Second Forum on Climate Change in the Near East:Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security by mahmoud abdallah Medany

In collaboration Food and Agriculture Organizationwith of the United Nations Tel. +39 06 93938367 - Fax +39 1786034698 - email: info@icu.it ÂŠ ICU 2011

Ministry of Agriculture

Ministry of Environment

Istituto per la Cooperazione

Proceedings Lebanon

Lebanon

Universitaria - Beirut, Lebanon

Second Forum on Climate Change in the Near East: Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security

Beirut, Lebanon, 27-29 June, 2011 Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Regional Office for the Near East

Cairo, 2011

Proceedings

Second Forum on Climate Change in the Near East: Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security

In collaboration with

Ministry of Agriculture, Lebanon Ministry of Environment, Lebanon Istituto per la Cooperazione Universitaria â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Beirut Office, Lebanon

Beirut, Lebanon, 27-29 June, 2011 FAO/RNE, 2011

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Table of Contents Foreword ................................................................................................................................................................... iv Executive summary ................................................................................................................................................ v Acknowledgements .............................................................................................................................................. vii Beirut Declaration .................................................................................................................................................viii List of Abbreviations .............................................................................................................................................. x

Background Note: Country Stand on CC in Agriculture and Food Security in the RNE region .................. 12

1.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................................................... 12 1.2 Overview of the Agriculture Sector and Food Security in the Near East ............................................................... 12 1.3 Climate Change and its Impacts on Food Security Sectors .................................................................................. 13 1.3.1

Climate Change Projections in the Region ............................................................................................... 13

1.3.2

Likely Impacts of Climate Change on Food Production Bases ................................................................. 13

1.3.3

Paradigm of Climate Change Impacts and Food Security Outcomes ...................................................... 14

1.4 Country stands on climate change in the Region .................................................................................................. 15 1.4.1

Climate change awareness in the Region ................................................................................................ 15

1.4.2

Policies and Strategies for Climate Change in the Near East Region ...................................................... 17

1.4.3

Institutional Arrangements to cope with Climate Change ......................................................................... 18

1.4.4

Technical Knowledge and Capacity Development ................................................................................... 20

1.4.5

Funding Opportunities .............................................................................................................................. 23

1.5 FAO Actions on Climate Change at the Corporate Level ...................................................................................... 24 1.6 FAO Regional Priority Framework for the Near East ............................................................................................ 26 1.7 Conclusions and Way-Forward ............................................................................................................................. 26 2.

Forum Highlights ................................................................................................................................................ 30

2.1 Opening ................................................................................................................................................................ 30 2.2 Country Stands on Climate Change and its Impacts on Agriculture and Food Security in the Near East Region ...................... 30 2.3 Identification of Priority Needs to Confront CC Impacts on Agriculture and Food Security in the RNE Countries ...................... 34 2.4 Financial Mechanisms and Sources of Funding for Climate Change .................................................................... 35 2.5 Development of Basic Project Information to Address Priority Needs ................................................................... 39 2.6 Wrap-up and Closing ............................................................................................................................................ 40 2.7 Conclusions .......................................................................................................................................................... 41 3.

Selected country papers .................................................................................................................................... 43 3.1

Egypt country paper .............................................................................................................................. 43

3.1.1

Introduction .............................................................................................................................................. 43

3.1.2

Awareness on climate change ................................................................................................................. 43

3.1.3

National vision, policies, and strategies ................................................................................................... 45

3.1.4

Institutional arrangements ........................................................................................................................ 47

3.1.5

Technical knowledge ................................................................................................................................ 49

3.1.6

Recent activities and projects................................................................................................................... 50

3.1.7

Funding opportunities ............................................................................................................................... 52

3.1.8

Conclusions and recommendations ......................................................................................................... 54

3.2

Jordan country paper ............................................................................................................................ 58

3.2.1

Introduction .............................................................................................................................................. 58

3.2.2

Awareness on climate change ................................................................................................................. 58

3.2.3

National vision, policies, and strategies ................................................................................................... 60

3.2.4

Institutional arrangements ........................................................................................................................ 62

3.2.5

Technical knowledge ................................................................................................................................ 63

3.2.6

Recent activities and projects................................................................................................................... 64

3.2.7

Funding opportunities ............................................................................................................................... 66

3.2.8

Conclusions and recommendations ......................................................................................................... 67

3.3

Lebanon country paper ......................................................................................................................... 68

3.3.1

Introduction .............................................................................................................................................. 68

3.3.2

Awareness on climate change ................................................................................................................. 69

3.3.3

National vision, policies, and strategies ................................................................................................... 71

3.3.4

Recent activities and projects................................................................................................................... 71

3.3.5

Technical knowledge ................................................................................................................................ 72

3.4

Mauritania country paper ...................................................................................................................... 73

3.4.1

Introduction .............................................................................................................................................. 73

3.4.2

Awareness on climate change ................................................................................................................. 74

3.4.3

National vision, policies, and strategies ................................................................................................... 76

3.4.4

Institutional arrangements ........................................................................................................................ 78

3.4.5

Technical knowledge ................................................................................................................................ 78

3.4.6

Recent activities and projects................................................................................................................... 80

3.4.7

Funding opportunities ............................................................................................................................... 81

3.4.8

Capacity building ...................................................................................................................................... 81

3.5

Morocco country paper ......................................................................................................................... 84

3.5.1

Introduction .............................................................................................................................................. 84

3.5.2

Awareness on climate change ................................................................................................................. 85

3.5.3

National vision, policy, and strategies ...................................................................................................... 86

3.5.4

Institutional arrangements ........................................................................................................................ 89

3.5.5

Technical knowledge ................................................................................................................................ 90

3.5.6 3.6

Recent activities and projects................................................................................................................... 92 Saudi Arabia country paper .................................................................................................................. 93

3.6.1

Introduction .............................................................................................................................................. 93

3.6.2

Awareness on climate change ................................................................................................................. 93

3.6.3

National vision, policy, strategies ............................................................................................................. 94

3.6.4

Institutional arrangements ........................................................................................................................ 97

3.6.5

Technical knowledge ................................................................................................................................ 98

3.6.6

Funding opportunities ............................................................................................................................. 100

3.6.7

Conclusions and recommendations ....................................................................................................... 101

3.7

Sudan country paper ........................................................................................................................... 105

3.7.1

Introduction ............................................................................................................................................ 105

3.7.2

Awareness on climate change ............................................................................................................... 105

3.7.3

National vision, policy, strategies ........................................................................................................... 106

3.7.4

Institutional arrangements ...................................................................................................................... 107

3.7.5

Technical knowledge .............................................................................................................................. 107

3.7.6

Funding opportunities ............................................................................................................................. 110

3.7.7

Conclusions and recommendations ....................................................................................................... 110

3.8

Syria country paper.............................................................................................................................. 112

3.8.1

Introduction ............................................................................................................................................ 112

3.8.2

Awareness on climate change ............................................................................................................... 113

3.8.3

National vision, policy, strategies ........................................................................................................... 113

3.8.4

Institutional arrangements ...................................................................................................................... 114

3.8.5

Technical knowledge .............................................................................................................................. 115

3.8.6

Present activities and projects................................................................................................................ 116

3.8.7

Funding opportunities ............................................................................................................................. 117

3.8.8

Conclusions and recommendations ....................................................................................................... 118

3.9

Tunisia country paper .......................................................................................................................... 120

3.9.1

Introduction ............................................................................................................................................ 120

3.9.2

Awareness on climate change ............................................................................................................... 120

3.9.3

National vision, policy, strategies ........................................................................................................... 121

3.9.4

Institutional arrangements ...................................................................................................................... 123

3.9.5

Technical knowledge .............................................................................................................................. 124

3.9.6

Recent activities and projects................................................................................................................. 125

3.9.7

Funding opportunities ............................................................................................................................. 127

3.9.8

Conclusions and recommendations ....................................................................................................... 127

3.10

Yemen country paper........................................................................................................................... 130

3.10.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................................ 130 3.10.2 Awareness on climate change ............................................................................................................... 133 3.10.3 National vision, policy, strategies ........................................................................................................... 134 3.10.4 Institutional arrangements ...................................................................................................................... 135 3.10.5 Technical knowledge .............................................................................................................................. 136 3.10.6 Recent activities and projects................................................................................................................. 137 3.10.7 Funding opportunities ............................................................................................................................. 139 3.10.8 Conclusions and recommendations ....................................................................................................... 139 Annex I: Forum Agenda ............................................................................................................................................. 146 Annex II: List of Participants....................................................................................................................................... 149 Annex III: Relevant References and Links ................................................................................................................. 159 Annex IV: Original French version of Mauritania country paper ................................................................................. 161 Annex V: Original French version of Morocco country paper ..................................................................................... 172 Annex VI: Original French version of Tunisia country paper ...................................................................................... 183

iii

Foreword Climate change is one of the greatest global challenges of this century. FAO‟s concerns with climate change date back to the 1980s. An Inter-Departmental Working Group on Climate Change was established in 1988 with the involvement of all the units concerned. The recent internal structure of FAO also took the new global challenges into consideration through the creation of a new division concerned with climate change and environmental issues. Climate change is also widely highlighted across the Organization in the Strategic Framework dedicated to climate change and in which nearly all FAO units are involved. FAO also developed a corporate-wide climate change adaptation framework to systemize its supporting efforts across the Organization. The Near East is one of the regions most affected by climate change. The threats are already affecting natural resources and agricultural production in all countries of the region and will likely worsen with drastic impacts on national economies in general and food security in particular. Conscious of these threats, the Member Countries of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) in the region have requested the Organization and other partners for assistance in identifying appropriate actions and developing capacities to adapt to climate change and absorb the potential shocks stemming from them. In response to the request, FAO has dedicated considerable attention to climate change issues in the Near East region over the last few years. Adaptation to climate change of the economic sectors directly concerned with food security (agriculture, water, fisheries and forestry) constitutes one of the main priorities of the FAO Regional Office for the Near East (FAO RNE). FAO has aimed at building greater resilience of these sectors to climate change impacts and taken a wide range of initiatives and activities in the region. In November 2009, FAO, in collaboration with partner organizations, held the first regional forum on climate change in the Near East with the overall goal of advancing the agenda for investment in climate change adaptation and mitigation measures in the broad agricultural sector. The Second Forum on Climate Change in the Near East region was centered on the theme “climate change, agriculture, and food security” with the overall objective of enhancing Member Countries‟ capacities to confront the negative impacts of climate change and variability on agriculture and food security. The Proceedings of the Forum presented here highlight country stands on climate change in agriculture and food security in the Near East region as well as specific needs for support and regional cooperation identified through the preparation and organization of the Forum. The Proceedings also contain Country Papers, tailored to the Forum preparation, in the Arab Republic of Egypt, the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan, the Lebanese Republic, the Islamic Republic of Mauritania, the Kingdom of Morocco, the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, the Republic of the Sudan, the Syrian Arab Republic, the Republic of Tunisia, and the Republic of Yemen.

Executive Summary The Second Regional Forum on Climate Change was dedicated to the theme of climate change, agriculture, and food security in the Near East. The Forum was held in Beirut, Lebanon, 27-29 June 2011, and attended by country delegates, experts from within and outside the Near East region, regional and international organizations and donors, as well as representatives of civil society and universities. In preparation for the Forum, FAO commissioned the preparation of Country Papers on the stand of climate change and its impacts on food security-related sectors. The Forum aimed at taking stock of countries‟ knowledge and gaps, providing an opportunity for exchange of experiences, exposing country delegates to international financial mechanisms, and identifying specific needs for support and regional cooperation. It was expected to come up with practical recommendations for follow-up actions to address the identified gaps, including a declaration delineating commitment. The Forum comprised six sessions with presentations, plenary discussions, and group exercises. The Forum explored country stands on climate change and its impacts on agriculture and food security in the Near East region. It outlined likely climate change impacts on food security related sectors in the region and highlighted the country stands from the perspectives of awareness, policies and strategies, institutional arrangements, technical knowledge and capacity development, and funding opportunities. The Forum also presented the regional initiative on the assessment of climate change impact on water resources and socioeconomic vulnerability and summarized the declarations and resolutions on climate change, agriculture, and food security. The plenary discussion that followed the relevant presentations pointed out a lack of climate change strategies in the countries of the region and inadequate implementation capacity at the national and regional levels. There is also lots of room to increase investment. The plenary questioned how much evidence of climate change impacts is necessary to convince decision-makers. The discussion stressed that civil society and other stakeholders should be involved in the climate change agenda, but it was also proposed to strengthen collaboration between the countries of the region. The plenary acknowledged that the regional initiative on climate change impacts and vulnerability assessment is very relevant as its findings would fill an important information gap. The Forum provided presentations describing existing financial mechanisms and sources of funding for climate change. They outlined the GEF Trust Fund, LDCF, and SCCF as well as FAO‟s support to Member Countries under the GEF. They also briefed other financial mechanisms and funding sources for climate change adaptation and provided an overview of climate change mitigation and carbon markets and funds. The presentations further explained GEF focal areas and strategies as well as the GEF project cycle, requirements and formats. The plenary discussion that followed the presentations raised issues on insufficient information about financial mechanisms and their complex procedures. There is also need for capacity building for accessing financial mechanisms. The plenary also highlighted the need for collaboration and synergy between national institutions and the important role of NGOs. The Forum also conducted group work to identify priority needs. This offered an opportunity to familiarize participants with the GEF PIF format through the development of basic project information. Among other important points, working groups stressed the need for developing appropriate national policies and strategies for adaptation and mainstreaming the climate change agenda into developmental policies. They also emphasized the need for strengthening capacities of institutions and human resources. In addition, some of them underlined the need for increasing investment and for enhancing water resources technologies and management. The Forum reached important recommendations for follow-up actions and the development of the Forum Declaration, so called “Beirut Declaration.” The Forum reconfirmed that adaptation to climate change is a top priority for the broad agricultural sector and that achieving food security requires substantial efforts in adapting this sector. The Forum identified the specific need to enhance the involvement of policy and decision-makers and to get their recognition of climate change impacts. It stressed the need to develop and implement national policies and strategies for adaptation to climate change in agriculture and food security. Impact and vulnerability assessments are needed to enhance the recognition and to develop appropriate policies and strategies. The Forum also emphasized the need to strengthen implementation capacity at the institutional, national, and regional levels. It also underlined the necessity to improve water and agriculture related technologies, practices, and management as well as relevant technical and scientific capacities. The Forum also stressed the need to v

expand the involvement of multiple stakeholders and to strengthen coordination at all levels, including between ministries and with stakeholders. In addition, it identified the need for cooperation and exchange of successful experiences among the countries of the Region. Moreover, the Forum emphasized the need to increase public investment in adaptation as well as to simplify and explain the procedures of the existing financial mechanisms. The Forum recommended to the Member Countries, FAO, and other organizations to establish a cooperative action to address climate change impacts and variability on agriculture and food security in the Near East region.

Acknowledgements The Forum would not have successfully materialized without the contribution of many persons and the collaboration of partner agencies and organizations. Deep appreciation is extended to the Lebanese Ministry of Agriculture and Ministry of Environment for their collaboration, with sincere appreciation to his Excellency the Lebanese Minister of Agriculture for his precious closing remarks. Special thanks are extended to the following persons who drafted the country papers included in these proceedings: Mr. Salah Hajj Hassan (Lebanon), Mr Jalal Hammoud (Syria), Mr Kattary Ould Atigh (Mauritania), Mr El Mostafa Darfaoui (Saudi Arabia), Mr Ayman Farid Abou-Hadid (Egypt), Mr Malek Mahadeen (Jordan), Mr Mâ&#x20AC;&#x;Hamed Sedrati (Morocco), Ms Rehab Ahmed Hassan (Sudan), Mr Lazhar El Echi (Tunisia), Mr Abdulkarem Al-Sabri (Yemen), Specials thanks are also extended to the persons who made presentations and those who chaired or moderated sessions (the names of whom are indicated in Annex I) Thanks and gratitude are also extended to all participants, particularly from regional and international organizations, for their collaboration and active contributions. Appreciation is extended to FAO-Lebanon and ICU for providing logistic support and to Mr Melvyn Kay, RTCS (UK) Ltd, for editing the country papers and the report. Thanks are also extended to the resources persons, the support staff and all those who contributed one way or another to the success of the forum. The forum and its proceedings are part of the output of FAO RNE Working Group on Climate Change comprised of Mr. Mohamed Bazza, Senior Water Resources Officer and Group Leader; Ms. Fatima Hachem, Nutrition Officer; Mr. Piero Mannini, Senior Fishery Officer; Mr. Pape Kone and his successor Mr. Mohamed Saket, Senior Forestry Officers; Mr. Taher El Azzabi, Senior Plant Protection Officer, Mr. Mohamed Bengoumi, Animal Production and Health Officer and Mr. Shinya Abe, APO Natural Resources,

vii

Beirut Declaration

1. The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) held the Second Forum on Climate Change in the Near East, under the theme “Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security” in Beirut, Lebanon, 27-29 June 2011, in collaboration with the Lebanese Ministry of Agriculture and Ministry of Environment and the International NGO ICU. The Forum was attended by country delegates, experts from within and outside the Near East region, as well as regional and international organizations and donors active in the area of climate change in the Region. 2. The Forum recognized the fact that the Near East is one of the world regions that are most vulnerable to climatic changes and that a series of foreseen threats posed by climate change could significantly negatively affect food security and deteriorate the livelihoods of a large segment of the region‟s population. 3. The Forum reconfirmed the recommendation of the first Forum that adaptation to climate change is a top priority for the agricultural sector, including the sub-sectors of crops, rangelands, livestock, forests, fisheries and aquaculture; and that achieving food security requires substantial efforts in adapting this sector. 4. The Forum recognized that there is a shortage of information about the extent and mechanisms of actual coordination among relevant ministries and institutions at the local, national and regional levels. It also recognized that not much is known about how practitioners, such as farmers, fishermen, foresters and herders, are actually coping with climate change. 5. The Forum noted that public financial resources allocated to climate change adaptation remain limited in general and are extremely low in some countries. 6. The Forum recalled that financing adaptation actions should be ensured through rural development mechanisms (official development assistance and other sources) as a primary funding source, with specific climate change mechanisms as a complementary one. It affirmed the need to systematically promote the climate change agenda in the agricultural sector within national institutions and to request formal assistance from their partners to this end. 7.

The Forum reaffirmed that mitigation and adaptation are inextricably linked in the agriculture sector and therefore mitigation should still be paid due attention in view of synergies and funding opportunities for adaptation.

8. The Forum recommended the development of a regional climate change model for anticipating changes in climate variables. It recognized the on-going initiative by ESCWA to assess the vulnerability of water resources to climate change and called upon countries and other stakeholders to support and collaborate with this and other relevant initiatives. 9. The Forum emphasized the necessity for full cooperation and exchange of successful experiences between countries of the region, both directly and indirectly, including through regional and subregional networks and fora. 10. The Forum acknowledged that the preliminary analysis of the country studies carried out with FAO support provided the broad picture of the critical needs of countries in order to enhance their capacities to confront the negative impacts of climate change and variability on agriculture and food security. These needs can be summarized as follows: •

Enhancing the involvement of policy and decision-makers and their recognition of climate change impacts;

•

Elaborating and implementing national policies and strategies for adaptation to climate change in agriculture and food security;

•

Developing capacity in vulnerability assessment, monitoring and adaptation measures; viii

•

Improving data-collection and information-sharing between relevant stakeholders;

•

Developing early warning systems against extreme climatic events;

•

Enhancing agricultural technologies such as the development of stress-tolerant varieties and the improvement of water resources development and management;

•

Expanding the involvement of stakeholders to include NGOs, civil society, universities, the private sector, etc.;

•

Strengthening national coordination among the multiple stakeholders;

•

Increasing public and private investment in climate change adaptation, improving capacity to access other available financial resources and considering the establishment of climate change insurance;

11. The Forum recommended to Member Countries of the Region, FAO and other organizations to launch a cooperative action in order to enhance national capacities in confronting the negative impacts of climate change and variability on agriculture and food security in the Region. 12. The participants urged the Funding Agencies concerned with climate change to simplify their procedures and to explain their roles, policies and procedures through the organization of events at the country level. 13. The participants unanimously adopted by acclamation this Declaration of the “Second Forum on Climate Change in the Near East under the theme Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security” in Beirut, Lebanon, on 29 June 2011. 14. The forum participants expressed their appreciation to FAO and the Government of the Lebanese Republic for having made the organization of this important event possible.

List of Abbreviations

AFAPCC

Arab Framework Action Plan on Climate Change

AFOLU

Agriculture, Forestry and Other Land Use

CDM

Clean Development Mechanism

CEO

Chief Executive Officer

Methane

Carbon dioxide

COP

Conferences of the Parties

European Commission

EEAA

Egyptian Environmental Affairs Agency

EPA

Environment Protection Authority

ESCWA

(United Nations) Economic Commission for Western Asia

European Union

FAO

Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations

FAO RNE

FAO Regional Office for the Near East

FSP

Full Size Project

GDP

Gross Domestic Product

GEF

Global Environmental Facility

GHG

Greenhouse Gas

GTZ

Deutsche Gesellschaft f端r Technische Zusammenarbeit

hectare

HCENR

Higher Council for Environment and Natural Resources

HLCCC

High Level Committee for Climate Change

ICU

Istituto per la Cooperatione Universitaria of Beirut

IFAD

International Fund for Agricultural Development

IPPC

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change

KSA

Kingdom of Saudi Arabia

LAS

League of Arab States

LDC

Least Developed Country

LDCF

Least Developed Countries Fund

LULUCF

Land Use, Land-Use Change and Forestry

MAAR

Ministry of Agriculture and Agrarian Reform

MDGs

Millennium Development Goals

MEAs

Multilateral Environmental Agreements

MENA

Middle East and North Africa

MESD

Ministry of Environment and Sustainable Development

MOA

Ministry of Agriculture x

MSEA

Ministry of State for Environmental Affairs

MSP

Medium Sized Project

NAPA

National Adaptation Programme of Action

NGO

Non-Governmental Organization

percent

PIF

Project Identification Form

PME

General Presidency of Meteorology and Environmental Protection

PPG

Project Preparation Grant

POPs

Persistent Organic Pollutants

REDD

Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and forest Degradation

RNE

(FAO) Regional Office for the Near East

RPF

Regional Priority Framework

SCCF

Special Climate Change Fund

SDIAR

Sustainable Development Initiative in the Arab Region

SFM

Sustainable Forest Management

SLR

Sea Level Rise

STAR

System for a Transparent Allocation of Resources

United Nations

UNDP

United Nations Development Programme

UNEP

United Nations Environment Programme

UNFCCC

United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change

US$

United States Dollar

WFP

World Food Programme

Working Group

1. Background Note: Country Stand on Climate Change in Agriculture and Food Security in the Near East region 1.1 Introduction Climate change has emerged as one of the greatest global challenges of this century. The Near East region, where scarce natural resources are already under considerable pressure, is one of the areas of the world that is most vulnerable to changes in climate. It is foreseen that a series of threats posed by climate change will significantly degrade food security and deteriorate the livelihoods of a large segment of the region‟s population. FAO‟s concerns with climate change date as far back as the 1980s. An Inter-Departmental Working Group on Climate Change was established in 1988 with the involvement of all the concerned units. The recent internal structure of FAO took the new global challenges into consideration through the creation of a new Division concerned with climate change and environmental issues. Climate change is also widely highlighted across the Organization in the Strategic Framework and an Organizational Result dedicated to climate change and in which nearly all FAO units are involved. FAO also developed a corporate-wide climate change adaptation framework to systemize its supporting efforts across the Organization. More details on FAO initiatives and activities in the area of climate change are given in Section 5 below. In response to requests from its Member Countries, FAO launched an initiative on climate change in 1 agriculture and food security in the Near East region. The initiative aims to enhance national capacities to confront the negative impacts of climate change and variability on agriculture and food security. FAO facilitates an integrated approach to climate change adaptation and mitigation through its multidisciplinary expertise in food security related sectors. In November 2009, FAO, in collaboration with the World Bank, WFP and IFAD, held the first regional forum on climate change in the Near East with the overall goal of advancing the agenda for investment in climate change adaptation and mitigation measures in the broad agricultural sector. The next step is the holding of a subsequent regional Forum on climate change that aims to take further stock of the countries‟ knowledge and gaps, exchanging experiences, and identifying specific needs for support and regional cooperation. The second Forum is expected to come up with practical recommendations for follow-up action, a declaration delineating commitment, and a roadmap for the implementation of these recommendations. In preparation for this Forum, FAO Regional Office for the Near East (RNE) commissioned the preparation of concise Country Papers on the state of climate change and its impacts on food security-related sectors. This background note consolidates information generated through FAO activities with that from Country Reports prepared by designated resource persons from Egypt, the Islamic Republic of Mauritania, Morocco, the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, Sudan, the Syrian Arab Republic, Tunisia, and Yemen. It provides an overview of the situation of climate change in the region from the perspectives of awareness, national policies and strategies, institutional arrangements, technical knowledge and capacity development, and funding opportunities. The note also attempts to identify critical needs for addressing climate change impacts in agriculture and food security in the region.

1.2 Overview of the Agriculture Sector and Food Security in the Near East 2

The Near East region comprises 18 countries and covers around 10 percent (%) of the world‟s land area (FAO RNE, 2010d). Most of the Region is characterized by a hot, dry climate with the presence of vast deserts and long coast lines. But there is also a great variety in the physical geography with mountain ranges and diverse hydro-climate conditions. Some of the major trans-boundary rivers (eg Tigris-Euphrates Rivers and Nile River) originate outside of the Region. The Region represents approximately 6% of the 1

Agriculture in the broad sense, including forestry, fisheries, and aquaculture The eighteen countries covered by FAO RNE are: Algeria, Bahrain, Egypt, Iran (Islamic Republic of), Iraq, Jordan, Kuwait, Libyan Arab Jamahiriya, Lebanon, Mauritania (Islamic Republic of), Morocco, Oman (Sultanate of), Saudi Arabia (Kingdom of), Syrian Arab Republic, Tunisia, Qatar, United Arab Emirates and Yemen. The figures in this note refer to these countries. Sudan is also covered in Section 1.4. 2

world population with an average population growth of 2.2% per year, amongst the highest in the world (FAO RNE, 2010c). The majority of the poor are concentrated in rural areas. The agriculture sector plays an important role in the Region. It is the primary source of livelihoods for the majority of the population in most countries. Agriculture employs, on average, 21% of the active population and contributes over 10% of the regionâ&#x20AC;&#x;s GDP (average for 2001-08; FAO RNE, 2010c). The area of cultivated land is estimated to be 61 million ha, 36% of which irrigated (FAO RNE, 2010d) and contributes more than half the total agricultural production in the Region (FAO RNE, 2010c). The principal sub-sectors of agriculture are crops and livestock with fisheries and forestry in some countries. Cereal crops, mainly wheat and barley (with rice and sorghum in some countries), are the dominant crops followed by forages and olives. The prevailing farming systems include irrigated, highland mixed, rain-fed mixed, dry, pastoral, sparse coastal artisanal, and urban-based agriculture. In value terms, cereals are the most important crop in countries such as Egypt, Iran, Morocco and Syria; whereas horticultural crops are relatively more important for others like Tunisia, Lebanon, and Jordan. Livestock plays an important role in the economies across the Region. The value of livestock products accounts for between 30-50% of agricultural output and this share is expected to continue increasing (FAO RNE, 2010c). Around 70% of the total land area of the Near East is classified as rangeland (FAO RNE, 2010c) and traditional livestock sector still remains relatively important in supporting the livelihoods of a large number of people. Rangelands and forests play other important roles, such as the conservation of soil and water and the preservation of biodiversity and genetic resources. In addition, there are wide and dispersed geographical areas of different marine and freshwater ecosystems with different characteristics and complexity. The landing of marine capture fisheries has grown six-fold since the 1950s and aquaculture production, which was almost nonexistent till the 1980s, has increased significantly (FAO RNE, 2010c). Nevertheless, the Near East region faces immense challenges in achieving food security. The persistence of high population growth rates is increasing food demand while the narrow natural resources base (eg declining water tables, soil degradation, and desertification) and the declining rate of agricultural productivity constitute major limitations to growing enough food. Given the current trends, it is estimated that the deficit in cereals will more than double between 2000 and 2030 (FAO RNE, 2010c). This growing food deficit makes the majority of the countries more dependent on imports and, therefore, vulnerable to international markets and to possible food quantity and price shocks. Meanwhile, climate change casts a dark shadow over agriculture and food security.

1.3 Climate Change and its Impacts on Food Security Sectors 1.3.1 Climate Change Projections in the Region Deteriorating climate conditions are projected for the Near East region in the coming decades. Studies indicate that temperatures could rise by 3 to 7Â°C in much of the Region towards the end of the century (IPPC, 2007a). As a result of increasing temperature and decreasing precipitation, a reduction of runoff of over 40% is thought likely towards the end of the century in the Mediterranean coastal areas (IPPC, 2007c as cited by Curtis et al, 2011). Severe droughts, already a major concern in the Region, could increase in frequency and severity, leading to further land degradation and desertification. Climate change would also raise sea levels and threaten coastal areas with an increasing risk of flooding and coastal erosion and, as a consequence, would degrade natural ecosystems. Some parts of the region, notably the Nile Delta and the Gulf coast of the Arabian Peninsula, are particularly vulnerable to flooding from rising sea levels.

1.3.2 Likely Impacts of Climate Change on Food Production Bases Water resources The Near East is one of the most water-scarce regions in the world. The average annual precipitation is estimated to be 135 mm. Internal Renewable Water Resources per capita is one of the lowest in the world and is decreasing as the population grows. Agriculture is the dominant user of water resources; however, water scarcity is an inherent and structural limiting factor in increasing food production for the region (Elamin, 2007; World Bank, et al., 2009; Shetty, 2006). 13

Water scarcity is expected to be further exacerbated by climate change. It is likely to impact on surface water flows, including major shared water resources such as the Nile River and the Tigris-Euphrates Rivers. Climate change could also threaten groundwater resources because of reduced aquifer recharge and seawater intrusion along coastal areas (UN, 2009). The risk to water resources could be further exacerbated by an overall increase in water use as a result of climate change. Agriculture crops Agricultural productivity is likely to suffer losses due to climate change impacts such as changing patterns in temperature and precipitation, which, in turn, will put the food security of many countries under threat. For instance, in Morocco, a study projection (Gommes, et al., 2009) indicates that in a favourable ecological zone, the yield loss of rainfed wheat and barley would be more than 15% by 2050. Yield decreases in sugar beet in a favourable zone and barley in an intermediate ecological zone could reach levels above 30% by 2050. In Egypt, field studies predict that wheat and maize yields will fall by 15 and 19% by 2050s (Hassanein, 2010). Extreme climate events and sea level rise (SLR) are likely to further increase the risks to the region's agriculture. Rangelands, forests and livestock Potential climate change impacts such as water stress, frequent and extreme weather events, and coastal erosion would also intensify the already prevailing pressure on the region's rangelands and forests, leading to further land degradation and deforestation (FAO RNE, 2010a). The livestock nomadic system is spread over a wide area with low and erratic rainfall, where further decline in available moisture is expected, resulting in an overall decline in productivity. If the likelihood of severe human reactions were to be factored in, such ecosystems would risk coming under extreme pressure that may be hard to resist given the fragile environmental situation in the Region. Climate change is also likely to force the shift of species habitats, to increase the risk of wildfire, and to raise the risk of species extinction. Climate change will also have a major impact on livestock itself, with the increased occurrence of droughts likely to have a deadly effect on the health of herds and on the conservation of natural resources. The risk of heat stress and floods no doubt would raise the probability of trans-boundary animal diseases such as Rift Valley Fever and Blue Tongue. Such impacts would be accompanied by a growing demand for animal products a trend which shows that the share of livestock production in total agricultural production would continue to steadily rise to around 45% by 2050 (FAO RNE, 2008). Fisheries and aquaculture Climate change is likely to modify the distribution of marine and freshwater fish species. SLR, ocean acidification, and changes in water resources and water temperatures would adversely affect ecosystems; including coral reefs, wetlands, rivers, lakes and estuaries, primary production in inland systems; increase the risk of species invasions; and the spread of vector-borne diseases. A FAO regional workshop on the ecosystem approach identified likely climate change impacts on fisheries and aquaculture (Curtis et al, 2011). The most probable impacts on the biophysical well-being of capture fisheries include fishrecruitment/life cycle and changes in habitat structure. As for aquaculture, the principal impacts include water quality, red tide, and climate events. In turn livelihoods will be impacted as changes in distribution, species composition, and habitats will require changes in fishing practices and aquaculture operations, in addition to the location of landing and other post-harvest activities (Cochrane et al, 2009).

1.3.3 Paradigm of Climate Change Impacts and Food Security Outcomes Climate change will affect all four dimensions of food security: food availability, food accessibility, food utilization, and food systems stability. A FAO publication, â&#x20AC;&#x153;Climate Change and Food Security: a framework documentâ&#x20AC;? (2008), explores the multiple effects of climate change on food systems and food security. The publication reviews potential impacts on food security outcomes from climate change variables such as increase in mean temperatures, gradual changes in rainfall, increases in frequency and intensity of extreme climate events, and greater weather variability. The document sheds light on the complex nexus of climate

change impacts and food security outcomes (i.e. availability, accessibility, utilization and stability) in the Near East region, even though it reviews the issues from a global point of view. Food availability is determined by the physical quantities of food that are produced, stored, processed, distributed, and exchanged. Potential impacts of climate change on food availability include reduced agricultural production in the affected areas and temporal effects on local markets with decrease in surplus production and increase in pressure on grain reserves. Climate change will also affect food exports and imports, while reduction in global food supplies is likely to raise market prices. Food accessibility is a measure of the ability to secure entitlements, which are defined as the set of resources that an individual requires to gain access to food (Sen, 1989 as cited in FAO, 2008). Potential impacts on food accessibility are, inter alia, increase in food prices, and loss of farm income and non-farm employment depending on the extent of asset loss and market conditions. Preferred foods may not be available or be too costly. Increased risk exposure resulting from climate change will reduce peopleâ&#x20AC;&#x;s access to entitlements and undermine their food security. Climatic change is also likely to affect food utilization, including dietary patterns and new challenges on food safety, which may affect nutritional status in various ways. In general, the main impact of climate change on nutrition is likely to be felt indirectly, through its effects on production and income as well as capacity to gain and purchase a diversity of foods. Food safety may be compromised in various ways; increasing temperature may cause food quality to deteriorate unless there is increased investment in cooling and refrigeration equipment or rapid processing of perishable foods. Food system stability is determined by the temporal availability of, and access to, food. Climate change is likely to cause greater instability of food supply, food prices, and agriculturally-based incomes. Higher temperatures and humidity associated with climate change may require increased capacity and expenditure to preserve stored grain, which will limit countriesâ&#x20AC;&#x; ability to maintain reserves of sufficient size to respond adequately to large-scale disasters.

1.4 Country stands on climate change in the Region The review of country stands on climate change is essential to advance the development of appropriate counter-actions against the negative impacts of climate change and variability on agriculture and food security. This section explores the country stands on climate change from the perspectives of i) Awareness, ii) National policies and strategies, iii) Institutional arrangements, iv) Technical knowledge and capacity development, and v) Funding opportunities. The review is based on the Country Papers prepared by the designated resource persons from Saudi Arabia (Darfaoui and Al Assiri, 2011), Yemen (Al-Sabri, 2011), Sudan (Hassan, 2010), Egypt (AbouHadid, 2010), Syrian Arab Republic (Alhamoud, 2011), Tunisia (El Echi, 2010), Mauritania (Khattry, 2011) and Morocco (Sedrati, 2011).

1.4.1 Climate change awareness in the Region Public information and awareness-raising are essential for enhancing a sense of responsibility among policy-makers and communities and fostering the adoption of innovative approaches. The first section highlights awareness on climate change in the Near East based on regional/global surveys and the Country Papers. The Papers aimed to provide information on the extent of awareness on climate change within the different layers of society. Awareness surveys A global survey of climate change awareness was conducted in 128 countries between 2007 and 2008 3 (Gallup, 2009) and indicated the level of awareness amongst different regions. The survey found that a 3

A total of 206,193 interviews were conducted. A nationally representative sample of the civilian, noninstitutionalized, adult population aged 15 and older was interviewed in each country. Interviews were stratified by population size and/or geography and clustering was achieved through one or more stages of sampling. Country-level data were weighted to the 2008 World Bank population estimates (aged 15 and older) to derive the regional and worldwide summary figures in this article. 15

majority of adults in the world were aware of climate change issues (61%) but those in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) region showed a lower level (52%). It also estimated that 41% of adults in the world consider that global warming is a very or somewhat serious threat. A large number of people in America and Europe perceive its seriousness (67% and 59% respectively) while again the MENA region shows a lower perception (42%) even though the region is among those most vulnerable to climate change. 4

A pan-Arab survey was also conducted in 2009 (Saab, 2009) . Almost all respondents (95%) answered that they understood what climate change is and 98% replied that they believe the climate is changing. Some 84% considered that climate change is a serious problem for their countries. However, 51% deny that their governments act well to address climate change while only 30% responded positively. As indicated, the public may be increasingly aware of climate change in the region and perceive it as a serious threat. However, it is noteworthy that the actions of governments are not well recognized by the public. Country awareness The countries covered by the FAO study have made efforts to raise awareness on climate change albeit to varying extents. Mauritania has exerted itself towards enhancing awareness since the ratification of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). Many programs of public education and awareness were implemented at the national and local levels as well as on the Internet. The first training workshop was organized in 1998 and a series of activities were conducted since. More than 1200 stakeholders attended workshops to mainstream climate change issues in the national policies and strategies. In Tunisia, the Ministry of Environment and Sustainable Development (MESD), in collaboration with other relevant departments, civil society and the private sector, organized a set of actions towards raising public awareness regarding environmental protection, recently focusing on climate change issues. A dissemination program was also carried out in 2007 and shared the results of a study on â&#x20AC;&#x153;Adaptation strategy of Tunisian agriculture and ecosystems to climate changeâ&#x20AC;? at the national level. In contrast Sudan has made only limited efforts to enhance awareness and understanding of climate change due to its political instability. Similarly, in Yemen, although the government has recognized climate change impacts, particularly for the agricultural sector, there is no clear knowledge of its real impacts in a well-informed manner. Although limited, some information on the extent of awareness within the different layers of society is also reported by the Country Papers. For instance, the majority of farmers in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (KSA) seem to feel that climate is changing and this is reducing soil moisture and inducing severe and frequent droughts. In Yemen, even though researchers are aware of various aspects of climate change, only a few of them conduct relevant studies and produce reports due to the lack of funding. Yemeni farmers do not have appropriate ways to protect their crops from climate change. In Mauritania, although various efforts of awareness-raising were made, these initiatives have not become long-term actions that should be oriented towards young students. A survey in Syria, which targeted public employees and technicians, shows that 70% of respondents confirmed their awareness of climate change and their perceptions of environmental priority. Meanwhile, it is worthy to mention that in the KSA relevant ministerial departments and institutions are raising awareness about the negative impacts of climate change on natural, economic, and social bases; and the government is also concerned about climate change due to the negative consequences of fossil fuel consumption and the need for mitigation efforts, as specified for the Annex I countries. Although some countries made only limited efforts on awareness-raising, international assistance, such as the National Adaptation Program of Action (NAPA), provided opportunities to raise awareness. In Sudan, the NAPA organized workshops attended by people from different fields and interests, including farmers, 4

The survey was conducted between February-May 2009 without interviewers. Its questionnaire was distributed through a regional environmental magazine and eight leading newspapers, combined with internet and promotion via radio and TV. The sample analyzed included 2,322 responses from Algeria, Bahrain, Egypt, Iraq, Jordan, Kuwait, Lebanon, Libya, Morocco, Oman, Palestine, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Sudan, Syria, Tunisia, United Arab Emirates and Yemen. The answers were sorted and statistically tabulated by the Pan Arab Research Centre, Gallup associate. 16

pastoralists, women, NGOs, government officials, students, factory-employees and researchers. In Yemen, the NAPA and other foreign assistance programmes conducted a series of consultations, workshops, and roundtable-discussions to build awareness about climate risks (EPA, 2009). The preparation of the NAPA in Mauritania included 39 local and national workshops directed to decision-makers and members of thematic working groups.

