society (see Pg. – Sustainability). One of the main guidelines in sustainable building is to consider the energy efficiency of buildings. Energy efficiency is the ratio between service profit, product output and energy profit (Output) to the used energy (Input). It is therefore the rational usage of energy. 37

Germany follows a guideline for new and renovated buildings, the Energieeinsparverordnung (EnEV). This guideline determines the minimum requirements regarding energy usage. Private and most commercial buildings have to follow the regulations to obtain a building license. In general the EnEV has the goal to minimize the energy demand of buildings (avoidance of energy waste during usage) including the evaluation of effort and effect (e.g. more insulation of outer shell to minimize the energy loss versus the grey energy of building and equipment). The German government follows the principle, that the best energy is the energy, which doesnâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t need to be produced and transported, and therefore energy, which is not wasted. The evaluation of the energy efficiency status of a building happens through a calculation and rating of the buildings Demand of Net Energy (Nutzenergiebedarf), the Demand of Final energy (Endenergiebedarf) and the Demand of Primary Energy (PrimĂ¤renergiebedarf). The Demand of Net Energy (or Demand of Heating Energy, Heizenergiebedarf) is the energy that is needed for usage (energy need and technical equipment of the user). It depends on the properties of the outer building elements (transmission energy loss), the technical equipment capabilities and the technical equipment add-ons (e.g. solar panels for energy input). The Demand of Final Energy (Endenergiebedarf) is the sum of Net Energy Demand and losses of energy production, saving, division and delivery of the Net Energy. Net Energy Demand

Architecture is determined as a process. Designing and planning takes only a small percentage of architectural work. Most of the work of an architect evolves around the client and his needs, costs, negotiations, building phase preparations, supervision and quality management. In Germany the architectural process is divided into nine phases: (1) Pre-Design, (2) Schematic Design, (3) Design Development, (4) Approval Planning, (5) Construction Documents and Detail Drawings, (6) Tender Documents and Bill of Quantities, (7) Negotiations, (8) Construction Management, and (9) Documentation and Control. The big difference between the German system and other systems (e.g. from the UK or the US) is, that the architects work does not stop after (5) the delivery of the Construction documents and detail planning. When we talk about improving architecture with the lean philosophy, we have to not only think about the outcome of architecture, but also the process itself. During the architectural process there are four main products, the Design, the building instructions, the instructed executioners and most importantly the building as the end product.

designing

Energy Production Losses

The Demand of Primary Energy (PrimĂ¤renergiebedarf) is the mathematical product of Final Energy Demand and Primary Energy Factor. The Factor distinguishes between the kinds of energy source and includes the demands of energy production, refining and transport. It combines the requirements for energy reduction and energy origin. Final Energy Demand

the process of architectural project management

Primary Energy Factor

To achieve the required mathematical values the building has to fulfil certain conditions of building element properties (insulation et al.) and technical equipment. The values can be equally distributed (Balance), more technical equipment can balance out less insulation, and more insulation can balance out less technical equipment.

design execution planning

instructi contracts / tender construction management

ons instructed executi oners

building maintenance Fg. 30: The Architectural Process

In the architectural process join many participants, the client as the initiating force, the authorities as the approving party, the planners, the consultants, and not to forget the executing companies. In this scenario the architect is the coordinator of all the participants.

Takt Areas are determined areas of the construction site. The size of Takt Areas determines the number of them (see Fg. 31).

During the coordination of the planning, the different planners (architect, structural engineer, MEP-engineer, and others) have to work hand in hand delivering all the different parts of plans to the coordinating architect, who puts them together as the main construction documents. He then also has to prepare the execution of the plans, so that all the different steps can run smoothly and without errors. The building process has to be supervised, the different steps have to get checked and approved until in the end the physical result in form of a building is finished. The process to achieve architectural products can be compared to a production line in a factory. If one step in the production line is defective, the error can affect the whole production and cause waste.

(1)

(2)

(3)

Fg. 31: Construction Site (1) with determined Takt Areas (2) (3)

Lean construction Avoiding high effort and long building durations is one of the most important principles of lean construction management. Efficiency is a big goal. The Takt Planning and Takt Control System (TPTC) was developed to support the construction process, reduce waste, increase productivity and most importantly to decrease the construction duration to a minimum. The system is based on a mathematical-algorithmic approach and can be easily adapted to a projects parameters11.