1.4.2 Policies and Strategies for Climate Change in the Near East Region Integrating the climate change agenda into national development processes is critical to secure resources and other necessary means for implementation on the ground. This section focuses on national policies and strategies for climate change in the region, based on Country Papers and supporting inputs from relevant publications. The papers intended to briefly overview i) country stand on climate change issues (eg preparation of country strategies and programs for the Conferences of the Parties (COP), etc.), ii) specific national policies and strategies and the extent of their implementation and inclusion in on-going development plans, and iii) other initiatives of national or sectoral dimension aimed at addressing climate change in food security related sectors. UNFCCC initiatives All the countries of the Near East region have ratified the UNFCCC and the Kyoto Protocol (UNFCCC, 2011d and 2011e), and all those covered by the FAO study have submitted the initial National Communications to the UNFCCC Secretariat. Egypt, Mauritania, and Morocco have also submitted their second National Communications while the KSA and Tunisia are currently preparing them. The initial Communication of Tunisia included a vulnerability assessment to SLR whereas the second will contain a vulnerability assessment of agriculture. Yemen, Sudan, and Mauritania identified priority adaptation projects through the implementation of the NAPAs (UNFCCC, 2010a). The priority projects widely cover food security related sectors, particularly water resources. In the case of Yemen, the NAPA selected twelve priority adaptation projects, covering marine ecosystems, water resources, agriculture, public awareness, early warning and disaster risk management, coastal ecosystems, land resources and fisheries. In Sudan, its programme identified five priority adaptation projects, related to water harvesting, rangelands, agricultural practices, biodiversity, and agro-forestry. For Mauritania, the programme listed twenty-eight adaptation projects and among the top ten priority projects, the first five cover water resources, three relate to food security (livestock and crop cultivation) and one concerns a forest ecosystem. National policies and strategies, and other sectoral initiatives The countries studied developed sectoral policies and strategies as an attempt to address the negative impacts of climate change on food security related sectors. However, they are rarely reported to have developed national policies and strategies specific to climate change. No specific strategy has been formulated in Yemen, but an international initiative assisted the country in the identification of counteractions as indicated earlier. There are several sectoral strategies aligned with climate change adaptation and food security, including the National Water Sector Strategy and the National Food Security Strategy (under preparation). Sudan has not even effectively incorporated climate change into the national policy and planning system. This is because of political instability that has caused frequent changes in the structure and affiliations of relevant government institutions but also partly because of the limitations of the national management and data processing systems. In addition to the UNFCCC initiatives, there are some on-going national processes that parallel adaptation to climate change (eg poverty reduction and water harvesting). The KSA carries out many actions in various sectors but particular emphasis is placed on the water, agriculture, and energy sectors. The countryâ&#x20AC;&#x;s strategy against water scarcity is based on efficient water use, water conservation, and new and alternative water resources. The country attempts to achieve food security by implementing a new agriculture strategy and covering the food deficit from the global market while reducing market risks by strategic reserves and social security networks. In respect to energy and 17

climate change, the country focuses on finding solutions to limit negative consequences for the national economy as a result of mitigation actions. During the last decade, Morocco developed national strategies and sectoral plans in different sectors (eg energy, water, and environment) with the objectives to develop natural resources and rationalize their use and to decrease the dependency on the import of fossil energy. The country developed National Plans for Water, for Climate Warming, and for Irrigation Water Saving, with priority actions undertaken such as the expansion of micro-irrigation systems, the construction of large and small dams, and the treatment of wastewater for agricultural use. Mauritania ratified many international environmental agreements during the decade of 1990. The application of international agreements and conventions and the national legal package is materialized in the National Strategy for Sustainable Development and the National Action Plan for the Environment. The strategy and plan constitute the main tools for planning environmental management activities and directing political decisions to sustainable development. There is also a strategic framework to address poverty (PRSP) up to 2015. Tunisia also ratified most international environmental conventions. In addition, the country has adopted an approach to reduce the negative impacts from climate change. The approach is based on, inter alia, collaborating with international organizations and contributing to international efforts, integrating climate change into sectoral strategies and action plans, and reinforcing an institutional framework to overcome climate change impacts while benefitting from the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM). It is striking that, in Syria, the Ministry of State for Environmental Affairs (MSEA), in collaboration with other ministries concerned, have prepared a national plan for climate change adaptation. The Ministry of Agriculture and Agrarian Reform (MAAR) has also prepared the national strategy for drought management in collaboration with other ministries. The Syrian Country Paper argues that it is necessary to establish a strategy in order to maintain food security while protecting agriculture and environment systems and ensuring their sustainability, with the incorporation of programs to enhance climate control networks, the collection and processing of climatic data, agricultural technologies, integrated water resources management, integrated soil management, income-diversification, biodiversity, and integrated coastal area management. The Paper also discusses that the national strategy for adaptation must provide an appropriate environment to establish legal and institutional changes, enhance the capabilities of different sectors to confront climate change impacts, and assess adaptation options among direct and indirect sectors and verify their social, economic and environmental indications. Finally, the hindrance that Egypt is facing is also worthy to mention here. Although agriculture plays a vital role in the economy, the sector faces difficulties in designing and applying national adaptation strategies due to a set of barriers and limitations from the existing scientific information and policy perceptions as well as the poor adaptive capacity of rural communities, a lack of financial support, and the absence of an appropriate institutional framework.

1.4.3 Institutional Arrangements to cope with Climate Change Due to the multiple nature of climate change, various stakeholders are concerned with its issues at the national level. This section highlights the institutional arrangements to cope with climate change, based on the Country Papers, with supporting inputs from relevant publications. The Country Papers intended to summarize i) entities mandated with coordinating climate change work at the national level, ii) ministries and other institutions mandated to work with climate change issues, and iii) extent and mechanisms of actual coordination between institutions working on climate change, at the national and/or local levels. National entities mandated with coordinating climate change work National committees or councils designated for climate change have been established in all the countries studied. These entities mainly aim at enhancing coordination and collaboration among governmental and other stakeholders concerned. They are generally chaired by authorities in charge of environment.

Sudan established the Higher Council for Environment and Natural Resources (HCENR) in 1992. The council is accountable for multi-agency coordination and consultative planning in the fields of environment and natural resources management. It is also the national focal point for the UNFCCC. The council is chaired by the Minister of Environment, Forestry and Physical Development and involves thirty ministries/administrations and the representatives of NGOs, universities and the private sector. Yemen also established a High Level Committee for Climate Change (HLCCC) based on a governmental decree in 2009. The committee has performed coordination and supervisory tasks, including the facilitation of climate change related issues, the establishment of relevant committees, the follow-up of sectoral project preparation and coordination of donors, and the approval of local and investment budgets concerned. The committee is headed by the Deputy Prime Minister for Economic Affairs and Minister of Planning and International Cooperation, with the membership from eight ministries and two authorities. Other countries have also created relevant national entities. The KSA recently established the Environment Council, which covers the fields of climate change and environmental protection and is chaired by the General Presidency of Meteorology and Environmental Protection (PME). Mauritania established a special structure mandated with climate change related work, under the environmental ministry and the authority of the CDM. In Egypt, an inter-ministerial committee, headed by the Egyptian Environmental Affairs Agency (EEAA), was established within the initiatives of UNFCCC. In Syria, at the central level, coordination and work-direction are provided through the cabinet and relevant committees emerged (headed by the prime minister or his deputy). Tunisia and Morocco also created national commissions or committees on climate change. Ministries and other institutions mandated with climate change issues The ministry or authority in charge of environment is generally the national focal point of the UNFCCC. In Morocco, the State Secretariat for Water and Environment is the national focal point whereas the Climate 5 Change Service is responsible for coordinating and monitoring the implementation of the UNFCCC and the Kyoto Protocol. The Service is also accountable for the administrative and financial management of all activities related to climate change, in collaboration with other institutions. In Yemen, the Environment Protection Authority (EPA) is the national focal point and the designated secretariat for the HLCCC. Similarly, the EEAA in Egypt, the highest national authority for environmental protection, is the national focal point. Mauritania and Syria also assigned the task of focal point to the ministry of environment. In the case of Saudi Arabia, the national focal point is the Ministry of Petroleum and Mineral Resources due to the significant importance of the sector for the country, but the PME is the agency coordinating climate change activities, particularly the reporting processes of the Framework and the Kyoto Protocol. A variety of line ministries and institutions engage in climate change issues in the countries studied. For instance, the MSEA and MAAR in Syria are assigned directly to coordinate the preparation and implementation of policies, plans, and programs for climate change adaptation. Other ministries and institutions concerned include the ministries of local administration, irrigation, health, social affairs and labour, and among others as well as the international cooperation commission, the directorate for meteorology and the general federation of peasants. Similarly, climate change activities involve various ministries in the KSA, such as agriculture, health, education, and water and electricity, but also other institutions covering the fields of wild life, science and technology, environment, agriculture, and biological research. To update its national communications, Sudan established permanent observation units in relevant sectoral agencies such as the ministries of energy, industry, agriculture and forestry as well as the meteorological authority and a university. The Ministry of Environment, Forestry and Physical Development is currently the main executing agency in environmental management, but the Ministry of Agriculture also hosts a national control unit under the United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification. The national coordination entities mentioned earlier also involve multiple ministries, in addition to those in charge of environment. For example, the HLCCC in Yemen comprises the membership of the ministries of agriculture and irrigation; water and environment; fish wealth; finance; oil and minerals, among others. The Moroccan national committee also involves the relevant governmental departments (eg energy, water, agriculture and forestry, and foreign affairs), in addition to other national institutions and NGOs. During the 5

Under the Directorate of Partnership, Communication and Cooperation 19

preparation of the National Communications in Mauritania, the special structure of climate change supervised a coordination unit and worked closely with other public agencies, such as the ministries of agriculture, oil and energy, health, water, transport, meteorology, and local governments, as well as NGOs and a university. In certain cases, specialized centres were created to address climate change issues. For instance, the Centre of Excellence for Climate Change Research was established in the KSA with the mission of studying climate change and its possible impacts and providing consultations for decision-makers. Egypt set up the Climate Change Information Centre with the responsibility of consolidating agro-climatic data and making it available for research activities. In Tunisia, a training centre on sustainable energy and environment was established and has the role of implementing the article of the UNFCCC related to training, education, and awareness on climate change. For its part, Morocco established a National Science and Technology Centre which, immediately after its creation, assisted the Environment Department in the preparation of the 6 COP7 for scientific and technical aspects of climate change. The NAPAs also created entities for their implementation in Mauritania, Sudan, and Yemen. The entities include a steering committee and coordination units at the national and provincial levels. A Multidisciplinary Integrated Assessment Team was also created in Yemen with the mandate for conducting assessments and analyses on commissioned bases, as the technical support unit of NAPA (EPA, 2009). A technical committee and task forces were also established in Sudan (Republic of the Sudan, 2007). Coordination mechanisms and other stakeholders involved As highlighted above, all the countries studied established national committees or councils to coordinate climate change activities and have a large number of ministries and institutions involved in climate change issues. However, the Country Papers did not provide much information on the extent and mechanisms of actual coordination among these institutions at the national and local levels. Other stakeholders The striking feature of the institutional frameworks established to coordinate climate change activities is that they consist essentially of government institutions, in addition to a few NGOs in case of some countries. Several Country Papers suggested that other stakeholders, such as civil society, should also be enhanced. In the KSA, the private sector is also engaged in climate change issues, but mainly in the energy and petrochemical sectors; however, the involvement of civil society lags behind. In order to enhance the effective integration of climate change agendas into national and sectoral development, the Sudan Country Paper raises the needs for the establishment of a coordination unit and the setting-up of focal units in relevant sectors; while the Yemen Country Paper recommends the provision of a broader mandate of adaptation to a specific agency in the country. Yemen needs to improve its governance towards active civil society and transparent and accountable policies and decision-making processes. It is also required to integrate bottom-up approaches at the government and institutional levels and to empower rural communities in order for them to participate in various assessments and utilize local knowledge. This remark is in fact valid for all countries. In Sudan, although some groups of civil society work for raising awareness and implementing community-based natural resources management, a separation of roles between government entities and civil society is not clear. Only recently was a regulating act raised to the parliament to arrange and legalize their relationship. Mauritania also needs to involve a variety of national stakeholders (eg researchers, universities, engineering schools, and the national meteorology office) and subsequently their foreign counterparts in international research networks.

1.4.4 Technical Knowledge and Capacity Development Technical knowledge and capacity are crucial to address climate change agendas at national and regional levels. The COP16 confirmed the importance of national and international cooperative actions on the 6

in Marrakech, Morocco, 2001 20

development and transfer of sound technologies to assist adaptation and mitigation actions (UNFCCC, 2010b). This section discusses existing knowledge and capacity in the Near East region and well as gaps and needs for the enhancement of such technical knowledge and the development of relevant capacities to address climate change. It is based on the Country Papers which were intended to cover i) the level of technical knowledge on climate change issues among technicians, ii) climate change adaptation measures adopted by local farmers, fishers, herders, etc., and iii) the main gaps that need to be filled in order to enhance knowledge and capacities. Level of technical knowledge among technicians and local adaptation measures The Country Papers imply that the level of technical knowledge among technicians is not sufficient in most, if not all, countries studied. For instance, although the level of awareness about climate change is relatively high at the local and national levels in the KSA, technical knowledge of adaptation measures seems very low among the government agencies, the private sector, farmers, fishers and herders. In Yemen, technical knowledge on climate change is very limited among all stakeholders. Most technicians do not possess sufficient knowledge of climate change issues. Although researchers are aware of climate change, they are constrained by the lack of funds and the limitation of data availability. Sudan faces various capacity gaps that need to be filled in order to enhance technical knowledge. Technical staff concerned in relevant government institutions is inadequate, and academic staff specialized in the subject are also limited in quality and number, according to an assessment conducted by the HCENR. In Mauritania, the performance of national technicians involved in climate change is also below expectations. In Syria, most of the concerned state ministries and entities have set-up technical teams to work on climate change issues; however, the national teams are insufficient to specialize in climate change overall and adaptation in particular, especially when it comes to high expertise. Major needs to enhance technical knowledge and other capacities in the countries studied are further discussed in the next section. Box 1 summarizes the adaptation measures adopted by practitioners locally and mentioned by the Country Papers. The conclusion is that not much is known about how practitioners, such as farmers, fishers, and herders are actually coping with climate change. This information gap needs further assessment in view of the importance of its results. Box 1: Climate change adaptation measures Sudan Farmers and pastoralists in certain parts of the country, such as Darfur, developed simple techniques of rain water harvesting; however, such practices are not widespread throughout the country. The consultation process of the NAPA produced great interest in the expansion of this and other practices as an adaptation to the increasing water scarcity. In addition to water harvesting, the adaptation measures identified include traditional water conservation, the construction of water storage facilities, the rehabilitation of existing dams and improvement of water basin infrastructure, water conservation practices in agricultural land management, capacity-enhancement in meteorological stations, and microcredit for small water harvesting projects. Reinforcing extension services was also raised to disseminate water harvesting techniques for small farmers. Mauritania During the preparation of the NAPA, a participatory diagnosis was conducted to identify adaptation and mitigation measures. The identified measures included water resources management and cropping practices (eg enhancing knowledge of surface water schemes, building flood control structures, promoting water saving techniques, diffusing drip irrigation technology and improving cultivation techniques under rainfed conditions). They also covered animal husbandry, such as the promotion of family poultry; the genetic improvement of local cattle breeds, the development of fodder crops, the introduction of new forage species and the setting-up of a feed manufacturing unit. Other measures included substitution of fuel wood, knowledge improvement on sustainable forest resources management, the preservation of diversified fish populations, and the restoration and integrated management of wet and low lands.

Major needs to enhance technical knowledge and develop capacities A wide array of gaps and needs must be filled in order to enhance technical knowledge and develop relevant capacities for addressing climate change issues in the Near East region. These encompass the areas of climate modelling and assessments, data-collection and information-sharing, early warning and education systems. Through an analysis of the Country Papers, the primary technical gaps and needs identified are in the areas of climate modelling and the assessments of impact, vulnerability, and adaptation. The national capacity in climate modelling is insufficient in Yemen and so the capacity development for technical specialists is considered essential. There are also needs to conduct vulnerability assessments and to provide high quality information about climate change impacts. Sudan also requires improving scientific knowledge in the analysis of climate data and the assessment of climate change impacts. In Egypt, the necessary studies and assessments include the impacts of climate change on agricultural crops and the vulnerability and adaptation of national food security. Comprehensive assessments are also needed for the country to study adaptation requirements, costs, inter-sectoral relationships and the involvement of rural communities. Mauritania also needs capacity development for climate modelling, and training is also essential in vulnerability assessment of key socio-economic sectors and the analysis and identification of adaptation options. There are also high needs for the improvement of data-collection and information-sharing and for capacity building on disaster risk management (eg early warning systems). Mauritania also needs to strengthen technical capacity in the fields of training in research and systematic observation, collecting and analyzing data, and establishing early warning systems. The development of information technology is also essential for the country to achieve effective information-sharing inside and outside the country. As mentioned in Yemen, one of the constraints of researchers is the limitation of data availability, but rural communities also need to access climatic information. The limited availability of detailed data is also raised for Syria as a significant weakness, especially agricultural and climatic data at the district level. For Sudan, capacity development is required in the fields of information technology, networking and monitoring. The development of a web-database could facilitate access to necessary data and information by relevant institutions in the country. The KSA also requires much effort in the improvement of early warning systems for disaster risk reduction. Capacity building is also necessary for Tunisia in the field of early warning systems against extreme climate events. A high need is also identified for the incorporation of climate change issues into the programs of universities and research centres. For instance, the KSA Country Paper highlights the need for universities and educational institutions to adopt emerging issues in their curricula. The paper for Sudan pointed to the same issue and so did the paper for Mauritania which indicated that education systems do not cover advocacy and training on climate change. It is also necessary to enhance the understanding of climate change impacts among policy-makers based on scientific assessments with tailored communication materials. There are gaps for capacity building in the development of appropriate policies/regulations and coherent response strategies as well as the establishment of networks among governmental institutions and other stakeholders. Sudan needs to upgrade institutional capacities through the increase in awareness among policy-makers as well as the introduction of appropriate policies/regulations and reform of the institutional structure. The involvement of civil society should also be enhanced in the country through the creation of an enabling environment and the implementation of training. Yemen also needs special training for the Ministry of Agriculture and Irrigation and its affiliated institutions to enhance awareness and develop a coherent response strategy. Furthermore, the Mauritanian Country Paper argues that technical knowledge is intricately linked with institutional issues, including, among others, in the mobilization of financial resources, the establishment of linkages among national agencies and institutions, and the collection and regular update of relevant national information. The improvement of technical knowledge in climate change financial mechanisms is also raised as one of the needs. The KSA requires enhancing technical knowledge in the planning and implementation of the CDM activities. Mauritania also needs capacity development for funding mechanisms, particularly the Global Environmental Facility (GEF) and the CDM. 22

Finally, a variety of technologies need to be enhanced, particularly the development of stress tolerant varieties which is highlighted as one of the highest needs. The necessity of capacity development in water resources development and management is also raised by most papers. The KSA needs much effort in the development of stress tolerant varieties (eg temperatures, moisture, and salinity), the improvement of technologies for efficient water and land use systems, and the mobilization of non-conventional water resources. Mauritania also requires the introduction of stress-tolerant varieties, and the wide scale assessment of such varieties is one of the necessary studies in Egypt. Tunisia requires capacity building in the fields of engineering and monitoring for water resources management and cropping patterns. Moreover, capacity development is needed for Egyptian research institutions to conduct experiments and studies on the improvement of water use efficiency and the breeding of heat tolerant varieties. Other gaps of the country include the development of adaptation measures for soil maintenance, the development of adaptation scenarios for plant protection, and the preparation of integrated adaptation scenarios for livestock, fisheries and aquaculture.

1.4.5 Funding Opportunities The COP16 affirmed that the mobilization and provision of sufficient financial resources is essential to address adaptation and mitigation needs in developing countries (UNFCCC, 2010b). The final section of this chapter summarizes funding opportunities for climate change adaptation and mitigation in the Near East, based on the inputs of the Country Papers. The Papers aimed at introducing i) public funds allocated specifically to climate change adaptation and other climate change related activities, ii) extent of private sector investment in climate change adaptation measures, and iii) bilateral and multilateral cooperation programmes financing mitigation of/adaptation to climate change. The Country Papers were also intended to cover the extent of awareness/knowledge of, and benefit from, climate change funding mechanisms. Public funds and private investment The countries studied allocate public funds specifically to climate change activities, but scale differs from one country to another. Sudan has allocated only US$ 4 million as government contribution to the GEF and UNDP assistance for the preparation of the National Communication and the implementation of the NAPA. Similarly, Yemen scarcely allocates public funds, except the government contributions to donor supported projects. In contrast the KSA allocated approximately 7% of the total budget for 2010-2014 to the Ministry of Agriculture (US$ 26.5 billion); but climate change adaptation and mitigation are separately funded as development projects and activities. The public fund of US$ 300 million will be allocated to the development of mitigation related technologies, and the nationâ&#x20AC;&#x;s food security initiative was launched to support the private sector in agricultural investment abroad. The Syrian government finances many activities to confront the negative impacts of climate change and others directly and indirectly related to it, including among others in a cooperative agricultural bank, modern irrigation, fodder distribution, small enterprises, and revolving funds. Currently, the procedures are taken to establish a fund at the MAAR in order to provide support for peasants who may face losses due to drought or other natural disasters, particularly related to climate change. Nevertheless, the Syrian Country Paper raised the issue that the available financial resources to respond to drought and climate change adaptation remain limited. Private investment also differs from one country to another. In Sudan, not much been recorded but some companies organized forums for awareness campaigns. An ethanol plant (from sugar cane) has been constructed by the Ministry of Energy and two companies. Likewise, in Yemen the contribution of the private sector is hardly seen. In contrast, the private sector of the KSA, such as a mega energy company, upgrades factories with huge investment to reduce GHG emissions and promote carbon capture and storage. Public institutions and private companies in the KSA also invest in the assessments, development and management of water resources. It is reported for Tunisia that, due to the lack of information, it is difficult to estimate the extent of private investment in climate change adaptation. Bilateral/multilateral cooperation and funding mechanisms Most of the studied countries report to have benefitted from the GEF and bilateral/multilateral cooperation directly and indirectly related to climate change. For instance, Yemen gained funding from UNDP/GEF for the preparation of the second National Communication and the implementation of the NAPA. It is also 23

assisted by the World Bank to implement an agro-biodiversity and adaptation project. There are also several bilateral and multilateral projects in water resources and irrigation funded by the World Bank, Germany, The Netherlands and Japan. Tunisia also received GEF funding to implement a sustainable natural resources management program. There is also a bilateral project, supported by the GTZ, to implement the UNFCCC. Mauritania received funds from GEF to implement many projects (eg coastal zone adaptation) and the country also benefitted from the Special Fund for LDCs for the preparation of advocacy documents. Morocco developed its National Communication with the support of GEF and UNDP. The Ministry of Land, Water and Environment benefited from this opportunity to strengthen its institutional and human capacities. Syria was assisted by FAO and the Swiss Development Agency to implement a drought early warning project. Currently, the MAAR, in cooperation with the Arab Centre for Arid and Dry Land and an international bank, are conducting a study on how to limit weaknesses in the agricultural system against climate change. The CDM has benefitted some countries, while the unfolding financing mechanisms, such as the UNReducing Emissions from Deforestation and forest Degradation (REDD) and REDD+, have not been utilized in the countries studied. The CDM is not well known in Mauritania and the country has not benefitted from it because of its weakness in project formulation to meet its requirements. As an entry point, two training workshops were organized for the governmental institutions, the industrial sector and NGOs. Tunisia has gained the Carbon Fund to implement two CDM projects. The national office for the CDM was created in 2004. Syria has received finance for five CDM projects, including for bio-gas through the burying of wastes. Morocco launched the Designated National Authority of the CDM in 2002 and the authority has represented the state organizations and other entities wishing to participate in the CDM projects. Meanwhile, Sudan has not received any funding from the CDM, the Carbon Funds, REDD and REDD+, but it is currently preparing an assessment study for the CDM and REDD. In Yemen, there is no project related to REDD and REDD+ as of today, and these mechanisms are not yet known in Mauritania either. The KSA is not eligible to many climate change financing mechanisms due to its high income status, but also because the country has not made efforts to benefit from such opportunities. Moreover, the CDM has not been promoted much in the Gulf countries because of its complexity, low awareness, and potential effects on policies (Kilani, 2006 as cited by Darfaoui and Al Assiri, 2011). Agenda for investment in countermeasures FAO held the first regional forum on climate change in November 2009 to advance the agenda for investment in climate change adaptation and mitigation measures regarding the broad agricultural sector. The forum concluded that climate change adaptation is the most crucial issue in the agricultural sector in the region and financing adaptation actions should be ensured through rural development mechanisms (official development assistance and other sources) as a primary funding source while specific climate change mechanisms as a complementary one. The participants expressed the need to systematically promote the climate change agenda in the agricultural sector within their national institutions and to request formal assistance from their partners to that end. The forum participants also recognized that mitigation and adaptation are inextricably linked in the agriculture sector and therefore mitigation should still be paid due attention in view of the synergy and funding opportunities for adaptation. Many participants raised the difficulty in accessing clear and comprehensive information on the available climate change funds, banks, and markets. The participants also recognized that it is difficult to adequately assess the real costs of adaptation (due to uncertainties associated with global climate scenarios, the scarcity of reliable data, and the lack of regional climate change scenarios). This difficulty hampers the promotion of adequate adaptation investment by decision-makers and the operationalization of national strategies. It is important to note that although valuable information on investment was gained as described in the previous two sections, the full extent of the countriesâ&#x20AC;&#x; financing and funding opportunities is not clear and this area needs further assessment to comprehend the status.

1.5 FAO Actions on Climate Change at the Corporate Level FAO began discussing the issue of climate change as far back as the 1980s. An Inter-Departmental Working Group on climate change was established in 1988 with the involvement of all units that play a role in addressing the issue. Subsequently, in December 1993, FAO organized an Experts Consultation on 24

“Global Climate Change and Agricultural Production: the direct effects of changing hydrological and plant physiological processes.” Increasingly, FAO has been looking more closely at how climate change is affecting agriculture and food security and what can be done to help alleviate its negative impacts. Even FAO‟s recent internal restructuring took this global challenge and other emerging issues into consideration through the creation of the Natural Resources Department and a new Division concerned with climate change and environmental issues. Climate change is also widely highlighted across the Organization in FAO Strategic Framework and an Organizational Result from which the outcome is expected to be “Countries have strengthened capacities to address emerging environmental challenges, such as climate change and bioenergy” and in which most, if not all, FAO units are involved. Recently FAO developed a corporate-wide climate change adaptation framework to systemize its supporting efforts across the Organization. Moreover, Multi-disciplinary Working Groups on climate change have also been established in FAO‟s decentralized offices to respond to the needs of Member Countries in a more coherent and integrated manner. At the international level, FAO has taken the lead role in calling for urgent action to address the risks of climate change for food security. In this respect, FAO convened, in collaboration with other international organizations, a “High-Level Conference on World Food Security: the Challenges of Climate Change and Bio-energy” in June 2008. FAO also took a leading role, jointly with UNDP and UNEP, in launching the REDD in September 2008. The Secretariat of the newly established REDD+ Partnership is provided jointly by the UN and the World Bank. FAO, from its leadership in the UN-REDD Programme, will play a prominent role in this partnership. In addition, FAO co-organized the Global Conference on Agriculture, Food Security, and Climate Change in the Hague in November 2010 and contributed to the conference paper, “Climate-Smart” Agriculture, which examines some of the key technical, institutional, policy, and financial responses required to achieve the transformation to climate-smart agriculture that sustainably increases resilience and productivity, reduces/removes GHG emissions, and enhances the achievement of national food security and development goals. Achieving food security requires substantial efforts in climate change adaptation. FAO provides implementation support to more than 50 global, regional, national and local projects, designed specifically to address climate change adaptation, climate-related disaster risk management or a combination of adaptation and mitigation. In this context, FAO developed a corporate-wide adaptation framework to systemize its supporting efforts across the Organization towards a clear and unified goal and, in turn, to present a comprehensive body of work to the outside world (FAO, 2011a). The framework introduces priority themes and actions, aims to enhance coordination, capacity development and sharing of experiences, facilitates external and internal communication, and fosters partnerships related to adaptation. There are also various new projects on climate change adaptation and mitigation at the corporate level. For instance, FAO is developing a system of models designed to carry out impact assessment from climate scenarios downscaling to economic impact analysis at national level, so called MOSAICC (Modelling System for Agricultural Impacts of Climate Change), under the framework of an EC/FAO programme (FAO, 2011b). The system and related capacity building activities will be tested in Morocco and the Philippines. FAO also initiated a five year multi-donor trust fund project related to mitigation in agriculture, so called MICCA (Mitigation of Climate Change in Agriculture), in early 2010 (FAO, 2011c). Its main goal is to assist efforts in mitigating climate change through agriculture in developing countries and moving towards carbon friendly agricultural practices. Furthermore, FAO has responded to high-level dialogues through the provision of inputs and submissions and the hosting and co-organization of international events. FAO actively supports the UNFCCC process through highlighting the important role of agriculture and related sectors for climate change and organizing side events such as climate-smart agriculture (FAO, 2010b). FAO also supports the implementation of the Nairobi Work Programme. In addition, FAO promotes dialogue and awareness at the international level related to climate change impacts on food security and on the roles of agriculture, forestry, and fisheries in adaptation and mitigation. Meanwhile, FAO also fosters interaction and coherence among the different conventions, treaties and bodies, including the Commission on Sustainable Development (CSD), UNFCCC, United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD), Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), United Nations Forum on Forests (UNFF), and the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture (ITPGRFA) (FAO, 2009b). 25

1.6 FAO Regional Priority Framework for the Near East FAO RNE and its Member Countries have recently finalized the preparation of the Regional Priority Framework (RPF) through its endorsement by the Thirtieth Regional Conference for the Near East (December 2010). The RPF aims to translate the FAO Strategic Framework into regional priority areas and actions for achieving Members' Goals and Strategic Objectives in the Region and capturing the priority needs of these countries that can be met with FAO assistance. The framework consists of five main priority areas as targets to focus on during 2010-2019 (FAO RNE, 2010c). Climate change is one of the main priority areas, titled as “Responding to Climate Change Impacts and Developing Adaptation Strategies.” The key actions that emerged under this priority area are as follows: 

Planning national policies for adaptation strategies, including the development of early warning systems, the establishment of unified national frameworks and the enhancement of cross-sectoral coordination;



Enhancing institutional and technical capacities in monitoring and assessment of climate change impacts;



Promoting regional cooperation in data collection, exchange of information, and monitoring and assessment of climate change impacts;



Improving capacity to easily access financial resources available for climate change;



Enhancing public information and awareness-raising; and



Promoting best practices for adaptation to climate change at various levels.

1.7 Conclusions and Way-Forward Climate change is one of the greatest global challenges of this century. The Near East region is one of the areas of the world most vulnerable to climate change in view of the facts that the region is located mostly in severe climate conditions and its scarce natural resources are already under considerable pressure. The region also structurally faces immense challenges in food security. The persistent high population growth rate puts a heavy pressure on food demand and the narrow natural resources base and the declining rate of production constitutes major limitations to food supply. The growing food deficit forces the majority of the region‟s countries to rely on food imports and, therefore, makes them vulnerable to quantity fluctuations and price shocks in international food markets. Projected impacts of climate change cast a dark shadow over agriculture and food security across the region. Water scarcity, already a major concern, will be further exacerbated by climate change and pose vast impacts across all sectors. Crop agriculture is likely to suffer major losses due to changing patterns in temperature and rainfall with the risks of SLR and extreme climatic events. Rangelands and livestock are likely to be vulnerable to climate change as they are located mostly in marginal areas. This impacts nomadic systems and dynamic livestock pest and disease distribution and their transmission patterns with increased probability of epidemic outbreaks. This background note intends to facilitate the discussions at the second forum on climate change in the Near East by highlighting the country stands on climate change in the Near East from the perspectives of awareness, national policies and strategies, institutional arrangements, technical knowledge and capacity development, and funding opportunities. The foregoing analysis of the country stands and the key actions emerging under the RPF provide a broad picture of the critical needs of the countries in the region to enhance their capacities in order to confront the negative impacts of climate change and variability on agriculture and food security. These needs can be summarized as follows: 

Elaborating and implementing national policies and strategies for adaptation to climate change in agriculture and food security;



Developing capacity in vulnerability assessment, monitoring, and adaptation measures;



Improving data-collection and information-sharing between relevant stakeholders; 26



Developing early warning systems against extreme climatic events;



Enhancing agricultural technologies such as the development of stress tolerant varieties and the improvement of water resources development and management;



Expanding the involvement of stakeholders to include NGOs, civil society, universities, the private sector, etc.;



Strengthening national coordination among the multiple stakeholders;



Enhancing the recognition of climate change impacts by policy and decision-makers;



Increasing public and private investment in climate change adaptation and improving capacity to access other available financial resources.

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2. Forum Highlights Faycel Chenini, Shinya Abe and Mohamed Bazza

2.1 Opening The Second Regional Forum on Climate Change (hereinafter referred as the Forum) was dedicated to the theme of “climate change, agriculture and food security.” It aimed at taking stock of countries‟ knowledge and gaps, providing an opportunity for exchange of experiences, and identifying specific needs for support and regional cooperation. The Forum also intended to expose country delegates to international financial mechanisms (Annex I: Forum Agenda) and was expected to come up with practical recommendations for follow-up actions to address the identified gaps, including a declaration delineating commitment by countries. In preparation for the Forum, FAO commissioned the preparation of concise Country Papers on the stand of climate change and its impacts on food security-related sectors. The Forum was held in Le Bristol Hotel, Beirut, Lebanon and was attended by 58 participants, including country delegates and national resource persons from 14 Member Countries, 7 regional/international organizations and donors as well as representatives of civil society and universities (Annex II: List of Participants). The Forum was inaugurated by Dr Salah Hag Hassan, Advisor, Ministry of Agriculture (MOA) in Lebanon, Mr Ali Moumen, FAO Representative in Lebanon, and Dr Mohamed Bazza, Coordinator of FAO RNE Working Group on Climate Change. Dr Bazza highlighted FAO‟s initiatives on climate change and the objectives and expected outputs of the Forum. He also provided an overview of the first regional Forum on climate change in the Near East which concluded that adaptation to climate change is a top priority for the broad agricultural sector and that achieving food security requires substantial efforts in adapting this sector. It also concluded that financing adaptation actions should be ensured through rural development mechanisms (official development assistance and other sources) as a primary funding source, with specific climate change mechanisms as a complementary one. The first Forum also recommended to systematically promote the climate change agenda in the agricultural sector within national institutions and to request formal assistance from partners for this purpose. Dr Hag Hassan, on behalf of his Excellency, Monsieur Hussein Hajj Hassan, Lebanese Minister of Agriculture, expressed his best greetings and highest consideration for FAO and all partners for organizing the Forum in Lebanon. He welcomed all the participants and wished a successful Forum and pleasant stay in Beirut. He presented several examples of climate change impacts in Lebanon, which is one of the countries most affected. The cooperation of all national institutions concerned was stressed as the main institutional problem and optimal synergy was raised as an imperative solution. He also touched on the overall strategy of the MOA to develop the agricultural sector. Mr Moumen (FAO) welcomed all the participants and expressed his sincere thanks and gratitude to the Government of Lebanon for hosting the Forum. He extended all thanks to the MOA, the Ministry of Environment and the Istituto per la Cooperatione Universitaria of Beirut (ICU) for their great support. He briefed the FAO Regional Priority Framework for the Near East and explained that climate change is one of the five main priority areas in the framework. He stressed that threats are present throughout the countries and will likely worsen with substantial impacts on national economies in general and food security in particular. He emphasized the importance of exchange of experiences and network-building during the Forum.

2.2 Country Stands on Climate Change and its Impacts on Agriculture and Food Security in the Near East Region The first session of the second Forum focused on country stands on climate change and its impacts on agriculture and food security in the Near East region through the delivery of presentations and holding plenary discussions. The first presentation highlighted the likely impacts of climate change on food security and related sectors and three presentations summarized the Country Papers of Mauritania, Saudi Arabia, and Syria as pilots from North Africa, the Arabian Peninsula, and the Oriental Near East respectively. In addition, a host country presentation provided an overview of the challenges of and perspective on climate change in Lebanon. Moreover, to get a view of on-going initiatives of regional dimension, the session 30

offered two presentations: one was the regional initiative on the assessment of climate change impact on water resources and socio-economic vulnerability in the Arab region and the second summarized the declarations and resolutions on climate change, agriculture, and food security in the Arab region. Presentation 1: Climate change likely impacts on food security related sectors in the Near East by M Bazza (FAO) The presentation highlighted the evidence of climate change and its impacts, and pointed out that climate change threats and food security are major concerns in the Near East region. An overview of natural resources, agriculture, and food security in the Region provided a real picture of the concerns. The presentation stressed the major challenges of natural resources in the region, including extremely scarce water resources, very scarce quality lands, and highly degraded forests and rangelands. Devastating droughts and some exceptional flooding events were also highlighted. Agriculture is the major driver of economy and food security in the region. Climate change is likely to negatively affect its major sub-sectors, such as water resources, crops, rangeland, livestock, forests, and fisheries with negative consequences for the four dimensions of food security (ie availability, accessibility, utilization, and stability). The presentation concluded that the Near East is one of the hardest hit regions. However, the question is â&#x20AC;&#x153;What is the stand of countries towards these threats?â&#x20AC;? This was the objective of the country studies to start gathering relevant information. Presentation 2: Response to climate change in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia by M Darfaoui (FAO/Ministry of Agriculture, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (KSA)) The presentation introduced climate and climate change in the KSA and highlighted that its impacts are expected to affect all aspects of life in the country, such as water resources, food and agriculture (including fisheries, forests, rangelands, and biodiversity), health, and energy. The presentation provided an overview of the country stand on climate change from the perspectives of awareness, national vision and policy, institutional arrangements, technical knowledge, and funding opportunities. According to the awareness survey conducted by the Arab Forum for Environment and Development in 2009, almost all respondents believe that the climate is changing, and think that it is due to human activities and a serious problem for the country. Around one third of the respondents think that the government is not acting sufficiently to address the problem. A national vision, policy, and strategies are based on the following activities: i) ratification of UNFCCC and the Kyoto Protocol; ii) organization of several workshops related to climate change and the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM); and iii) submission of the first National Communication and preparation of the second one. Institutional arrangements include the national committee for the CDM and the involvement of various institutions. However, better coordination is required and as is much stronger participation of civil society. The gaps in knowledge and technical knowhow include economic diversification, efficient water and land use systems, forest and range carbon stocks, institutional capacity, and warning systems. The country allocates US$26.5 billion to the MOA under the development plan for 2010-2014 (6.6% of the total budget). Public and private sectors invest mainly in water resource assessment, development, and management. There were no efforts being made to benefit from internationally available funds. The presentation concluded that climate change is a serious challenge to the KSA and so the country must develop climate change models, early-warning, and storm-forecasting systems. Presently, the KSA adopts a policy and strategies to mitigate water shortages and improve water use efficiency. However, it is making little effort towards sustainable management of vegetal cover in terms of agricultural adaptive measures. Presentation 3: Response to climate change for Syrian Arab Republic by J. Hammoud (Ministry of Agriculture, Syria) After introducing general information about the country, the potential impacts of climate change were presented, including a decline in water resources and wheat production, a reduction in total sheep numbers, and a decrease in job opportunities in the agricultural sector with increasing poverty and migration.

The presentation then briefed on the country stand on climate change in terms of awareness, national vision and policy, institutional arrangements, technical knowledge, and funding opportunities. With respect to awareness, Syria has participated in all negotiations conducted for the UN framework accord for climate change in the Kyoto Protocol and the Arab ministerial declaration made by the Arab ministers in charge of environment. Two workshops were also held in the last two years. The presentation raised the issues to be taken into account for a national vision for adaptation, mitigation, financing, and capacity building. It also highlighted the most important government measures related to climate change, namely the preparation and issuance of the first National Communication, a national plan for adaptation to climate change, a national strategy for drought management, a national plan to combat desertification, and a national program for food security. The presentation displayed institutional arrangements at the national and provincial levels and ministries concerned directly with the climate change agenda. Various weaknesses in technical knowledge were presented, which included insufficient teams specialized in climate change and related studies and planning for adaptation as well as limited available financial resources to implement adaptation programs. A study is being implemented to prepare an integrated work plan to adapt to climate change in the country. Financing opportunities were also presented, such as a cooperative agricultural bank to finance peasants and a fund to support the transfer to modern irrigation. Currently, procedures are being implemented to establish a fund at the MOA, called "fund for mitigating drought and natural disasters impacts on agricultural production." The presentation concluded with recommendations, including strengthening institutional capacity to plan and implement strategies and programs for mitigation of and adaptation to climate change and for drought management. Presentation 4: Response to climate change for Islamic Republic of Mauritania by K Ould Atigh (Ministry of Agriculture, Mauritania) The introduction gave information about the country and the main unfavourable effects of climate change. The presentation then highlighted the country stand on climate change with respect to awareness, national vision and policy, institutional arrangements, technical knowledge, and funding opportunities. Regarding the question of awareness, Mauritania undertook several activities for the development and implementation of public education and awareness programs on climate change and its impacts. Mauritania made signification advances particularly in the field of environment in the way of the policies and ratification of international agreements. The country launched a special body to mandate climate change tasks under a relevant ministry. The presentation pointed out that the dialogue and communication level of different institutions remains limited and there is a strong confusion on tasks and charges related to climate change. Whilst the performance of national technicians in the field of climate change is below target, nevertheless the country has many highly qualified experts. The presentation expressed the need for reinforcement of institutional and technical capacities in particular in the field of research and practical training on the followup of climate and the establishment of an early alert system on fast climate events. Other problems also include the mobilization of financial means and weakness in a national database on climate change. With respect to funding opportunities, the country profits from the Global Environment Facility (GEF) and the Least Developed Countries Fund (LDCF) within the framework of awareness activities and others related to climate change. Other opportunities are considered through the Adaptation Funds. The presentation concluded with recommendations, including the needs and requirements for capacity building for the improvement of institutional strengthening. Presentation 5: Climate change in Lebanon: Challenges and perspectives by S Hajj Hassan (Ministry of Agriculture, Lebanon) The presentation provided a detailed introduction with statistics on the agriculture and socio-economic sectors in the country and summarized the major expected impacts from climate change, which Lebanon will face, including water quantity and quality, forests, biodiversity, fisheries, flooding, desertification, soil degradation, ecosystems, and salt water intrusion. The presentation also highlighted the main sources of pollution in Lebanon such as car-emission, factories, and waste landfill. It was mentioned that the country will receive negative impacts of GHG emissions and its climate is linked to the emissions from neighboring countries. 32

The country now experiences climate extremes due to climate change. Past years has shown various indicators in forests and agriculture. Among the recent activities the presentation briefed on the assessment of bioclimatic changes in the country which aims to identify the changes that would occur in the Lebanese climate. The presentation concluded by highlighting the strategy of the MOA, which is composed of eight strategic axes that support the development of the agricultural sector. Presentation 6: Conceptual framework for climate change vulnerability assessment on water resources and agriculture in the Arab region by T Sadek (UN-ESCWA) The presentation started by highlighting potential climate change impacts on natural resources and agriculture. Despite its low contribution to GHG emissions, the Arab region will suffer greatly from climate change and impact national and regional development plans. A brief of the potential social and economic impacts on climate change was also provided. The presentation followed by describing the regional initiative on climate change vulnerability assessment of water resources in the Arab region. Regional climate change projects and simulations for vulnerability and impact assessment of water resources are not well developed in the region. There is a need to assess vulnerability in view of the need for a better understanding of the effects of climate change on water and agriculture and the development of adaptation strategies in the region. It is also necessary to integrate climate change modelling methodologies with vulnerability and impact assessment approaches in a multidisciplinary manner to study impacts on water, agriculture, and other sectors. The initiative launched a regional project that aims to assess the impact of climate change on freshwater resources in order to identify socio-economic and environmental vulnerability. The outcome of the assessment would provide a common platform for addressing and responding to climate change impacts in the region. The project is structured on four components: collection of baseline information; impact analysis and vulnerability assessment; awareness raising and information dissemination; and capacity building and institutional strengthening. The assessment includes climate change modelling and hydrological and water resources modelling. The final remarks included recommendations to ensure strong focus on integrated water and land management in the National Adaptation Programs of Actions to protect vulnerable water users and to increase productivity. It was also suggested that the concept of â&#x20AC;&#x153;water security for food securityâ&#x20AC;? was promoted under various future climate conditions and scenarios in regional and national water and agricultural policies. Presentation 7: Regional policy: Climate change, agriculture and food security in the Arab region by S Hassan Wahbi (League of Arab States) The presentation summarized the declarations and resolutions on climate change, agriculture, and food security in the Arab region. It highlighted the main relevant policies in the region during the past decade, namely the Sustainable Development Initiative in the Arab Region (SDIAR) 2002, the Arab Ministerial Declaration on Climate Change 2007, the Riyadh Declaration to Strengthen Arab Cooperation to Confront the World, Food Crisis 2008, the Kuwait Summit Declaration 2009, the Sirte Summit Resolution 2010, and Sharm Al Sheikh Summit Resolutions 2011. The presentation also provided an overview of the envisaged Arab Framework Action Plan on Climate Change (AFAPCC). The envisaged framework includes the programs of adaptation and mitigation in agriculture and food security; i) integrated management for water resources, land, and biodiversity, ii) developing techniques for Arab agriculture, iii) developing management systems for natural environmental and agricultural resources, iv) integrated pest management, v) human and institutional capacity building, vi) detecting and monitoring climate change potential impacts, and vii) creating the structure for legislation and agricultural policies. The presentation introduced next follow-up steps on the implementation of relevant decisions by the consecutive Arab Summits, effective participation in climate change negotiations, completion of the AFAPCC, and effective participation and contribution to international climate change efforts.

The presentation concluded that the Arab region must follow an objective scientific approach, and different organizations and stakeholders have an important role in providing technical know-how. It also recommended that Arab countries need to develop and support mitigation and adaptation policies on climate change, including developing a climate change knowledge-based infrastructure, increasing awareness on climate change and mitigation and adaptation methods, and developing regional and local early warning systems to monitor potential disasters and sea water rise. Plenary Discussions The plenary discussion that followed the presentations touched on issues such as indicators of climate change, strategies, capacity for implementation, and the recognition of decision-makers. It was raised that the identification of adequate indicators should be the first step towards the implementation of mechanisms that would stop over use of natural resources in the Near East region; though, it was also argued that a large volume of work has been carried out on developing indicators. The discussion pointed out a lack of climate change strategies in the countries of the region, and the inadequate attention and capacity for implementation in view of the fact that many plans have not been implemented. Human and financial resources remain as big issues and therefore capacity development is essential and there is also considerable room to increase investment. One question was just how much evidence is necessary to convince decision-makers. It was also raised that investment in research in the region is the lowest in the world and research requires proper programs and should provide emphasis on the impacts of climate change. The discussion also pointed to the large difference in human resources and capacities between countries of the region and hence strengthening collaboration would be a potential solution. The plenary also discussed issues on involvement and coordination. The discussion stressed the fact that civil society and other stakeholders should contribute to the climate change agenda. National experiences were shared; for instance:; the involvement of civil society has been improved in Syria through several projects based on a participatory approach; and in Mauritania, civil society launched public awareness programs regarding industrial pollution. However, in Saudi Arabia the involvement of civil society in sustainable resources management to date is negligible due to a political system and low governmental investment. The discussion also brought up an issue of ministerial coordination, which was exemplified by the fact that in one country some strategic crops are not under the responsibility of the MOA but under the Ministry of Economy. The discussion that followed the regional presentations pointed particularly to the low implementation of resolutions. The participants also found ESCWAâ&#x20AC;&#x;s initiative very relevant as its findings would fill an important information gap and called upon countries and other organizations to collaborate with it for success. It was also expressed that the Near East is the most affected region by climate change and should seek to benefit from all available funds. Desertification is particularly a common issue across the region.

2.3 Identification of Priority Needs to Confront Climate Change Impacts on Agriculture and Food Security in the Near East Countries The second session was devoted to group work for identifying priority needs to confront climate change impacts on agriculture and food security in the Near East countries with the facilitation of the following presentation. Presentation 8: Country stands on climate change and critical needs preliminary identified by S Abe (FAO) The presentation summarized the country stands on climate change based on the Country Papers, highlighting awareness on climate change, policies and strategies, institutional arrangements, technical knowledge and capacity development, and funding opportunities. According to a pan-Arab survey, the awareness of climate change itself is high among the general public but the actions of governments are not well recognized by the public. The countries covered by the FAO study have made efforts to raise awareness on climate change to varying degrees. The countries studied developed sectoral policies/strategies as an attempt to address the negative impacts of climate change on food security in 34

related sectors. However, they are rarely reported to have developed national policies/strategies specific to climate change. All the countries studied established national committees or councils to coordinate climate change activities. However, there is a shortage of information about the extent and mechanisms of actual coordination among relevant ministries and institutions. Several Country Papers suggested that the involvement of other stakeholders, such as civil society, should be enhanced. A wide array of gaps and needs must be filled in order to enhance technical knowledge and develop capacities for addressing climate change issues in the region. They are related to modelling and assessments, data and information, disaster risk management, universities and research centres, understanding of policy-makers, policies/regulations and strategies, networking, financial mechanisms, and crop varieties and water resources. It was inferred that not much is known about how practitioners are actually coping with climate change. It was highlighted that public financial resources allocated to climate change adaptation remain limited in general and are extremely low in some countries. Most of the studied countries report to have benefitted from the GEF and bilateral/multilateral cooperation directly and indirectly related to climate change, but unfolding financing mechanisms (e.g., REDD and REDD+) have not been utilized in the countries studied. The summary also gave a brief of the preliminary analysis that provided a broad picture of the critical needs of the Near East countries, concerns about policies and strategies, assessments, information, early warning, technologies, involvement, coordination, recognition, and investment and financial resources. Group Work Working groups (WGs) were organized by sub-region (Gulf, Oriental Near East and North Africa) in addition to one group tackling the regional dimension in order to fill in the first part of the log-frame (impact, outcome, and outputs). The results of the group work are summarized as follows: WG 1 (Gulf sub-region) aims at food and water securities strengthened and livelihoods and health improved (impact), which is supported by the achievement of sustainability and efficient use of water resources (outcome) through the delivery of outputs such as improved policies and regulations, strengthened institutions and capacity, improved water technologies and infrastructure, and enhanced irrigation practice. WG 2 (Oriental Near East sub-region) intends to contribute to an impact on natural resources sustained and food security improved through enhanced water demand management (outcome) as a result of realizing outputs such as restored degraded land, increased investment and credit, water policy and strategy in place, enhanced public awareness, and adapted good agricultural practice. WG 3 (North Africa sub-region) aims at bringing climate change issues under control (impact), which will be achieved through enhanced knowledge of climate change (outcome) through materializing outputs, inter alia, climate change agenda mainstreamed into national policies, human capacity improved to face climate change effects, and adaptation techniques managed. WG 4 (Near East region) aims to build resilience to climate change in agriculture, forestry and fisheries in the Near East, which will be achieved by climate change mainstreamed into development policies at all levels and increase/sustain investment in climate change adaptation in agriculture (outcome) through the accomplishment of outputs such as enhanced technical and scientific capacities, improved regional coordination and cooperation, and strengthened institutional regional/national frameworks.

2.4 Financial Mechanisms and Sources of Funding for Climate Change The third and fourth sessions of the Forum were centered on funding sources and financial mechanisms for climate change through the delivery of presentations and holding plenary discussions. The first presentation outlined the GEF, LDCF, and Special Climate Change Fund (SCCF). Another presentation summarized FAOâ&#x20AC;&#x;s support to Member Countries under the GEF. The presentations also covered climate change mitigation and carbon markets as well as financial mechanisms and funding sources for climate change adaptation activities in the Near East countries. The session further explained the GEF focal areas and LDCF/SCCF strategies as well as the GEF project cycle, requirements, and formats.

Presentation 9: Introduction to the GEF structure, SCCF, and LDCF by K Morebotsane (FAO) The GEF, established in 1991, is a designated financial mechanism for multilateral environmental agreements (MEAs) and responds to guidance from the Conference of Parties to the MEAs. It is a cofinance mechanism for incremental/additional costs to achieve agreed global environmental/adaptation benefits. The GEF is the largest provider of funds for projects to improve the global environment. It has allocated US$8.8 billion, levering more than US$38.7 billion in co-financing, for more than 2,400 projects in over 165 countries. The presentation gave an overview of GEF Trust Fund, SCCF, and LDCF. Focal areas under GEF Trust Fund cover biodiversity, climate change mitigation, land degradation, chemicals, international waters, sustainable forest management, LULUCF, and REDD+. SCCF and LDCF focus on co-financing the additional costs of implementing climate change adaptation measures in development. Policies and changes in GEF-5 were presented, including the System for a Transparent Allocation of Resources (STAR). The presentation summarized the GEF organizational structure constituted by 182 Member Countries, Assembly, Council, Secretariat, GEF Agencies, Scientific and Technical Advisory Panel, Evaluation Office, Focal Points, and others. Its structure in countries comprises Political and Operational Focal Points as well as National Steering Committees (not mandatory). Presentation 10: FAO-GEF support to member countries by K Morebotsane (FAO) FAO started executing GEF projects, led by other UN agencies and organization, in 1992, and has, since 2006, direct access in all Focal Areas as a GEF Executing Agency. FAOâ&#x20AC;&#x;s expertise in GEF focal areas includes biodiversity, climate change mitigation, international waters, land degradation, Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs), and climate change adaptation (LDCF/SCCF). As a GEF agency, FAO is executing twelve projects with nineteen projects in preparation. FAO also supports the implementation of eight indirect access projects. Agency responsibilities were presented under project management services and corporate services. The former services assist Member Countries to develop and implement GEF financed projects, including the formulation of project concepts; the assurance of technical quality in project preparation; the facilitation of endorsement and approval; the transfer of funds, technical backstopping, and the supervision of project implementation; and monitoring, evaluation, and reporting. The corporate services are to participate in corporate activities responding to GEF Council requirements, such as policy and program support, portfolio and financial management, reporting to GEF Secretariat and its Trustees, institutional relations, outreach and knowledge, and facilitating information to the GEF evaluation office. Presentation 11: Climate change mitigation and the carbon markets in the Near East countries by P Gorin (FAO) The presentation summarized climate change mitigation and carbon markets and funds. The regulatory markets were highlighted with particular focus on the CDM, which enables Annex I countries to finance projects in Non-Annex I countries and receive certified emission reductions in return. Buyers are governments, multilateral agencies, and private actors who have to maintain emissions within a prescribed cap. As of January 2009, there were 4,364 projects in the pipeline with the overall potential reduction of more than 1.5 billion tons. The types of eligible CDM project for the agricultural, rural, and land use sector include renewable energy, CH4 capture and utilization from agriculture, afforestation and reforestation. The voluntary markets enable unregulated parties to purchase verified emission reductions to offset their emissions. Buyers can be businesses, investors, NGOs and individuals. In 2008, the voluntary market produced reductions of over 123 million tons with an overall value of over US$ 704 million. The types of voluntary market projects relevant to the abovementioned sector include afforestation, reforestation, avoided deforestation, land restoration, soil sequestration, renewable energy, and CH4 capture and utilization. In addition, Carbon Funds are specialized carbon facilities to purchase credits by either private or governmental/multilateral with specific eligibility criteria. There are around fifty major active funds worldwide at present. In some cases, funds agree to pay for the development costs of CDM projects. 36

The presentation also provided an overview of carbon markets and the Agriculture, Forestry and Other Land Use (AFOLU) sector. The role of the sector is important in GHG emissions, mitigation, and adaptation. In addition, the sector has the greatest potential for synergies with other conventions. There are several opportunities for the sector in the carbon markets, especially forestry and sustainable land management, that can be pursued on the global carbon markets. However, the market shares of these projects are still not reaching their potential. The presentation concluded that increased agricultural investment and enhanced agricultural productivity are crucial. It emphasized making use of the land use sectorâ&#x20AC;&#x17E;s potential and any funding available for mitigation and adaptation measures and making sure that land use sector projects are able to access these funds. Presentation 12: Financial mechanisms and funding sources for climate change adaptation activities in the Near East countries by D Colbert (FAO) and A Haddad (UNEP) The presentation gave a brief of climate change adaptation and relevant initiatives and then highlighted the UNFCCC funds such as the Adaptation Fund and Green Climate Fund. The former fund was established under the Kyoto Protocol (operational since 2009) and for which GEF provides the secretariat. It aims to finance adaptation projects and programs in developing countries that are party to the Kyoto Protocol and to support concrete adaptation activities that reduce the adverse effects of climate change on communities and countries. The activities supported by the fund include adaptation activities in agriculture, water resources, land management, and infrastructure development; capacity building for preventive measures, planning, preparedness and management of climate-related disasters; and national and regional information networks for rapid response to extreme weather events. The fund gains income from CDM projects. The Green Climate Fund, established at Cancun in 2010, supports projects, programs and policies in developing country parties using thematic funding windows (up to US$100 billion/year by 2020). This fund is designed to manage large-scale financial resources with balanced allocation between adaptation and mitigation. The presentation also highlighted multi-lateral funds, particularly the Pilot Program for Climate Resilience, and bi-lateral financing mechanisms, especially Global Climate Change Alliance (EU). The objective of the former program is to pilot and demonstrate ways in which climate risk and resilience may be integrated into core development planning and implementation and to provide incentives for scaled-up action and initiate transformational change. The latter alliance has objectives to deepen the policy dialogue between the EU and developing countries on climate change and to step up support to target countries to implement priority adaptation and mitigation measures. The presentation also exemplified the MDG Achievement Fund (UNDP and Spain) and FAO-Adapt for the UN agency programs. The former fund under the environment and climate change thematic window has objectives to accelerate efforts to reach MDGs and support interventions that improve environmental management and enhance capacity to adapt to climate change. FAO-Adapt is a corporate framework that aims at intensifying the Organizationâ&#x20AC;&#x;s support to adaptation and defining themes and actions to deliver support to Member Countries. It contains priority adaptation themes and actions, including data and knowledge for impact and vulnerability assessment and adaptation; institutions, policies and financing to strengthen capacities for adaptation; sustainable and climate-smart management of land, water and biodiversity; technologies, practices and processes for adaptation; and disaster risk management. Presentation 13: GEF-5 Focal Area and LDCF/SCCF Strategies by K Morebotsane (FAO) The presentation summarized GEF focal areas and strategies in the areas of climate change adaptation (SCCF/LDCF), land degradation, and Sustainable Forest Management (SFM)/REDD+. LDCF/SCCF aim to support developing countries to become climate resilient by integrating adaptation measures in development policies, plans, programs, projects and actions. They have three objectives: reducing vulnerability of adverse impacts of climate change; increasing the adaptive capacity to respond to impacts of climate change; and promoting the transfer and adoption of adaptation technologies. The activities in priority sectors and areas of intervention under LDCF include food security and agriculture, water resources management, disaster risk management and community-based adaptation. Those under SCCF include 37

water resources management, agriculture/land management, fragile ecosystems, and disaster risk management, and information sharing systems. The area of land degradation aims to contribute to arresting and reversing current global trends in land degradation, specifically desertification and deforestation. It contains four objectives: maintaining or improving flows of agro-ecosystem services to sustain livelihoods of local communities; generating sustainable flows of forest ecosystem services; reducing pressures on natural resources from competing land uses in the wider landscape; and increasing capacity to apply adaptive management tools. SFM/REDD+ intends to achieve multiple environmental benefits from improved management of all types of forests. Their main objectives are: reducing pressure on forest resources and generating sustainable flows of forest ecosystem services; and strengthening the enabling environment to reduce GHG emissions from deforestation and forest degradation. Presentation 14: GEF project cycle, requirements and formats by K Morebotsane (FAO) The presentation summarized GEF projects into four types with a brief of their requirements. Its full size projects (FSP) are classified as above US$ 1 million (for LDCF/SCCF above US$ 2 million) with the full project preparation cycle and the approval by the GEF Council. Its medium sized projects (MSP) are categorized as up to US$ 1 million (for LDCF/SCCF up to the aforementioned) with the preparation criteria similar to FSPs and one step approval by the GEF Chief Executive Officer (CEO). The Project Preparation Grant (PPG) can be requested for both FSPs and MSPs, and the Programmatic Approach enables the gathering of several projects aiming at contributing to the same GEF focal area objectives and outcomes. The presentation displayed the GEF project cycle, including Step 1: Secretariat review for Project Identification Form (PIF) clearance; Step 2: Council review and approval for work program; Step 3: Secretariat review for CEO endorsement; and Step 4: GEF Evaluation Office review and evaluation of completed projects. The preparation time and service standards were also highlighted, including a maximum of 18 months from PIF approval to the CEO endorsement of a final project. The presentation also explained that GEF projects are based on results-based management. A project must contribute to the relevant GEF focal area, LDCF/SCCF Results Framework (outcome and output indicators). Project outputs and outcomes must be clearly identified and formulated in measurable timebound indicators with an established baseline in the Project Results Framework linked to budget. The achievement of outputs and outcomes must be monitored in project progress reporting and GEF Tracking Tools. Plenary Discussions The plenary discussion that followed these presentations pointed to insufficient information about financial mechanisms. It was also highlighted that these mechanisms and sources of funding have complicated procedures. Currently, there are a limited number of Near East countries benefitting from the GEF and to the fact that there is no adaptation project under the GEF in the Region. The complexity of the GEF procedures was widely mentioned by the participants. The lengthy and time-consuming characteristic of the PIF process was also raised. Although the GEF advanced over the years, its complexity still remains and a project may take a few years before it gets financed. This issue is also valid for other financial mechanisms. Despite the changes towards simplifying the GEF procedures, there is still a great need for capacity building in this field, including an instruction workshop. It was indicated that efforts to shorten the lengthy preparation process can be assisted through the lead of specialized agencies such as FAO. Assistance in the preparation of the PPG document was also proposed. The discussion also brought up the issues of eligibility and co-financing. The eligibility criteria of financial mechanisms seem to be not only technical but also political. The Near East region has not benefitted from financial mechanisms as it should even though it is one of the most affected regions by climate change. Cofinancing is accepted by different ways in various financial mechanisms, but there is also a problem due to a time lag between project preparation and implementation and an annual financial allocation system of the Ministry of Finance. 38

The issue of cooperation among stakeholders was lengthily discussed. It highlighted that collaboration and synergy between national institutions is much needed for any requests for projects‟ funding. NGOs and their important roles in the field of climate change were raised several times. NGOs could apply for GEF funding up to US$50,000 but this kind of project is usually initiated and managed by UNDP and local GEF focal points under the National Strategy for Small Grant Programs.

2.5 Development of Basic Project Information to Address Priority Needs The fifth session was devoted to familiarization of participants with the GEF Project Identification Form through group work based on the previous work under the second session. The session was moderated by A Haddad, UNEP, and initiated by an explanation of the PIF format and a recently endorsed project with an overview of its GEF standard review sheet to provide tips about what information gets attention during the approval process. The group work was carried out using the four working groups set up previously. The exercise was mostly performed to discuss and fill in the sections of “Problem and main causes” and “Project framework” in the PIF format to accommodate the time frame of the Forum. The results of the group work can be summarized as follows. Group Work WG 1 (Gulf sub-region) Case study: Strengthening the efficiency and sustainability of water use in the Gulf region The identified problem and main causes were inadequate water policy, weak institutional capacity, and inefficient use of water due infrastructure and technology. The project framework was elaborated by identifying three project components with their expected outcomes and outputs. The first component was “Formulation/updating of policies and regulations (at sub-regional and national levels).” Its outcomes are primarily expected as “policies and regulations improved” through the expected outputs of “adaption of policies by decision-makers” and “adaption of new water regulations.” The second component was “Strengthening institutional capacity.” The expected outcomes are “institutional coordination improved,” “human resources capacity strengthened,” and “a participatory approach enhanced” through the outputs of “consensus on coordination among stakeholders achieved,” “training programs strengthened,” and “roles of all stakeholders strengthened.” The third component was “Enhancing water technologies and use efficiency.” The expected outcomes are “irrigation technologies improved,” “water use practices improved,” and “use of non-conventional water enhanced” through the outputs of “water saving technologies increased,” “water use advisory services created/strengthened,” and “treated wastewater reuse increased.” Furthermore, additional cost reasoning due to climate change was identified as irrigated areas to be increased and further preservation of water resources. The key stakeholders identified were MOA, MOE, MOW, NGOs, donors, research institutions and universities and the private sector. WG 2 (Oriental Near East sub-region) Case study: Integrated water and land resources management in response to climate change challenges The problem and main causes relating to the chosen subject were increased water scarcity, inadequate financing for water infrastructure, inappropriate agricultural practices, over-use of resources, particularly water, and limited interest/awareness of climate change issues at the public and institutional levels. There were three project components in the designed project framework. The first component was “Improving water management.” The expected outcome is “enhanced water demand management” through the outputs of “increased governmental budget allocated to water management” and “water productivity increased by about 10 percent (%).”

The second component was “Raising awareness and building capacity for better water management.” The expected outcome is the same as above through the outputs of “water policy and strategy clearly formulated,” “decision-makers‟ and public awareness enhanced,” and “institutional capacity building strengthened.” The third component was “Improving agricultural practices.” The expected outcome is same as the first component through the outputs of “25% of farmers adopting good agricultural practice.” It is also anticipated that 1.0 million ha of degraded lands, including forest, range and agricultural land, will be rehabilitated. WG 3 (North Africa sub-region) Case study: Capacity building on climate change adaptation in North Africa sub-region The main problem and causes of this identified case study were uncontrolled climate change problems, lack of synergy between different actors, inadequate awareness on climate change among different actors, and lack of integration of climate change in national development policies. The elaborated project framework indentified three project components. The first component was “Assistance to governments in integrating climate change into national development policies.” The expected outcome is “climate change agenda integrated into national development policies” through the output of “relevant national policies developed.” The second component was “Enhancement of awareness of climate change among different actors.” The expected outcomes are “human resources trained in controlled natural resources management” and “adoption of new technologies” through the outputs of “optimal adaptation techniques identified” and “subregional training plan developed and implemented.” The third component was “Improvement of synergy between different actors.” The expected outcomes are “cooperation between different institutions involved in climate change improved” and “implication of civil society and the private sector in the field of climate change reinforced” through the output of “appropriate institutional framework analyzed, launched and implemented.” WG 4 (Near East region) Case study: Enhancing the resilience of rural communities to climate change in the Near East region The group particularly focused on the resilience of rural communities in the region. The problem and main causes were identified as high levels of poverty in rural areas, spatial and temporal variability of rainfall, and shortage of investment in rural communities. The elaborated project framework comprised three components: i) “Integrating rural communities into productive sectors” with the expected outcome of “resilient rural communities to climate change in the Region” through the expected output of “poverty alleviated”; ii) “Introducing water harvesting techniques” with the same outcome through the output of “management of water resources improved”; and iii) “Promoting investment” with the same outcome through the output of “adequate investment.” Additional costs due to climate change was considered as attempts to reduce the risk of climate change impacts on human health and well-being as well as reducing migration to other neighboring towns/countries. The key stakeholders identified were farmers, related workers in rural areas, agriculture production suppliers, NGOs, states governments, relevant ministries, and regional agencies.

2.6 Wrap-up and Closing The final session discussed the draft declaration of the Forum, so called “Beirut Declaration”, following a review by three representatives of the participants, and the proposed recommendations for follow-up actions. Among other important points, the Declaration mentions the need for a regional climate change model for anticipating changes in climate variables and recognizes the on-going regional initiative to assess the vulnerability of water resources to climate change. It calls upon countries and other stakeholders to support and collaborate with this and other relevant initiatives. The Forum also emphasized the necessity for full cooperation and exchange of successful experiences between the countries of the Region. The 40

participants also urged the funding agencies to simplify their procedures and to explain their roles, policies, and procedures. The Forum acknowledged that the preliminary analysis made by FAO provided the broad picture of the critical needs of the Near East countries to enhance their capacities in order to confront the negative impacts of climate change and variability on agriculture and food security. These needs are summarized as follows: 

Enhancing the involvement of policy and decision-makers and their recognition of climate change impacts;

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Elaborating and implementing national policies and strategies for adaptation to climate change in agriculture and food security;

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Developing capacity in vulnerability assessment, monitoring, and adaptation measures;

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Improving data-collection and information-sharing between relevant stakeholders;

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Developing early warning systems against extreme climate events;

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Enhancing agricultural technologies such as the development of stress tolerant varieties and the improvement of water resources development and management;

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Expanding the involvement of stakeholders to include NGOs, civil society, universities, the private sector, etc.;

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Strengthening national coordination among the multiple stakeholders; and

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Increasing public and private investment in climate change adaptation, improving capacity to access other available financial resources, and considering the establishment of climate change insurance.

The Forum recommended to the Member Countries of the Region, FAO, and other partners to launch a cooperative action on climate change. The Forum was honorably closed by his Excellency, Monsieur Hussein Hajj Hassan, Lebanese Minister of Agriculture. In his closing speech, his Excellency thanked all the participants and expressed his appreciation to FAO for organizing the Forum in Lebanon and for the relevant subject of climate change impacts on food security-related sectors. He highlighted the main impacts of climate change in Lebanon and some neighbouring countries. He also expressed his regrets that so many large events on climate change have been held, starting from Rio and ending in Copenhagen, but not much has come out of them in terms of actions to combat the causes of climate change by reducing CO2 emissions, especially by big polluters. He also mentioned that the Conferences of the Parties have not provided more engagement and commitment for giving practical and feasible solutions to face the negative impacts of climate change. He further stressed the need that the Near East countries should cooperate in order to address common problems such as climate change and desertification as these challenges can only be successfully addressed in a collective manner. He also noted that scientific recommendations are important but political recommendations are more important. He also stressed that all the recommendations need financial resources which are not a negligible issue for all Near East countries. Noting the importance of the role of decision-makers in taking action against climate change impacts, he expressed the need for them not only to be aware of the challenges and be sensitive to them, but also to be actually involved in taking action.

2.7 Conclusions The Second Regional Forum on Climate Change was centered on the theme of climate change, agriculture, and food security in the Near East. The Forum successfully achieved its objectives through the presentations, plenary discussions, and group exercises during its six sessions. It productively took stock of the countries‟ knowledge and gaps, provided an opportunity for exchange of experiences, exposed the participants to the financial mechanisms, and identified the specific needs for support and regional cooperation. The Forum finally reached practical recommendations for follow-up actions and developed the forum declaration, so called “Beirut Declaration.” The Forum reviewed the country stands on climate change and its impacts on agriculture and food security in the Near East region. It offered the presentation that highlighted likely impacts of climate change on food security related sectors in the region and the three country presentations that summarized the country 41

stands on climate change from the perspectives of awareness, national vision and policy, institutional arrangements, technical knowledge, and funding opportunities, as pilots from the North Africa, the Arabian Peninsula and the Oriental Near East sub-regions. The host country presentation also highlighted the challenges of and their perspective on climate change. Moreover, the Forum presented the regional initiative on the assessment of climate change impact on water resources and socio-economic vulnerability and summed up the declarations and resolutions on climate change, agriculture and food security in the region. The plenary discussion that followed these presentations pointed out a lack of climate change strategies and inadequate implementation capacity at the national and regional levels. There was also considerable room to increase investment. The plenary questioned how much evidence of climate change impacts is necessary to convince decision-makers. The discussion emphasized that civil society and other stakeholders should be involved in the climate change agenda, but also suggested strengthening collaboration between the countries of the region. The plenary recognized that the regional initiative on climate change impacts and vulnerability assessment is very relevant as its findings would fill an important information gap. The Forum also looked at financial mechanisms and sources of funding for climate change. It provided the presentations that outlined the GEF Trust Fund, LDCF, and SCCF as well as FAOâ&#x20AC;&#x;s support to Member Countries under the GEF. It also presented other financial mechanisms and funding sources for climate change adaptation in the Near East countries, including the Adaptation Fund, Green Climate Fund, Pilot Program for Climate Resilience, Global Climate Change Alliance, MDG Achievement Fund and FAO-Adapt. In addition, it delivered the presentation that gave an overview of climate change mitigation and the carbon markets and funds. The Forum further provided the presentations that briefed GEF focal areas and strategies in the areas of climate change adaptation, land degradation, and SFM/REDD+ as well as that highlighted the GEF project cycle, requirements and formats. The plenary discussion that followed these presentations raised issues about insufficient information on financial mechanisms and their complicated procedures. There is also need for capacity building for access to financial mechanisms. The plenary also highlighted the need for collaboration and synergy between national institutions and the importance of NGOsâ&#x20AC;&#x; roles in the field of climate change. The Forum also held the group work to identify priority needs to confront the negative impacts of climate change on agriculture and food security in the Near East countries. It also provided an opportunity with the participants to familiarize with the GEF PIF format through the development of basic project information. Among other important points, the working groups emphasized the need for developing appropriate national policies and strategies for climate change adaptation and mainstreaming climate change agenda into developmental policies. They also stressed the need for strengthening institutional and human resources capacities. In addition, some of them underlined the need for increasing investment and for enhancing water resources technologies and management. Finally, the Forum led to important recommendations for follow-up actions through the set of plenary discussions and group exercises and the development of the Forum declaration. The Forum reconfirmed that adaptation to climate change is a top priority for the broad agricultural sector and that achieving food security requires substantial efforts in adapting this sector. The Forum identified the specific need to enhance the involvement of policy and decision-makers and their recognition of climate change impacts. It emphasized the need to develop and implement national policies and strategies for adaptation to climate change in agriculture and food security. Impact and vulnerability assessments are needed to enhance the recognition and to develop appropriate policies and strategies. The Forum also stressed the necessity to strengthen implementation capacity at the institutional, national and regional levels. In addition, it underlined the need to improve water and agriculture related technologies, practices, and management as well as relevant technical and scientific capacities. The Forum also emphasized the necessity to expand the involvement of multiple stakeholders and to strengthen coordination at all levels, including between ministries and with stakeholders. Moreover, it identified the need for cooperation and exchange of successful experiences among the countries of the region. The Forum also stressed the necessity to increase public investment in adaptation as well as to simplify and explain the procedures of the financial mechanisms. The Forum recommended to the Member Countries, FAO, and other organizations to establish a cooperative action to address climate change impacts and variability on agriculture and food security in the Near East region.

3. Selected country papers 3.1 Egypt country paper Author: Prof Dr Ayman Farid Abou-Hadid, President, Agricultural Research Centre & Climate Change Information Centre.

3.1.1 Introduction The agricultural land base of Egypt totals about 3.5 million ha (8.4 million feddan). The major crops include wheat (a staple food crop), maize (primarily for animal feed), clover, cotton, rice (grown only in the Delta and the Fayoum Governorate in Middle Egypt), sugarcane (grown in Upper and Middle Egypt), faba bean, sorghum, and soybean. Climate change will affect all four dimensions of food security â&#x20AC;&#x201C; food availability (ie production and trade), access to food, stability of food supplies, and food consumption. The importance of these dimensions and the overall impact of climate change on food security will differ across regions and over time and, most importantly, will depend on the overall socio-economic status. Essentially all quantitative assessments show that climate change will adversely affect food security. Climate change will increase the dependency of developing countries on imports and accentuate the existing focus of food insecurity in sub-Saharan Africa. The vulnerability of agriculture in Egypt to climate change is mainly attributed to both biophysical and socioeconomical parameters. Climate change impact field studies predict a reduction in the productivity of the major crops. Wheat and maize production will be reduced by 15% and 19% respectively by 2050. This is mainly attributed to projected temperature increase, crop-water stress, pests and disease. The impact of climate change on potato late blight is expected to lead to 2-4 additional sprays to be applied during the coming decades. Furthermore, the limited investigations into pests and disease concluded that it is a challenge for the agricultural sector in the future to find a balance between the public demands for reducing use of pesticides and the pressure to increase pesticide use due to climate change. As for livestock and fisheries, new animal diseases have emerged in Egypt with strong negative impacts on livestock production (eg Blue tongue disease and Rift Valley Fever have recently emerged and have been attributed to observed changes in the Egyptian climate). Animal disease transfer from animals to humans is another expected side effect of climate change. In addition, the availability of fodder is likely to decrease because of climate change and the increasing competition between fodder and cereals crops for land and water resources. Climate change is also expected to increase sea temperatures causing fish populations to move northwards into deeper water. The increased salinity of water in the coastal lakes may gradually reduce the existence of fresh water fish and increase the portion of saline water fish which are more sensitive to environmental changes. This model of Education, Training and Public Awareness on Climate Change will certainly yield the desired results if it is implemented and monitored appropriately at the various levels: governorate; government; primary, middle, and high schools; community; and individual. General remarks and recommendations for adaptation planning in agriculture are about designing and applying a national adaptation strategy for the agriculture sector but it faces a number of barriers and limitations such as existing scientific studies, information and policy perceptions, poor adaptive capacity among rural communities, lack of financial support, and the absence of an appropriate institutional framework.

3.1.2 Awareness on climate change Egypt is a member of the Party to the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) which have accepted certain commitments taking into account their common but differentiated responsibilities and other specific national and regional development priorities. The current status of climate change awareness is an environment which holds training courses for teachers and educational inspectors on how to simplify 43

the climate change phenomenon for students, teaching them positive behaviours, with a group of ideas and teaching aids. Many public awareness programs were implemented using audio and visual media, a series of books and posters, and scientific articles in magazines on climate change. There are now weekly environmental pages in several national daily newspapers such as Al-Ahram, Al Gomhoria, and Al-Akhbar. There are several specialized TV and radio programs which address environmental problems and community participation in solving such problems. A number of training courses were provided to journalists to help in shaping the thought of civil society towards activating policies and making decisions in this area. To fulfil these commitments, the Parties need to promote and facilitate various education, training, and awareness programmes at the national and regional levels as required under Article 6 of the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change, particularly the following: 

The development and implementation of educational and public awareness programmes on climate change and its effects;

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Public access to information on climate change and its effects;

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Adopting a participatory process for addressing climate change and its effects. Similar approach should also be adopted for developing adequate responses to climate change and its effects; and

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Organizing and providing scientific, technical, and managerial personnel for climate change mitigation.

Education, training, and public awareness in Egypt will facilitate capacity building to enable the population to fully participate and to effectively implement commitments under the Convention, and participate in the Kyoto Protocol process. However, education, training and awareness generation have to be country driven, addressing the specific needs and conditions of local communities and reflecting national sustainable development goals, priorities, and strategies. Framework for capacity building A framework for capacity building includes: 

Capacity-building needs (already identified since COP 1) must be comprehensively and promptly addressed to promote sustainable development in LDCs, taking into account that Egypt‟s economic and social development and poverty eradication are the first and overriding priorities;

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Capacity-building activities would be undertaken in an effective, efficient, integrated, and programmatic manner, taking into consideration the specific national circumstances of the country and each governorate.

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Capacity-building being a continuous, progressive and iterative process, a trickle-down framework for local level capacity building is envisaged wherein a National Coordinator would serve as the focal point for coordinating capacity-building activities at the governorate level. The framework is shown schematically in Figure 1);



Existing governorate and local level institutions have an important role to play in supporting capacity-building activities at local level. Such centres can incorporate traditional skills, knowledge, and practices to provide appropriate services and facilitate information sharing. Capacity building efforts would, therefore, mobilize these existing governorate and local level institutions and build on existing processes and endogenous capacities;



"Learning-by-doing" being an effective method of capacity building, a number of demonstration projects will be used in the process.

 Figure 1 Suggested organisational set up for capacity building for climate change

Suggested organizational set up for capacity building The following is the initial scope of needs and areas for capacity-building: 

General awareness about climate change issues and anthropogenic contributions;

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Awareness about Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) related issues such as mitigation options, transfer of technologies and funds, baseline development, linkages between CDM and sustainable development, emissions reduction;

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Climate change and how people can actively contribute, thus establishing a broader and stronger constituency for government policies;

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Engage other ministries, policy-makers or parliamentarians in a collaborative effort to develop and implement national climate change policies;

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Build new partnerships between governments and civil society including local communities, indigenous people, women‟s groups, and the private sector;

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Training officers at the governorate policy levels to enable them to incorporate climate change concerns in all decisions for implementing developmental activities;

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Helping local level agencies to prepare greenhouse gas (GHG) inventories, emission database management, and systems for collecting, managing, and utilizing activity data and emission factors;

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Improve decision-making including assistance for participation in international negotiations.

Conclusion This model of education, training and public awareness on climate change will certainly yield the desired results if it is implemented and monitored appropriately at all levels – governorate; Government; primary, middle, and high schools; community; and individual.

3.1.3 National vision, policies, and strategies The impact of climate change is most likely to severely hit rural communities due to the fragile socioeconomics of rural people. Any further pressures due to climate change may cause unrecoverable damage. Designing and applying a national adaptation strategy for the agriculture sector is not yet implemented because it is facing a group of barriers and limitations of existing scientific knowledge, information and policy perceptions, poor adaptive capacity of rural communities, lack of financial support, and the absence of an appropriate institutional framework. Sustainable Agricultural Development Strategy towards 2030 (SADS 2030) is about designing an adaptation strategy for the agriculture sector which considers simple and low-cost adaptation measures, 45

which may be inspired from traditional knowledge, meet local conditions, and be compatible with sustainable development requirements. The following could be included to enhance this planning process: 

Improve the scientific capacity;

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Use the bottom-up approach of adaptation planning;

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Develop community-based measures by stakeholders' involvement in adaptation planning;

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Increase public awareness about climate change and its relation to human systems; and

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Improve adaptive capacity of the community.