Takt Time is the time determined for one waggon per Takt Area. It is de-

pendent on the size of the Takt Area, e.g. reducing it, increases the Takt Time.

Waggons are processes. The amount of them depends on the project it-

self.

The amount of labour (number of workers) is always constant per construction project.

Takt is the German word for time signature in a musical sense. It determines how many beats are contained in a certain time frame. The notes will be distributed through the beats in dependency to the time duration of the piece. The adaptation in the TPTC system adapts the musical background and determines processes per time and area of a construction. The system separates areas (Takt Areas), time (Takt Time) and process sequences (Waggons), whereby the total construction time depends on the parameters of them.

Binninger, Dlouhy, Müller, Schattmann, Haghsheno. “SHORT TAKT TIME IN CONSTRUCTION – A PRACTICAL STUDY.” IGLC.net. 11

Takt Time1

Takt Time2

Takt Time3

Takt Time4

Waggon1

Waggon2

Waggon3

Waggon4

Takt Area1 Trigger

End

Fg. 32: Process chain for Takt Area1 with Waggons and depending Takt Time 41

Process1

Process2

Process3

Process4

Process5

Fg. 33: Regular schedule planning chart

In the regular time schedule planning the different activities are planned on the whole building site without divisions of areas. One process is being worked on until it is done for the site, then the other process follows (see Fg. 33). If there is a delay, the other following processes are delayed as well. The processes depend on each other. In the TPTC system the time schedule planning happens per Takt Area. Each Takt Area gets a process chain. In the example (see Fg. 34) there are five Takt Areas and five Waggons (processes) per area. When Waggon1 in Takt Area1 is done, the workers of that waggon go to Takt Area2 and process Waggon1 there. That could be e.g. the foundation. The workers move after every Waggon is done to the next Takt Area, until their task is completed. Waggon2 (e.g. Columns), Waggon3 (e.g. Primary Beams), Waggon4 (e.g. Secondary Beams) and Waggon5 (e.g. Roof) follow the same principle.

Takt Area1 Takt Area2

If there is a delay in one of the Waggons, the delay costs only more time for one Takt Area. The other Takt Areas are not affected. The system brings a simplicity in calculating costs and as well. It is possible to calculate per Takt Areax, per Takt Timex and also per Waggonx. The calculation dependencies are simpler than in the common way, where the costs get calculated per task and per m2. The difficulty with the TPTC system is, that it can only be successfully implemented, if the construction project contains a lot of standardized processes and repetition. Structural dependencies (e.g. load bearing structure, seamless works) are a difficulty.

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Takt Time2

Takt Time3

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Takt Area3 Takt Area4 Takt Area5

Takt Time5

Takt Time6

Takt Time7

Takt Time8

Takt Time9

construction duration Fg. 34: TPTC implemented on schedule planning chart 42

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Gateway 43

part ii - lean architecture

lean architecture

lean architecture principles

ARCHITECTURAL TREATMENT

CONCLUSION

lean architecture Using the lean philosophy in architecture means applying the main goal of lean: avoiding waste. Waste in an architectural sense has ecologic, economic and social aspects, which all overlap and interfere with one another. Ecologic Waste Ecologic waste is waste of resources. That includes the non-economic use of building materials, a high consumption of area and space, and environmental damage. Economic Waste Economic waste is waste of effort. There the effort in acquisition, building and maintenance is too high and therefore the costs of the building life cycle increase. Social Waste Social waste deals with the question of necessity. The issue of how much, how big we build or even if itâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s really necessary to build at all has to be addressed. Additionally, if the quality of the building is too low for the user, there is no satisfaction and therefore no durability. Functional quality, quality of comfort and aesthetic quality have to reach a reasonable level. All those kinds of waste have to be avoided in every the phase of architecture, in Planning, Producing and Using.

Planning

Resources

Producing

Effort

Using

Necessity

The lean approach and the main idea of sustainability work hand in hand. On one side a building has to withstand ecological, economic and social change. On the other side the architectural process has to be adjusted to avoid waste. Lean design means optimizing and perfecting the process of planning, building and most importantly of using of a product. In the planning phase most problems happen on the human level. Involved in the process are the client as initiating force, the authorities as the approving party, the planners, the consultants and executing companies. They all have to be able to communicate with each other without causing conflicts. Human nature is in most cases the reason for problems. One strategy to solve problems in the planning phase would be to implement a standardized method and format for all the planners. So all planners have access to the same data and the communication is more transparent. Also mistakes can be noticed quickly and can be erased. Nowadays there are so many different kinds of software used, that the data is not compatible to each other, Information between e.g. the architect and the structural engineer can be misinterpreted because of e.g. missing information and incompatibilities. Only one format should be used to exchange information, so problems resulting from different kinds of plan languages, software and their irregularities and incompatibilities could be avoided. The exchange of information could happen with less mistakes. During the construction phase there can be two kinds of problems: problems of design and planning, and problems of management. The problems of design and planning result in more effort on the construction site, unexpected delays and additional planning effort to solve them. To avoid them , an error-proving strategy (poka-yoke, see Pg. 12) in the planning phase can be implemented, a preparation for possible problems and avoidance strategy. To solve problems of management next to improving human interaction and implementing error-proving strategies, the TPTC system could be applied. It saves time and effort in construction. The only downside of this method is, that the building design has to fit the construction requirements. The construction has to be standardized and contain a lot of repetition. The maintenance phase is very dependent on the design. The ready built architecture has also to be able to satisfy the user. Quality of function, of comfort and aesthetics have to fit his needs. Additionally the building has to fit in future developments as well.

Fg. 35: Wastes of every aspect of architecture 46

principles to reduce waste in architecture

quality of function, comfort and aesthetics

To reach an architecture with more flexibility, more efficiency, less effort, less invested capital, less time, and less mistakes we have to follow certain principles.

Architectural space lives from human interaction, processes and life cycles. Architecture needs the human as inhabitant. It needs to satisfy the user to be durable.

The Just-In-Time-Method is a lean strategy, where the production follows a need or demand. That means in architecture, that only what is needed at that specific time will be built (I need something, I build something). Following an evaluation of the necessity of an action will decrease the waste of resources, effort and energy.

Reduce Reuse Recycle Rot Less production means less waste. In every production process waste is inevitable. Reusing older, still usable products saves resources, effort and energy of a new production process. Using recycled and recyclable materials for new products decreases waste in the future by avoiding a long garbage storage and garbage burning processes. Also using materials, which rot after disposal minimizes effort and energy in the future.

What are the common resources we use to build currently? How can we use them in an economic way? Do we need to define new resources? Intelligence of simplicity Simple design needs to have a simple construction. Simplicity reduces waste of resources and effort.

Evaluation of necessity

just-in-time

Reject

Rethinking common resources

Social awareness and social change The question of necessity has to reach society. Rethinking the common ways, being critical about it and improving them has to become normality. Demand by society controls the necessity. Awareness of cycles Time changes requirements, architecture has to follow requirements. Calculating the necessity for adaptation will decrease the probability of waste later on. Treating problems with the right solution Architecture is not always the solution. The right solution for problems has to be carefully evaluated and step by step implemented. Only in that way, by analysing and finding the exact source of a problem, the most effect will occur and the probability of other problems will be decreased. Improvement and optimization To reach an architecture, with less waste, and higher quality, we always have to analyse and improve along the way. Optimization of every aspect of architecture is the solution. 49

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Existing Structure

Internal Optimization

External Addition

External Subtraction

Fg. 36: Architectural Approach

The principles applied to an architectural approach mean preferably to use an existing structure, refurbish it and optimize it internally according to the needs of the user. If there is a need the structure can get an external addition as well as become partially subtracted (see Fg. 36). Empty and unused building are unused resources. The structure and concept behind a building offers a lot of potential for future developments. Instead of new buildings and letting old structures go to waste, we have to use the resources and potentials behind already existing structures. For Example in the old East German territory most of the former GDR factories are now abandoned and are falling apart. Town halls currently look for new approaches and try to find a use for them.