GHG emissions from agriculture The growth of GHG emissions in Egypt is primarily linked to the strong economic growth and the attendant increases in energy demand, especially through higher demand for electricity and transport services. Economic growth has been accompanied by a growth in energy use and, consequently, increased air pollution and GHG emissions. The aggregate GHG emissions without the impacts of land use changes were estimated to be over 116 million tons of CO2 equivalents in the baseline year 1990/91 which increased to 230-270 million tons in 2009. The agriculture sector was the second largest GHG source producing 35 million tons, mainly from enteric fermentation and rice cultivation, followed by non-combustion related industrial emissions of CO2, mainly from the steel and cement industries. The main emissions of agriculture activities are nitrous oxide (N2O) and methane (CH4) (Table 1). In addition, field burning of agricultural residues emits traces of CO and NOX. Total GHG emissions from agriculture in 2000 amounted to more than 31 million tons of CO2e. The indicating policy recommendations for controlling GHG emissions proposed mitigation options and policies. It is finding that both farmers and policy-makers will face challenges from the GHG related changes needed in agriculture. Areas for improvement include increased use of no-till cropping, integrated crop and animal farming, and decreased use of external inputs in food and agriculture. The following are the needed national strategies for reducing GHG emissions: 

Develop national emission factors and methodologies in order to conduct more accurate determinations of GHG emissions from agriculture sector;

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Conduct mitigation studies of GHG emissions from different agricultural sources with special attention to paddy rice, soil management, livestock, animal waste management systems, and agricultural waste burning;

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Study the economics of mitigation from the different GHG sources in agriculture.  Table 1 Total GHG emissions from agricultural sector

Gas

CO2e

% of total emissions

N2O

19.16

60.4

CH4

12.56

39.6

Total

31.72

100

Adaptation plans have become one of the top priorities for sustainable development in agriculture. The following are research gaps relevant to agriculture: 

The vulnerability and adaptation of food security in Egypt relevant to the impacts of climate change on crop productivity and production management processes;

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The vulnerability and adaptation of cropping patterns and systems at farm, regional and national levels;

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Wide-scale assessment and development of stress-tolerant field crop varieties in terms of heat, water scarcity, and salinity; 46

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The vulnerability and adaptation of on-farm irrigation systems at farm, regional, and national levels;

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Adaptation measures to face the agricultural land loss due to sea level rise;

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Adaptation measures for soil maintenance under different agricultural systems with special attention to the agricultural hotspot locations;

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Integrated adaptation scenarios for plant protection based on integrated crop management (ICM) and biological control concepts;

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Integrated adaptation scenarios for livestock, fishing, and aquaculture;

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Comprehensive studies of adaptation requirements, costs, inter-sectoral relationships and feedback from the agriculture sector and rural communities.

The most likely adaptation options for livestock are – improving low productivity cattle and buffalo breeds and improve feeding programs so they are better adapted for warmer climate conditions. There is a need to target the livestock sector to assess the current vulnerability to climate change, including the vulnerability of green fodder, in order to secure the current share of local animal protein production. There is no clear adaptation options defined for this important sector. Further studies on the impacts, vulnerability, and adaptation to climate change are still needed. In order to enhance the planning for adaptation and mitigation strategies for the agricultural sector there is a need to improve scientific capacity, use bottom-up approaches to adaptation planning, increase public awareness about climate change and its relationship with human systems, and improve adaptive capacity of communities.

3.1.4 Institutional arrangements The Egyptian Environmental Affairs Agency (EEAA) was established in 1982 and signified the increasing attention directed to environmental protection by the Government of Egypt. EEAA was established as the highest national authority in Egypt responsible for promoting and coordinating all efforts related to environmental protection. Furthermore, within the context of setting up the climate change institutional structure at the national level to comply with the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), an inter-ministerial committee was established in October 1997. The national committee is headed by the Chief Executive Officer of EEAA and the members represent a wide range of governmental and non-governmental stakeholders. The committee aims to coordinate, at a national level, the participation of Egypt in the Framework Convention on Climate Change, develop an overall policy for dealing with climate change, review the National Action Plan for Climate Change and follow up on the implementation of the Framework Convention on Climate Change. Over the past few years, significant progress has been made relating to national capacity building and institutional development in the field of climate change. Several organizations are extensively involved at the national level in climate change related activities. These include: environmental organizations, energy organizations, research centres, universities, governmental and non-governmental organizations. These multi-layer climate change institutional arrangements will play a leading role in integrating climate change issues in the national agendas. Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs): Egypt now has more than 200 NGOs that work in environmental protection in general and a few of these organizations have started to tackle climate change issues. For example, the Integrated Rural Technology Centre for Training and Production and the Productive Cooperative of Basaisa in Sharqia Governorate are interested in issues of solar and wind energy. Meanwhile, the Arab Office for Youth and Environment (AOYE) organized a national workshop to spread awareness of climate change issues. Sectoral policies and legislation Egypt is a member of a number of economic groupings and several international agreements and is consequently bound by certain commitments affecting the agricultural sector. These commitments are contained in the World Trade Organization (WTO) agreements; such as the agreement on Intellectual 47

Property Rights (IPRs), the Agreement on the Application of Sanitary and Phyto-sanitary Measures (SPS), and other similar agreements. It is only natural, even crucial that Egypt should take measures for meeting these commitments in order to reduce their impact on agriculture and safeguard Egypt‟s rights under these international and regional agreements. However, facts indicate that the efforts exerted for this purpose are very limited due to the weak performance of the institutions concerned and the limited activities aimed at informing growers and attracting their attention to the important topics that are due to have implications on their production and living standards in the future. A lack of institutions in agriculture Recent years have witnessed dramatic changes in the world trade system, particularly those related to the application of WTO agreements, the EU-Egypt Association Agreement, the completion of the Greater Arab Free-Trade Area, and the Common Market of Eastern and Southern Africa (COMESA), as well as other bilateral trade agreements. This period has also witnessed important economic developments at the national level, most important of which is the liberalization of the agricultural sector from government restrictions and allowing the private sector to participate actively in agriculture. It is only natural that the Ministry of Agriculture and Land Reclamation (MALR) would be keen to introduce and establish institutions capable of redesigning agricultural policies and monitoring their implementation in collaboration with concerned institutions, in order to boost the sector‟s ability to adapt to international and regional changes and manage agricultural-related international and regional negotiations. However, present conditions are characterized with institutional weakness in both fields in spite of their importance to the future of agriculture. In parallel with the above mentioned institutional arrangements Egypt has participated in international initiatives and taken several measures, including following: 

Ratification of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, the issuance of Law 4/1994 for the Protection of the Environment, and participation in various international forums and conferences related to climate change;

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The Ministry of Electricity and Energy has established several projects in the field of new and renewable energy (wind, solar, hydro, bio) and taken measures aimed to encourage energy efficiency projects;

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The Ministry of Water Resources and Irrigation is implementing projects for shore protection (Egyptian Public Authority for Shore Protection) and establishing specialized research centres, in cooperation with development partners;

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The Agriculture Research Centre of the Ministry of Agriculture and Land Reclamation is carrying out research aimed at assessing the impacts of climate change on crops production and the adoption of more heat-tolerant cultivars;

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The Ministry of State for Environmental Affairs is preparing Egypt's Second National Communication Plan as a base for updating the National Action Plan and GHG Inventory from different sectors;

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Re-structuring of the National Committee of Climate Change in 2007, as coordinator on climate change issues at the national level, putting a vision for policies and strategies to deal with it, and suggesting mechanisms required for implementation;

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Proposal for establishing a national or regional climate change research centre in the Ministry of State for Environmental Affairs, in coordination with sectoral research centres, to plan and implement integrated research programs according to new developments and information about climate change;

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Establishment of a Climate Change Information Centre (CCIC) with the mandate of consolidating all agro-climatic data and distributing it to all research institutions for use in research related to the agriculture sector.

3.1.5 Technical knowledge Main activities Climate change impact studies, based on field studies, predicted a reduction in the productivity of the major crops in Egypt. These changes in crop productivity are mainly attributed to the projected temperature increase, which affect the grain filling periods and have detrimental effects on sensitive development stages, such as flowering, thereby reducing grain yield and quality. Crop-water stress is another factor causing productivity reduction under climate change . Uncertainty Uncertainty analysis for activity data was conducted based on expert judgment, while uncertainty analysis of emission factors was not conducted. Uncertainty of activity data of animal population, rice cultivation area, and crop productivity ranged from 49 to 66%. The uncertainty of the country specific crop parameters used in estimating emissions from burning field residues ranged from 30 to 70%. Identified barriers and gaps The following are the limiting factors for agricultural growth in Egypt and some of them are vulnerable to climate change. 

Egypt relies on total irrigation for more than 95% of the total cultivated area. The high vulnerability of the agriculture system to climate change can be attributed to the critical situation of water consumption in agriculture. The high reliance on low-efficiency on-farm irrigation systems and the lack of land levelling has decreased the on –farm irrigation efficiency to 30% or less. Though this does not mean that 70% of water is wasted – most is captured and used downstream. This produces more pressure on both agriculture and water resources and the on-going expansion of irrigated areas will reduce the ability of Egypt to cope with future fluctuations in the Nile River water flow;

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The fertility and the quality of the old-lands are severely affected by poor water management and agricultural practices. One million ha of irrigated land suffers from salinization and water-logging problems. The majority of salt-affected soils are located in the northern-central part of the Nile Delta and on its eastern and western sides;

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Fertilizers are a large source of soil and water pollution. Egyptian farmers use more than 1.8 million tons of fertilizers annually, mainly nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium;

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Egypt is an arid country prone to desertification with fragile ecosystems, soil degradation, massive changes in land use through urbanization, water scarcity and socio-economic pressures;

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Urbanization threatens agricultural land resources. Martial Decree No. 1/1996 intended to control urban sprawl over agricultural land. Other laws and regulations, such as Law 3/1982 organize the process of planning human settlements. Growing population puts pressures on available land;

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Due to increasing population about 80% of the old cultivated area is divided into farms less than 2ha (5 feddans). These areas are owned by individual farmers who have limited financial resources. This results in low efficiency management systems with low levels of technology. This situation represents one of the important limitations for improving traditional agricultural systems. Moreover, it increases the risks that farmers face to environmental (including climate change) and economic variations;

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Levels of agricultural knowledge, in terms of modern management applications and technologies, are very low in the old-lands. Also the available information systems in rural areas limit management development efforts.

All these barriers need local and foreign investments for their removal. Requested support for bridging the gaps Based on the identified barriers and gaps the support required is summarized as follows: 49

Policies There is a vital need for adapting and applying policies to tackle both anticipated shortage of water (with or without climate change). For example, rather than potable water, all future expansion of water users (industry, tourism, resorts, golf cities, remote areas in the north-west coast, Sinai peninsula, and the Red sea etc.) should go for alternative water resources such as desalinization of brackish or sea water or humidity harvesting. The limited water should be left for food production with the policy of developing high efficiency water delivery systems. Legislation Appropriate legislation should be adopted to maximize water productivity and restrict its utilization on the priorities according to sector and geographic location. International technical support The technical support required is mainly in capacity building in research institutions to carry out experiments and studies related to improving water use efficiency and breeding heat tolerant varieties of strategic crops. Climate change adaptation measurement Under Egyptian conditions, designing an adaptation strategy for agriculture should consider simple and lowcost adaptation measures, which may be inspired from traditional knowledge and meet local conditions and be compatible with sustainable development requirements. The following should enhance the planning for adaptation and mitigation strategies: 

Improve the scientific capacity;



Develop community-based measures by stakeholders' involvement in adaptation planning;



Improve adaptive capacity of communities;



Implement a nationwide project targeting improving on-farm irrigation systems in order to tackle the expected increase in pressures on water resources and the increased irrigation demands as the climate changes;



Ensure sustainable adaptation funds and climate hazards insurance systems are available. These are among the important cross cutting issues related to adaptation planning. Current scientific and social evidence reveals that there are strong needs to develop special fund programs for adaptation activities. The size of this fund and the local allocation of the program activities should be relative to the vulnerability levels of the local agricultural regions;



Establish a strong information dissemination system regarding climate change and its impacts on agriculture targeting all growers in order to assist them in developing their appropriate adaptation measures.

3.1.6 Recent activities and projects A list of recent activities and projects is shown in Table 2. Recent scientific observations concluded that the severity of some pests and diseases affecting strategic crops has increased in the last few decades (Abolmaaty, 2006). This increase in severity is mainly attributed to both climatic and socio-economic reasons. The impact of climate change on pests and diseases is studied only in limited scientific trials, but not yet well studied at the national level under Egyptian conditions. For example, severe outbreaks of tomato late blight (Phytophthora infestans) emerged in the last few years. In practice, such outbreaks are expected to lead the application of 2-4 additional sprays during the coming decades (Fahim, 2007). Furthermore, it is a challenge for potato late-blight research in the future to find a balance between public demands to reduce pesticide use while at the same time deal with the potential increase in pathogens as a result of climate change (Fahim et al, 2007). Furthermore, the possibility of emergence of foreign species is one of the high risks that may face agricultural production in the future. The vulnerability of livestock production to climate change could be attributed to the direct impact of temperature increase on animal health and production, the severity and spread of animal diseases, and 50

impact on fodders crops. This is not yet covered by scientific research in Egypt. Current evidence shows that increases in temperature imply higher harmful heat stress impacts on animal productivity (IPCC, 2007). The extent of the harmful effect of heat stress on animal production varies according to the animal, husbandry practices, and the animal‟s initial condition (Kadah et al, 2008).  Table 2 Recent activities and projects on climate change Preparing climate change vulnerability & adaptation in agriculture in the Egypt’s Self-assessment for the preparation of the Third National Communication to the UNFCCC. Coordinated the project of “Adaptation of Agriculture in European Regions at Environmental Risk under Climate Change” (ADAGIO), 2007-2009. Coordinating agriculture part of the project of MDGF-1675: “Climate Change Risk Management in Egypt”, 2009-2011. Coordinating the high committee of climate change in agriculture. Under the CCIC activities, identify and create the network of national and international information sources, finding partners with international climate change potential who might collaborate also in future programs. In addition, cross-cutting issues are being addressed by the Center through close collaboration with the projects aimed at implementation of other environmental conventions. Carrying out and publishing national and international more papers about vulnerability and adaptation of climate change on Irrigation water; crop production; farm net return; net return from water unit; optimize crop rotation to fulfil high profit under climate change conditions. (Abou Hadid 2006, Eid et al. 2006 a, b, El- Marsafawy et al. 2007, El- Marsafawy 2007 and El-Marsafawy and El-Samanody 2008). Submitted Climate Change Projects to STDF during 2010: Monitoring system of the Most Important Insect Pests Using Climatic data trends, Remote Sensing and GIS Based Approach (MSICRGA). Information Systems for Integrated Farm Management under climate change. Adaptation to climate change for some major field crops in Egypt. Studies the epidemics of the cereals disease severity under climate change in Determining & developing methodologies for agro-ecological zones in relation to the climate change in Egypt. Impact of climate change on deciduous fruits Early warning system for agriculture sector from weather disasters Recycling of agricultural wastes as a tool to climate change adaptation in Egypt. Development of sustainable food production strategies under climate change risks in less fertile soils in Egypt. Grant for (M.Sc. scholarship): improvement in wheat yield tolerance to climate change stress by adaptation strategies. Adaptation strategies to improve sunflower yield tolerance to climate change stress in Egypt. Integration of conventional and biotechnology tools to develop heat tolerant maize to cope with the expected climate change. Combat the effect of climatic change & desertification on cotton yield and quality. Breeding cotton plants tolerant to a biotic stress under the global climate changes. Submitted Climate Change Projects to ARDF during 2010: Climate Change and Sea-Water Intrusion in Relation to Soil Productivity in the Nile Delta. Integrated Management Of Salt-Affected Soils in Egypt. Data base for Egyptian Soils.

In recent decades new animal diseases have emerged in Egypt, and have strong negative impacts on livestock production. Blue tongue disease and Rift Valley Fever are emerging and are attributed to some observed changes in the Egyptian climate. The global and the regional distribution of diseases are projected to experience major changes under climate change conditions. Such changes are projected to increase the risks to animal health at the national and the local levels. The transfer of animal diseases to humans is another expected side effect of climate change. The availability of fodder is subject to decrease due to climate change impacts on crops productivity and the high competition on land and water resources between fodder crops and cereals and other food security crops. Egypt is almost totally dependent on berseem (clover) for livestock feed – a winter fodder crop which high water consumption. With expected water scarcity plus population pressure and the need to grow more 51

winter wheat, the country will, most probably, increase the wheat area at the expense of the area of berseem. Additionally, farm animals, especially buffalos, are high water consuming creatures; they are affected not only by the quantity but also by the quality of water. Insufficient work has been undertaken to assess either the vulnerability or adaptation of livestock to climate change. More than 80% of fish production in Egypt comes from aquaculture projects in the northern part of the Nile Delta. Aquaculture projects are generally fed with drainage water. A few aquaculture projects have recently been established in desert areas using groundwater. Although Egypt enjoys long Mediterranean and red sea coasts and an intensive network of canals and drains in addition to the River Nile and its two branches, fish catching fleets are not of a high standard and the fish industry as a whole is relatively primitive. Egypt produces about 93%, (SADS 2030, 2010) of present fish consumption, while imports form an important part of low-cost products mainly from China, Vietnam, and East Asia. Climate change is expected to increase sea temperatures causing fish distribution to shift northwards and to go into deeper waters. Aquaculture projects may suffer from water shortages due to the expected scarcity of fresh water. Increased temperatures may also impact the production of some fish species. Increased salinity of water in the coastal lakes may gradually reduce the existence of fresh water fish and increase the portion of saline water fish which is more sensitive to environmental changes and have a high price as well. This will negatively affect most of the coastal population who live almost completely on cheap fresh water fish. More studies are still needed to figure out the vulnerability of the fish sector and its possible adaptation options to climate change.

3.1.7 Funding opportunities About 97% of the cause of climate change is alleged to come from industrial countries such as the USA, China, and India. It is, therefore important to avoid the negative effects of climate change using the following measures; 1) to take adaptation measures to combat expected risks, 2) to include adaptation measures in the national policies and plans. In an effort to limit the negative effects of climate change, in conformity with the international effort, the present proposed plan is to enhance the Egyptian ability to take suitable action to deal with the issues of climate change and to lessen its social, economic, and political impact in a way that is consistent with the requirements of development. With this in mind, the plan to combat climate changes during the next 35 years may include the following objectives: 

To limit risks of climate change and combat its possible impacts using both mitigation and adaption programs;



To conserve natural and human resources and to ensure a reasonable standard of living for Egyptian citizens;



Enhance continuous development in Egypt to realize development objectives;



Enhance the structure and ability of national and regional institutions that are able to deal with climate change;



To provide suitable conditions that integrates national and international cooperation to deal with climate change.

During 2008-2011, UNDP launched Climate Change Risk Management Projects in Egypt with a budget of US$4 million. Local partners are the Ministry of State for Environmental Affairs (MSEA), Cabinet of Ministers, Ministry of Water Resources and Irrigation, and the Ministry of Agriculture. The European Commission (EC) has launched three research projects focusing on Climate Change th Impacts on Water and Security under the 7 Framework Programme for Research and Technological Development (FP7). 52

The EC has dedicated over €9 million to funding these projects involving 44 institutions from all over the world. The research consortium includes researchers from the Suez Canal University, Zagazig University, and the Environment & Climate Change Institute of the National Water Research Centre. Adaptation programs Adaptation concentrates on the infrastructure that will limit expected risk and improve the efficiency of natural resources management using observation, control, early warning and suitable technology systems. In addition to combatting risks, effort is needed to enhance people‟s abilities and provide, improve, and exchange information that will help to raise the general level of consciousness about climate change. It is important that such programs should be consistent with social and economic programs in a way that will encourage sustainable development and limit poverty. Planning and budgets It is expected that the plan will be executed during the period 2011-2035. It is suggested that the state will finance the plan according to its available fund. It is also expected that funding will come from other institutions such as UNEP, banks, national saving funds, Arab and regional development funds, and the private sector. It is also suggested that the plan may require an increase in government contribution by about 20% each year during the suggested plan period. Table 3 and Table 4 provide detailed activities, time table and budget by sector.  Table 3 Summary of budget and time table in the agriculture sector No.

Program

Finance (US $m)

Time table (year) 10-15

15-20

20-25

25-30

30-35

Observation and control of climate change in the agriculture

150

Land and Agriculture production

648

168.4

142.4

116.4

110.4

Farm Irrigation

2106

1033

1022

Socio-economic studies

Capacity building, enlightenment and training

Total finance required

2961

1296.4

1192.4

161.4

155.4

 Table 4 Summary of budget (International & National) No

Program

Finance (US $m) International

National

Total

Observation and control of climate change in agriculture

100

150

Land and agriculture

565

648

Farm irrigation

160

506

2106

Socio-economic studies

Capacity building, enlightenment and training

Total

2286

675

2961

3.1.8 Conclusions and recommendations Under the Egyptian conditions, designing an adaptation strategy for the agriculture sector should consider the simple and low-cost adaptation measures, which may be inspired from traditional knowledge, and meet local conditions and be compatible with sustainable development requirements. The following consideration could be included to enhance the planning of adaptation and mitigation strategies for agricultural sector under Egyptian conditions: 

Improve scientific capacity;



Use a bottom-up approach for adaptation planning;



Develop community-based measures with stakeholders' involved in adaptation planning;



Increase public awareness about climate change and its relationship with human systems;



Improve adaptive capacity of communities.

This model of Education, Training, and Public Awareness on Climate Change will certainly yield the desired results if it is implemented and monitored appropriately at every level – governorate; government; primary, middle and high schools; community; and individual. The priority actions for the agriculture sector to adapt to climate change can be summarized as follows: 

Conduct a national program for adapting the current cropping pattern and calendar to climate change. This program should include developing cultivars for major crops that will withstand increased temperatures, water stress, salinity, and plant pests and diseases. Dissemination of the results to farmers should be one of the important objectives of this program.



Implement a nationwide project targeting the improvement of on-farm irrigation systems – more crop per drop – in order to tackle the expected increase in water scarcity and the greater irrigation demands that are likely as the climate changes.



Secure sustainable adaptation funds and providing climate hazard insurance schemes. These are among the important cross-cutting issues related to adaptation planning. The current scientific and social evidence has revealed that there are strong needs to develop a special fund program for adaptation activities in the agriculture sector. The size of this fund and the local allocation of the program activities should be relative to the vulnerability levels of the local agricultural regions.



Establish a strong climate change information dissemination system and its impacts on agriculture targeting all growers in order to assist them in developing their appropriate adaptation measures.

References Abolmaaty SM (2006) Assessment of the impact of climate change on some rust diseases for wheat crop under Egyptian environmental conditions. PhD. Thesis, Fac. of Agric., Al-Azhar Univ., 117p. Abou-Hadid AF (2006) Assessment of impacts, adaptation and vulnerability to climate change in North Africa: Food production and water resources. A final report submitted to assessments of impacts and adaptations to climate change (AIACC), Project No. AF90. Abou-Hadid AF (2009) Climate change and the Egyptian agriculture conundrum, Proceeding of the Ninth International Conference of Dryland Development, “Sustainable Development in the Drylands- Meeting the challenges of global climate change”, 7-10 November 2008, Alexandria, Egypt (in press). Abu-Zeid M (1999) Egypt‟s water policy for the 21st century. 7th Nile 2002 Conference, March 15–19, Cairo, Egypt. Agoumi A (2001) Vulnerability studies on three North Africa countries (Algeria, Morocco and Tunisia) with respect to climatic changes, final report of UNEP-GEF project RAB94G31.

Agricultural Economic Research Institute (2001) Development of number of animals between 1990 & 2000. Ministry of Agriculture, April 2001. Agricultural Research and Development Council (ARDC), Sustainable Agricultural Development Strategy towards 2030 (2009). Alcamo J, van Vuuren D, Ringler C, Cramer W, Masui T, Alder J, Schulze K (2005) Ecol Society 10:19â&#x20AC;&#x201C;48. Andrew NR and Hughes L (2005) Diversity and assemblage structure of phytophagous Hemiptera along a latitudinal gradient: predicting the potential impacts of climate change. Global Ecol Biogeogr. 14:249-262. AOAD (2008) Agriculture development in Arab World. Annual report of the Arab Organization for Agricultural Development. Hoekman B and Djankov S (1997) Towards Free Trade Agreement with the European Union: Issues and Policy Options for Egypt, Working Paper No 10. The Egyptian Centre for Economic Studies, March. Bruinsma J, ed (2003) World Agriculture: Toward 2015-2030, A Food and Agriculture Organization Perspective (Earthscan, London). Council for Agricultural Science and Technology (2006) Convergence of agriculture and energy: Implications for Research and Policy CAST Commentary QTA 2006-3 (Ames, Iowa: CAST) (www.castscience.org). Eid HM, El-Marsafawy SM and Ouda SA (2006a) Assessing the economic impact of climate change on Agriculture in Egypt: A Ricardian approach. CEEPA Discussion Paper No. 16. Special Series on Climate Change and Agriculture in Africa, July 2006. Eid HM, El-Marsafawy SM and Ouda SA (2006b) Assessing the impact of climate change on crop water needs in Egypt: The CROPWAT analysis of three districts in Egypt. CEEPA Discussion Paper No. 29. Special Series on Climate Change and Agriculture in Africa, July. El-Marsafawy SM, Ibrahim MAM and Ainer NG (2007) Vulnerability and adaptation studies on sugarcane crop in Egypt under climate change conditions and their effects on farm net return. Annals of Agric. Sci. Moshtohor, Vol. 45 (2). Fahim MA, Medany MA, Aly HA and Fahim MM (2007) Effect of the Climate Change on the Widespread and Epidemics of Potato and Tomato Late Blight Disease under the Egyptian Conditions. Ph.D. Thesis, Cairo Univ., Cairo, Egypt, 177 pp. FAO (2008) Climate change adaptation and mitigation: challenges and opportunities for food security, Information document HLC/08/INF/2, High-Level Conference on World Food Security: the Challenges of Climate Change and Bioenergy, 3-5 June 2008, Rome, Italy. Gan J (2004) Risk and damage of southern pine beetle outbreaks under global climate change. Forest Ecol. Manag., 191, 61-71. Kutcher GP, Meeraus A and Oâ&#x20AC;&#x;Mara GT (1986) Agricultural Modeling for Policy Analysis. The World Bank, Washington, DC. October. Hagler R (1998) The global timber supply/demand balance to 2030: has the equation changed? AMultiClient Study by Wood Resources International, Reston, VA, 206 pp. Harrington RR, Fleming IP and W Ooiwood W (2001) Climate change impacts on insect management and conservation in temperate regions: can they be predicted? Agricultural and Forest Entomology 3:233-240. Harrison M (2005) The development of seasonal and inter-annual climate forecasting. Climatic Change, 70, 210-220. 55

Hassanien MK and Medany MA (2007) The Impact of Climate Change on Production of Maize (Zea Mays L.), Proc. of the international conference on "climate change and their impacts on costal zones and River Deltas", Alexandria-Egypt, 23-25 April. IPCC (2007) Climate Change 2007: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability. Contribution of Working Group II to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, 1000pp. Kadah MS, Medany MA, Hassanein MK and Abou Hadid AF (2008) Determining the quantity of emitted methane from the Egyptian livestock. Sustainable Development In Dry Lands – Meeting The Challenge Of Global Climate Change, 7-10 November, Alexandria, Egypt. Karnosky DF (2003) Impact of elevated atmospheric CO2 on forest trees and forest ecosystems: knowledge gaps. Environ. Int., 29, 161-169. Kaukoranta T (1996) Impact of global warming on potato late blight: risk, yield loss, and control. Agric. Food Sci. Finl. 5:311-327. Cassman KG (2007) Climate change, biofuels, and global food security. Environ. Res. Lett. 2 (3pp). Lobell DB and Field CB (2007) Global scale climate-crop yield relationships and the impacts of recent warming Environ. Res. Lett. 2 014002. Long SP, Ainsworth EA, Leakey J, Nosberger J and Ort DR (2006) Food for thought: lower expected crop yield stimulation with rising CO2 concentrations. Science, 312, 1918-1921. Mader TL and Davis MS (2004) Effect of management strategies on reducing heat stress of feedlot cattle: feed and water intake. J. Anim. Sci., 82, 3077-3087. Mendelsohn R and Dinar A (1999) Climate change, agriculture, and developing countries: Does adaptation matter? The World Bank Research Observer 14: 277–293. Khalifa M (2003) Science and Technology Strategies for Improving Agricultural Productivity and Food Security in North Africa. Agricultural Research Centre, January. Morgan I, McDonald DG and Wood CM (2001) The cost of living for freshwater fish in a warmer, more polluted world. Glob. Change Biol., 7, 345-355. Reilly J and Schimmelpfennig D (1999) Agricultural impact assessment, vulnerability, and the scope for adaptation. Climatic Change 43: 745–788. Reilly J and D Schimmelpfennig (1999) Agricultural impact assessment, vulnerability, and the scope for adaptation. Climatic Change 43: 745–788. Rosenzweig C and Parry ML (1994) Potential impact of climate change on world food supply. Nature 367,133-138. Nassaar S and Salama O (1994) A Follow up Study of the Implementation and Impact of Structural Adjustment Programs in Egypt. Nassar S (1999) Food security in Egypt Under Economic Liberalization Policies, Agricultural Research Center, August. SADS (2009) Sustainable Agricultural Development Strategy, Arab Republic of Egypt, Ministry of st Agriculture and Land Reclamation, October 2009. 1 addition, PP 197. Salinger MJ, Sivakumar MVK and Motha R (2005) Reducing vulnerability of agriculture and forestry to climate variability and change: workshop summary and recommendations. Climatic Change, 70, 341-362. 56

Shelton AM, Wilsey WR and Soderlund DM (2001) Classification of insecticides Singh R, Hales S, deWet N, Raj R, Hearnden M, Weinstein P (2001) Environ Health Perspect 109:55–59. Stivers L (1999). Crop Profile for Corn http://pestdata.ncsu.edu/ropprofiles/docs/nycorn-sweet.html

(sweet)

New

York.

Tubiello FN (2005) in Impact of Climate Change, Variability and Weather Fluctuations on Crops and Their Produce Markets, ed Knight B (Impact Reports, Cambridge, UK), pp 70–73. Tubiello FN, Fischer G (2007) Tech Forecasting Social Change 74:1030–1056. World Bank Report (2007) Assessing the Impact of Climate on Crop Water Needs in Egypt. Global Environment Facility. Policy Research Working Paper, World Bank. WPS4293. 35 pp. Acronyms APD

Authority of Popular Development

ARC

Agricultural Research Centre, Egypt

ARDC

Agricultural Research and Development Council

ARE

Arab Republic of Egypt

CCIC

Climate Change Information Centre, ARC, Egypt

CDAs

Community Development Associations

CDM

Clean Development Mechanism

CGIAR

Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research

EGP

Egyptian Pound

FAO

Food and Agriculture Organization

IFAD

International Fund for Agricultural Development

IPCC

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change

MALR

Ministry of Agriculture and Land Reclamation

MISR

Municipal Initiatives for Strategic Recovery

MLD

Ministry of Local Development

MSA

Ministry of Social Affairs

MSS

The Ministry of Social Solidarity

MWRI

Ministry of Water Resources and Irrigation

NGO

Non-governmental Organization

NPI

National Planning Institute

ORDEV

The organization of reconstruction and development of Egyptian Village

ORIPC

Organization of Rural Industries and Productive Cooperation

Rural Development

SADS

Sustainable Agricultural Development Strategy

SAP

Structural Adjustment Program

UNFCCC

UN Framework Convention on Climate Change

World Bank

3.2

Jordan country paper

Author: Malek Mahadeen, Ministry of Agriculture

3.2.1 Introduction Jordan is on the front line in the regional fight to find innovative solutions for the problems of water scarcity. It is a semi-arid country with approximately 7% arable land with limited natural resources. It is ranked among the poorest countries in the world in terms of water availability. The current per capita availability is 3 only 1,453m /year. Surface water resources are limited, groundwater is rapidly being exploited, and there is a lack of finance to desalination. Jordan and many Arab countries suffer from reduced agricultural productivity due to erratic rainfall patterns, reduced freshwater resources, and increased temperatures. About 85% of Jordan total area is desert. The rainy season is from October to April (MOA, 2009). Climate change has already caused a 30% reduction in the Kingdom's surface water resources as well as a decrease in rainfall and agricultural production. As a result, numerous streams have dried out, underground water levels have fallen to critical levels, and most aquifers are experiencing high concentrations of Total Dissolved Solids (TDS), which makes them unsuitable for domestic or irrigation uses (Moshrik et al, 2009). If climate change continues at its current pace the Kingdom is expected to witness a 1-2°C increase in temperature by 2030-2050, resulting in diminished aquifers and oases; reduced green cover; and the transformation of semi-arid lands, about 80% of the country's total area, into arid deserts (Namrouqa, 2009a) . Heat waves are becoming more frequent in the region and in Jordan. Agriculture in Jordan is characterized by a severe scarcity of land and water and fragmentation of land holdings. Even within the limited available land there has been a decreasing trend in the land used for cereals and the land under field crops has fallen steadily (over 32% between 1992-2001). The impact of climate change on agriculture, livestock and food sources are: 

Reduced agricultural production;



Changes in the geographical distribution of agricultural crops;



Increased desertification;



Increased demand for water due to rising temperatures;



Social and economic effects associated with climate change;



Reduced possibility of cultivating marginal areas.

Jordan‟s population is about 6 million (in 2010) and is rising at 2.8% each year. Other socio-economic issues include poverty, weak institutions, a lack of enabling policies to manage unsustainable resource use, unemployment, and rural out-migration (Solh ,2010). Climate change will put the livelihoods of large numbers of rural poor at risk and increase their vulnerability to food insecurity. Jordan‟s agricultural sector has a direct contribution of 3% to GDP and an indirect contribution of 27%. It is the main source of income for about 15% of the population, some 73,000 workers, which is 6% of the total work force (MOA, 2009).

3.2.2 Awareness on climate change Public Awareness Everywhere in the dry areas, there are concerns about increasing water scarcity and its implications for food security, especially with the rising spectre of climate change. But in Jordan public opinion does not seem to be very interested in climate change. Society is more sensitized to more immediate environmental issues affecting their daily lives such as air and water pollution, solid wastes, and water shortages (Haering, 2008). 58

Jordan government The Ministry of Agriculture are aware of the problems. They have been applying the National Strategy for Agricultural Development (2002-2010) which acknowledges the need for sustainable agricultural development and food security in the face of climate change. The main objective of the strategy is to diversify and improve rural livelihoods by improving access to available technology and resources for rural populations. In February 2009 the government, led by the Ministry of Agriculture, developed a framework for food security for Jordan but unfortunately other governmental agencies failed to address the lack of proper policies and research needs to document the potential impacts of climate change. Decision-makers and planners Decision-makers and planners are dealing with many interrelated issues when they address the potential impacts of global warming and land degradation. Adapting dry land farming systems to address these issues will require fresh approaches related to new policies and governance, research, and technological tools (Taimeh, 2010). Jordan Biogas Company in Ruseifa An important step is being made by industry to alleviate the growth in greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. The Jordan Biogas Company is currently negotiating with the government of Finland to sell biogas generated from the Ruseifa landfill. The plant reduces methane emissions by utilizing solid waste for generating electricity and producing organic fertilizers. This is the kind of innovation that can be sold in the global carbon market with an average of €7.5 per ton of carbon reduced (Wardam, 2009a). Aqaba Marine Park and fishers’ awareness The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) predicts a rise in sea temperature between 1.4ºC and 5.8ºC by the end of the century which will affect the fishing activity in Aqaba. The impact on marine biodiversity and fisheries is going to be huge and so Jordan must act to adapt fisheries management and conservation policies to minimize harm to marine life using knowledge to improve the design of marine protected areas which are prone to changes in distribution of fish species. There are also environmental concerns about the Aqaba Marine Park (Helke, 2009). According to the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, silt from development projects churned up from the sea bed covers coral formations, preventing sunlight and oxygen from reaching these delicate structures while chemical pollution such as sewage from boats and ships poison coral polyps (Helke, 2009). Forests, pastoralists, and herders The government has strategies to protect natural and cultural heritage which conserve biodiversity and wild life. This is designed to protect sites against erosion and environmental degradation in order to conserve water resources and maintain the stability of farming, pastoral, and forest communities. But until now forest and range reserves are less than 1% of the total area of the country, registered forestlands are only 132,000 ha (1.32 million donums) and range reserves are only 69,000 ha (690,000 donums). Research institutions and the media National universities and several institutions, such as the Royal Scientific Association and the Jordanian Association for Environment Protection, have started to focus their interests on climate change. Also the national Jordanian TV station shows how climate change can impact on Jordan and food security. 59

The Ministry of Agriculture cooperate with Jordanian TV and academic institutions to solve the problem of inadequate extension services by reviewing the current state of extension systems in Jordan at both national and regional levels, including mandate, policy organizational structure, resources, relationships with agricultural research stations and other services providers, and how to provide comprehensive extension services (agricultural, social, educational, health) utilizing multi-faceted communications strategies using traditional and non-traditional media to disseminate information throughout the country.

3.2.3 National vision, policies, and strategies Kyoto Protocol Jordan signed up to the Kyoto Protocol in 2001. Jordan contributes a mere 0.1% of GHG emissions and maintains a strong commitment to the objectives developed by the international community for the integrated environmental and economic response to the threat of climate change. Carbon trading is potentially a big opportunity for Jordan. The Kingdom have just registered and certified its first carbon trade project allowing the sale of US$21 million in carbon credits. The Ministry of Agriculture applies the National Strategy for Agricultural Development (NSAD) (2002-2010) and the new NSAD (2011-2020) focusing on the need for sustainable agricultural development and achieving food security. The developed framework for food security for Jordan and the vision of the framework began in February 2009. Energy issues At the heart of Jordanian environmental agenda and climate change mitigation measures lies the issue of energy, which is considered both a challenge and an opportunity. Jordan is currently undergoing a paradigm shift in terms of energy policy planning. It has recently developed its modified national energy strategy (2008-2020) through a national committee established by a Royal Decree. The strategy provides for a robust package of legislative, administrative, and technological innovations to steer the country into more reliable, sustainable, and environmentally friendly energy resources. In the new strategy the share of renewable energy resources will be increased from 1% to 10% by 2020. There are however, several barriers to the installation of commercially feasible renewable energy. Regulatory and legislative barriers can be removed by the new energy law, but technical barriers will prove to be more difficult as they entail huge investments and know-how to upload renewable energy to the existing national electricity grid. The strategy includes many recommendations on energy conservation and the government has also established a new Energy Fund to support infrastructure development of new renewable energy facilities. The government is also seeking to provide tax incentives to remove barriers for the comprehensive use of energy efficient and renewable energy technologies. Government programs, policy, and strategy Jordan‟s approach to mitigating and adapting to climate change includes: 

Conducting studies and research to determine the extent of climate change in Jordan and to develop effective plans to deal with its effects;



Improved land use planning;



Legislative action to protect what remains of farmland;



Allocation of rangeland pastures incorporated in development plans;



Selection and use of appropriate plant varieties for drought conditions;



Prepare crisis plan for forestation of lands prone to erosion and degradation;



Development and implementation of environmentally sustainable development programs;



Speeding up the establishment of natural reserves;



Protecting nature within the context of social and economic development. 60

One of main objectives of Jordanian policies is to face the effects of climate change and to maximize the use of available water through water conservation, modification of allocation schemes to respond to growing needs for clean and sustainable drinking water, and the substitution of fresh water with reclaimed water for agriculture. Jordan is currently undergoing a comprehensive assessment and planning process to enhance the adaptive capacity of the water sector to the potential impacts of climate change with the cooperation of local associations and some NGOs. Priority actions and choices will be developed within the context of integrated water resource management and will focus on providing adequate water to meet the Millennium Development Goals and national water and environment objectives. Long-term solutions for water scarcity will have to be crafted from the most daring and unconventional sources. Jordan‟s landmark project is the water conveyor from the Red Sea to the Dead Sea. The water resulting from the desalination process will be used for the restoration of the water level in the Dead Sea which is subject to rapid reduction. This project is currently subject to an extensive environmental and social feasibility study that will determine the most environmentally suitable guidelines for implementation (Wardam, 2009b). Jordan is also taking steps to address the impact of climate change on marine biodiversity and fisheries and improve the design of marine protected areas in Aqaba. Jordan government also plans to: 



Develop methodologies and tools for development and dissemination to assess the effects of climate change and vulnerability: o

Develop new scenarios for monitoring and managing climate change by cooperating with the international community and non-governmental organisations;

Exchange climate information and data that can be used for monitoring, analysis, and evaluation of climate change trends and drought distribution expectations;

Establish monitoring networks to follow up the impacts of climate change and to develop appropriate plans to address the negative effects.