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Conclusion In architecture and construction the movement towards waste reduction is also currently increasing, but independently from the lean approach. Using the development in sustainable architecture and energy efficiency, the project management approaches and planning tools like BIM and parametric design and connecting them with the lean principles leads to a more radical approach towards waste reduction. 50

To conclude the following four values have to be addressed in architectural design in a broader context:

evaluation of demands and necessities Building only what is needed, when it is needed standardization Standardization of construction elements and design elements functionality High quality of function to ensure the usability flexibility The ability to change; to address future developments of society and necessities

part iii - case study

architecture diet

INFLUENCES

SCALES

DESIGN

INTERIOR furniture system

EXTERIOR building system

Case study - metabolism in architecture diet

In collaboration with the automation company BMW the authors developed a case study fitting in the generated lean architecture principles. The goal was to develop an architectural approach, which provides more flexibility and more efficiency, which needs less capital and less time, and is less prone to mistakes. This architectural approach should be simple, easy to handle and accessible for everyone, it basically should be a fool proof system. The emphasis should be on changeability and adaptability due to an uncertain future. The outcome was a fluid architecture with a rigid system.

influences Several aspects inspired the design outcome, a modular system in different scales.

Fg. 37: Fire ants cluster themselves together to build a bridge

The Bauhaus Style with its very simple shapes gave the influence to pixelated and simple rectangular shapes based on a squared grid. The movement of architectural metabolism in Japan gave the inspiration to cellular and modular architecture, a system where every member fulfils its function to fulfil the function of the whole union. The project’s outcome was also inspired by not only the existing architectural interpretation, but also by the word metabolism, which means “change” (Greek “metabolē”). For the architectural approach it was translated into more of a slang word “diet”, which makes the building have its own diet according to its needs. It wants to gain, it gains. It wants to reduce, it reduces. It all depends on the need, the required activity. The building has therefore its own In previous architectural and construction system developments the emphasis was on grids, as well as 2D and 3D, on the complexity of internal member systems to serve the system of the complex whole, and on the connections of the system members. Konrad Wachsmanns attempts of joinery had a big influence on the development of the case study. Natural systems gave some influence as well, as they develop spontaneously in response to physical change. Fire ants e.g. cluster themselves together to form a structure, which they need in that moment. They want to cross a river, they cluster together to a floating bridge (see Fg. 37). They want to reach something high, they cluster themselves into a tower. They can use themselves to build whatever they need. 54

Fg. 38: Fire ants cross a river by clustering themselves together to float 55

architectural scales The approach is divided in three scales: Mini, Midi and Maxi. Small members (Mini) build a bigger structure (Midi), which become a mega structure (Maxi) by adding more and more members.

MINI

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MAXI Fg. 39: Mini Midi Maxi

DESIGN The simple geometric design approach is used in a smaller scale, an interior furniture solution, and translated in a bigger scale, in an entire building solution. Both systems are based on a squared 3D pattern.

interior furniture solution

Fg. 40 Furniture System 56

The developed approach contains a furniture system that allows the user to build and rebuild a structure, how he likes it. Since every user has different needs regarding his furniture, the developed furniture system does not replace common furniture like chairs, desks, cupboards and so on. Nevertheless it adds to the interior possibilities of a building. For that to be possible, the shape of the furniture has to have rectangular angles. So the compatibility to global standards is guaranteed. The system can therefore be implemented in any building, it can be used to optimize an existing structure, or can be applied in a standalone solution. 57

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The construction system contains rods, which build the main load bearing and shape forming structure, and a connector. This connector has to fit rods from two to maximal six possible directions (see Fg. 41). For fitting the rods in that matter eight different variations of joints had to be considered (connection of two up to connection of six). But eight different connectors for each case where too much, considering the complexity of the assembly in future. The goals was to find one connector, which fits in any connection variation. The result is a connection cube, which is always positioned at the corners of the built structure (Fg. 42). The rods themselves have metal “swords”, which go in the cube and will be interconnected inside. The cube determines the angle in which the swords are inserted (orthogonal to each other), so that they don’t touch and overlap (Fg. 46). The rods will be fixed with dowels in the connector cube. As well the cube and the swords are made of metal (steel) for reasons of material strength. The rod core itself will be made out of wood.

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Fg. 41: The Connection Cube can fix up to six rods

Fg. 43: Built structure

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Fg. 44: Connector Principle

Fg. 45: Fixation of the swords 60

Fg. 46: The Connector fixes the swords, whithout them overlapping 61

The structural system consists only of two elements, the rod and the connector, that gives a lot of possibilities for arrangement (see Fg. 47). To the built structure several panels can be added to build seating areas, close walls, build shelfs, or just for reasons of aesthetics. Once a structure is built and doesnâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t fulfil the userâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s requirements anymore, it can be easily changed and adjusted to the current demands. A partition wall can be rebuilt as a seating arrangement, a shelf can be turned into a sculpture. All what is needed, is to disassemble the unwanted structure and reassemble it in a new way. It is a Change It Youself System (see Fg. 48).

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Fg. 47: Many Possibilities with two structural components 62

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CHANGE IT YOURSELF SYSTEM

32 x Connector 48 x Rod 4 x Panel

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Fg. 48: Change It Yourself System 64

optimizing the interior The method was to go in an existing structure to optimize it and to give it a new purpose. The old materials, the old building layouts (see Fg. 49) where used to form something different, something new by applying the lean design principles (optimizing internally; adding, if needed; and subtracting if needed). To show the potential of the design, two approaches where developed.

Solution I The raw material of the structure, the borders and the building layout shaped the light and easy non-radical design approach, where furniture was added to serve the purpose of the room. The furniture system itself can be adjusted to the current needs, as mentioned earlier, it can become anything.

Fg. 50: Interior - Solution I

Fg. 49: Interior Existing

As the existing structure an abandoned building in Leipzig was chosen, the old â&#x20AC;&#x153;Trikotagenfabrik, Leipzigâ&#x20AC;?. The developed design approaches are an example as how to apply the developed design system.

Solution ii In a more radical approach a parametric method was used to generate the built structure added to the existing building. Here the furniture defines the room, in contrast to the non-radical approach the room serves the furniture. The added structure follows a virtual force. Openings in the faĂ§ade follow a curve in a pixelated way, whereas the rest of the furniture follows a generated topography (see Fg. 51). The topography determines the flow, the traffic of the room. 67

interior Metabolic growth (1) Base Room

(2) Attractor Curve on Facades

(3) Facade treated and pixelated Facades

(4) Topography Surface

(5) Pixelated Translation

Fg. 51: Form Generation Interior Fg. 52: Interior - Solution II 68

exterior building system The connector cube was also applied to a large scale construction system, which is also able to be adjusted by disassembly and reassembly. It can be used to add to existing structures or in a standalone solution. The system is a non-directional system, which additionally to its squared grid allows an extension and subtraction in any direction, if there is a need to add or to reduce in the future. It can be easily adjusted and can create flat, rectangular shapes as well as very radical pixelated forms.

Fg. 53: Facade Connection System with Cube Connector

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Fg. 54: Flooring Connection System with Flooring Cube Connector 70

Fg. 55: The facade construction can be closed with facade panales with window option as as closed

Fg. 56: The flooring construction will be closed with slabs 71

FORM GENERATION

(2) Subtractor Curve

(1) Base Form

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(5) Reaction is Addition

(4) Reaction to Subtraction

(3) Subtracted Form

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(6) Final Mass

(7) Facade Treatment Curve

(8) Final Form

Fg. 57: Form Generation 72

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landscape (1) Base Land

(4) Softscape Selection Curve

(2) Determining Topography

(5) Subtracted pixelated Hardscape

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(6) Final Topography GSEducationalVersion

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Fg. 58: Landscape 74

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Fg. 59: Overall Composition

In a standalone solution a gazebo like exhibition building was developed to show the possibility of the building system. The exterior solution follows the same methodology as Internal Solution II (see Fg. 51). In the parametric design approach forces and curves generate the form (see Fg. 57). The Building System was scaled from 45 cm grid size (Furniture System) to a grid size of 90 cm.

Fg. 60: Birdâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Eye View Fg. 61: Perspective View 76

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Fg. 62: Floor plans 78

Fg. 63: 3D Section

part iv - conclusion

LEAN MANAGEMENT

ARCHITECTURAL FLEXIBILITY

With the lean management philosophy we came across the determination of common sense as an innovation. The strategy is to identify excess or “non-value-adding” activities, also mentioned as waste, and eliminate or decrease them in order to continuously improve and seek perfection.

Flexibility is the ability to be easily modified12. In the past there were a lot of attempts to implement the concept of architectural flexibility. Especially the Bauhaus, the movement of Architectural Metabolism and several historical attempts are to name in that matter.