Improve planning to mitigate the effects of climate change, implement measures and actions and integrate them into sustainable development: o

Spread renewable energy usage (solar and wind energy) and improve the efficiency of conventional energy sources use (fossil fuels);

Develop methodologies for the preparation of integrated management for sustainable land expansion while sustaining the environment:

Develop farmers‟ guidance and awareness and provide technical and financial support which can motivate the application of appropriate agricultural practices.



Understand, develop, and disseminate measures, methodologies, and tools to achieve economic diversity;



Develop varieties of cereals and genotypes of different crop species characterized by high water use efficiency, drought and high temperature tolerance, and a high efficiency in the use of high concentration of CO2;



Support programs geared towards education and improvement in animal production; particularly sheep, goats, and camels; so as to raise the value of revenue from animal production.

The following is a list of identified prioritized interventions which will accelerate solutions for food security: 



Evidence-based policy and good governance: o

Evidence-based planning and implementation;

Systematic monitoring and evaluation.

Improved incomes for the poor: 61



Income generation for rural families;

Credit funds in local communities;

Productive families programs;

Training and employment of unemployed in disadvantage areas.

Agricultural support programs: o

Distribute seeds, tools, saplings, and fertilizers;

Support for small farmers (social security, emergency support, health insurance);

Enhance agricultural sector productivity and improve market opportunities (improve agricultural production and agricultural products manufacturing and marketing);

Create and promote diversified livelihoods opportunities on and off-farm by adding value to basic food products eg food processing.



Land rehabilitation and restoration;



Building capacity of agricultural institutions and organizations;



Human resources development and retention in agriculture;



Building community food security; rural food security; increase self–reliance of individuals, households, neighbourhoods, communities in the food system;



Local community development – poverty alleviation through local community development.

3.2.4 Institutional arrangements Jordan ratified the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) in 1993 and the Ministry of Environment became the national focal point for climate change. nd

In 2008 Jordan began preparations for its 2 National Communications (SNC). The first draft was prepared and edited by a group of national and international experts and the final version was officially launched in July 2009. The partnership between the Ministry of Environment as the national executing agency and UNDP has been vital in the successful management and execution of the SNC project. The national efforts during the SNC process were highly supported by the National Communications Support Programme (NCSP) technical assistance through on-line support, provision of guidance and technical materials and reviews of SNC studies and reports. NCSP‟s invaluable support was instrumental in resolving technical and methodological difficulties. Furthermore, NCSP‟s technical review, especially those on vulnerability and adaptation, contributed significantly to improving the final document. The German Federal Ministry of Education and Research (BMBF) launched the Globalen Wandel des Wasserkreislauf or Global Change of the Water Cycle (GLOWA) program. GLOWA focuses on the problem of water availability. The aim is to develop simulation tools and instruments which will enable the development of strategies for sustainable and future-oriented water management at a regional level while taking into account global environmental changes and the socio-economic framework conditions. The GLOWA project is tackling the following scientific core themes in an interdisciplinary and integrative research approach – natural variability of rainfall; variations caused by human activities and their effect on the hydrological circle; interactions between the hydrological cycle, the biosphere and land use; water 7 availability and conflicting water uses . In July 2009 UNDP, in cooperation with the Ministry of Agriculture, led the coordination of key government institutions in food security and as a result it led to the establishment of the High Level National Committee on Food Security. This joint program will be implemented at national and local levels. UN agencies participating in the program include UNDP, FAO, UNICEF, UNIDO, and WEF. Each agency is engaged in implementing designated activities and is collaborating with both government agencies and NGOs. 7

GLOWA, Jordan River Part 2 , Environmental Field Center,2010. http://www.pal-efc.org/english/glowa.htm 62

The Ministry of Agriculture also cooperates with the Ministry of Interior to accelerate solutions to land zoning problems by enforcing proper legislation pertinent to land use and preservation and formulating the National Drought Mitigation Strategy. The cooperation includes the study of the lack of relevant food security legislation and enforcement and the passing and enforcing of laws on land use and preservation and an inventory of farmland legislation; formulating and passing laws on the use of national resources in the production of seeds, permissions to use saline water, and formulating and passing laws on wholesale agriculture markets. The Jordan Institute works to implement significant climate change solutions by reducing energy use in buildings. The institutions that cooperate with this objective are the Ministry of Water and Irrigation, the Water Authority, the Ministry of Agriculture, the Ministry of Environment, and the Ministry of Health with cooperation from several NGOs. Jordanian institutions that cooperate to accelerate solutions for food security are the Ministry of Agriculture, Ministry of Water and Irrigation, and the Ministry of Municipal Affairs. They address issues such as improving water productivity (irrigation, drainage, and water storage), enhancing the use of wastewater in agriculture, preparing the national strategy for water harvesting and increasing it in poverty stricken areas, and utilizing suitable areas in the Jordanian Badia. The Ministry of Agriculture, in cooperation with Chamber of Commerce and the Ministry of Social Development, also study the limited private sector investment and partnerships in agriculture and food production.

3.2.5 Technical knowledge Three mathematical models are used to predict future changes in climate during the period 2005-2050 namely: 

CSIROMK3: Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organization (CSIRO) Model, Australia;



ECHAM5OM: The 5th generation of the ECHAM general circulation model, Max Planck Institute for Meteorology, Germany; and



HADGEM1: Hadley Centre Global Climate Model, UK.

The World Health Organization (WHO) supported studies in Irbid and Amman and reported increasing water scarcity and inadequate domestic water supplies with serious implications for drinking water quality. Half of Amman‟s population is in the low-income group and uses less than 50 litres per capita per day. Localized outbreaks of water-borne diseases have been reported. The study also found that decreasing water availability for agriculture has led to increased use of treated wastewater in food production and as a result consumers are now experiencing the additional burden of water-borne diseases. Changes in rainfall patterns induced by climate change will further push rain-fed cropping towards irrigated agriculture. The Royal Society for the Conservation of Nature in partnership with a wide spectrum of national and local agencies from government and non-government sectors are implementing this pioneering project based on the Integrated Ecosystem Management Approach as a new national model for Biodiversity Conservation which links to Sustainable Community-Based Development. This 6-year project started in July 2007 with the overall objective of applying the principles of integrated ecosystem management to the existing land use master plan of the Jordan Rift Valley and establishing a network of well managed protected areas that meet local ecological, social, and economic needs. Five strategic results and outcomes are anticipated from this project: 

Consultative planning and management procedures involving all relevant stakeholders and based on Integrated Environmental Management (IEM) principles, successfully introduced to the Rift Valley to support the conservation of key biodiversity sites;



A network of four Protected Areas (PAs) and seven Special Conservation Areas (SCAs) in the Rift Valley legally established and operating as models of IEM principles to support biodiversity conservation;



Elements for „climate proofing‟ biodiversity conservation within PAs and SCAs introduced into the conservation planning and implementation stages of the project; 63



Sustainable financing mechanisms for PAs strengthened through increased capitalization of US$2 million for an endowment fund, and adoption of economically viable, nature-based livelihood options by local communities in PAs and SCAs;



Project managed successfully and development objectives achieved through an effective monitoring program.

One of the main components of the project is designed to address the impact of climate change on biodiversity. This pilot exercise at the national level is based on the fact that there is very high confidence that climate change is already affecting living systems. The responses of both fauna and flora span an array of ecosystems and organizational hierarchies from species to community levels. Jordan has a lot of agencies working together with Jordanian institutions on climate change and food security. Several projects and studies are now gaining more knowledge for national technicians and experts. The main gaps that need to be filled in order to enhance knowledge include: 

Capacity building;



Information about climate change in order to increase the awareness at local levels;



Studies which deal with climate change and its impact on food security;



Support to finance studies and projects about climate change to give clear ideas about the problems facing Jordan.

The fishers in Aqaba have a responsible attitude towards their environment. They keep the beaches clean which means removing trash carried by the wind into the water and onto the reefs, oil slicks, pesticides and other chemicals, and heavy metals. Farmers too are beginning to change their habits. Some have chosen other kinds of agricultural production that are more in keeping with the resource base. Pastoralists are also changing their habits. Herders have started to plant and produce the feed for their livestock and they raise the prices of meat and milk in order to profitably feed their animals. They are also increasing the numbers of goats instead of sheep that can live better with the harsh conditions.

3.2.6 Recent activities and projects Water resources and irrigation In 2011 an inception workshop was held to pilot climate change adaptation to protect human health through safe use of treated wastewater. This involved the Ministry of Health, World Health Organization (WHO), UNDP, GEF and the Ministry of Agriculture. WHO supports the drinking water quality management system and together with the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) supports safe wastewater use for agriculture. WHO and UNDP have jointly developed the Special Climate Change Fund (SCCF) and now support “Adaptation to Protect Health” project which began in 2007. FAO supports efficient use of water in farming and the development of Jordan‟s national drought mitigation strategy. United Nations University (UNU) has established a Centre for Education for Sustainable Development, which will focus on water awareness-raising and water education for all concerned stakeholders. The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) and UNDP are strengthening the national capacity for Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM). UNDP supports the development of SNC (vulnerability and adaptation assessment findings will feed directly into the joint program outputs), and supports the localization of MDGs in Zarqa Governorate. Moreover, this program 64

complements efforts by the Spanish Agency for International Cooperation to build the national capacity to restore Zarqa River Basin. The United Nations Development Assistance Framework (UNDAF) (2008-2012) addresses four key related challenges to sustain progress towards the MDGs, which include: 

Water scarcity;



Drinking water supply security and quality;



Health, agriculture, and food production vulnerability to climate change; and



Vulnerability of local biodiversity to climate change.

The proposed joint program will strengthen the United Nations Country Team‟s (UNCT) efforts to achieve the UNDAF outcome of a healthy and sustainable environment. This joint program has a comparative advantage by addressing the gaps and barriers to adaptation vis à vis other investments in water and wastewater. Forests and rangelands Recent activities to increase the area of forest and range reserves include: 

Improving the infrastructure for the forestry sector to ensure the optimal protection of forests;



Implementing water harvesting and establishing protected pastoral areas;



Activating the forest resources and pastures protection legislation;



Implementing afforestation projects and establishing an information system on forest resources.

Fisheries and aquaculture The Director of the Royal Marine Conservation Society of Jordan called on members of the public using harbours and participating in water sports to be more responsible towards the environment to keep beaches clean and ultimately prevent trash from being carried by the wind into the water and onto the reefs. Oil slicks, pesticides, and other chemicals, heavy metals and garbage still affect Aqaba‟s waters. Animal production and health Priorities for improving animal production and health include: 

Increased domestic production of grain crops, fodder, and seed production;



Improved veterinary sector and livestock products marketing;



Better procedures for monitoring and surveys of animal diseases and improved veterinary quarantine efficiency;



Capacity building;



More financial independence for the livestock services sector.

Plant production and protection Priorities for improving plant production and protection include: 

Support for the agricultural and horticultural sectors;



Agricultural development at the provincial level and improved quality of services to farmers;



Organization and development of agricultural marketing;



The development of agricultural research and extension to keep pace with the developments and the requirements of the prevailing circumstances;



Support the programs for the Agricultural Credit Corporation to achieve rural development and reduce the problems of poverty and unemployment; 65



Build capacity and raise the efficiency of agricultural labour;



Strengthen cooperation between all relevant authorities in the agricultural sector;



Capacity building support for the private sector and encourage the establishment of farmer organizations.

Food security Priorities for improving food security include: 

Improve household food security to help eliminate rural poverty;



Implement agricultural projects to enhance the quality of horticultural and veterinary products to diversify poor families' income sources;



Rehabilitate target groups to manage productive projects;



Broaden the base of beneficiary groups and production projects within the Agricultural Credit Corporation programs.

3.2.7 Funding opportunities The Ministry of Finance, Ministry of Planning and International Cooperation, and the Ministry of Social Development are to strengthen and support revolving funds aimed at improving productive capacities of poor households and their organizations, such as cooperatives and NGOs, especially in rural areas. They will also try to simplify and ease funding procedures including collaterals. The Ministry of Environment has launched a US$4.3 million program to develop the Kingdom's adaptation to climate change and sustain its Millennium Development Goal (MDG) achievements. The program, financed by the UNDP-Spain MDG Achievement Fund, seeks to identify loopholes in the country's climate change adaptation process and assess the phenomenon's direct and indirect effects on health, nutrition, and human security. A 3-year programme is being implemented by the WHO, UNESCO, UNDP and FAO (Namrouqa, 2009b) to help Jordan achieve the UN‟s Millennium Development Goals by 2015. UN agencies, UNDP, WEF and UNICIF, have funds to start a food security program. UNIDO and FAO are also involved but they do not have the funds to begin immediately. The private sector is also making a great effort to reduce poverty by establishing agricultural projects together with technologies that reduce the amount of water used for irrigation. The Ministry of Agriculture and the Ministry of Finance together plan to increase the budget allocation for food security and agricultural projects within the framework of the national budget for rural areas. Studies will soon commence on economic and environment-friendly projects to cut down GHG emissions estimated at 20 million tons annually. Coordination is currently on-going with Kuwait Fund for Arab Economic Development regarding the establishment of a US$100 million fund for the Islamic countries in order to provide basic food commodities and to contribute to the increase in production of agricultural crops which will be announced in the event of such a mechanism being approved by the Kuwait Council of Ministers. FAO is currently supporting the Ministry of Agriculture to establish an effective and efficient information system that will support agricultural development and ensure food security in Jordan based on the needs and demands of its stakeholders. The World Bank is financing the Regional Coordination on Improved Water resources Management and Capacity Building Project – Global Environment Facility of US$105 million for hardware, software, and technical assistance required for the optimized use of satellite remote sensing and earth observation tools to improve water resources, agriculture and environmental management.

3.2.8 Conclusions and recommendations Climate change and global warming are already impacting on life and food security in Jordan. The country is trying to face all the potential negative effects of this but needs outside assistance. Jordan needs to undertake more studies to properly assess the impacts of climate change on food security in order to have a clearer idea about the situation and what needs to be done.

References FAO (2008) Climate change and food security: a framework document. Hasanean HM (2001) Fluctuations of surface temperature in the east Mediterranean. Theor. Applied Climatol., 68: 75-87. DOI: 10.1007/s007040170055. Haering MA (2008) Vulnerability of Irrigated Agriculture due to Climate Change in the Southern Jordan river Basin . Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Master in Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM), Faculty of Graduate Studies, University of Jordan .Amman , Jordan. http://www.scipub.org/fulltext/ajes/ajes2384-91.pdf Hamdi MR, Abu-Allaban M, Al-Shayeb A, Jaber M and Momani NM (2009) Climate Change in Jordan: A Comprehensive Examination Approach. American Journal of Environmental Sciences .vol.5 (1), Page: 5868 Helke SL (2009) Aqaba sea life hurting from Global Warming and Pollution. Arab Environment watch. http://www.arabenvironment.net/archive/2009/6/896686.html Ministry of Agriculture (2009) Annual Report. Oweis T (2010) Achieving more crop per drop in a changing environment. International Conference on Food Security and Climate Change in Dry Areas, 1-4 Feb. Amman, Jordan Namrouqa H (2009a) Jordan to carry out Studies for new projects to cut greenhouse gas emissions. Arab Environment Watch. http://www.arabenvironment.net/archive/2009/12/990813.html Namrouqa H (2009b) Jordan to implement $4.3 milion programme to enhance adaptation to climate change. Arab Environment watch. http://www.arabenvironment.net/archive/2009/12/991464.html Smadi MM and Zghoul A (2006) A sudden change in rainfall characteristics in Amman, Jordan during the mid 1950s. Am. J. Environ. Sci., 2: 84-91. Solh M (2010) Ensuring Food Security in a Changing Climate : How can Science and Technology help?. International Conference on Food Security and Climate Change in Dry Areas. 1-4 Feb 2010 . Amman, Jordan. Taimeh A (2010) Rethinking Agricultural Development of Dry Lands : Challenges of Climate Change. International Conference on Food Security and Climate Change in Dry Areas, 1-4 Feb.,2010 . Amman, Jordan. Tubiello FN, Soussana JF, and Howden SN (2007) Crop and Pasture Response to Climate Change. Goddard Institute for Space Studies, Columbia University. Wardam B (2009a) Jordan and http://www.jordanwatch.net/archive/2009/5/883737.html

Climate

Change.

Jordan

Wardam B (2009b) Jordan's minister of Environment blogs about Climate Change http://www.jordanwatch.net/archive/2009/5/883737.html

watch.

. Jordan watch.

3.3

Lebanon country paper

Author: Dr Salah Hajj Hassan

3.3.1 Introduction 2

Lebanon has a land area of 10,452 km , a population of just over 4 million with 85% living in urban areas, mainly along the coast, and a GDP of US$42,000 million. It imports (US$11,815 million) more than it exports (US$2,816 million). There are 158,500 agricultural holdings in excess of 0.1ha. Over 90% are owned by men who utilize 94% of the agricultural land. Lebanon has hot, dry summers and cool, wet winters. The average annual rainfall varies across Lebanon‟s regions from 150 mm to 1,600 mm. In Lebanon, 224,000 ha is actively cultivated and 114,000 ha (51%) is irrigated (Figure 2). Some 46% of cultivated land is in the Bekaa Valley and 57% of this is irrigated (Figure 3). About half the irrigated area relies on water from wells (Figure 4) and 48% of irrigated land is flood irrigated (Figure 5). Some 37% of the cultivated area is used to grow annual crops and 38% is used for fruit trees (Figure 6). Animal production comprises 68,000 cattle, 367,400 goats and 236,000 sheep. 9%

11%

Bekaa 46%

North

23%

South and Nabatieh Mount Lebanon

 Figure 2 Distribution of cultivated agricultural area

Bekaa

8% 15%

North 57%

20%

South and Nabatieh Mount Lebanon

 Figure 3 Distribution of irrigated area

10%

wells (deap water) 50%

40%

rivers (surface water) dams, ponds, reservoirs

 Figure 4 Distribution of water sources

25% surface irrigation sprinklers drip irrigation

48% 27%

 Figure 5 Distribution of irrigated area following irrigation methods

5% 19%

37%

38%

Annual crops greenhouses fruit trees uncultivated area

 Figure 6 Distribution of agricultural production

3.3.2 Awareness on climate change Major impacts Climate change is expected to impact natural resources such as water quantity and quality, forests, biodiversity, and fisheries. It may result in torrential flooding, desertification, soil degradation, loss of ecosystems, loss of land, and salt water intrusion. Major sources of pollution In Lebanon, there are many sources of pollution – car emissions, factory waste, and landfill. Some 1.3 million cars for 4 million people (1 car/3 people) are producing 185g/km of GHG emissions in addition to electricity generators and a cement factory. Indeed, waste landfill (solid wastes and agricultural waste) are producing large quantity of methane gas. Lebanon produces 0.07% of global greenhouse gas emissions while the rest of the Arab countries produce 5%. Lebanon can expect negative impacts from GHGs. For some years now Lebanon has been experiencing extremes in climate which may be the result of climate change. Climate analysis Climate analysis indicates that climate change will produce hot, dry springs with lower mean annual rainfall which will impact groundwater resources and increase irrigation costs.

140

total precipitation (mm) Average temperature (ºc) 52 7.94

2009

27.6

11.37

2010

9.15

2011

 Figure 7 Rainfall and average temperatures over past three years for March in Central Bekaa

Some indicators of climate change Forest trees: fires destroyed 1.2 million trees. The loss is about 25% of the total area. Pine trees: (Thaumetopoea) on pine trees: winter 2009-2010 (relatively warm winter), insect attack at 1500 m elevation. Changes in plant host on Fruit trees and cedars. Cedars: Cephalcia : High spring temperature. Longer reproduction and feeding period. (1996-2003) 70% insect attack. Wheat: Earliest appearance of sun pest in the first week of March 2009-2010. Dry spring affected wheat productivity which resulted in government paying subsidy on area rather than price. Early snow storms. High summer temperatures

 Figure 8 Flood damage to 1,200 ha (12,000 donums) of vineyards

 Figure 9 Flood damage to 1,300 greenhouses

3.3.3 National vision, policies, and strategies The Ministry of Agriculture‟s strategy to deal with climate change in the agricultural sector is based on the following strategic axes: 

First axis: update and issue the necessary legislation (laws, decrees, decisions);



Second Axis: develop the structure and role of the Ministry of Agriculture and coordinate with public, private, and other related sectors;



Third Axis: update agricultural infrastructure and raise the efficiency of natural resources use;



Fourth Axis: reinforce agricultural extension;



Fifth Axis: activate control on food products, agricultural inputs, and natural resources;



Sixth Axis: develop product chains;



Seventh Axis: develop credit programs and mechanisms for small and medium sized projects;



The Eighth Axis: conserve natural resources – soils, forests, biodiversity, and regulate the use of marginal lands, pastures and fisheries;



Approve integrated program for cereals and legumes and introduce seed subsidy for wheat, and lentils in 2011, also for wheat, barley, lentils, chickpeas in 2012;



Price delivery: barley in addition to wheat;



Insurance for agriculture when natural disasters strike.

National vision and expected impacts The impacts of climate change will affect five major areas of vulnerability: 

Assessment of bioclimatic changes;



Water Resources;



Agriculture;



Terrestrial ecosystems, natural habitats and wild life;



Coastal systems;



Marine ecosystems;



Socio-economic impacts: o

Pollution and climate change cost Lebanon US$ 565 million, US$100 million of which is due to climate change. Tourism, health and agriculture are most affected;

Public health costs and economic consequences, trends in infectious diseases, water;

Impact on tourism is variable: skiing season will be shorter, sandy beaches will be eroded;

Increase in air pollution.

3.3.4 Recent activities and projects Milestones 

1992 Rio Conference;



1994 UNFCCC (United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change);



2000 Initial National conference;



2002 Copenhagen convention;



2009 Top-Up Phase II; 71



2010 GHG emissions inventory.

Climatic change conventions in Lebanon 

5 June 1992: Lebanon signed climate change convention;



11 August 1994: Approved by Lebanese parliament (law nb 359);



15 May 2006: Approval of Kyoto Protocol (law nb 738).

3.3.5 Technical knowledge Increase in temperature Temperatures in Lebanon are expected to rise by 2˚C on average over the next 40 years and 5˚C by the end of the century. Decrease in rainfall Mean annual rainfall is expected to fall by 50% by the end of the century if mitigation measures are not put in place. Water resources It is expected that annual water deficits will build up to between 240 MCM and 400 MCM. The possible impacts on sea level rise and sea water intrusion into coastal aquifers will impact the quality of coastal fresh water. Agriculture The expected changes in the distribution of vegetation may lead to the disappearance of certain vegetation associations and their replacement by others. Citrus, olives, and apples may move to higher altitudes. This will necessitate terrace building, digging deeper wells, and planting new more adaptive crop varieties. Agriculture will face increased costs of production. Terrestrial ecosystems, natural habitats, and wild life Terrestrial ecosystems are designated high, medium, or low according to the extent of the displacement of vegetation outside its usual bioclimatic zone. According to the climatic scenario, the tree line may shift upwards in elevation by 300 m by 2020, 486 m by 2050 and more than 700 m by 2080. This would push the tree line in 2080 in both Horj Ehden and Arz El Shouf nature reserves to around 2,500 m elevation. Coastal system – physical component The Tyre sandy beach is the only remaining significant sand dune habitat in Lebanon for many plants and animals that are unable to thrive except on sandy substrates. It is considered to be highly vulnerable to sea level rise and is classified as “critical”. There is a risk that the sandy beach may even disappear with its indigenous fauna and flora. Coastal system – marine ecosystems In Jounieh Bay, in January the water temperature was is 17.8°C while the projection of water temperature is for 19°C in 2020, 19.6°C in 2050, and 20.7°C in 2080.

3.4

Mauritania country paper

Author: M Khattry Ould Attigh 8

Unofficial translation

3.4.1 Introduction Climatically, 70% of Mauritaniaâ&#x20AC;&#x;s land area is classed as desert. Only in the middle the country does average annual rainfall reach more than 300 mm. Average temperatures exceed 25Â°C. In the north the climate is characterized by the Sahara Desert and in the south by Sahel climate. In general the climate is hot and dry. Rainfall is seasonal but is highly variable and unpredictable. Mauritania ratified the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) on climate change and so under Article 12 of the framework of the Convention it is invited to carry out a National Communication to address climate change. The country has implemented and adopted, at inter-Ministries level, two communications: the first one in 2001 and the second one in 2008. In addition, in 2006 the National Action Program for the Environment (NAPE) was implemented as a tool of policy in the field of the climate change. These documents define clearly the vision of the country for the coming decades in terms of answers to the potential impacts of climate change and determine the responsibility of Mauritania as a non-Emission Country. The most visible form of climate change on the ecosystems of Mauritania is desertification and the consequences that come from this. Indeed, the disappearance of vegetation gives place to sand movements and bad-lands. The unfavourable effects of climate change (climatic variability) on rangelands and water resources relate to: i) a decrease in production potential; ii) an increase in livestock production costs; iii) a reduction in the productive rangeland area; and iv) a reduction in groundwater reserves and/or the disappearance of natural ponds and lakes. The most vulnerable agricultural productions systems are rainfed. With respect to livestock health and survival, diseases are prevalent because of the concentration on livestock around watering points. There are periods of food shortage which make livestock less resistant to the harsh conditions. Since the mid-1900s the productivity of livestock has been extremely vulnerable to dry conditions. Indeed livestock numbers decreased by two thirds between 1969 and 1975. Also, the lack of fodder as a result of the dry conditions reduced cattle performance, in some cases they ceased growing and lost weight. If conditions do not improve it is expected that by 2015 the national demand for meat will not be met by local supplies. The deficit is expected to be about 54,000 tons. In addition, in 2015, the total national supply of milk would be about 519,000 tons and this would not satisfy the continuous increased demand. The urban population, estimated now to be 55% of the total population, only represented 5% in 1970. The decimation, on a large scale, of livestock, the disappearance of arable lands by erosion, the deterioration of financial capacity, and rural migration has created extremely vulnerable socio-economic groups. Mauritania has a coastline along the Atlantic Ocean and so its marine and coastal ecosystems are vulnerable to the impacts of climate change on sea levels and temperature changes, increasing frequency of floods and storms, and saline intrusion into coastal aquifers. Hollow lands and wetlands with their associated biodiversity are at risk and will have major effects on human habitation and all the socioeconomic infrastructure established on the coast, in particular those intended for traditional fishers. Simulation studies during the preparation of the first National Communication in 2001 estimated the damage from marine floods would be as much as US$ 3.9 billion in 2020 and US$ 6.3 billion in 2050.

Original French version in Annex 4 73

The main challenge for Mauritania is food security. But the reduction in agro-pastoral potential caused by intense climatic variability and fragile ecosystems has led farmers to use lands which are particularly sensitive to erosion. Stockbreeders have also overused pastoral and rangeland particularly around water resource points where animals concentrate.

3.4.2 Awareness on climate change Public education and awareness Education, training, and awareness of the public are the basic elements of knowledge reinforcement on climate change. Indeed, Article 6 (a) of the UNFCCC invites countries to “promote and facilitate at the national level and if possible at sub-regional or regional level, and in conformity with national regulation, and according to the respective capacities”: 

Develop and implement public education and awareness programs on climate change and its impacts;



Provide public access to information on climate change and its impacts;



Enable public participation on mitigating and adapting to climate change and its impacts but also in developing strategies to combat the problems; and



Train staff to understand and deal with the issues – scientific, technical, and managerial.

In response to this Mauritania has developed: 

Programs of public education and awareness at local and national levels;



Implemented a web site in French language – www.pcc.mr – dedicated to climatic change activities and the reinforcement of capacity building (scientific, technical, and institutional).

The government recognizes the importance of training, information and awareness building for a good understanding of climate change. Indeed, these activities influence the behaviors of individuals, public, and private operators. It alerts them to the problems and can provide the tools to evaluate the potential impacts of climate change so they have an opportunity to integrate them in their daily work. Since the ratification of the UNFCCC, many efforts have been made through training and awareness activities with stakeholders, public and private actors, and civil society. Training and awareness activities Training on climate change started with the implementation of the project of the initial communication. Thus in 1998, the first workshop was organized to reinforce capacity building relating to climate change. From this period, a whole range of activities comprising short, mid and long term were implemented. These activities are: Former activities Within the framework of the initial National Communication and external support from the Environmental and Development Action in the Third World (ENDA) allowed the training of teams of experts in three thematic workshops: i) on the methods of making inventories of GHG emissions following the guidelines of the revised IPCC 1996; ii) on the analysis of the attenuation, and iii) on the evaluation of vulnerability and adaptation. Within the framework of the National Adaptation Programme Action (NAPA), two workshops were organized, one on the Clean Mechanism for Development (CDM) and one on the vulnerability and the means of adaptation. Within the framework of Phase II of assessment of technological needs, two other workshops were organized aimed at capacity building. 74

During the initial National Communication and following an expressed need from the experts regarding good practices for inventories and for uncertainties evaluation, the interest of capacity building to up-date the group of experts on the new methods on the decision 17/CP8 was essential. A training workshop was consequently organized. Three other thematic workshops were also organized: 

New methods of implementation of inventories;



Analysis of attenuation;



Evaluation of vulnerability and adaptation.

An additional workshop with the support of the National Communications Support Programme (NCSP) was also organized using guidelines for good practices of IPCC regarding the inventories. Mid-term activities Mid-term activities were aimed at decision-makers and members of thematic working groups charged with defining programs of action. Training included: 

2 national workshops for decision-makers on the problems of climate change;



12 workshops at local level for public awareness in each chief town of Wilaya;



12 workshops on local focal points in each chief town of Wilaya;



2 dialogue workshops to examine needs and technology choices;



5 workshops to discuss the results of thematic studies;



3 consultation workshops for sectors and vulnerable areas;



3 regional workshops on prioritizing vulnerable sectors.

More than 1200 participants from the various institutions took part in these workshops. According to the second National Communication many meetings and consultations were organized: i) for public awareness, the economic operators on the stakes of climate change and ii) for decision-makers on the integration in policies and national planning strategies. Mauritania also took part in several regional meetings in Pretoria and Dakar organized by the Environmental and Development Action in the Third World (ENDA), United Nations Institute for Training and Research (UNITAR), and the National Communications Support Programme (NCSP) for the capacity building. Long-term activities Long-term activities addressed young students in schools, colleges, and universities. Within the framework of the long-term global strategy for training there are no introductory teaching tools available on climate change. Such tools would be valuable for creating trainers‟ awareness of the problems of climate change so that teachers at universities and in engineering organisations could benefit. This approach is completely new for Mauritania and will be taken into account in the third National Communication. A framework of dialogue and formulation of specific proposals will be created to introduce climate change into schools. Once set up, this tool would enable this to become part of the school curriculum and also inform the general public. CDM The Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) constitutes a major axis of co-operation between developed countries and Least Developed Countries (LDCs). In preparation for this new financial mechanism, two training workshops were organized for the official institutions, the industrial sector, and concerned NGOs. The goal was to prepare these various actors for this mechanism of international cooperation. The treated topics related to: 75



Climate change and the CDM;



Criteria of eligibility of CDM projects.

The first workshop, in 2005, targeted government institutions. It covered methods of identification and development of projects which are eligible for the finance mechanisms. Its objectives were to: 

Equip institutions with information and tools allowing them to benefit from the opportunities offered by the financial mechanisms envisaged within the framework of the UNFCCC;



Release some ideas of projects in the priority sectors that would be eligible for financing within this framework and which would be elaborated for presentation to financial backers.

In 2007, the second workshop was organized for public and private institutions.

3.4.3 National vision, policies, and strategies Mauritania has made signification progress in the field of environmental management in terms of policies and ratifying international agreements. In addition, Mauritania has signed several international agreements, treaties, and conventions during the 1990s (Table 5).  Table 5 Main international agreements, treaties, and conventions Conventions relating to chemicals and dangerous pollutants Convention related to the use of thinner in painting, Geneva 1921; International convention on the civil law for the oil pollution damages, Brussels 1969 and Protocol of 1969 and 1976 International convention on the establishment of international funds of damage’s compensation from oil pollutions, Brussels 1971 and Protocol of 1976,1971,1976 International convention of 1973 for the prevention of pollution by ships and its Protocol of 1978 (MARPOL 73/78). 1973,1978 Protocol on the intervention in open sea in case of pollution events by substances other than oil 1973 Convention of Bâle on the control of the trans-border movements of waste and dangerous substances, Bâle 1989 International convention of 1990 on the preparation, facing and the co-operation regarding oil’s pollution (OPRC 90) 1990 Convention of Stockholm on the Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs, Stockholm) 2004 Rotterdam’s Convention on the procedure of preliminary assent with full knowledge of the applicable facts for several chemicals and dangerous pesticides that are subject of an international business 2005 Convention of Bamaco on prohibition to import dangerous waste and the control of their trans-border movements in Africa Conventions and treaties relating to nuclear and chemical weapons Treaty prohibiting the tests of nuclear weapons in the atmosphere, in the open air and under sea, Moscow 1963 African convention on the conservation of nature and natural resources, Algiers 1968 Treaty on the non-proliferation of the nuclear weapons 1968 Convention on the prohibition of the development, the production, the storage and the use of chemical weapons and their destruction, Paris 1993 Treaty for total prohibition of the nuclear tests 1996 The African Nuclear-Weapon-Free Treaty Zone, Cairo 1996 Convention on the prohibition of the use, storage, production and transfer of the anti-personnel mines and on their destruction, Oslo 1997 Conventions, agreements, and protocols relating to the environment Agreement for the establishment of a commission for the locust in the North-West desert of Africa, Rome 1970 African Convention on nature and natural resources conservation, Algiers 1968 Convention related to the protection of the worldwide cultural and natural heritage, Paris 1972 Convention on the international regulation to prevent the sea boarding, London 1972 Convention for establishing a permanent Committee inter-state to fight against the dryness in the Sahel, Ouagadougou 1973 International convention of 1974 on the safeguard of the human life at the sea and its Protocol of 1978 (SOLAS 1974+PROT 78) 1974,1978 International convention of 1979 on maritime research and rescue (SAR 79). 1979 Convention of the United Nations on the rights of the sea, Montego Bay 1982 Protocol amending the Convention on the wetlands that they have international importance, especially when it is aquatic residency, Paris 1982 76

Convention on the wetlands that they have international importance, especially when it is aquatic residency, Ramsar 1983 Agreement for the implementation of regional centre of land reform and rural development for the Near East, Rome 1983 Protocol of Montreal on the substances reducing the ozone’s layer, Montreal 1987 Agreement for implementing an intergovernmental organization for information and co-operation in the sector of the fishery products marketing in Africa, Abidjan 1991 Agreement on the implementation of an organization in the Near East on the protection of the plants, Rabat 1993 Constructive act for a Centre for the advisory and information services on the fishery products marketing sector in the Arab countries, Manama 1993 Convention and Protocol of Vienna for the protection of the ozone layer 1994 Convention frame of the United Nations on the climate change, New York 1994 Convention on the biological diversity, Rio de Janeiro 1994 Agreement on the implementation of part XI of the United Nations convention on the sea rights 12/10/82, New York 1994 Agreement for the implementation of the provisions of the United Nations convention on the sea rights December 10th, 1982 relating to the conservation and the management of halieutic stocks and migrating large fishes, New York 1995 Convention of the United Nations for fighting against desertification in the countries suffered from serious dryness and/or desertification, particularly in Africa, Paris 1996 Convention on the conservation of the migrating species of wildlife, Bonn 1998 Convention on the international business of the species of flora and fauna subject of extinction, Washington 1973 and amended in Bonn in 1979, CITES 1998 International treaty on the phyto-genetic resources for food and agriculture, Rome 2001 Protocol of Cartagena on the prevention of the biotechnological risks relating to the Convention on biological diversity 2004 Amendment of the Montreal Protocol relating to substances that affecting ozone layer 2005 Protocol of Kyoto for the Convention frame of the United Nations on the climate change 2005

Policy and national strategies Mauritania is among the Least Developed Countries (LDCs) which have signed up to and ratified all conventions resulting from Rio, in particular the UNFCCC and its Kyoto Protocol, the convention on biodiversity, and the convention addressing desertification. So Mauritania is among the pioneers launching this process of preparing programs and reports for the Conference of Parties (COP). In 2006 Mauritania developed and implemented the National Action Plan for Environment (NAPE). The process followed all the stages established by the directives of the Group of Experts of Developing Countries. The development of the document of the National Adaptation Programme Action (NAPA) was inspired by the elements appearing in this directive, in particular: 

A participative approach involving all beneficiaries, local communities, participation of men and women from the community, the private sector, NGOs and organizations of civil society;

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A multidisciplinary approach that includes all the professions that are considered sensitive to climatic variations;

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A complementary approach taking support from existing plans and programs such as National Action Plans (PAN/LCD, NAPE) relating to the Convention of the United Nations to address desertification, the strategies and National Action Plans relating to biological diversity concerned with the Convention on biological diversity and sector policies;



A sustainable development having as a major axis to address poverty.

It was essential to increase the knowledge of planners and decision-makers on the impacts on daily economic indicators in order to facilitate the integration of climate change into the national sustainable development planning system. In particular, the results of various sector vulnerability evaluations of the economy and sector strategies for adaptation.

Food safety Within the framework of this initiative, a Strategic Framework to address Poverty (PRSP) by 2015 was implemented in 2001. The long-term objectives of the strategy are to: 

Bring the proportion of the population living in poverty down to 27% by 2010 and 17% by 2015;

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Reach, before the horizon of 2015, the objectives of social development on the basis of recommendations from the various world summits; and

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Reduce social and regional disparities.

3.4.4 Institutional arrangements Under the Ministry Delegate to the Prime Minister in charge of the Environment and Sustainable Development and the National Delegate Authority for the approval of CDM projects, Mauritania launched a special structure for climate change matters called “Cellule” of Climate Change. During the preparation of the two National Communications this structure supervised the coordination unit and worked in close cooperation with other public Ministries in charge of agriculture, oil and energy, health, water, industry, transport, meteorology, local collectives, universities, NGOs and partners from co-operation and development fields. This work was completed thanks to the financial support of the Global Environment Facility (GEF) and through the technical assistance of the United Nations Environmental Programme (UNEP). The implementation of the inventory within the framework of the second National Communication was carried out by a group of national experts. Regarding its operating, the Institute for Global Environmental Strategies (IGES) began by collecting and harmonizing data, recalculating GHG emissions as well as compiling other information. This phase was followed by analysis making recourse to the tools recommended by the UNFCCC directives. The inventory report was posted on the website for the climate change program of Mauritania. The high level of coordination of this work was recognized and approved by the Executive Secretary of Convention during his opening speech of the ministerial session of the COP14/MOP4 in Poznan, Poland in December 2008. It addressed all the sectors which produce GHG emissions such as the ministries for mines, transport, industry, oil and energy, rural development, civil society and employers. It also covers climate change adaptation and includes the Ministry for Urbanism and the National committee of Climate Follow-up that constitute the supreme structure dealing with the problems of climate change. However, the dialogue and communication level of the different actors remains very random and is dominated by improvisation. There is often confusion over tasks and sometimes redundant actions are taken.

3.4.5 Technical knowledge The Government‟s approach to dealing with the challenge of sustainable development of renewable natural resources goes back to the 1980s. Within this framework, the Government implemented a Master Plan to address desertification (PDLCD) which provides an integrated step by step approach to dealing with the problem. During recent years this program has been supported by the adoption laws, codes, and decrees on a wide range of issues such as environment, forestry, hunting and the protection of nature, mines, rangelands, water, land tenure, land management and use.

Several projects and programs were implemented and others are in progress that address land degradation, the protection and regeneration of natural ecosystems, and the sustainable management of renewable natural resources. They include: 

Integrated Development Project for Irrigated Agriculture of Mauritania (PDIAIM);

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Rural Community Development Project (RCDP) with the World Bank;

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Project for Rangelands Management and Breeding Development (PADEL) with the AfBD.

Other small actions were undertaken and/or are in progress, particularly with NGOs, with the support of the Global Environment Facility (GEF). The application of the international ratified environment conventions and the national legal package are embedded in the National Strategy of Sustainable Development (SNDD) and the National Action Plan for the Environment (NAPE). These two strategic documents constitute the tools that must help to plan all the activities of environmental management and sustainable development and direct political decision-making. SNDD provides a general conceptual framework that integrates social, economic and environmental dimensions. It represents a 10year vision for 2015 aimed by the PRSP and the UN Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). Knowledge transfer among technicians The performances of national technicians in the field of climate change needs improvement but the country has many experts who proved their capacities during the preparation of the two National Communications and the implementation of the IGES. There is a need to reinforce scientific knowledge on climate change among technicians. Access to the internet and the use of information technology are essential tools for the efficient exchange of information inside and outside the country. Networking of information was an important input for collecting and disseminating information on climate change. Despite all these efforts there is still reluctance among experts to search information more widely. Weaknesses in knowledge transfer The current framework is still not sufficient to put climate change at the same level and importance as poverty. Reinforcement of institutional and technical capacities is essential in the field of: 

Systematic research and observation;



Data collection and analysis;

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Climate change follow-up and the establishment of an early alert system.