Overproduction, excessive amounts of inventory, defects in products or services, over processing or more effort than needed are noted as the most important wastes next to waiting time, unused human resources, unnecessary motion and the inefficient transportation of information or goods. As a conclusion one must always ask about the necessity of an

The Bauhaus philosophy defined a new philosophy of usability, it defined new necessities. It introduced designers to question common ways, learn from them and improve them along the way.

action.

In order to achieve a production with less waste and higher quality, the lean management philosophy offers several tools. Standardization, automation and several change over strategies are working along with visual controls and a streamlined layout of the work place, where people work strictly in teams and also inspect and optimize every step of the production. The human and his skills is seen as an important resource as well. The lean management philosophy determines a way of problem solving by not only treating the symptom, but going back to the root or the cause and eliminate in that way the probability of new problems.

Important questions to work with in a lean project: What is the goal of my production/project? What are the values? What is the quality of the outcome? What are the steps to achieve my goal? How can the flow be optimized? Are there activities, that don’t add any value to the product? Are there unnecessary activities? What are the causes of occurring problems? How can we eliminate those problems or decrease the probability of them?

The movement of Architectural Metabolism made the attempt of implementing the philosophy of replace ability and changeability of members in a system. The ideal, the main goal is the design of a city, which is so flexible in its connections, that its parts can grow, transform themselves, or even die, while the whole system stays alive. An example of a metabolistic building is the Nagakin Capsule Tower by Kisho Kurokawa. It was built in the concept of modular architecture, where the modules or capsules could be plugged in into a central core. They were attached in a way, that they could be easily replaced and exchanged if necessary. The other described historical systems are systems of architecture, construction, concept, development and also process. Every system made the attempt of reacting to the current question of architecture according to its time. The Chrystal Palace, The Unistrut System, “Techbuilt House”, CLASP, USM Haller and Wachsmanns Mobilar System and the USAF Space Structure made the attempt of Flexibility focused on the structural rearrangement.

The historical attempts show the need of flexibility, although all most of those attempts didn’t find usage in the common architectural ways. Where the principle of adaptation and changeability was implemented successfully, in the Nagakin Capsule Tower, the building was actually never changed, even though it was intended by design. The building is now falling apart and is in danger to be demolished. Reason for that was the missing necessity and social acceptance of executing the change. The design of Konrad Wachsmanns clip connection, as designed for the General Panel House never found usage afterwards again, his design wasn’t successfully implemented and wasn’t accepted by society as well. So as discussed for a system to be durable and resilient the aesthetic values have to be addressed as one of the most important values to be accepted (see sustainability, pg. x). Acceptance is the key to durability. Oxford Dictionary. n.d. https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/flexibility (accessed 12 29, 2018). 12

To be able to work out a new approach, the current movements in society and architecture are also important to analyse. Sustainability is a huge issue and has to be addressed in future projects. Not only the German and European systems of sustainable building and energy efficiency are to consider, but also the current way of dealing with the architectural process and construction management. The goal of flexibility affects all stages of architecture. The topic of Sustainability comes with a complexity, which combines values of ecology, economy and society to reach resilience for a product or service, the ability to withstand change. Natural resources, ecosystem services, aesthetic qualities, human, social and built capital have to be addressed along with a long term view, economic, ecologic and social diversity, and the societies abilities. Sustainability also includes the evaluation of necessity, and of effort versus use. In the German building laws it is determined to reach a certain status of sustainability and energy efficiency. That is the ratio between service profit, product output and energy profit (Output) to the used energy (Input). It is therefore the rational usage of energy. The guideline Energieeinsparverordnung (EnEV) determines the minimum requirements regarding energy usage. The goal is to minimize the energy demand of buildings (energy waste during use) including the evaluation of effort and effect (e.g. more insulation of outer shell to minimize the energy loss versus the grey energy of building and equipment). The process of architecture can easily be compared to a production line, where several steps have to be completed to reach the final product, the building. If one step is defective or causes delays, it causes waste. One strategy to avoid the waste of effort and time is the TPTC strategy, the Takt Planning and Takt Control system. In this system the common way of construction management was optimized by dividing a construction site into Takt Areas and determining Takt Time (the time a one construction task needs) for Waggons (process, here construction task). Per Takt Area the tasks will be done in the common way, one after another. But when one task is done, the workers of that task go to the next Takt Area and work in parallel to the following task from their previous Takt Area. With that method the entire construction duration is decreased by approximately 20%. But for the method to be successfully implied, the design of the building itself has to fit. It has to contain construction steps, which are standardized and include a lot of repetition. Load bearing dependencies are to consider for the construction process as well. Therefore current methods have to be adjusted for this construction management system. 84

To connect the idea of architectural flexibility in design with the values of sustainability, energy efficiency and a waste reduced architectural management approach, we need to carefully evaluate effort, resources and necessities. We need to find the reasonable middle ground between flexibility and durability. The natural rule is: The more flexibility, the less durability.