There are also problems of institutional linking; mobilization of finance; problems of research, collection and regular updating of information on climate change. There are difficulties in establishing and developing connections with agencies and national and international institutions in the field of technology transfer. There are too few private actors who have knowledge and experience of climate change. The current education system excludes any teaching to create an awareness of climate change. Adaptation measures adopted by farmers, fishers, stockbreeders etc Faced with repeated droughts in the 1970s and 1980s the rural populations improved their community management tools and even developed new strategies for sustainable natural resources use. In the livestock sector for example, mobility was a strategic reaction to drought and the scarcity of good pastures. It enabled the best development of rangelands, zones without water, and facilitated the sowing of pastoral zones in key areas. Nomad pastoralists adapted their production to the difficult eco-climatic situations and developed a whole management system based on consensus, shared responsibility, and 79

pastoral solidarity. These are based on Islamic principles. Goats have become one of the adaptation strategies as they require less food than camels and cows. In agriculture, farmers adopted cropping with more drought tolerant varieties of crops. In some areas irrigation is practiced particularly for vegetables and in greenhouses. The development of small-scale irrigation (drip and sprinkler irrigation) is another strategic development in recent years to make sure that farmers get the most crop per drop. In the forest sector traditional practices are removing essential wood. But new national practice is to support renewable energy sources. During the preparation of NAPA (National Adaptation Programme Action), Mauritania established a participatory process of diagnosis which led to the identification of a set of measures of specific adaptation and attenuation that included: 

Better knowledge of surface water management practices;

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Construction of works to slow down flash floods;

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Promotion of water saving techniques in oases;

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Diffusion of drip irrigation technology in valleys and oases;

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Promotion of livestock mobility;

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Reorganization of populations that became victims of climate change;

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Promotion and development of family poultry farming;

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Improvement of rainfed farming techniques;

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Substitution of woody fuel (related to forests);

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Genetic improvement of local livestock;

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Safeguarding diversity of fish populations;

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Introduction of new fodder species in natural rangelands;

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Training and education of socio-professional organizations and agents;

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Treatment of fodder and multi-nutritional blocks;

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Restoration and integrated management of low-lands and wetlands;

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Development of fodder crops;

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Implementation of a cattle food factory;

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Improvement of knowledge of forest resources and their sustainable management.

3.4.6 Recent activities and projects Mauritania does not have specific projects on climate change and food safety but several projects are in progress which do address these issues. They contribute tools for mitigation and adaptation in the management of water, arable lands, rangelands, natural resources, forestry, and stabilizing nomadic populations. They take the following aspects into account: 

Awareness – of the need to preserve national forests and to stop illegal tree logging;

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Training – on the rational use of village afforestation and fighting against wind and water erosion; and

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Education – on diversifying cultures, and the use of the bio-gas.

Some of these projects are as follows: 

Integrated Development Project for Irrigated Agriculture of Mauritania (PDIAIM); 80

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Rural Community Development Project (RCDP) with the World Bank;



Project for Rangelands Management and Breeding Development (PADEL) with the AfBD;



Special Project for Food Safety (PSSA). This FAO project aims to introduce new varieties with high potential output and the diversification of cropping patterns;



A project which aims to protect the green belt around Nouakchott city.

3.4.7 Funding opportunities Mauritania profits from annual allowances through the Global Environment Facility (GEF), the Special Fund for LDCs within the framework of awareness activities for climate change. Other opportunities are considered through the Adaptation Funds of 2011, for LDCs. Among the projects in progress directly related to climate change include: 

Adaptation to Climate Change Coastal Project (ACCC) – GEF project;



Nouakchott city greenbelt protection (Mauritanian Fund);



Electrification of certain communities on the railroad using photovoltaic energy implemented by the National Company of Industry and Mines (SNIM);



Several small projects on climate change implemented by NGOs, such as biogas production and other adaptation measures funded by the World Bank;

This same fund supports Mauritania in education and training within the framework of identified CDM projects. The government uses public funds to deal with the Nouakchott protection project. This is related to the private sector but at present there is a complete absence of actions specifically directed towards climate change mitigation and adaptation. CDM is not well known and the government does not benefit from the available opportunities for the moment because competences for project formulation are not well developed. GEF is financing several projects in Mauritania, such as: the biodiversity project (regional project for Mauritania and Senegal), Coastal Adaptation for Climate Change, project PASK II which has an environmental component and a multitude of small projects with civil society. The Carbon Funds managed by the World Bank intervenes in the activities of awareness and training on climate change. The new mechanisms such as Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation (REDD), are not well known and are at present unavailable in Mauritania.

3.4.8 Capacity building There are identified requirements for capacity building to deal with climate change. They include: 

Training of actors in the field of vulnerability evaluation in key socio-economic sectors. (impacts on water resources, agriculture, forestry, coastal areas, ecological systems, economy, and health);



Training on the identification and analysis of adaptation options. (National competences are required to be able to prepare strategies to face the unfavourable effects of climate change);



Reinforcement of capacity building for local and elected officials;



Training on new directives for the preparation of National Communications, on methodologies, and good practices for controlling GHG emissions;

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Training on climate modelling and regional demonstrations on climate change issues; 81

ď Ž

Control of finance mechanisms targeting climate change, in particular the GEF and CDM.

It is essential to consolidate the implemented national committees to coordinate and follow-up the actions related to the UNFCCC. In order to carry out this objective, these committees should have an official physical and legal existence. Participation in these committees should be at the highest level. This would contribute: i) in the short-term, to facilitate the collection and the validation of data and to carry out studies for the National Communications and ii) in the long-term enable the integration of climate change into the national socio-economic development plans. In addition, the members of these committees should be integrated into international networks in order to have the possibility of permanent information exchanges with their counterparts in the other countries. Needs for CDM training Economic operators and institutional actors, such as national officers, require training to enable them to improve and control the process of preparing CDM projects in the field of design, formulation (development of sustainable development projects) and follow-up. Training is also needed to effectively deal with validation and recording of CDM projects and methodologies for checking and certification.

Acronyms ACCC

Adaptation to Climate Change Coastal Project

CDM

Clean Development Mechanism

COP

Conference of Parties

ENDA

Environmental and Development Action in the Third World

GEF

Global Environment Facility

GHG

Greenhouse Gases

IPCC

Inter-governmental Panel on Climate Change

IGES

Institute for Global Environmental Strategies

LDCs

Least Developed Countries

MDGs

United Nations Millennium Development Goals

NAPA

National Adaptation Programme Action

NAP

National Action Plan

NAPE

National Action Program for the Environment

National Communication

NCSP

National Communications Support Programme

NGO

Non-Governmental Organization

ONM

National Office of Meteorology

PADEL

Rangelands Management and Breeding Development

PAN/LCD

National Action Plan to Address Desertification

PDIAIM

Integrated Development Project for Irrigated Agriculture of Mauritania

PDLCD

Master Plan to Address Desertification

PMLCD

Multi-sector Program to Address Desertification

POP

Persistent Organic Pollutants

PRSP

Strategic Framework to address Poverty

PSSA

Special Project for Food Safety

RCDP

Rural Community Development Project

REDD

Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation

SNDD

National Strategy of Sustainable Development 82

SNIM

National Company of Industry and Mines

UNFCCC

United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change

UNEP

United Nations Environmental Programme

UNITAR

United Nations Institute for Training and Research

3.5

Morocco country paper

Author: M‟hamed Sedrati 9

Unofficial translation

3.5.1 Introduction The Kingdom of Morocco has always known periods of both drought and exceptional floods characterized by the loss of harvests, falls in groundwater levels, and declining surface and groundwater resources. Human losses, economic losses, and epidemics illustrate the disastrous consequences on human 10 development. These extreme natural disasters were at the origin of social disturbances and policies which were reported in historical writings over many centuries. During the past four decades the frequency of these exceptional events both in Morocco and across the world are confirmation of the disturbance of the climatic system. This was also confirmed by the scientific work of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (GIEC) in its fourth report of 2007. Some examples of climate change events in Morocco illustrate this: Floods The flood of Ziz valley in 1965 is still present in most people‟s memory. It initiated an ambitious and visionary policy of dam construction to control and develop water resources with the potential to irrigate 1 million ha. During 1990-2010 catastrophic floods in terms of human losses and damage to property have become 11 more common . Droughts Between 2000 and 2008 Morocco experienced five dry years when water use exceeded available renewable water resources. Three severe years were 2004/2005 (36% deficit), 2006/2007 (34% deficit), and 2007/2008 (26% deficit). In the previous two decades there were 15 dry years with negative impacts on natural resources and on agricultural production. Increases in temperature nd

The 2 National Communication of April 2010 revealed that between 1960 and 2000, two thirds of the 12 country recorded a rise in average temperature which exceeded 1°C , thus confirming the conclusions of the 4th report of GIEC. This tendency was announced in the Initial Communication of Morocco in October 2001. The analysis was carried out by the French Central Meteorological Office and showed a clear upward tendency of annual 13 average temperatures ranging between 0.6°C and 1.1°C by 2020 . 9

Original French version in Annex 5

Ourika (1995); El Hajeb (1997); Settat et Mohammadia (2002); Tan Tan, Nador, Al Hoceima et Khénifra (2003); plaine du Gharb 2009/2010 12

Seconde Communication Nationale avril (2010) 84

Greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions continued to increase during 2010 in spite of the commitments entered into by the industrialized countries within the framework of the Kyoto Protocol. Global warming was accentuated and the extreme natural disasters redoubled in number and intensity. Rainfall and the violence of storms and the intensity of floods and the droughts observed are testament for 14 the relevance of the scientific conclusions of GIEC 4th Report . In the MENA region (Middle-East and North Africa) Morocco will be most badly affected by extreme natural disasters. Economic losses grew following floods and repeated droughts and meant that large imports of cereal were needed to limit the risk of food shortages. The national budget was mobilized to: i) compensate the loss of jobs in rural areas, ii) safeguard livestock, iii) supply potable water to rural areas, and iv) rehabilitate 15 destroyed infrastructure. The fall in Agricultural GDP demonstrated the vulnerability of the agriculture sector and the impact on the national economy. Jobs and incomes are likely to be seriously affected in the future and rural populations will pay the heaviest price and this will increase rural poverty.

3.5.2 Awareness on climate change Article 6 of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) deals with education, training, and creating awareness among the general public. Developed countries are invited to develop cooperation programs to assist technically and financially the least developed countries (LDCs). The extent of climate change and its potential impacts on socio-economic development in general, and food security in particular, require an awareness of all the layers of society, and more particularly of the decisionmakers. For Morocco, mobilization and commitment to the principles and values of UNFCCC were declared at the highest levels of the State as Royal speeches and Government advertisements. Royal speeches Royal Speeches and Messages proclaimed an awareness on the precariousness of natural resources, vegetation, animals, and water resources on human development. These pronouncements had a broad audience and were broadcast widely using audio-visual media and the press. The Royal Speeches and Messages constituted a roadmap for the government, the parliament, the local government agencies and concerned services of central and local administrations. NGOs, inspired by Royal Speeches, organized workshops and seminars to discuss the issues of climate change. This all helped to diffuse the information throughout the population. World days The institutionalized celebration of world days for food, earth, environment, water, forest, wetlands â&#x20AC;Ś is another way for concerned actors (governments, international organizations, media, foundations, NGOs) to inform, exchange and discuss the issues of food security, to fight against the effects of climate change, and to improve the economic and social level of the population.

Communication Nationale Initiale octobre (2001)

Bilan (2007) des changements climatiques: rapport de synthĂ¨se.

Produit intĂŠrieur brut agricole 85

National strategy for education and awareness The National Action Plan for the Environment (PANE) showed that the potential damage from climate change could be as much as US$2 billion (Dirham 20 billion) per annum. The population already has experience of droughts and floods and so awareness campaigns on radio, TV and in the press can use experiences and transform them into a force for that can be deployed within villages and districts. This will need targeting to determine the best means of changing the minds and behaviour of those responsible for the environment and its degradation. The National Strategy for Education and Awareness on the Environment and Sustainable Development was elaborated within the framework of a participatory approach involving a wide range of actors. Thus the Secretariat of State for Water and Environment gathered representatives of government departments, public corporations, international organizations, civil society, and people from the economic and social th th sectors to discuss and validate the strategy during the National Forum on July 17 and 18 2007.

3.5.3 National vision, policy, and strategies National vision The national vision is to use available water resources to irrigate 1 million ha of land; to protect the population against floods; to modernize agricultural practices; and to develop access to drinking water. This is the broad vision that will transform the water and agriculture sectors and provide the basis for socioeconomic development and food security. Morocco has taken part in several international conferences on environmental degradation, the sustainable development of natural resources, and the consequences on the future of the world. As a result Morocco has signed up to more than 50 related conventions and international treaties. In 1967 a new hydro-agricultural policy was launched by his Majesty the King Hassan II and continued by His Majesty the King Mohammed VI.

Policy and strategies Adhering to the conventions of Rio At the Rio Earth Summit 1992, the participation of his Royal Highness Sidi Mohammed, (at that time prince of the Kingdom of Morocco and now King) as the head of the Moroccan delegation, provided a strong signal that Morocco would contribute to the reduction of GHG emissions and reduce the vulnerability of vital sectors of the economy so as to enable sustainable socio-economic development. Morocco adheres to three Conventions of Rio and in particular the UNFCCC which was ratified in 1995. Morocco has also adhered to the Kyoto Protocol of 1997 and the Objectives of the Millennium Development Goals in 2000. Thus the Kingdom of Morocco sealed its engagement with the international community to implement the objectives, principles, and values of these conventions. This commitment will result in a clear political will to provide the country with the structures, institutions, and legal framework necessary for their implementation. Strategies During the past two decades, with reforms of the national economy to be maintained in concert with the nations which embraced the process of globalization, Morocco has gradually implemented national strategies and sectoral plans with the objective to engage in sustainable human development and to conform to the recommendations of the Conferences of Parties (COP) of the three conventions of Rio. 86

General strategies The following general strategies address the environment and food security and relate to all Conventions of Rio: 

The National strategy for Environmental protection and Sustainable Development was adopted in 1995;

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The National Action Plan for the Environment (PANE) ;

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National strategy for education and awareness for the environment and sustainable development (Project ENV/2004/081-284 supported by the EU). This targets the various segments of the general public, as well as the whole of the decision-makers and the actors of civil society.

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The Charter for the Environment and Sustainable Development was implemented following the Royal Speech in 2009. “It incites to create a new dynamics and to reaffirm that the safeguarding of the environment must be a permanent concern of all, in the sustainable development process of 17 the Kingdom”.

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Other sectoral plans include the Plan Emergence for Industry, the Plan Azure for Tourism.

A reliable database relating to environmental issues was organised and set up by various institutions that launched research programs to develop new knowledge and solutions to answer the challenges of climate change. They included Météorologie Nationale, Institut National de la Recherche Agronomique, Centre Royal de télédétection Spatiale, Institut Agronomique et vétérinaire Hassan II, Ecole Nationale des Industries Minérales, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique et Technique, Ecole Hassania des TP, Ecole Nationale d‟Ingénieurs Forestiers, Ecole Mohammadia d‟Ingénieurs. Specific strategies Specific strategies relate to mitigation of the impacts of GHG emissions and adaptation to fight against the harmful effects of climate change. National plan to face climate warming (PNRC) This brings together the portfolio of government actions that deal with climate change in order to: i) allow visibility and communication on these actions, ii) initialize and optimize interdepartmental monitoring. The portfolio of projects Clean Development Mechanism - Mécanisme de Développement propre (MDP) This comprises almost 60 projects which are at various stages of the MDP process. The reduction of GHG emissions is expected to be about 8.4 million TEq CO2 per annum. Among the most advanced projects five have been registered, nine are in the course of validation, and four have been approved. Moreover, sixteen projects have been approved at the level of the Designated National Authority and twenty-four are under development. New Energy Strategy The new national energy strategy was developed in collaboration with all the operators to assess the security of energy supply at the best cost. According to the forecasts of the Ministère de l‟Energie, des Mines, de l‟Eau et de l‟Environnement (MEMEE), the demand for energy is expected to increase four-fold by 2030 , and by four to six-fold between 2008 and 2030. Four axes are retained: 

Develop renewable energy sources to contribute 18% in 2012 and 42% in 2020;

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Promote energy efficiency in industry, transport, and homes;

Communication Nationale Initiale (2001)

Seconde Communication Nationale (2010) 87

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Strengthen energy production capacities and improve energy management;

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Increase natural gas and coal shares in order to reduce the dependency on oil products from 60% to 40% by 2030;

Implementation of programs identified in each one of these axes is entrusted to: 

National Office of Electricity with regard to wind energy;

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Moroccan Agency for Solar Energy (MASEN) for solar energy;

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Agency for the Development of Renewable Energies and the Promotion of Energy Efficiency (ADEREE) to develop studies and pilot projects in these fields in partnership with public and private operators;

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Energy Investment Company, equipped with an initial capital of US$1 billion, can take part in these various projects to encourage interested investors.

New Strategy for water The Policy for Dams was launched in 1967 in order to satisfy the needs of drinking water and those of the economic sectors of the country. Law 10/95 on water makes responsible all the concerned actors with production, conservation, distribution and its use, and created the Basin Agencies of Hydraulics for its implementation. However a new strategy is needed to address both the growing demand for and scarcity of water resources. This includes: 

The management of water resources which will lead to a saving of 2.4 BCM per year of irrigation water and 120 MCM per year of drinking and industrial water;

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The development of new water supplies by constructing about 50 large dams and 1,000 small dams to mobilize 1.7 BCM per year;

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The safeguarding and protection of water resources, the natural environment, and the wetlands;

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The reduction of vulnerability to floods and drought;

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The Protection Plan against Floods (PNPCI)

New agricultural Strategy – The Green Morocco Plan The Green Plan of Morocco adopted in 2008 develops a major revision of the agricultural policy with regard to production, productivity, and quality. Pillar 1 of this plan aims to accelerate the development of agriculture to produce high productivity and strong added value. Pillar 2 deals with the sector of small poor farmers. It is necessary to improve and to develop this traditional form of agricultural production and to convert it into a more profitable sector. The National Plan for Irrigation Water Saving (PNEEI) Agriculture currently consumes nearly 90% of the water resources in Morocco. The intensification of irrigation within the framework of the Green Plan of Morocco will be done on water saving by converting 550,000 ha into micro-irrigation. This plan will be carried out over the next 10 years at a cost of US$3.7 billion (Dirhams 37 billion). During 2008-2010 some 90,000 ha were equipped. The PNEEI rests on three axes: 

Modernization of collective irrigation networks for conversion to micro-irrigation;



Conversion to micro-irrigation at the field level;



Improvement of agricultural production.

This work is expected to save about 2.4 BCM of water annually. 88

New Strategy for fisheries: HALIEUTIS This strategy is based on the modernization of the sector for better development of fishing resources. It lies within the scope of a sustainable resource exploitation and promotion of a responsible fisheries sector. Performance, quality, and competitiveness are the key words. National initiative for human development (INDH) This initiative is intended to reduce poverty using participative approaches. It will involve local authorities, public services, and civil society to identify the actions to be engaged at the level of rural and urban districts to achieve its goals. The income-generating activities and the development projects adopted and implemented within this framework aim to improve the living conditions of rural and urban populations, to increase food security, and the rational use of natural resources. The reduction of overgrazing and firewood, the renewable energy saving and the energy use will reduce pressure on forests.

3.5.4 Institutional arrangements Since the ratification of Conventions, the Secretariat of State for Water and the Environment is currently the department in charge of dealing with climate change in collaboration with other government departments. The Secretariat of State for Water and Environment (SEEE) The SEEE associates with other government departments and public corporations in the economic sector and associations of civil society to take actions to mitigate the effects of GHG emissions and enable society to adapt to the impacts of climate change. The Service of Climate Change is in charge of coordination and follow-up of the implementation of engagements of Morocco with respect to UNFCCC and the Kyoto Protocol. This service is part of the Directorate of the Management of Partnership, Communication, and Co-operation (DPCC). It is in charge of the administrative and financial management of all the activities relating to climate change. The National Committee for Climate Change was created in 1996. It includes various government departments (Energy, Water, Agriculture, Forestry, Foreign affairs); national Institutions (National Meteorological Directorate - DMN, Royal Center for Remote Sensing - CRTS, IAV Hassan IIâ&#x20AC;Ś) and the NGO GERERE. As a consultative and support body to the RAB project, it played an important role in the development of the Initial National Communication in 2001. But because it had been created without a legal base, it has not been very productive. The Information Centre for Sustainable Energy and Environment (CIEDE) was created in 2000 within the framework of RAB project and a partnership between members of the National Committee on Climate Change, in particular the Ministry for Energy and Mines and the Department of the Environment. Its main function is to collect and process data on energy and sustainable development. The Scientific and Technical National Committee (CNST-CC) was also created in 2000 with the mission to support the Department of the Environment with the preparation scientific and technical issues of COP 7. It is composed of national experts and is the national scientific authority in charge of the questions on climate change. It also contributed to the enrichment and validation of the technical studies for the Initial National Communication which were presented during COP 7. Thereafter it ensured technical support to government departments to support missions, evaluations, and the formulation and assessment of new projects. th

Designated National Authority (AND MDP) was set up by Ministerial decree on September 18 2002. It includes the National Council of the MDP and the permanent Secretariat of the CN-MDP. It represents the State of Morocco vis-Ă -vis the organizations and national operators who wish to take part in projects within the framework of the MDP as well as international agencies of the MDP

The Authority examines projects presented by the national operators approves them in writing if they meet MDP criteria and contribute to sustainable development. This institution has other parallel functions related to its competences and its attributions. The Department of Environment is supported by other institutions, such as: 

The Superior Council for Water and Climate,



The Inter-ministerial Committee for Territorial Planning,

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The National Meteorological Directorate (DMN),

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The ADEREE (Agency for the Development of Renewable Energies and Energy Efficiency) in replacement for the Renewable Energies Center (CDER),

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The CRTS, (Royal Center for Remote Sensing),



The CMDP (Moroccan Center for the Clean Development)

The first four institutions, which are expected to play a leading role, will have their resources reinforced. Other departments Ministry for Agriculture and Fisheries is in charge of promoting the development of agricultural production. Its responsibility in terms of food security however, does not mask its important contribution to GHG emissions which total about 25% of the total emissions of Morocco. Ministry for Habitat, Urbanism, and Space Management: the production of GHG emissions from the housing sector comes in second position after agriculture. Ministry for Equipment and Transport is concerned with the transport sector (energy efficiency and fuel quality). Ministry for Trade, Industry and New Information Technologies: is concerned within the framework of energy efficiency, for the reduction of GHG emissions from industry. High Commission for Water, Forestry and Fighting Desertification (HCEFLCD): is in charge of forestry and the potential for CO2 sequestration. Ministry for Interior: via local government agencies, is in charge of the management of public discharge. Other government departments are also associated with climate change activities each within the limits of their brief. The legal framework The implementation of commitments by Morocco must be set within a legal framework which specifies the content of decisions and the rights and duties of citizens and the concerned actors and the sanctions in the event of failure. About ten new Laws, seven Decrees and nine Standards were adopted since Law N°10-95 on water and Law N° 16-09 on renewable energies. Other texts are being studied and are in line for approval.

3.5.5 Technical knowledge Past studies and projects Adherence to the UNFCCC makes it obligatory for countries to regularly set out a National Communication on the state of GHG emissions by source and their sequestration. Taking account of human and financial resources of LDCs, Convention engages the developed countries to cooperate with the LDCs to provide support to enable them to fulfil their obligations to mitigate and adapt to climate change. Thus Morocco 90

could profit from co-operation with international organisations, multilateral or bilateral, to reinforce local competences for the application of UNFCCC. Below are the most relevant projects that have specifically reinforced capacities in vulnerable sectors: 

Project PNUD/FEMRAB/94/G31 (1995-2003) – The objective was the “Reinforcement of the capacities of the Maghrebian Countries (Morocco Algeria, Tunisia) in the field of climate change” by means awareness and training to elaborate the Initial National Communication, to set up the National Committee on Climate Change, and to create the Information Centre on Sustainable Energy and Environment (CIEDE).



Project PNUD/FEM MOR99G32 – This project reinforced national capacities to use various mathematical models, evaluation methods of the impacts on rained agriculture and the socioeconomic impacts on rural environment in the event of drought, and improve inventories on GHG emissions and the absorption of GHG and simulations of various scénarios presented in the National Communication.



Project PNUE “Evaluation of the impact and the adaptation to the climate change in the coastal areas of Morocco (2004-2005);



Project PNUD/FEM/2006 “National auto-evaluation of the capacities to be reinforced in the field of environment (ANCHOR)” PNUD-MOR/03/G31/00013695.

These four projects provided reinforcement of the capacities necessary for the development of the Initial National Communication and the Second National Communication and also provided better coordination for the implementation of the Conventions of Rio. After the adherence and ratification of the UNFCCC and the Kyoto Protocol, Morocco committed itself to voluntarily attenuate its GHG emissions, and take measures to reduce the vulnerability of water and agriculture sectors, and adapt to the impacts of climate change. These measurements will be embedded in all new national strategies of sustainable economic and social development, in particular in the National Energy Strategy and those of water, agriculture, and fisheries. Coastal areas 

Project PNUE “Evaluation of the impact and the adaptation to climate change (AIACC) in the coastal areas of Morocco” (2004-2005);



Reinforcement of the capacities in certain countries of the METAP for the cost evaluation of environmental pollution in the coastal areas (June 2006);



Project ACCMA – Adaptation to the climate change in Morocco relating on the adaptation to the sea level rising and the extreme climatic events in the Eastern Mediterranean coastline (20072010).

Agriculture 

Impact study of climate change on the agricultural sector in Morocco (2008-2010), Partnership of the MAPM, BM, FAO, DMN, INRA;



Adaptation to climate change in Morocco for resilient oases (October 2009 - December 2011) with multiples objectives from which improvement of knowledge of the climate change impacts on the ecosystems and the Communities;



Project to modernize irrigated agriculture of Oum er Rbia (2010-2016) with components of management trainings of the ORMVA and farmers.

Water and drainage 

National drainage plan for the Sebou Basin (2008-2012).

Energy 

Support program with the reform of the sector to support the implementation of the new energy strategy and integration at the European and Euro-Mediterranean market of energy;

ď Ž

Study of the needs definition in specialized human resources for the energy sector. This study was launched in September 2010 and should be closed in 2011.

The universities, institutions of management, and professional training organizations set up suitable training on mitigation and adaptation to climate change. However manpower remained limited until recent times because of a lack of strong publicity. The acceleration of the programmes of wind and solar electrical energy production has meant there is now a shortage of manpower in this sector. The State intends to work with the private sector to create three training institutes of 5,300 engineers, 17,900 technicians and 23,000 skilled workers in renewable energies and energy efficiency and to encourage local manufacture and assembly. Adaptation among farmers, fishers, stockbreeders In addition to traditional technologies for managing water resources, the choice of crops suitable for the climate and rangelands management; farmers, stockbreeders, and fishers are attentive to the proposals being made to them by public services, professional associations, and NGOs about the potential changes taking place in the climate. The implementation of the objectives for attenuating GHG emissions and decreasing vulnerability to the harmful effects of climate change requires the mobilization of each individual in each urban and rural community. For each sector of the economy the actors must be educated and aware of the changes needed in their behaviours. In water and agriculture, farmers are aware of the need to improve their agricultural water management practices and to select crops and seeds appropriate to the climatic conditions and their soils. The practice of additional irrigation in rainfed agriculture and the use of micro-irrigation in irrigated areas will be a priority for modification under the Green Plan of Morocco which is committed to saving irrigation water. In fisheries, The Halieutis Plan proposes to instigate sustainable exploitaton of fishing resources which are respectful of biological cycles of various species. It will apply rigorous management regulations for fisheries and the use of methods and suitable tools for fishing. In the new national strategy for energy, the consumers, individuals and companies, will be the key actors in reducing GHG emissions. Awareness of energy efficiency and the use of renewable energy to reduce fossil fuels is expected to increase when all the programs are implemented. Pastoral areas are of major importance for extensive animal breeding. Their traditional management, which originally ensured a certain durability of vegetable cover, is now breaking down as more lands are being exploited for subsistence agriculture in poor areas. Pastoral improvement projects addressed this issue. As an example, a project for rangelands and breeding in the eastern region had the objectives of improving the socio-economic environment, safeguarding renewable resources, sequestration of carbon, fighting against desertification, and the management of water resources.

3.5.6 Recent activities and projects Morocco, within the framework of its adherence to the principles and values of globalization, has developed several agreements for free trade. The rights and obligations force Morocco to open its borders to international competition and to organise its legislation and economy and improve competitiveness. The development of national strategies in the various sectors of the economy was essential to enable Morocco to be a full partner within the framework of these agreements. The Morocco Green Plan, dedicated to the development of agriculture as one of the engines of economic growth, will intervene in water resources management in order to meet the need to extend the irrigated areas and the intensification of agricultural production. 92

3.6

Saudi Arabia country paper

Author: El Mostafa Darfaoui, FAO Senior Expert and Abdu Al Assiri, Director General, Department of Natural Resources, Ministry of Agriculture.

3.6.1 Introduction The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (KSA) is a country of 200 million ha covering about 80% of the Arabian Peninsula. It has 2,410 kilometres coastline of which 1,760 kilometres is along the Red Sea and 650 kilometres along the eastern coast of the Arabian Gulf. Forest lands cover 2.7 million ha, rangelands extend over 171 million ha, mangroves 3,500 ha, and coral reefs 148,000 ha. The population is estimated to be 25.4 million (MEP, 2009). KSA is a major oil and gas producer with a GDP per capita (total population) of US$14,555 (Saudi Rials 54,595). Saudi Arabia has a semi-arid to arid climate characterized by very low rainfall (annual average rainfall is 70 mm) and high evapotranspiration resulting in water scarcity and reduced vegetative cover. Only 2% of the country's land area is considered arable. The main agricultural crops are dates and fruit. Annual CO2 emissions for the base year 1990 estimated in the First National Communication (FNC) to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC, 2005) totalled 140,958 Gg and CO2 sinks were 15,240 Gg. The energy sector contributed 90% of total CO2 emissions, followed by industry (8%) and agriculture (2%). There is a general warming all over KSA which varies from a minimum of 0.15°C to a maximum of 0.75°C with an average of 0.40°C. The pattern exhibits a clear systematic distribution with stronger warming tendencies over the interior part of the country and an area of weaker warming along the western and eastern coasts. As for rainfall trends, there are vast areas of low rainfall across the northern parts of the Kingdom and the eastern slopes of the Assir mountains. Results obtained from running GCM models show that an expected average warming for 2041 higher than the global average. It is expected to be highest (2.2-2.7°C) during the summer in the north western region. The lowest warming (0.2-0.4°C) is expected in the south and southwest. Predicted annual rainfall for 2041 using model IAP_97 shows an increase in moisture ranging between 20 and 30% in the southwest (Sarawat Mountains) and a decrease (7-18%) in the rest of the country except for the Makkah and Madianah regions where the decrease is not expected to be more than 1%. Based on a 1% increase in coastal development per year and considering the projected sea level rise estimated by the IPCC scenarios between 401 to 1,726 ha and 1,087 to 4,674 ha of sandy beaches are expected to be lost by 2100 along the Arabian Gulf and the red sea, respectively. Saudi Arabia is particularly vulnerable to climate change as most of its ecosystems are sensitive, its renewable water resources are limited, its economy remains highly dependent on fossil fuel exports, and there is a growing population (2.3% annual increase) for whom the government must provide. The Government is engaging in various mitigation and adaptation measures to cope with the adverse impacts of climate change as well as with response measures by the Annex I countries of the UNFCCC, which are expected to have diverse economic and social impacts. However, a great deal remains to be done to contribute to mitigation programmes in order to face this global and national challenge.

3.6.2 Awareness on climate change In a survey conducted in 2008 in 128 countries, 49% were aware of climate change and 40% perceived it as a threat while 39% believed that it was caused by human activities (Gallup, 2009). In a more recent pan-Arab survey conducted by the Arab Forum for Environment and Development (Saad, 2009) a majority of 98% believed that the climate is changing, and 81% thought that climate change is a serious problem in the country. Some 92% thought the climate was changing due to human activities, 93

including excessive use of energy and depletion of resources. About 36% of respondents thought that the Government was not acting sufficiently to address the problem, while 44% thought the opposite, and 20% of the sample did not have an opinion. Asked to choose sectors where climate change will have major impact, it stood out that not a single respondent said there will be no effect at all. The majority at the regional level gave priority to health, drinking water and food, followed by safeguarding coastal areas. Those surveyed were also asked to choose the three most important measures necessary to mitigate the causes and adapt to the effects of climate change. Changing consumption patterns, mainly reducing the use of energy, was the main measure chosen, followed by education and awareness. Ratifying and implementing international treaties came third. Although no data were found on the level of awareness on climate change among the farmers, the majority felt that the climate in the country was changing and that the trend was toward less moisture with an increase of drought severity and frequency. Many farmers also recognized extreme events such as floods as another indicator of climate change. During the 2010 season, date producers noticed unusual early blooming of palm trees as further evidence of a change in the climate (Oihabi, 2010). Concerned ministerial departments and institutions are increasingly aware of the negative impact of climate change on the country‟s natural, economic, and social environments and of the threat it constitutes to national water and food security. The Government is also very concerned about climate change as the efforts of mitigation adopted, especially by Annex I countries, are expected to have negative impact on the country‟s main resource, which is fossil fuel. This concern is expressed by the ratification of the UNFCCC and the Kyoto Protocol and active participation of the Saudi Government in all UNFCCC negotiations. The Government also took several initiatives, including allocating important financial support for environmental research and conservation projects and activities dealing with climate change mitigation and adaptation.

3.6.3 National vision, policy, strategies The KSA Government ratified the UNFCCC in 1994, the Kyoto Protocol in 2005 and joined the Carbon Sequestration and Leadership Forum (CSLF). Since then KSA has been participating actively in all UNFCCC‟s COPs and related protocols and bodies, activities, and negotiations. In recent years the Government has taken several Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS) initiatives and hosted a number of climate change and Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) workshops and meetings. The government submitted its first National Communication in 2005 and is currently in the process of preparing its second National Communication which is expected to be delivered by December 2010. The impact of climate change is expected to affect all aspects of life, including water resources, health, food and agricultural production, fisheries, biodiversity, forest and rangelands. The measures to be taken by government and by the many constituents of Saudi society, including the private sector, science and technology institutions and to a lesser extent the civil society, are many. Although more emphasis is placed on energy, water and agriculture, other sectors of concern are also considered. Water resources 3

The KSA is a country under severe water scarcity (98m /inhabitant per year). Total water withdrawal in 2006 was near 23.7 BCM, of which 98% was groundwater and 57% was non-renewable. Agriculture consumes 88% of water withdrawals (FAO, 2008). As a consequence of global warming the Kingdom‟s renewable water resources (both surface and underground), are expected to decrease significantly. The total water stress (decrease in groundwater recharge and surface runoff, the increase in irrigation requirements and domestic and industrial demands) at 1⁰C and 5⁰C increases in mean temperatures is expected to range between 1,520 and 4,950 MCM, respectively (PME, 2005). The government has taken various actions to ensure the sustainability of water resources, including assessments of water resources availability, construction of 302 dams with a total capacity of 1,354 MCM (MOA, 2009); 30 desalination plants to supply about 50% of the domestic water supplies in the Kingdom; drafting of water conservation regulations; promotion of wastewater collection‟ treatment and re-use; and designing and eventual implementation of water saving policies in agriculture. The major goals assigned to th the KSA‟s 9 Development Plan (2010-2015) in terms of water policy are the following (MWE, 2010): 94

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Preserving non-renewable aquifers in sensitive areas by limiting their use to drinking water and prohibiting their use for agriculture purposes;

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Constructing 74 dams to increase national storage capacity by 1,349 MCM;

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Promoting collection and reuse of wastewater (56 treatment plants in service in 2007, with 70 by 2010);

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Reinforcing water conservation measures in agriculture.

Agriculture The agriculture sector is known to be most vulnerable to climate change but also in the production of GHGs by producing methane and NO2, through livestock rumination, decomposition of manure, and biomass burning. However, there is a potential role in mitigation by storing carbon in the soil and vegetation cover. Climate change is expected to impact heavily on agriculture and food production especially through reducing water availability, but also through direct effects on crop yields. The KSA is seeking to achieve food security by implementing its newly prepared water and environment friendly Agriculture Strategy (AS) (2010-2030) and meeting the food deficit from the global market while reducing market risks through building strategic reserves and developing social security network programs for low income inhabitants (MOA, 2010). The Agriculture Strategy also includes promoting Saudi agricultural investments in collaboration with countries with a high agricultural potential. This policy primarily aims at producing food, but also aims at saving 8.5 BCM of irrigation water by 2030. The key targets are to: 

Reduce the area under irrigated wheat by 94% from 523,000 ha in 2004 to 33,700 ha by 2030;



Stop alfalfa and other high water consuming fodder crop production except where they utilize treated waste water. Also promote the development of feed industries using agricultural waste products;

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Improve irrigation efficiency from 45% in 2010 to 65% by 2030 by improving agricultural and irrigation practices and using new irrigation water-saving technologies and low water requirement crops;

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Double fish production and raise individual share to 18.5 kg by 2030 in addition to improving quality to reach international standards;

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Increase fishing areas in international waters, promote investment in aquaculture and use genetic engineering to improve fish resources;

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Control costs of erosion by increasing protected coral reefs and mangrove areas.

The AS includes developing a national agricultural meteorology network and early warning system to improve water management and to predict droughts, pests, and extreme events. It also aims to strengthen research, extension, capacity building, rural development, and infrastructure and develop regulations, technology transfer, information and marketing systems, and strengthen public, professional, and civil society institutions. Forests, rangelands, biodiversity, and desertification Both forest and rangelands are facing serious challenges as a result of dry climate, poor soils, and human activities which use excess fuel wood, exploit overgrazing, and expand uncontrolled urbanization and intensive recreation. Natural ecosystems identified as being at risk include mountain forests and woodlands, wadis, rawdas, wetlands, and coastal areas. Anticipated negative impacts of climate change on range and forest lands over the next 50-100 years include: increases in the frequency and changes in the patterns of natural disturbances, such as drought, sand storms, fire, and floods leading to increased dieback and die-off in forests and woodlands; spread of diseases; changes in species composition and richness; drop in productivity; and a decrease in biodiversity. Coral Reefs represent the most significant habitat found along the Saudi shores (both Red Sea and Arabian Gulf). These reefs, as well as the mangrove forests, form important habitats and provide shelter and food for a wide variety of marine life. These resources are likely to be negatively impacted by global warming and 95

by sea-level rise especially through acceleration of coastal erosion as well as inundation and coral reef bleaching. Large scale changes in species composition and zoning in mangrove forests are expected due to changes in sedimentation and organic accumulation. Further studies are needed to investigate the impact of climate change on coral reefs and mangrove ecosystems biodiversity and health. Natural forest and rangelands fodder and meat production will drop sharply as the climate becomes drier and the economic and social sustainability in rural areas will be severely stressed and rural exodus is expected to dramatically increase. Furthermore, desertification is expected to worsen. In 2005 a National Forest Strategy and Action Plan within the National Action Program to combat desertification and to mitigate the effect of drought in the framework of the United Nation Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD); prepared range, livestock, and feed strategies. In terms of forest and rangeland ecosystems rehabilitation, much has been done since 2006. The Ministry of Agriculture (MOA) implemented a Juniper ecosystem rehabilitation project aimed at combating juniper die-back as well as executing afforestation projects in Al Gonfoda, Wadi Dawassir, Najrane, Al Hasa and other areas for sand stabilization. Several mangrove rehabilitation projects were implemented by the MOA, Saudi Commission for Wildlife, General Presidency of Meteorology and Environmental Protection (PME), and the private sector (ARAMCO). KSA is also implementing a limited range of rehabilitation and management activities hindered by the common land tenure. The MOA also established a range research centres in Al Jouf where studies and research activities are conducted and where approximately 30 tons of seeds for 40 plant species are produced annually in addition to useful shrub seedlings. Efforts to develop new techniques and improved plant material at this centre will certainly contribute to mitigating and adapting to climate change impacts. To protect biodiversity and endangered plants and wildlife, the Saudi Commission for Wildlife (SCW) conducted assessment surveys of the status of flora and fauna and compiled management plans to ensure their sustainability. The SCW also established 15 protected areas covering about 5% of the land area and conserving about 43% of the country's flora and established National Wildlife Research Centres in Taif and Thumamah. The PME also established a regional drought monitoring and early warning centre. Unfortunately, the involvement of conservation organizations within civil society remains insignificant and the coordination among stakeholders leaves much to be desired, which is having strong negative impact on the outcome. Adopting a participative approach involving the private sector, professional organizations, and civil society at large, and allocating more funds to foster their activities, in addition to building capacity, are all essential prerequisites to boost sustainable land management, which is necessary to ensure efficient, adaptation to climate change, desertification control, and conservation of biodiversity. Impacts on the KSA economy Saudi Arabia remains highly dependent on fossil fuel exports. Actions by Annex I countries to reduce GHG emissions are expected to have adverse impacts on the countryâ&#x20AC;&#x;s revenues. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) in its Third Assessment Report projected lower oil demand and revenues for developing countries that are highly dependent on the export of fossil fuels. Saudi Arabia and other oil exporters have been negotiating for effective use of flexibility mechanisms, eg emissions trading and certain emission credits and large CDM projects by which developed countries can offset their emissions instead of targeting oil substitution. Until now the Subsidiary Body for Scientific and Technological Advances is not seriously considering this proposal due to concerns about â&#x20AC;&#x153;the long-term liability for the storage site, including liability for any seepageâ&#x20AC;?. Economic diversification is considered the main adaption to offset climate change impact and spill-over effects of mitigation measures of Annex I countries. Saudi Arabia has taken steps towards diversifying its economy by opening its market, allowing foreign investments, privatization of certain industries; and becoming a member of the World Trade Organization. However, the KSA considers that significant assistance to its economy by developed countries is essential for achieving the necessary diversification, especially through investments and technology transfer.

 Table 6 Recent activities and projects on climate change Preparation of a national water strategy, this project is implemented in collaboration with the International Monetary Fund. Updating the study of underground water resources in KSA, A project of the Ministry of Water and Electricity implemented by contracts with Abdullah Abo Nayan and BRGm companies and with GTZ - Dornyaa Union. A study on water use in agriculture in being undertaken by the MWE in co-operation with UNDP. A project CCS project consisting of injecting 40 million standard cubic feet per day (cfd) of CO2 into the world's biggest Ghawar oilfield. The project, fully financed by Aramco. Saudi SNC is under preparation by the Presidency of Meteorology and Environment (PME), in collaboration with UNDP and with GEF funding. CDM project “The Madinah Landfill Gas Capture Project”, implemented in Madinah region. Delineation and protection of forests and woodlands in KSA, funded and implemented by the MOA. The Juniper ecosystem rehabilitation project in Sarawat Mountains funded and implemented by the MOA. Al Gonfoda, Wadi Dawassir, Al Hassa and Najrane afforestation projects for environmental protection and sand advance control funded and implemented by the MOA. Protection and rehabilitation of the mangrove areas project funded and implemented by the MOA. MOA-FAO Cooperation Programme (UTF) consists of several projects and activities related to improving irrigation efficiency, plant and animal production an protection, fisheries, forestry and range management all contributing directly or indirectly in the efforts towards adaptation to climate change. King Abdullah bin Abdulaziz “food security initiative,”, backed by an investment fund of about US$800 million, to support investment by private sector Saudi companies in agricultural projects abroad. Climate change modelling by the CECCR. Afforestation projects using treated waste water in certain cities in KSA, such as Jeddah.

3.6.4 Institutional arrangements The focal point of the UNFCCC in the KSA is based at the Ministry of Petroleum and Mineral Resources (MPMR). This choice is justified due to the importance of petroleum in the country‟s economy and as a source of GHGs and in view of the expected severe impact of climate change mitigation measures on fossil fuel markets, and consequently on the country‟s revenue. In 2009, the KSA funded the National Committee for the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM), which is the Designated National Authority (DNA) for CDM. The National Committee is chaired by a representative of the MPMR and includes members from twelve relevant Ministries and entities (Table 7). The National Committee is supported by a Secretariat based at the MPMR which reports to the Chairman of the Committee.  Table 7 Members of the National Committee for the CDM Ministry of Municipal and Rural Affairs Ministry of Commerce and Industry Ministry of Health Ministry of Water and Electricity Ministry of Agriculture Meteorology and Environmental Protection Presidency Royal Commission for Jubail and Yanbu’ Saline Water Conversation Corporation Saudi Aramco Saudi Arabian Basic Industries Corporation (SABIC) Saudi Electricity Company King Abdulaziz City for Science and Technology 97

Considering its duties and competency, the General Presidency of Meteorology and Environmental Protection (PME) is also a government agency dealing with climate change. The PME coordinates certain activities related to climate change, especially the reporting processes to the UNFCCC and Kyoto Protocol. The PME also chairs the Environment Council created in 2009 by a Royal Decree to replace the Ministerial Committee for the Environment which assured the coordination of environmental activities at national level. The Environmental Council is composed of 11 ministries in addition to the King Saud City for Science and Technology, the Saudi Commission for Wildlife (SCW), and the Saudi Commission for Tourism and Antiquities. The Environment Council functions consist of proposing environmental policies, strategies, and regulations and performing the assessment and coordination of the government and private sector activities aimed at environmental protection. Climate change mitigation and adaptation are among the subjects of concern to this new Council. A Centre of Excellence for Climate Change Research (CECCR) was launched in 2009 within the King Abdulaziz University (KAU) in Jeddah with the mission to study climate change and its possible impacts on society and provide consultations for decision-makers. The CECCR was established within the Department of Meteorology, Environment & Arid Land Agriculture at KAU to keep up with the accelerated pace of scientific developments in the field of climate change and climate modelling. It also aims to nurture a group of capable researchers to face the future challenges imposed by increasing aridity. The Ministry of Agriculture is among the government institutions involved in policy-making and design and implementation of activities related directly and indirectly to climate change, especially in relation to its impact on water resources and crop production and protection. The Ministry of Water and Electricity is also involved in dealing with climate change and water. Among the other institutions involved are the Ministry of Health, which organizes meetings, workshops, and awareness raising actions on nutrition, human wellbeing, and diseases; the Ministry of Education; the SCW and the Prince Sultan Research Centre for the Environment, Waters, and Desert are all and to various degrees involved with climate change mitigation and adaptation research and development actions. Many other universities and research centres in the country are tackling climate change issues, however, a great deal is still to be accomplished to provide the country with the means and appropriate measures. The private sector is also involved but mainly in the energy and petrochemical industries. The involvement of civil society is still lagging behind. The main associations involved are the Saudi Environment Association, the National Biology Society and the Agricultural Sciences Association. Other institutions with large budgets and strong capacity can make substantial and quality inputs with more involvement in research such as the King Abdulaziz City for Science and Technology (KACST) and all universities and research centres, including agricultural centres. Several UN and international, regional and sub-regional agencies and organizations (UNEP, FAO, UNDP, WB, UNDESA, IMF, GEF, ESCWA, CDM, GTZ, LAS, ACSAD, AOAD, GCC, PERSGA, ROPME etcâ&#x20AC;Ś) contribute and support the KSA in its efforts to mitigate and adapt to climate change. Although some coordination occurs among several stakeholders involved within the framework of the National Committee for the Clean Development Mechanism(CDM), which counts among its members the national focal points of the UNCCD and CBD, better coordination among all parties is required to create synergies and design and implement integrated and sizeable programs.

3.6.5 Technical knowledge Various activities, directly or indirectly related to climate change mitigation and adaptation, are undertaken by government agencies and the private sector in collaboration with developed countries and sub-regional, regional, and international agencies and organizations. Such activities are focused on the countryâ&#x20AC;&#x;s main concerns, specifically the energy sector and water resources. Nevertheless, various activities are also undertaken in fields of food security, such as agriculture, forestry and rangelands, fisheries and aquaculture, animal production and health, plant production and protection, and rural development.

The energy sector A number of studies and mitigation projects have been implemented or are under implementation in the petroleum and energy sector. Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS) activities based on new advanced technologies are a means of reducing GHG emissions instead of reducing the use of fossil fuels. The KSA is making efforts to reduce emissions by upgrading refineries to produce cleaner fuels and supporting moves to reduce climate change by developing and exporting solar energy from 2020 (Heba, 2010). In collaboration with KACST and International Companies (IBM), a research programme was launched on solar-powered water desalination based on using advanced material membranes. The targeted solar concentrator system will capture energy equivalent to 1,500 suns, according to IBM, powering a plant that will produce 30,000 CM of fresh water per day for a city of 100,000 people (IBM, 2010). A project is being initiated to inject 1.1 MCM (40 million standard cubic feet per day (cfd)) of CO2 into the world's biggest oil field at Ghawar. The project, fully financed by ARAMCO, is to be implemented by 2012. Only one CDM project is in the pipeline up to the end of 2010, and it involves the Madinah Landfill Gas Capture Project implemented with technical assistance from the Swiss company Vitol. A daily input of 900 tons of municipal waste is deposited in the new landfill. Closure is expected in 2025. The project aims to promote good waste management practices, contributing to technology transfer and reducing GHG emissions. Irrigation water and agriculture The Ministry of Water and Electricity (MWE), in collaboration with several international agencies, such as the World Bank, is preparing a National Water Strategy. The MWE is also currently in the process of updating the assessment of underground water status in collaboration with King Faysal University, Abdullah Abo Nayan and BRGm companies and the GTZ. In cooperating with the UNDP, MWE is also in the process of conducting a study on water consumption in the different sectors, especially in agriculture. Modern irrigation (localized and sprinkler irrigation), covers about 66% of the total irrigated area while the remaining 34% is under surface irrigation. The MOA adopted a programme to encourage farmers to modernize their irrigation systems and to promote the use of treated wastewater for irrigation of authorized crops and greeneries. But also to adopt measures related to good agricultural practices, such as farm management, choice of low water demanding crops, Integrated Pest Management (IPM), and organic agriculture. A large technical cooperation programme (Unilateral Trust Fund â&#x20AC;&#x201C; UTF) between the MOA and FAO includes several projects and activities related to improving irrigation efficiency, plant and animal production and protection, fisheries, forestry, and range management. All these projects contribute directly or indirectly towards adaptation to the effects of climate change. Furthermore, in 2006, and in collaboration with FAO, the Ministry of Agriculture implemented a successful Juniper ecosystem rehabilitation project based on runoff water harvesting, removal of dead trees and branches, and planting local juniper saplings in an effort to combat the juniper die-back in the Sarawat Mountains. The project has been sustained in the Assir area, where about 10,000 juniper trees were planted. With the technical assistance of FAO, a good technology was developed in range seed and seedlings production. The seed is used to produce highly drought-resistant fodder on private farms and rangelands. However, their use at large scale is facing land tenure difficulties and lack of livestock producersâ&#x20AC;&#x; awareness and participation. Several projects are also being implemented to survey and assess mangrove and coral reef resources and to ensure their protection and rehabilitation. A number of projects and activities are also being undertaken by government agencies and the private sector to protect fisheries and develop and diversify aquaculture. No survey data are available on the level of technical knowledge on climate change issues among technicians in the different sectors, especially those related to food production and security. Although there is a high level of awareness of climate change at both local and national levels, the technical know-how related to adaptation measures, is poor among all government agencies and the private sector including farmers, fishers, and herders. Great efforts need to be made to strengthen the capacity of all stakeholders to increase awareness about the options available. 99

There are numerous gaps that need to be filled in knowledge and technical know-how related to mitigation, reducing vulnerability, and building resilience. Much effort needs to be made by the government and national partners and much assistance is needed to fill these gaps in: 

Technologies for improving environmental and energy efficiency in upstream and downstream activities relating to fossil fuels and for harnessing renewable energy sources;



Techniques for building resilience in socio-economic and ecological systems, including through economic diversification and sustainable management of natural resources;



Technologies for implementing efficient water and land use systems and developing highly productive crops with low water requirement and the ability to adapt to higher temperatures, lower moisture, higher salinity, and heavy use;



Technologies for enhancing forest and range carbon stocks through conservation and sustainable management and techniques and capacity for estimating and monitoring changes in carbon stock in vegetal cover and soil;



Developing research and extension institutions and activities and building capacity as means of developing and implementing technological solutions to the challenges in the energy sector as well as in the sustainable management of natural resources and food production (agriculture and fisheries and aquaculture);



Techniques for enhancing disaster risk-reduction warning systems related to climate change;



Technical expertise in the domains of CDM planning and implementation of projects and activities.

3.6.6 Funding opportunities th

The total budget allocated for the 9 Development Plan (2010-2014) is US$385 billion (SR 1,444 billion), of which US$26.5 million is allocated to the Ministry of Agriculture (6.6%). Climate change mitigation and adaptive activities are not included in the Ministry‟s budget as such, but are funded as separate development projects and activities. In 2007 King Abdullah announced that a US$300 million fund would be set up to support cleaner and more efficient petroleum technologies for the protection of the local, regional and global environment, and to promote the development of technologies such as carbon capture and storage. It would also promote the transfer of environmentally friendly technologies from advanced countries to the KSA and some OPEC member countries, as well as to other developing nations. The private sector, such as ARAMCO, the country‟s giant energy company, invests significant funds to upgrade some of its factories to reduce GHGs emissions and to promote carbon capture and storage activities. Public agencies and private companies in the water and agricultural sectors also invest important resources in water resource assessment, development, and management. The country also encourages the development of on-farm water-saving irrigation systems and practices. Other institutions such as the PME and the CECCR invest in the establishment and management of early warning systems and climate modeling. Up to now the CDM has not been well promoted in all the Gulf Cooperation Council Countries (GCC) for four main reasons: (i) CDM's complexity, (ii) low awareness of the mechanism within the region, (iii) its potential impact on institutional policy and legal frameworks and, (iv) relatively low rate of CDM projects (Kilani 2006). The KSA is considered a rich country and therefore is not eligible for financial support opportunities made available to other developing countries by UN and other international, regional, and sub-regional agencies and funding institutions. However, almost no efforts are made to benefit from the available opportunities such as the CDM, the various carbon funds managed by the World Bank or mechanisms, such as Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation (REDD) and REDD+. At the global scale and in response to the challenge of national food security, which is expected to worsen with climate change, King Abdullah bin Abdulaziz proclaimed a “food security initiative” in 2009, backed by 100

an investment fund of US$800 million (SR 3 billion) to support investment by the private sector and Saudi companies in agricultural projects abroad (Lippman, 2010). In February 2009, the Hail Agricultural Development Company, a private company, signed a lease with the government of the Sudan for large areas of land for wheat, vegetables, and animal feed production. Saudi officials also held talks with the Tanzanian government for a 500,000 ha lease arrangement. But political concerns were quick to emerge, suggesting that Saudi Arabia and other emerging countries were embarking on a neo-colonial investment strategy (Sven Behrendt, 2009). In response, the Saudi government has become more engaged in the broader discourse regarding food security. In 2008, Saudi Arabia donated more than US$500 million to the World Food Programme, to help the least developed countries cope with high food and fuel prices. The KSA also financed the World Summit on Food Security at the UN Food and Agriculture Organization headquarters in Rome in November 2009.

3.6.7 Conclusions and recommendations Climate change is a serious challenge to the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, which is under tremendous pressure as a result of aridity, severe water shortages, rapidly growing population, and reliance on fossil fuels, the latter being viewed globally as a major source of GHG emissions. The KSA is concentrating its efforts on searching for solutions to limit adverse impacts of mitigation measures taken by Annex 1 countries and on advocating the use of CCS and CDM instead of replacing the use of fossil fuels with renewable and less polluting sources of energy. The Kingdom is also carrying out efforts towards upgrading its petroleum industry and adopting cleaner technologies as a contribution to climate change mitigation. KSA‟s strategy to overcome water shortages is based on developing new and alternative water sources and improving water use efficiency, mainly through improved localized irrigation systems and low water requirement crops. Efforts are also made to develop better climate change models, early-warning, and storm-forecasting systems. Finally, assuring the country‟s food and water requirements is a chief objective which guides a number of actions and activities. However, a great deal remains to be accomplished by the government as well as by the private sector to cope with the threat. Civil society‟s contribution also needs to be organized and strengthened. The KSA could develop its unlimited potential for solar and wind energy and reduce industrial and transport GHG emissions by using appropriate technologies and management practices. Although significant efforts have been made in policy terms to deal with the challenges of water management, a great deal remains to be accomplished to actually improve water resources management and the exploitation of available unconventional water resources such as treated waste water, brackish, and sea water. Dry-land farming and more efficient water harvesting techniques are recommended in the south-western part of the country on the abandoned terraces of the Sarawat Mountains and along the coasts of the red sea. Developing these options will save water and improve the livelihood of small farmers in these areas. Scientific research, which includes selecting better drought tolerant crops, will provide the essential tools to cope with the expected adverse climatic conditions. The availability of generous funding sources and the excellent research capacities at local universities and other research institutions must be harnessed to achieve these goals. Although reforestation of degraded lands as well as afforestation, agroforestry, and improvement of rangelands are limited by adverse climate and aridity, they could, nevertheless, contribute greatly to improve the country‟s environment and to sequester carbon. These activities will need political backing and human resources. Such projects stand a good chance of succeeding because of available moisture from the Sarawat mountains, whereas in the drier areas treated waste-water could be used to irrigate these plantings. Mixed afforestation could reduce the pressure on natural forests and rangelands by providing much needed fodder and fuel wood. Very little research is done on measures to improve forest and rangeland rehabilitation techniques affected by climate change. To achieve this goal additional capacity, financial resources, and infrastructure will be needed. Research is also needed on the effects of sea level rise and on measures to protect and develop threatened resources. The fishing and aquaculture sectors are contributing substantially to food security and hence the concern about the effects of sea level rise on such resources is high, therefore, mitigation measures must be put in place to safeguard these resources. The Jeddah fish farming centre run by the MOA-FAO 101

technical cooperation programme is conducting research on aquaculture which needs to be extended to include the potential impacts of climate change and methods to counteract the negative effects. The shortage in skilled human resources in the agricultural sector is impacting negatively on the sustainable use of natural resources, on food production, and on the development of appropriate technologies to face the challenges related to global warming and its implications. National and provincial universities and education institutions need to adapt their curricula to address the country‟s new needs and to build the necessary capacity to deal with these issues. International and regional organizations can also assist the public sector and education sector to accelerate the process of capacity building on matters related to climate change.

References Alkolibi M (2002) Possible effects of global warming on agriculture and water resources in Saudi Arabia: impacts and responses. Climatic Change 54: 225–245.2 Al Zawad FM (2008) Impacts of Climate Change on Water Resources in Saudi Arabia. Proceedings of the Third International Conference on WRAE and the 1st Arab Water Forum. Presidency of Meteorology and Environment, Dammam, Saudi Arabia. Carnegy endowment for international peace. http://carnegieendowment.org/publications/index.cfm?fa=view&id=23859 FAO (2008) Water and agriculture in Saudi Arabia. AQUASTAT - FAO Information System on Water and Agriculture. http://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/saudi_arabia/index.stm Gallup (2009) Awareness of Climate Change and Threat www.gallup.com/poll/124652/awareness-climate-change-threat-vary-region.aspx

Vary

Region.

Heba H (2010) Industry Insight: Saudi Arabian CSP vies for a place in the sun. CSP Today (5/8/2010). http://social.csptoday.com/industry-insight/saudi-arabian-csp-vies-place-sun IBM (2010) IBM and KACST unveil research initiative to create solar powered water desalination plant. www.ibm.com/news/sa/en/2010/03/31/z337573t40642u34.html Johm K (2006) Summary of the CDM conference in Saudi Arabia. Arab Environment Watch. Lippman TW (2010) Saudi Arabia‟s quest for food security. Council on Foreign Relations. Middle East Policy Spring 2010 Pg. 90 Vol. 17 No. 1 I MOA (2009) Agricultural Statistics Year Book, Vol 23. Ministry of Agriculture of the KSA. MWE (2010) Water planning and development. Ministry of Water and Electricity of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. www.mowe.gov.sa/English/mowedevelopment.aspx Oihabi A (2010) Personal communication. FAO-KSA Programme Coordination Unit. Riyadh, KSA. PME (2005) First National Communication of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, submitted to the UNFCCC. Presidency of Meteorology and Environment, Riyadh, KSA. Saad WN (2009) Arab Public Opinion and Climate Change. In Arab Environment climate change. Impact of climate change on Arab Countries. Edited by Tolba KM and Saad WN. Report of the Arab Forum for Environment and Development. ISBN: 9953-437-28-9. Sven Behrendt (2009) The G20 and Saudi Arabia‟s Changing Foreign Policy Agenda. Carnegie Endowment For International Peace. www.carnegieendowment.org/publications/index.cfm?fa=view&id=23859 102

World Bank, FAO and IFAD (2009) Improving Food Security in Arab Countries. http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTMENA/Resources/FoodSecfinal.pdf

Acronyms ACSAD

Arab Centre for The Studies of Arid Zones and Dry Lands

AOAD

Arab Organization for Agricultural Development

ARAMCO

Arabian American Oil Company

Agriculture Strategy

BCM

Billion Cubic Meters

KACST

King Saud City for Science and Technology,

CBD

Convention on Biodiversity

Climate Change

CCS

Carbon Capture and Storage

CDM

Clean Development Mechanism

CECCR

Centre of Excellence for Climate Change Research

CFD

standard cubic feet per day

COP

Conference of the Parties

DNA

Designated National Authority

ESCWA

Economic and Social Commission for Western Asia

FAO

Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations

GCC

Gulf Countries Council

GCM

General Circulation Model

GDP

Gross Domestic Product

GEF

Global Environmental Fund

1 trillion metric grams

GHG

Greenhouse Gas

GTZ

German society for technical cooperation

IPCC

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change

KACST

King Abdulaziz City for Science and Technology

KAU

King Abdulaziz University

KSA

Kingdom of Saudi Arabia

LAS

League of Arab States

MEP

Ministry of Economy and Planning

MOA

Ministry of Agriculture

MPMR

Ministry of Petroleum and Mineral Resources

MWE

Ministry of Water and Electricity

NFC

National First Communication

PERSGA

The Regional Organization for the Conservation of the Environment of the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden

PME

General Presidency of Meteorology and Environmental Protection

RNE

Regional Office for the Near East

ROPME

Regional Organization for the Protection of the Marine Environment

SCW

Saudi Commission for Wildlife

SNC

Second National Communication

United Nations

UNDESA

United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs

UNDP

United Nations Development Programme

UNEP

United Nations Environment Programme 103

UNFCCC

United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change

World Bank

104

3.7

Sudan country paper

Author: Rehab Ahmed Hassan, Higher Council for Environment and Natural Resources.

3.7.1 Introduction Sudan has vulnerable ecosystems on which the majority of the population depends. Sudan already suffers from recurrent droughts, overuse of marginal lands, and the dominance of biomass use for energy. Even small changes in climate will have adverse effects on crop, grassland, water resources, animal production, and forests because of the fragility of the ecosystem. Sudan has suffered a number of long and devastating droughts in the past decades which have undermined food security and are strongly linked to human displacement and related conflicts. Despite serious water shortage, floods are also common in Sudan. An estimated 50-200 km southward shift has already occurred in the boundary between semi-desert and desert. This boundary is expected to continue to move southwards as rainfall continues to decline. The remaining semi-desert and low rainfall savannah with sandy soils represent about 25% of Sudan's agricultural land and these are at considerable risk of further desertification. This trend will lead to a significant drop in food production. Climate analysis conducted as part of the preparation of Sudan's First National Communication indicated that average temperature is expected to rise significantly relative to baseline expectations. By 2060 o o o o projected warming ranges from 1.5 C to 3.1 C during August and between 1.1 C to 2.1 C in January. Projections of rainfall under climate change conditions also shows sharp deviations from baseline expectations. Average rainfall is expected to decrease by 6mm per month during the rainy season. Such changes in temperatures and rainfall will adversely affect progress and what has already been achieved in many sectors in Sudan. The changes will have impacts on agriculture, water resources, food security, and public health as well as important ecosystems and natural resources. But it is the farmers and pastoralists, spread over thousands of villages from the northern desert regions to the southern forests, who will face increasing difficulty in maintaining their livelihoods under conditions of increasing heat stress and recurrent drought. For Sudan, climate change is not merely an environmental issue defined by rainfall and temperature; it represents a serious sustainable development problem that affects every citizen spread across many vulnerable communities. It will require concrete actions and financial support both within and beyond Sudan's borders to mitigate the impacts and adapt to these changes.

3.7.2 Awareness on climate change In Sudan climate change concepts are not well integrated in the national policy and planning system, partly because of limitations of the national management and data processing systems. There have been some efforts to foster awareness and understanding of climate change but these are subjected to frequent changes resulting from political instability and government policies and strategies that do not effectively incorporate climate change issues. Raising awareness on climate change and its impacts requires a continuous process of knowledge and understanding which must cover a broad spectrum of stakeholders from government, non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and civil society. Awareness of climate change is beginning to increase in the different layers of society. Awareness raising workshops were held during the preparation process for conducting the Sudan National Adaptation Program of Action (NAPA). The first round of workshops had the objective of raising awareness and building capacities and general presentations were made on climate change impacts, vulnerability, and adaptation. Many people were involved in these workshop representing different interests such as farmers, pastoralists, women, national and international NGOs, government officials, students, factory employees, 105

community–based organizations, government representatives, researchers, university professors, women‟s societies, and local communities. This involvement of diverse stakeholders guaranteed wide coverage of potential concerns. However much more work related to awareness on climate change needs to be done among policymakers, ministerial department, and civil societies.

3.7.3 National vision, policy, strategies Sudan signed the United Nations Framework for Climate Change Convention (UNFCCC) in Rio de Janero in 1992 and ratified it in November 1993. Sudan also ratified the Kyoto Protocol in February 2005. The actual implementation of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) in Sudan started in 1995 when the first Conference of Parties (COP) was held. Activities to implement the convention started in 1997 when the Higher Council for Environment and Natural Resources (HCENR) was designated as the National Focal Point. Its membership comprised all the institutions related to the implementation of the Convention. th

Sudan has ratified many climate change related Conventions. In 1995, Sudan became the 16 party to ratify the United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD). Also in 1995, Sudan became a party to the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD). In 2006 Sudan also ratified the Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants. In 1992–1993, Sudan prepared for the First National Communication under UNFCCC funded by GEF/UNDP. It included training, GHG emissions inventory, an analysis of vulnerability and adaptation assessment, mitigation and awareness program. The Sudan completed its First National Communication in February 2003. To fill the gaps in vulnerability and adaption assessment, a two-year project – Assessment of Impacts and Adaptation to Climate change (AIACC) – was developed which aimed to enhance scientific and technical information, assess climate change impacts, and design cost-effective response measures. The National Adaptation Program of Action (NAPA) was implemented from 2005–2007. The goal was to identify priority activities and address climate vulnerability in sectoral and development policies that are complementary to climate change and environment policies. There are many on-going national policy processes that have parallel aims to climate change adaptation such as: the poverty reduction strategy, the roll-back malaria program, and water harvesting. The Agricultural sector including forestry and livestock sectors are largely influenced by climatic variability and change. Analysis of agricultural vulnerability indicates that the key attributes of climate change are those related to climate variability, including the frequency of abnormal conditions. It also indicates that agricultural productivity is dependent upon temperatures, the length of the growing season, available soil moisture and climate extremes such as droughts, dust storms, and floods. Livestock are particularly sensitive to water availability, temperature, and access to pasture. The observed climate change in eastern Africa including Sudan (increased temperature and decreased rainfall) from 1996-2003 has been accompanied by a decline in long-cycle crops (eg slowly maturing varieties of sorghum and maize) across most of eastern Africa, thereby impacting the available food supply. Temperature increases have also stressed livestock, leading to reductions in milk production and poor health. In the last decades, many areas have experienced deterioration in food production (sesame, corn, and millet) because of soil degradation in conjunction with droughts. Storing food is necessary to secure food for the population. Traditional systems of storage are sophisticated and there is no difficulty as long as the harvest is good. The grain storage services available at present can meet any shortfall in food production.

106

Rainfed agriculture on sandy soils is at risk because of the low and irregular rainfall and farmers are not able to produce enough food. Farmers began to search for new ways to overcome the sharp decline in production. The most appropriate activity practised by famers was to plant vegetables in small plots and irrigate them using drinking water.

3.7.4 Institutional arrangements The Higher Council for Environment and Natural Resources (HCENR) is the coordination body for all environmental and natural resources management related matters in Sudan. It is responsible for multiagency coordination and consultative planning. HCENR is chaired by the Minister of the Environment and Physical Development (MEPD), recently the Ministry of Environment, Forestry, and Physical Development. HCENR includes thirty ministries/administrations and representatives of NGOs, universities, and private sector organisations. The Ministry of Environment, Forestry and Physical Development currently is the key executive body in charge of environmental management. The Ministry of Agriculture hosted the National Drought and Desertification Control Unit which was designated as the National Focal Point for the Implementation of United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification. The key stakeholders related to UNFCCC were grouped in respect to their sensitivity to climate change. These are government ministries and institutions, universities, research institutions, and non-governmental organizations. Permanent observation units were established within Ministries of Energy, Industry, Agriculture and Forestry; National Corporation; University of Khartoum; and the Meteorological Authority in order to update National Communications. Some civil society organisations promote awareness and proper community–based management of natural resources. They raise awareness and implement interventions to address climate change impacts. The relationship between civil society and the government is somewhat critical. This is mainly because the government sees civil society as another prime opponent to its policy rather than as a complementary safeguard. However, recently a regulating Act was raised in parliament in an effort to legalize and regularise this relationship.

3.7.5 Technical knowledge Sudan has significant resources potential, richly varied geography, and tremendous human capability. It has made significant development strides in promoting sustainable development and engages in international environmental processes facilitating strategic research, employing preventive measures and monitoring mechanisms, and strengthening its human and institutional capacity. Yet climate risks pose a serious challenge to Sudan‟s overriding development priorities in agriculture, forestry, and water resources management. The capacity of technical staff in government institutions involved in climate change is poor. The National Capacity Self-Assessment Project (NCSA) conducted by HCENR pointed out that academic staff specializing in climate change are limited in number and qualifications. Most universities only recently started to give attention to environmental studies. The Faculty of Forestry of the University of Khartoum has only recently introduced climate change into its research and studies. The Faculty of Environmental Studies in Ahlia University has introduced climate science into its post-graduate program and in addition the university has established a centre for alternative energy and sustainable development. The Global Environmental Facility (GEF) and United Nations Environment Program (UNEP) sponsored the Sudan Assessment of Impact and Adaptation to Climate Change, (AIACC–AF14 project 2001–2005) which included the development of mitigation strategies in arid and semi-arid areas in relation to natural resources management and disaster mitigation. This was a very useful experience that identified tools and practical adaptation options for vulnerable communities.

107

Sudan has also conducted a National Adaptation Programme of Action (NAPA, 2007) which is a step towards developing a national strategy for adaptation to climate change by identifying practical adaptation options. During this process, Sudan has participated in the Global Assessment of Impact and Adaptation to climate change in Multiple Sectors and Regions which is an umbrella project consisting of 24 regional studies on impacts, vulnerability, and adaptation. Sudan‟s NAPA identified 32 urgent adaptation initiatives to reduce increasing vulnerability of rural communities to current and future climate risks. The NAPA process also yielded a consensus that the highest priority intervention should be a program of adaptation with a major focus on enhancement of food security by building the adaptive capacities of rural populations, particularly in areas where rainfed farming and pastoralism is practiced. Sudan is currently engaged in a 4-year project implementing NAPA priority interventions to build resilience in the agriculture and water sector. It began in Jan 2010. Sudan had conducted its National Capacity Self-Assessment (NCSA, 2005-2007) to determine priority needs and establish a plan of actions for developing Sudan‟s capacity to meet commitments to national and environmental management. The NCSA was a highly participatory and consultative process that resulted in the production of several technical reports over a 2-year period. These describe the capacity needs related to the Rio Convention on Biodiversity Conservation, climate change, and desertification/land degradation. There are key capacity gaps that needed to be filled in order to enhance climate change knowledge: 

Climate change, and UNFCCC concepts are not well integrated into the national policy and planning system. This is partly because of limitations of the national management and data processing systems;



Efforts to foster awareness and understanding of climate issues are limited since the structures and affiliation of government institutions are the subject of frequent changes resulting from political instability;



In key sectors such as agriculture and energy, there are few specific climate change measures in place even though national plans call for the establishment of shelterbelts belts in agricultural schemes and the promotion of renewable energy;



In most cases, good laws and regulations are poorly enforced;



At the institutional level, lack of awareness and limited capacity to monitor and evaluate hinder implementation of adaptation strategies and environmental management plans;



Capacity building is needed in information technology, networking, laboratory and field equipment for monitoring and evaluation;



There is currently no assessment of environmental and socio-economic impacts of climate change;



The numbers and qualifications of staff involved in climate change are inadequate and there is an urgent need to recruit more qualified staff and conduct intensive training;



Upgrading institutional capacities to deal with climate change requires an increasing awareness among policy-makers about climate change issues;



Universities and research centres must include climate change issues in their programs;



The role of civil society organizations should be enhanced through training, capacity building, and networking. The government needs also to create an enabling environment for greater involvement of civil society.

In Sudan, the most vulnerable groups are traditional rainfed farmers and pastoralists. In many places rainfed farmers and pastoralists have devised numerous coping strategies to deal with agricultural production in the face of climate variability. Major adaptations include: 

Community–based forest and rangeland management and rehabilitation;



Replacement of household goat herds with sheep to reduce pressure on fragile rangelands;



Land use conversion from agriculture to livestock grazing;



Strengthening agricultural and veterinary extension services; 108



Introduction of drought–resistant seed varieties, poultry, and fish production;



Drought early warning systems for disaster preparedness;



Protection and/or rehabilitation of rangeland including construction of shelterbelts to reduce windstorm impacts.

In parts of Sudan (eg Darfur), rainfed farmers and pastoralists have developed and implemented various low-technology forms of water harvesting to capture scarce rainfall. Such practices, however, are not currently widespread throughout the country. The NAPA consultation process confirmed great interest in expanding these and other practices to communities that find they are increasingly lacking in water resources. A summary of the priority adaptation activities that have been identified across the five ecological zones are as follows: 

Introduction of new water harvesting/spreading techniques making use of intermediate technologies;



Promotion and greater use of traditional water conservation practices;



Rehabilitation of existing dams and improvements in water basin infrastructure to increase water storage capacity, particularly in central and western Sudan;



Construction of dams and water storage facilities, particularly in western Sudan;



Introduction of water-conserving agricultural land management practices;



Improvement of access to groundwater supplies by installing water pumps;



Improvement of regional meteorological stations to monitor and collect climate data;



Introduction of revolving micro-credit funds to support the implementation of small water harvesting projects; and



Strengthening extension services to support smallholder farmers to capture and store water.  Table 8 Recent activities and projects on climate change

Poverty Reduction and Conserving the Nile environment – Sabnas Village Rehabilitation and Expansion of Masho Village Water Supply Network Nile Bank Pollution – Abu Roaf – Omdurman Provision of Potable Water to Four Villages in New Halfa Poverty Reduction and Conserving the Environment in Al Hodi Village River Nile State Shelterbelt and Establishing of a Nursery in Villages of Gouba, Al Ban Gadeed and Goz Al Halag Planting of Trees and Establishing a Nursery in Halfa Rehabilitation of the Fishing Project at Jomai Area – Jomai Agricultural Cooperative Society Deepening of the Natural Water Catching Pond of Sam Turku in Gedarif State Agro Summer Farm in Al Kadalo area

109

3.7.6 Funding opportunities Funds allocated for climate change adaptation and mitigation for Sudan are very small (Table 9). ď&#x201A;ˇ Table 9 Funding from various sources to support climate change initiatives Item

Funds (US$)

From GEF First National Communication

200,000

Second National Communication

200,000

National Adaptation Program of Action (NAPA)

200,000

Preparation of NAPA Project

100,000

Implementation of NAPA

3,300,000

Total

4,000,000

From UNDP Second National Communication

200,000

National Adaptation Program of Action (NAPA)

190,000

Preparation of NAPA Project

50,000

Implementation of NAPA

500,000

Total

940,000

From Government (in kind and cash) First National Communication (in kind and cash)

40,000

Second National Communication (in kind)

50,000

National Adaptation Program of Action (NAPA) (in kind)

80,000

Preparation of NAPA Project (in kind)

20,000

Implementation of NAPA

3,800,000

Total

3,990,000

There is no finance available so far from Clean Development Mechanism (CDM), World Bank, Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation (REDD) and REDD Plus. Sudan is now preparing a CDM and REDD assessment study to evaluate the potential sectors and hence to prepare similar projects in these areas. There is no recorded evidence of investment in climate change by the private sector. However some private companies launched climate change awareness campaigns through convening negotiation discussion forums. There has been some investment in climate change mitigation. An Ethanol Plant was officially inaugurated in Sudan in 2009 in Kenana, White Nile State. This is the main factory for sugar production and the new plant, which cost US$40 million, produces ethanol from sugar cane. It is a joint effort between the Ministry of Energy, Kenana Company and Giad Company. This is the first of its kind in Africa, with an annual production capacity of 65 million litres and scheduled to increase to 200 million litres per annum within the next few years.

3.7.7 Conclusions and recommendations Sudan is facing significant challenges in reducing its annual level of GHG emissions, dealing with recurrent droughts, chronic food security problems and regional instability, all of which has contributed to population displacement and an on-going refugee crisis. Expanding desertification is threatening agricultural production and biodiversity. 110

To face this situation, several priority requirements are expected to be included in the national priorities for development. These are directly and/or indirectly related to climate change and include protection and development of the rural environment for sustainable development, rehabilitation and preservation of ecosystems for sustainable and renewable energy resources, and enhancement of environmental awareness among concerned groups. Scientific knowledge and understanding of climate change and its impacts need to be improved and an enabling environment is needed to integrate climate change issues and concerns into national development plans. There is a strong need to raise awareness among the stakeholders. To fill the gaps the following priorities are identified: 

Establish a climate change coordination unit. The units would supervise and coordinate all climate change activities both national and abroad;



Strengthen institutional infrastructure by establishing focal units in related sectors with clear roles and obligations and supported by political commitment and the capacity to coordinate, in order to ensure their effectiveness and sustainability;



Create a climate change information and database centre that will facilitate access to data and information;



Implement a strategic training program that will increase the capacity for conducting analysis of climate change data, raise awareness among different sectors, and build a national consensus for an action plan.

References Publication of the statistics central bureau (2009). Agricultural statistics group issued by the ministry of agriculture. First national declaration concerning the climate changes issued by the ministry of environment. Reports made by the international originations commissions to assess the impacts of drought in Syria (2008/2009). Publications of the national centre for agricultural policies.

111

3.8

Syria country paper

Author: Jalal AlHamoudi, Consultant in drought management and adapting to climate change.

3.8.1 Introduction 2

Syria has a land area of 185 km and is located on the eastern coast of the Mediterranean Sea. In 2009 Syria‟s population was 22 million and growing at an average rate of 2.4% per annum. Some 51% of population are men, 53% live in urban areas, and 47% in rural areas. The agricultural sector plays an important role in the Syrian national economy contributing between 21-25% of GDP. Agriculture employs 1.1-1.4 million people which is about 20-25% of the total working population. Syria is divided into five agricultural zones according to the prevailing climate conditions and its suitability for different cultivations: 

First agricultural zone occupies 15% of the Syria's land area in which annual rainfall averages 350650 mm. It is divided into two sub-zones: o

Sub zone (A): annual rainfall is more than 600 mm and rain-fed agriculture is practised widely;

Sub zone (B): annual rain fall 350-600 mm which guarantees two seasons out of three for rain-fed crops.



Second agricultural zone occupies 13% of the Syria's land area in which annual rainfall averages 250-350 mm and not less than 250 mm in two-thirds of the studied years. This provides adequate water to grow barely in two seasons out of three. It is also possible to adequately grow vegetables and summer crops.



Third agricultural zone occupies 7% of the Syria's land area in which annual rainfall is 250mm for half of the years of monitoring. It is possible to grow barley 1-2 seasons in three.



Fourth agricultural zone occupies 10% of Syria's land area in which annual rainfall averages 200250 mm annually in the half of the years of monitoring. It is suitable only for barely or permanent grazing.



Fifth agricultural zone occupies 55% of the total land area with annual rainfall averaging less than 200 mm. It is not suitable for the rainfed agriculture.