LEAN ARCHITECTURE Using the lean philosophy in architecture means applying the main goal of lean: avoiding waste. Waste in architectural terms can be divided in three categories: ecological waste, economic waste and social waste. Ecological waste is waste of resources like material, time, money and human skills. Economical waste is the waste of effort. Social waste contends human factors, like functionality, comfort and aesthetics, also the issue of the necessity of building or producing. All those kinds of waste occur in every phase of architecture, during planning, during construction and during using. One strategy to avoid conflicts between planners, human failure, and mistakes are e.g. implementing BIM in the planning process. To save time on the building site the TPTC system can be applied. To avoid ecologic, economic and social waste in architecture several principles should be addressed. First of all the Just-In-Time-Method determines to build only, when there is a need, a necessity. To save resources, effort and energy of production there has to be less production. Older, still usable, or recycled resources should be used. For a long term view materials, which are recyclable or which rot after disposal decrease effort and energy in the future. In that matter we have to rethink common resources. The quality of function, comfort and aesthetics determine the level of acceptance. The more loved a building is, the longer it will be used. The design also has to offer resilience in terms of changes in requirements and needs during the phase of use.

The evaluation of demands and necessities is a lean value to include in architecture as well as standardization, high functionality and an emphasis on flexibility. 85

case study - architecture diet

lean architecture - does that work with human beings?

The goal of the developed architectural approach was to be simple, easy to handle and accessible for everyone. The emphasis should be on changeability and adaptability due to an uncertain future. The outcome was a fluid architecture with a rigid system.

The thought of lean in design always leads to an excessive evaluation of demands and necessities. In architecture that results in a very reduced outcome, where only elements are built, which are needed to fulfil the function. The architectural values of comfort and aesthetics won’t be met properly. That leads to less durability of the built outcome, because people won’t be using it as long as they could. Acceptance, appreciation and pride is needed to guarantee a long using phase.

The geometric design approach is used in a smaller scale, an interior furniture solution, and in a bigger scale, in an entire building construction system. Both systems are based on a squared 3D pattern. The general method is based on three scales, the Mini scale contains smaller elements, which will be assembled to a structure (Midi), which then become a megastructure (Maxi) by adding more and more elements. The system consists only of two elements, the rod and the connector, that gives a lot of possibilities for arrangement. As soon as a built structure doesn’t fulfil the user’s requirements anymore, it can be easily changed and adjusted to the current demands. It is a “Change It Yourself System”. The elements exist in a smaller scale, based on a squared 3D grid (45 cm), and in a larger scale (90 cm). The smaller scale was applied to an existing structure in two different variations, a non-radical and a radical one. Whereas in solution I the furniture was only added to optimize the room, in solution II the furniture became the room and was generated in a parametric design method. In a standalone solution, the larger scale of the elements was used to construct a whole building. The developed building is a gazebo like exhibition building. The design was also generated parametrically. The design system should show the possibilities of building in a traditional, rational and efficient way as well as a radical approach.

Lean architecture also needs standardization to work. Standardized architecture results in standardized and homogenous aesthetics. Pure lean architecture doesn’t work with the human desire for individualism. We as planners can offer standardized houses, but the human inhabitant will change his own space for his individual needs. Looking in the topic of sustainability has also shown that diverse systems (any kind) are more resilient than homogenous ones. Also flexibility in architecture is a problematic topic. More flexibility means less durability. Speaking of only the building elements, flexibility leads to a higher wear rate. Including the human factor, examples in history have shown that people tend to like a rigid product more, additionally the need and desire to change depends on social values and on each human individually.

In the end we need to find the balance between necessity, standardization, functionality and flexibility on one side and values of comfort and aesthetics, individual needs and individualism in general, and diversity on the other side to find the most fitting approach to lead in the direction of a perfect product.

appendix

bibliography

figures

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Alonso, Pedro Ignacio. Diagrams of a Universal System of Construction

Klein, Hartmut. Basics Projektplanung. Basel: Bert Bielefeld, 2013.

in the Work of Konrad Wachsmann: between Representation and Technology.

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2019. https://www.ardmediathek.de/ard/player/ Y3JpZDovL3N3ci5kZS8xMTEzNTU4OA/ (accessed 04 19, 2019).

Chaillou, Stanislas. A Medium Corporation. 2018. https://medium.com/ builthorizons/metabolism-s-spatial-flexibility-in-the-21st-century-d7cef8aaaf84 (accessed 12 08, 2018).

kunst-zeiten.de. https://www.kunst-zeiten.de/Bauhaus-Allgemein (accessed 11 02, 2018).

Kurokawa, Kisho. Metabolsim in Architecture. Studio Vista, 1977.

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Figure 10 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Metabolism, every member in the system serves a different function to fulfil the function of the whole union, Pg. 21

Figure 16 - Techbuilt House System, K. Koch, Pg. 26

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Figure 21 - USM Haller, Fritz Haller, Pg. 29

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Figure 29 - Dependencies of sustainable values, Pg. 35 Image by authors

Figure 23 - Clip Connector, Pg. 30

Figure 30 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; The Architectural Process, Pg. 39

Imperiale, Alicia. An american wartime dream: the packaged house sys-

Image by authors

Figure 24 - Clip Connection - connected walls, Pg. 30

Figure 31 - Construction Site (1) with determined Takt Areas (2) (3), Pg. 41

Imperiale, Alicia. An american wartime dream: the packaged house sys-

Image by authors

Figure 25 - Space Structure, USAF, Pg. 31

Figure 32 - Process chain for Takt Area1 with Waggons and depending Takt Time, Pg. 41

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Figure 27 - Plug-In City, Peter Cook, Pg. 32

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Image by authors Figure 33 - Regular schedule planning chart, Pg. 42 Image by authors Figure 34 - TPTC implemented on schedule planning chart, Pg. 42 Image by authors Figure 35 - Wastes of every aspect of architecture, Pg. 46 Image by authors

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Figure 36 - Architectural approach, Pg. 50

Figure 45 - Fixation of the swords, Pg. 60

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Figure 37 - Fire Ants cluster themseves together to build a bridge, Pg. 55

Figure 46 - The Connector fixes the swords, without them overlapping, Pg. 61

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Image by authors Figure 47 - Many Possibilities with two structural components, Pg. 62 Image by authors Figure 48 - Change it Yourself System, Pg. 64

Figure 39 - Mini Midi Maxi, Pg. 57

Image by authors

Image by authors Figure 49 - Interior Existing, Pg. 66 Figure 40 - Furniture System, Pg. 56

Image by authors

Image by authors Figure 50 - Interior - Solution I, Pg. 67 Figure 41 - The Connection Cube can fix up to six rods, Pg. 58

Image by authors

Image by authors Figure 51 - Form Generation Interior, Pg. 68 Figure 42 - Assembly of the structure, Pg. 59

Image by authors

Image by authors Figure 52 - Interior Solution II, Pg. 69 Figure 43 - Built Structure, Pg. 59

Image by authors

Image by authors Figure 53 - Facade connection system with cube connector, Pg. 70 Figure 44 - Connector Principle, Pg. 60

Image by authors

Image by authors 98

Figure 54 - Flooring connection with flooring cube connector, Pg. 70

Figure 63 - Floor plans, Pg. 78

Image by authors

Figure 55 - The facade construction can be closed with facade panales with window option as as closed, Pg. 71 Image by authors Figure 56 - The flooring construction will be closed with slabs, Pg. 71 Image by authors Figure 57 - Form Generation, Pg. 72 Image by authors Figure 58 - Landscape, Pg. 74 Image by authors Figure 59 - Overall Composition, Pg. 76 Image by authors Figure 60 - Birdâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Eye View, Pg. 76 Image by authors Figure 61 - Perspective View, Pg. 77 Image by authors Figure 62 - 3D Section, Pg. 78 Image by authors 100

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