Like other countries in the region, Syria faces the potential impacts of climate change. A study to monitor changes from 1965 to 2006 at 30 synoptic weather stations produced the following indications: 

Rainfall decreased in winter in north and northwest Syria, while rainfall increased in the autumn in northern and central areas.



Surface air temperatures showed a remarkable increase in the summer across the entire country with a significant increase in coastal and western areas. But there was also a general decrease in temperatures across the country in winter.



Drought and reduced rainfall has influenced the available renewable water resources. The annual share for each person has decreased from 1,000 CM in 2000 to 728 CM in 2008 and is expected to decrease to 500 CM by 2025. Further, the deficit in available water resources was estimated to be 3.2 BCM per annual between 2000 and 2010.



The water demand for irrigated wheat has increased by 161 mm and as a result the wheat production has fallen from 5 tons per ha to 3.6 tons per ha. Moreover, rainfed wheat production has fallen by almost 52% as water availability has fallen from 494 mm to 203 mm.

In addition, drought has caused lands and grazing areas to deteriorate and the sheep population has fallen from 22 million in 2006 to 18 million in 2008. This also impacted on job opportunities in the agricultural sector. It has increased rural poverty and almost 300,000 people migrated to the cities of Jazera and Al Badia. 112

3.8.2 Awareness on climate change Syria, due to its arid climate, is one of the countries which are most exposed to the potential impacts of climate change. It will impact on many systems â&#x20AC;&#x201C;environmental, agricultural, biological, and health. Initial assessments indicate impacts on rainfall and temperatures over the next 50 years. Moreover, the increasing number of droughts (1999-2000 and 2007-2008) is having a serious impact on agricultural production. Available water resources are reduced and most Syrian cities suffer from insufficient water supplies with increasing impacts on the economy. This would limit Syriaâ&#x20AC;&#x;s capability to realize a balanced amount of economic and social development. Syria participated in all negotiations conducted according to the UN framework accord concluded for climate change, the Kyoto Protocol, and the Arab ministerial declaration on the environment made by the Arab st prime ministers at their 21 meeting in 2009. The outcome of a questionnaire, which targeted public employees and technicians, showed that 70% of those who participated were aware of the impact of climate change on the environment while only 18% disputed it. This reflects the Syrian government interest in climate change impacts on the environment as a priority. It confirmed the readiness of government to apply and adopt measures to mitigate the effects of climate change and to adapt to the changes. Climate change has now become a reality and there is a scientific consensus that it is attributable to manmade greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions.

3.8.3 National vision, policy, strategies The Syrian government participates in international and regional meetings on climate change. Further, the government is committed to the UN framework agreement concluded for climate change and the work to mitigate GHG emissions which cause global warming. It also adopts adaptation strategies. For adaptation, the Syrian government considers it necessary for all least developed countries (LDCs) to have access to resources to implement adaptation procedures and encourage participation in establishing and implementing adaptation plans. This requires the development of national and regional work plans and adequate finance. Particular attention is needed to provide infrastructure to limit expected risks including Clean Development Mechanisms (CDM). Financing must involve developed countries providing financial support for comprehensive assessments of climate change impacts. It must be sufficient to arrest the impacts of climate change and keep global warming within safe limits. Grants need to be made available to cover voluntary reductions in GHGs, technology transfer, and capacity building in the LDCs. Adaptation and voluntary mitigation actions require transferring technology from developed countries to LDCs. However, the existing institutional arrangements are insufficient for this transfer to take place. It is essential to build national capabilities to adapt to climate change. Institutional and technological capabilities must be in line with national priorities and demands and take account of national circumstances. The Syrian government recognizes the importance of international cooperation to confront climate change and according with the above mentioned principles, the government ratified the UN framework on climate change in December 1995. The government also signed the Kyoto Protocol in September 2005 and has accordingly applied many procedures: ď Ž

The Ministry of State for Environmental Affairs in cooperation with other ministries and entities has prepared and announced the first national declaration on climate change which aims to: o

Familiarize people with adaptation challenges needed to cope with climate change;

Familiarize people with the obstacles which limit the compliance with the obligations set out in the framework accord; 113

Provide a practical framework for developing integrated capabilities to comply with the framework accord;

Regulate the obligations required to apply the international framework accord for in relation to the national rules and policies applied for comprehensive environment management.



Ministry of environment in cooperation with concerned ministries has prepared a national plan to adapt to climate change;



Ministry of agriculture in cooperation with the concerned ministries has prepared a national strategy for drought management;



National plan to control deforestation to be prepared;



National plan for food security to be prepared.

Further, the Syrian government has implemented many activities with various international organizations, namely: 

In cooperation with the Syrian Ministry of Agriculture, the International Bank, and the Arabian Organization for Studies in Arid and Dry Areas, the government has conducted a study on how to "limit weaknesses in the agricultural sector concerning the climate change";



A survey of natural resources.

3.8.4 Institutional arrangements The institutional structure comprises two levels – the central level and the local level. Central Level: in addition to the judicial and legislative authorities, there is the executive authority represented by the cabinet which includes the prime minister, his deputies and the ministers. This authority supervises the implementation of state laws, regulations and policies towards different issues, including climate change, agriculture, food security, environment, health and others. Among the concerned ministries assigned directly to coordinate the preparation and implementation of the policies, plans, and programs to adapt to climate change are the Ministry of Agriculture and Agrarian Reform and the Ministry of State for Environmental Affairs. Ministry of agriculture and agrarian reform: The most important relevant directorates concerned with climate change actvities in the ministry of agriculture are the Directorate for Drought Management, Directorate for Transferring to Modern Irrigation, General Commission for Scientific Agricultural Research, General Commission for Managing and Developing of Al Badia, Integrated Rural Development Projects). The ministry of State for Environmental Affairs: The most important directorates concerned with climate change activities in the ministry are the Directorate of Atmosphere Security, Directorate of Environmental Impacts, and the Directorate of Lands Security). Other ministries and institutions which practice duties and powers related (with less degree) to adaptation activities are: Ministry of Local Administration, Ministry of Irrigation, Ministry of Health, Ministry of Social Affairs and Labor, Ministry of Industry, Ministry of Economy and Trade, Planning and International Cooperation Commission, General Directorate for Meteorology, and the General Federation of Peasants. At central level, coordination and work direction are performed through the cabinet and the committees emerged there from, headed by the prime minister or his deputy. Local Level: at the governorate level, coordination and work direction are performed by the governorate council headed by the governor with the affiliation of the concerned directorates equal to the governmental structure on the central level. Coordination and cooperation is among the concerned public entities, UN organizations, Arab League countries and other organizations concerned in agricultural scientific researches, food security and confrontation of the climate change impacts. Most important organizations in Syria are: 114



Food and Agriculture Organization of United Nations (FAO);



World Food Program (WFP);



World Health Organization (WHO);



United National Development Program (UNDP);



Regional Centre for arid areas researches (ICARDA);



Arab Centre for Studies in Arid and Dry Areas (ACCAD);



Arab Agricultural Development Organization (AADO);



International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD).

3.8.5 Technical knowledge Syrian government implements many studies and projects related to the climate change depending on the national potentials in cooperation with Arab, regional and international researches organizations. Most important studies are: 



First National Announcement for climate change in Syria includes five major points: o

Define the national conditions of the climate change;

Global warm inventories and discharge records;

Programs which include the procedures applied to facilitate adaptation with the climate change;

Programs which include the procedures applied to mitigate global warming gases emission;

Define the obstacles, gaps and technical and financial demands and build the capabilities required for this issue.

The national strategy for drought management, which aims to: o

Limit vulnerability to drought;

Minimize the potential impacts of drought;

Help to recover from drought (return to the normal position).



National plan to control desertification, the accord concluded for desertification accord in cooperation with the Arab Centre for studying the arid and dry areas "ACSAD";



The national plan for adapting with climate changes impacts;



National plan for food security.

Syrian government interest in climate change is clear by the studies, workshops, and forums arranged by the State ministries and entities in cooperation with the concerned international organizations. Most ministries and entities have established technical teams and institutions to follow-up climate change issues and procedures in governorates, district level or national central level. In spite of the great efforts and activities in this field, there are still many procedures that need to be applied. The weaknesses include: 

Insufficient teams specialized in studying and researching climate change and to plan adaptation;



Capabilities differ among the concerned sectors on how to adapt;



Limited available financial resources to implement adaptation programs;



The need to have an appropriate environment to establish legal and institutional changes to launch adaptation procedures;



Increased population growth weakens the success of development activities, including the adaptation projects and programs.

Rural communities are most vulnerable because: 115



They depend on funds from the family income from labour in different provinces, cities, and from abroad;



Most families tend to sell their flocks or significant portion of them to meet their livelihood needs;



They depend on financial and non-financial loans from state institutions, or from traders in the private sector;



Children leave schools to work with their families in agricultural jobs or with other parties;



Many families tend to migrate from villages and settlements to the outskirts of large cities, not only to seeking work but also to escape from the hard climate conditions (drought, heat, dust storms).

3.8.6 Present activities and projects Syrian government implements, through the public entities and ministries, many projects related directly or indirectly to the procedures applied to adapt with the climate changes. The most important projects include: Drought early-warning project (Ministry of Agriculture and Agrarian Reform). For water resources Transferring to modern irrigation Project, throughout Syria (Ministry of Agriculture and Agrarian Reform); Project to take Dijla water to Khabour River in Hassaka (Ministry of Irrigation); Project for water harvesting in Idlib and southern governorates (Ministry of Agriculture); Project for water harvesting and implementing mountainous dams in coastal areas (Ministry of Agriculture). For forests and rangeland Project for integrated development in the Syrian Desert (Ministry of Agriculture); Project to control dunes and to stop sand movement in some areas in Deir Ezzour (General Commission for Managing and Developing the Desert); Project to revive the Badia and establish natural protectorate and bird protectorate at Talila District (General Commission for Managing and Developing the Desert); Project to maintain bio-diversity and to manage the protectorates; Project to improve and maintain forests: i) Improve the environmental conditions and ii) Encourage natural renovation; Project to develop forests: i) Protect earth against drift and improve underground water, ii) Increase the green area; Green belt project around Deir Ezzour i) Mitigate sand movement and ii) Stabilize sand dunes to overcome wind erosion and dune movement. For animal production Project to develop the animal wealth in cooperation with IFAD; Typical projects to fatten sheep in most governorates; Project to grade and improve local cows; Centres to improve the food value of the agricultural wastes and to benefit from it to feed animals; Project to develop fish resources in local waters. For plant production and protection Project for integrated management to produce and protect crops; 116

Project to assess agricultural systems of junior producers; Invest, re-promote and plant local varieties of grains and vegetables; Project on safe use of disposal of insecticides. For food security Projects for urgent food aid provided to those influenced by the drought in the desert and agricultural areas east-north Syria; Project to generate mushroom planting in rural areas; Project to develop the traditional house agricultural manufacturing; Project to empower rural woman and limit poverty.

3.8.7 Funding opportunities Syrian government finances many activities and procedures to confront drought and climate change directly and indirectly by listing and financing developmental projects, including the projects to adapt to climate change. Projects included in the five year investment plans or organized through banks and funds include: 

Cooperative agricultural bank (finances peasants by loans to procedure means of production);



Fund allocated to support agricultural production at the Ministry of Agriculture and Agrarian Reform. This fund provides cash to peasants who plant strategic and major crops;



Fund allocated to support loans to peasants to transfer to modern irrigation at the Ministry of Agriculture;



Fund allocated for distributing fodder. This fund provides fodder to sheep breeders against supported prices or through debts during winter and drought seasons;



Projects to finance small enterprises and rotating funds (within rural developmental projects) which contribute to enabling rural families to implement small enterprises which provide alternative income resources, especially in drought stricken areas.

Currently, a fund is established at the Ministry of Agriculture and Agrarian Reform called "fund for mitigating the drought and natural disasters impacts on the agricultural production". This fund will provide aid to peasants who may face losses in their agricultural production (animal and plants) due to drought or natural disasters especially those related to the climate change. There are many non-governmental entities which may contribute finance to activities and procedures, such as: 

Syrian Chambers of Agriculture, commerce, and industry;



Syrian-Italian Council for businessmen;

Some private sector companies implement projects related to clean development and adaptation. Further, there are many adaptation activities implemented in cooperation with foreign entities, most importantly: 

Drought early warning project implemented in cooperation between the Syrian Ministry of Agriculture, the UN Food and Agriculture organization (FAO), and the Swiss agency for cooperation and development;



A study on “how to limit the weaknesses in the agricultural system for the climate change” is being implemented in a cooperation between the Syrian Ministry of Agriculture, an International Bank, and the Arab Centre for Arid and Dry Lands Studies within a regional project which includes Syria, Jordan, and Lebanon. This study aims to prepare an integrated work plan for adaptation projects in Hassaka governorate. The International Bank will finance those projects.

Syrian government works through the Ministry of State for Environmental Affairs which signed mutual agreements and conventions with international entities and organizations concerned with climate change to 117

promote awareness of climate change risks with the possibility to benefit from international funds allocated to finance projects. This includes five projects within the clean development mechanism (CDM): 

Project to generate bio-gas through burying wastes in Aleppo Governorate;



Project to generate bio-gas through burying wastes in Homs Governorate;



Project to utilize gas from the nitrogen fertilizer factory at Homs;



Establish cement factory at Bojolan (private sector);



Utilize substitute power (solar power) to operate mobile networks (Syriatel).

3.8.8 Conclusions and recommendations Climate change in Syria will result in reduced rainfall as well and increased temperatures and this leads to drought and increased frequency of sand storms. This causes direct and indirect negative impacts on water resources, agricultural production, and food security. Its impacts on other sectors will be indirect (such as, tourism, health, education, food industries, environmental ecosystems and others). Adaptation to climate change requires a mixture of strategies and tools, starting with the enhancement of public awareness up to the merging of sector adaptation within the national policy framework taking into consideration the establishment of national plans and programs with short, moderate, and long term objectives. Those programs will substantial depend on the natural resources base. The national strategy for adaptation must provide the following: 

An appropriate environment to establish legal and institutional changes to launch adaptation processes, including institutional laws, resolutions, and reform;



Enhance the capabilities of different sectors to confront climate change;



Assess adaptation choices related to these sectors and verify them with social, economic, and environmental indicators.

It is necessary to establish a strategy to protect agricultural and environmental systems and to ensure their sustainability and realize and maintain the food security. However, the strategy must include the following programs: 

Enhance climate control networks as well as the systems to collect, save and process the climate data;



Integrate water resources management;



Develop agricultural technologies;



Integrate land management;



Diversify income resources and enhance the capabilities of desert communities;



Enhance procedures to maintain and use biological diversity;



Integrate coastal areas management;



Develop information systems for the health sector and other concerned sectors;



Develop and promote renewed power technologies;



Promote and develop new behaviours towards climate change;

The most significant weaknesses that need to be overcome include: 

Insufficient experience of national teams specialized in climate change adaptation;



Limited available climate data at district level;



Weak utilization of renewed energy resources in spite of its high availability;



Improper use of remote sensing technologies and their utilization for monitoring climate change; 118



Limited financial resources available to implement procedures required to respond to drought and to adapt to climate change;



Poor agricultural infrastructure which prevents automation of agricultural activities and the transfer to modern irrigation methods;



Degradation of natural grazing areas in the Badia and expanding the capacity for grazing for the increasing numbers of herds;



Delays in transferring agricultural scientific research outcomes into applied programs to help peasants improve their productivity;



Increasing population rate in rural areas subject to desertification which places heavy loads on natural resources;



Increased migration from rural to urban areas due to increasing climate pressures on natural resources.

References Publication of the statistics central bureau (2009) Agricultural statistics group issued by the ministry of agriculture. First national declaration concerning the climate changes issued by the ministry of environment. Reports made by the international originations commissions to assess the impacts of drought in Syria, 2008/2009. Publications of the National Centre for Agricultural Policies.

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3.9

Tunisia country paper

Author: Lazhar El Echi, Ministry of Agriculture and Environment of Tunisia, General Directorate of Studies and Agricultural Development. 18

Unofficial translation

3.9.1 Introduction Tunisia is located in a geographical area of transition between semi-arid and arid climate. It is distinguished by two seasons – winter and summer. Autumn and spring constitute two inter-seasons, the autumn being hotter and more variable than spring. The factors that influence the distribution of rainfall are latitude, relief, and location. The rain season extends from September to May with a maximum of rainfall in winter. Rainfall varies from north to south. In the north average annual rainfall ranges from 400-1,000 mm, in the centre of the country it is 300-400 mm and the south is an arid climate with low and highly variable rainfall. However, rainfall generally is highly variable and unpredictable. Droughts and floods are common. During the last century, 14 floods and 18 droughts were recorded. Extreme events now occur one year in three. Frequency increased in the second half of last century. Droughts are less common in the north but more frequent in the centre and south. Temperatures from 1950 to 1975 indicated a light cooling but from 1976 to 2004 there has been a warming in excess of 1°C in certain areas. During the latter period there was also much more variability in temperatures with a more significant number of extremes. One impact of droughts is that less water is available in storage reserves. For example, water reserves in 1988 and 1989 were only 30% and 23% respectively and could only meet 74% of the agricultural sector needs. To compensate for this deficit, this sector began to overexploit groundwater reserves. This increased the salinity of water supplies and there was evidence of clogging problems in pipelines. Droughts also impact socio-economic development by reducing cereal production and consumption as well as other agricultural products. The outcome was an increase in cereals imports and a fall of farmers‟ incomes. This situation illustrated the losses and damage caused by the extreme events at national, local, and individual levels. Droughts and floods also damage the environment. They degrade natural resources – water, land, and vegetation. Agricultural policies are designed to face the socio-economic repercussions of these events. The public strategies are aimed at modernizing agricultural structures, optimally regulating the sector, and providing financial support to smallholder farmers in order to ensure the sustainability of agricultural production.

3.9.2 Awareness on climate change The Ministry of Environment and Sustainable Development (MEDD) in collaboration with the other concerned departments, civil society, and the private sector are implementing a whole range of actions aimed at the awareness of the general public on environmental protection, and stressing the concerns about climate change especially. The impacts resulting from this are the measures being taken to adapt to and mitigate the effects of climate change. These themes formed the framework of several national, regional and international events. Decisions were taken with regard to awareness on environmental protection:

Original French version in Annex 6 120



Integration of environmental awareness in the education system;



Implementation of environment clubs;



Training of trainers and teachers;



Production of teaching and didactic support dedicated to the environment and sustainable development;



Implementation of a network of trainers and regional coordinators for environment education;



Help for NGOs active in the field of environment.

Within the framework of “Support for the implementation of the United Nations Convention-Frame on the Climate Change” (UNFCC/GTZ), a program was established in 2007 to disseminate the results of a study on “The strategy of adaptation of Tunisian agriculture and ecosystems to climate change”. The project disseminated: 

Data on climate and climate change as well as projections of the provisional climate of Tunisia by 2030-2050;



Impacts already observed and those expected in 2030;



Broad outlines of an adaptation strategy and its action plan.

This program brought together people from local administration, professional organizations, and civil society. The local workshops were central to the implementation of this program. The discussions between participants and workshop organizers were profitable and related to: i) the specific vulnerability to the localities, ii) the best adaptation measures for the localities and iii) the means for implementing the national strategy at the local level. Many adaptation measures were highlighted by the participants and some farmers have already applied them. But it is important to implement specific studies including technical, economic, and social aspects to enable a precise picture of the problem and how to adapt the national strategy to the local context. In conclusion, the climate change nevertheless still remains an enigma for the majority of the participants. Particular constraints on information needed to overcome this problem need to be agreed.

3.9.3 National vision, policy, strategies With regard to environmental policy, Tunisia signed and ratified the majority of the international conventions. Among them are the UNFCCC in Rio de Janeiro (Brazil) in 1992. Tunisia has also ratified this convention in July 1993. Within article 12 of this convention, the country was committed to transmitting to the COP (Conference of the Parties) the communications describing its effective efforts to attenuate the greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions which contribute to global climate change. The following axes constitute the foundation of national policy in this field: 

Coordination with worldwide structures and organizations and participation in the international efforts to face climate change within the framework of the agreements and international protocols. Within this framework Tunisia adopted the UNFCCC in 1993 and ratified the Kyoto Protocol in 2002;



Consolidation of an institutional framework with the objective of monitoring climate change. New structures were created within the MEDD: a national representation of the Kyoto Protocol (AND) that is in charge of the CDM (Clean Development Mechanism), and the sectoral commissions invited to adopt the measures relating to the sale of the GHG emissions;



Consolidation of climate change integration in sectoral development strategies and the development of action plans for agriculture and ecosystems, health, tourism, and littoral adaptation to climate change;

121

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Development of available potential for reducing GHG emissions, and obtaining important financial credits within CDM‟s framework.

Tunisia forwarded its first National Communication (NC) within the framework of the UNFCCC to the COP in 2001. This communication included i) the GHG inventory of 1994, ii) the evaluation of the vulnerability of Tunisia to the sea level rise, and iii) the evaluation of national potential for GHG mitigation. Currently the authorities are completing the second NC. This communication will be published in 2011. It includes projections of GHG emissions in Tunisia by 2010 and 2020 taking into account the mitigation scenarios. It also comprises: 

A national inventory of GHG emissions for 2000;



Evaluation of agriculture‟s vulnerability to changes in climate;



Evaluation of accelerated variations in sea level;



Measures taken and actions planned for GHG emissions mitigation;



Predispositions with respect to training, education, follow-up, and planning.

The terms of reference for the third communication are under development. According to the second NC the net GHG emissions in Tunisia in 2000 were 32.1 million TE-CO2. This is equivalent to a coefficient of emission of 3.4 TE-CO2 per capita. The gross emissions are evaluated to be 37.8 TE-CO2 which is equivalent to 3.92 TE-CO2 per capita. (Net emissions = gross emissions - absorption of GHG). CO2 (64%) dominates the net GHG emissions, followed by the CH4 (18%) and N20 (18%). The absorption of CO2 in organic form by the biomass is estimated at 5.7 million TE-CO2. The forest and also arboriculture represents a major well for carbon. The gross quantities of GHG emissions are dominated by the energy sector (20.8 MTE-CO2; 55%), followed by agriculture (7.6 MTE-CO2; 20%), industrial processes (4 MTE-CO2; 11%), use of land and forests (3.5 MTE-CO2; 9%), and solid waste (1.9 MTE-CO2; 5%). However, the projection of the global GHG emissions for the coming years according to a scenario of reference were calculated (second national communication), and gives a quantity of 53.1 MTE-CO2 for 2010, and 75.4 MTE-CO2 for 2020 of gross emissions, and a quantity of 46.2 MTE-CO2 for 2010, and 66.9 MTE-CO2 for 2020 of net emissions. The scenario of reference is based on: 

Consumption of primary energy, including the biomass, would increase by an average rate of 4.5% per annum to reach 10.1 million oil equivalent tons (TEP) in 2010, and approximately 15.8 million TEP in 2020;



Demand for oil products will grow at 5% per annum and natural gas at 5.5% per annum;



Consumption of electricity will also grow at 9% per annum between 2000-2020;



Demand of biomass-energy will initially grow about 0.4% per annum up to 2010 and then decline during the 2010-2020;



The Kyoto Protocol of June 2002 does not include limitations on emissions for LDCs. However, by ratifying it, Tunisia can profit from CDM financing.

The socio-economic policies of development are elaborated within the framework of the government‟s fiveyear development plans. The environmental policy, which was the subject of this report, is registered within the framework of the eleventh socio-economic development plan during the period 2007-2011. The environmental policy is a national policy and is the responsibility of the Department of the Environment. All axes were established in close cooperation with all departments and they set out the foundation for the environmental policy for each economic activity. The policy was designed to strike a balance between good economic and social development and environmental protection in a sustainable and integrated manner.

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Environmental protection is already embedded in sectoral and territorial plans (urban sewage, city improvements, conservation of water and soils, natural resources safeguards and biodiversity, energy controls, management of solid waste). Environmental planning continues to be embedded in sectoral approaches for all five-year economic and social development plans (IXth , Xth and XIth -1997-2011). With regard to GHG emission mitigation measures, the strategy aims to: i) limit GHG emissions in the atmosphere, ii) identify and control economic sectors emitting GHGs, iii) monitor regularly the inventories of polluting emissions , and iv) develop a balanced management and a regular follow-up on air quality. To be protected from the negative impacts of climate change, the following have been adopted: 

Good cooperation with international organizations in relation with the climate change;



Contribution to the international effort to deal with the climate change within the framework of UN conventions and protocols;



Reinforcement of the institutional framework to control the impacts of climate change, while benefitting from CDM;



Integration of climate change components in sectoral development strategies and the development of action plans to reinforce the adaptation of natural ecosystems and economic sectors;



The use of national resources to reduce GHG emissions and in the meantime to permit the country to benefit from CDM.

3.9.4 Institutional arrangements The ratification of the UNFCCC by Tunisia was followed by the setting up of a body for the application and follow-up of the convention and the Kyoto Protocol. This included: The National Focal Point of climate change: This concerns the MEDD and has the role of coordinating, collecting, and disseminating information for the secretariat of convention and the COP. It also represents Tunisia in international and regional negotiations. According to the international convention, the national focal point should be an active organization regarding the implementation of the convention. The Information Centre on the sustainable energy and the environment: This was created into 2001 within the National Agency of Control of Energy (ANME) under the authority of the Ministry of Industry and Technology. It has the role of implementing Article 6 of the convention on the awareness, training, education, and information on climate change. National Commission of Climate change (CNCC): Created in 2001; its mission is to ensure the coordination and the dialogue between the various actors concerned with climate change in Tunisia in order to formulate the national position that will be defended during international negotiations. The Indicated National Authority (AND): called the National Office for the CDM created in December 2004 within the MEDD and formed of representatives of the parts concerned with the CDM and climate change, it has the role to: 

Follow the process of the suggested projects to profit from the CDM;



Evaluate the degree of response of the suggested projects to the conditions of sustainable CDM and in particular to the development objectives;



Coordinate with external organizations, in particular the executive council of the CDM within the framework of the COP;



Coordinate with other national organizations for the preparation of financing requests within the framework of CDM;



Ensure follow-up requests and inform the concerned parties when granted continuation of projects. 123

The National Commission of Sustainable Development (CNDD) was created and complements the institutional framework implemented since 1988 for environmental protection and implementation of the strategy for sustainable development. The CNDD adjusts national development programs and harmonizes their objectives for sustainable development: 

To develop and implement of a strategy and a national action plan for sustainable development;



To preserve the rights of future generations for a holy and viable environment;



To stop the non-rational production and consumption;



To suggest suitable regulations to address pollution;



To reinforce institutional structures and procedures and ensure full integration of issues facing the environment and development at all levels;



To support the participation of groups, local government agencies, organizations, and private individuals interested in the decision-making process at local and national levels;



To develop a system of ecological accountability based on new development indicators;



Periodic evaluation of achievements with respect to climate change and within the framework of the UNFCCC.

The MEDD is responsible for implementing State policy with regard to the environmental protection and the sustainable use of natural resources. The main actors working with the MEDD are: 

Ministry of Agriculture, Water Resources, and Fisheries;



Ministry of Industry and Technology;



Ministry of Trade and Craft Industry;



Ministry of Interior and Local Development;



Ministry of Foreign Affairs;



Ministry of Transport;



Ministry of Development and the International Cooperation;



Ministry of Finance;



International Centre for Environment Technology of Tunis (CITET under-supervision of MEDD);



National Agency of Energy Control (ANME).

3.9.5 Technical knowledge The MEDD, in collaboration with other concerned ministries implemented a whole range of strategic studies in order to evaluate the potential effects of climate change and develop strategies and sectoral action plans for the short, medium and long term. These include: 

National strategy of adaptation of agriculture and ecosystems to the climate change;



Identification of the socio-economic and environmental effects of potential sea level rising under the effect of climate change and design of a strategy and an action plan for adaptation of the littoral to this phenomenon;



Adaptation of the health sector to climate change;



Identification of possible environmental and economic effects of climate change on tourism and preparation of a strategy and an action plan;



Studies of natural ecosystems sensitivity for forestry and rangelands;



Study of the legislative and regulatory framework for implementation of CDM;



Preparation of national projects portfolio for climate change adaptation;

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

Development of a national strategy for adaptation which brings together sectoral studies already prepared.

An earlier study which has relevance to climate change is „Introduction of Maghrebian Early Drought Warning System Project‟. There are constraints to implementing the UNFCCC including: 

Low national professional capacity for diagnosis, engineering design, and intervention programmes;



Lack of operational NGOs in environmental and sustainable development;



Lack of availability of training programs to develop appropriate competences.

Some adaptation measurements were disseminated to farmers through networks other than public ones (awareness) such as civil society. An example is the Association for Sustainable Agriculture (APAD) which brings together a number of Tunisian farmers who share and exchange their experiences of direct sowing and more generally of the conservation or sustainable agriculture. Indeed, conventional cultivation methods can impact negatively not only on yields but also can constitute a threat to the environment. These practices are regarded more and more as a source of natural resources degradation (erosion, loss of soil fertility, groundwater pollution, and additional greenhouse effect). For several years, new farming systems have been introduced which use established practices for preservation including direct sowing and other simplified farming techniques, which together are known as “Sustainable Agriculture”. Over the past ten years the French Agency of Development (AFD) and the French Fund for Environment (FEEM) have supported conservation agriculture both technically and financially. The Association for Sustainable Agriculture (APAD) is an association of Tunisian farmers engaged in improving technical support and providing information for more awareness on land degradation, desertification and climate change).

3.9.6 Recent activities and projects Agriculture The study of the adaptation of Tunisian agriculture to climate change was the first sectoral study carried out in Tunisia. It led to the identification of a strategy and an action plan for the short and medium term. Climate change has constituted an important framework through research programs concerning the integration of bioclimatic studies related to agricultural research programs. These were directed towards regional needs based and included: 

An inventory and description of national genetic resources (animal and vegetable) to support national research aimed at adapting genotypes to the scarcity of water, soil salinity, and diseases;



Selection of plant species adapted to climatic conditions, ie variety of wheat “Nasr” adapted to the sub-humid bioclimatic (Northern Tunisia'), varieties of wheat “Hidra” and alfalfa “Massouj” adapted to the semi-arid bioclimatic. Selection of varieties of olives to be irrigated and drought resistant;



Identification of technological packages for agricultural products (animal and crop) adapted to the natural conditions and to the systems of production;



The Ministry of Agriculture and Water Resources and Fisheries (MARHP) implemented an Observatory of arid areas which comprises a network of six local stations to observe and record climate;



Integration of climate change as the main axis of the second decennial strategy for agricultural research. The establishment of a committee for programming and evaluating this research (Decree N° 1318 of the year 2010, May 31st, 2010).

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Water for irrigation Thanks to its ambitious policy of mobilization and use of water resources, Tunisia succeeded in managing its resources in order to satisfy all water demands even for the periods of water deficit which are more visible in arid and semi-arid areas. But resources will reach their limit and as the climate changes the pressure on water demand will increase. That will require another vision based especially on water demand management. The policy followed by Tunisia in the field of mobilization and use of water resources recommended: 

To continue the program of water management by ecosystem rather than by catchment area and take full account of the benefits of environmental services;



To commit to rigorously apply the Water Code with particular intention to protect groundwater resources and introduce specific legislation to govern the management of water resources, especially during droughts.

Studies on the future of the water sector in 2050 will be implemented in order to lead to a complete and total strategy while stressing the quantitative, qualitative, economic, technological, and scientific research aspects. All these matters must be studied within the framework of the climate change. The project will have as its objective to update the level of the available resources and to draw up scenarios of changes in water use according to various projections of need for the economic sector. This should lead to decisionmaking tools for resource management. For non-conventional water use in agriculture, an integrated project relating to the use of treated wastewater and the rationalization of natural resources management is under development with the following objectives: 

Establishing an action plan for the control of marine pollution of Mediterranean continental origin;



Control and use of treated wastewater for the agriculture sector;



Limit the effects of land degradation and climate change on the agricultural sector‟s productivity in arid areas.

Fisheries and aquaculture For the fisheries sector, a project to protect the marine resources in Gabes in the south of Tunisia is under development. It will allow the evaluation of climate change and economic activities, particularly the industrial activities and fishing, on the natural resources in Gabes. It also aims to prepare a strategy for the sustainable management of biodiversity through the implementation of pilot projects for the installation of artificial reefs and the proposal for economic, environmental, and touristic activities. Food security The food crisis of 2007-2008 was partly related to the fall in production in large exporting countries affected by poor climatic conditions (eg drought in Australia, floods in south-east Asia). This situation is likely to be repeated and be even worse as the climate changes. The studies made in Tunisia did not take into account the implications of climate change on worldwide agricultural production and thus on the availability of foodstuffs in the international market. However, Tunisia is always directed to the international market which is one of the principal instruments of food security. Climate change is expected to have negative impacts on national agricultural production of several exporting countries of basic foodstuffs (corn, rice). This situation can disrupt international markets for these products with an increasing price affecting national food security. To deal with this challenge, Tunisia has implemented by the end of 2007 a short-term strategy with the following objectives: th



Produce 2.7 MT of cereal by 2014 compared to 1.9 MT as an average in the 10 plan (2002-2006);



Reach hard wheat self-sufficiency with a production target of 1,5 MT; 126



Increase yields (tons/ha) reaching 2 T/ha in 2014;



Extend irrigated areas reserved to cereals to reach 120,000 ha with an average yield of 5 T/ha;



Develop production and the use of selected seeds to produce 50,000 MT by 2014 which will cover 31% of the cultivated area;



Develop the rate of collection to 60% of the production volume.

To achieve these goals the following actions are needed: 

Intensify research programs relating to the selection of new varieties with high production and diseases resistance;



Intensify awareness programs and education addressed to farmers in order to improve the yields of cereals;



Improve the use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides;



Incentivize farmers via production prices.

3.9.7 Funding opportunities The mobilization and the protection of natural resources are essential components for the State‟s policy. This is expressed by the importance of public investment allocated to this sector. Indeed, more than 60% (64% in 2011) of the public investment in the agricultural sector are allocated to: i) water resources mobilization and use, ii) development of forests (reforestation and range improvement), and iii) conservation of water and soil. A significant effort by public authorities is being made to seek international financing for strategies for the medium and long term in natural resources protection and especially for water resources, rehabilitation of degraded lands, forest and pastoral afforestation. It is difficult to determine the extent of investment from the private sector because of the lack of information. For bilateral cooperation and multilateral financing work on climate change, the following can be mentioned – The project “Support for the implementation of the UNFCCC” within MEDD, with the support of the German Technical Co-operation (GTZ). Global Environment Facility (GEF) has invested in the natural resources protection programme of Siliana which cost US$21.3 million (MTD 30 million) from which US$3.55 million (MTD 5 million) comes from GEF. The objectives of the project are: i) to set up a sustainable land and biodiversity management system for the region of Siliana, ii) to create a national park in Djebel Esserrej and to develop the natural biological heritage, iii) to evaluate the effectiveness of the agricultural sector of the area, and iv) to create a system of follow-up and evaluation of lands quality in the region of Siliana. Regarding Carbon funds managed by the World Bank; Tunisia has profited from the support of this body within the framework of two CDM projects relating to the collection and burning by methane flare produced by the controlled discharge of Djebel Chakir and in nine other controlled discharges distributed throughout the country. New mechanisms are also being used such as REDD (Reduction off Emissions from Deforestation and forest degradation - REDD).

3.9.8 Conclusions and recommendations Several sectoral studies in the field of climate change (agriculture and ecosystem, health, tourism) were realized and have led to the identification of strategies and action plans. Currently the MEDD, in collaboration with the various concerned departments, is implementing a study synthesizing all the work done so far in order to identify a national strategy for adaptation to climate change.

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With regard to mitigation, and within the framework of the implementation of the Kyoto Protocol, several activities were undertaken aimed at implementing a favourable condition for mitigating GHG emissions and the development of projects within the CDM‟s framework. For this reason, a national strategy was elaborate in 2005 aimed at accelerating the CDM process and at self-positioning relating to the international carbon market. The implementation of this strategy is supported by several programs and projects which aim to reinforce national capacities and the rapid development of CDM projects in all the concerned sectors, in particular the fields of energy control, promotion of renewable energies, management of waste, transport, industrial processes and afforestation/re-afforestation. Many efforts were carried out in the field of GHG mitigation. Indeed, forty projects were evaluated by AND but only two of them were recorded by the Executive Council of Convention and these relate to the field of solid waste. The MEDD also made a study on the portfolio of CDM projects in Tunisia. It was intended for a greater diffusion at the national level as well as international operators. However, and in spite of all the efforts several aspects require reinforcement such as: 

Reinforcement of capacities in engineering and vulnerability among technicians in the public, private, and associative sectors. The needs are in following fields: o

Vulnerability of the littoral following sea level rise;

Follow-up of water resources management;

Early warning systems for extreme climate phenomena.



Reinforcement of the private sector in order to create national competences able to ensure the necessary accumulation of knowledge on climate change;



The promotion of the CDM and especially how to involve the private sector in this process in order to acquire necessary competences for an effective participation in all the stages of the project cycle;



Reinforcement of the structures responsible for climate change mitigation and adaptation such as: o

The focal point of UNFCCC;

Indicated National Authority.

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Acronyms AFD

French Agency of Development

AND

National representation of the KP, in charge of the CDM

ANME

National Agency of Control of Energy

APAD

Association for the Sustainable Agriculture

Climate Change

CDM

Clean Development Mechanism

CITET

International Centre for Environment Technology of Tunis

CNCC

National Commission of Climate change):

CNDD

National Commission of Sustainable Development

COP

Conference of the Parties

FEEM

French Fund for Environment

GHG

Green House Gas

GDP

Gross Domestic Product

GEF

Global Environment Facility

GTZ

German Technical Co-operation

Kyoto Protocol

National Communication

NGO

Non-Governmental Organization

MARHP

Ministry of Agriculture and Water Resources and Fisheries

MEDD

Ministry of Environment and Sustainable Development

MIT

Ministry of Industry and Technology

MTD

Millions of Tunisian Dinars (US$1 = TD 1.4)

MTE-CO2

Millions of Tons of equivalent of CO2

REDD

Reduction of Emissions from Deforestation and forest Degradation

UNFCC

United Nations Convention-Frame on the Climate change

UTCATF

Use of lands Change Appointment of lands and forests

Note: In January 2011 The Ministry for Agriculture, Water Resources, and Fisheries and the Ministry of Environment and Sustainable Development merged under the name of the Ministry for Agriculture and Environment.

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3.10

Yemen country paper

Author: Abdulkarem Al-Sabri

3.10.1 Introduction Yemen is located in the south western part of Asia and in the south of Arabian Peninsula. It occupies an area of 527,970 square kilometres at the southern end of the Arabian Peninsula. It is bordered to the north by Saudi Arabia, to the East by Oman, and to the South and West by a 2,200 km coastline along the Gulf of Aden, Arabian Sea and the Red Sea (Figure 10).

 Figure 10 Yemen location

The population is about 26 million but this is likely to double in the next 20-25 years with an annual growth rate of 3%. In 1980, 81% of Yemen‟s population was rural; in 2008 it was reduced to 74% and by 2015 it is expected to be around 69%. The agriculture sector plays an important role in the Yemen‟s economy. It contributes 17% to national GDP and employs more than half the labour force and provides livelihoods for more than two thirds of the population. In 2000 agriculture accounted for 58% of employment in the country. It reduced to 54% in 2008, but still remains the cornerstone for employment although the service sector is growing fast. The percentage share of women in the labour force rose to 20% in 2008 with most of them engaged in agriculture which absorbs 85% of female workers. The continuing discrepancy between the contribution of agriculture to GDP and the percentage of those employed in the sector (54% of total employment) reflects seasonal employment, underemployment and the low productivity of workers and factors of production which result in low incomes and poor standards of living for workers in the sector. Roughly 1.2 million Yemen households were involved in agriculture in 2008. 19 Among these agricultural households, 0.9 million households are farmers (74%) and 1 million are livestock holders (85%). Yemen is divided in four agro-ecological zones the Highlands (44% of cultivated area and 61% of the farms), the Eastern Plateau (26% of the area, 19% of the farms), the Tihama (26% of the area, 10% of farms) and the Coastal Area (Gulf of Aden, with 4% of the area, 10% of the farms. About two thirds of cultivable land is currently under cultivation. 55% of the cultivated area is planted with cereals, 13% with fruit and vegetables, 12 % with livestock grass, 11% with Qat, 6% with cash crops, and 3% with pulses.

Agriculture census 2008 130

 Table 10 Agricultural land in Yemen and major crops Area (ha)

% cultivated area

Cereals

760189

55%

Pulses

47691

Cash-crops

85550

Fruits

90719

Vegetables

84854

Qat

146810

11%

Fodder grass

155762

12%

Total cultivated land

1371575

100%

Climatic change impacts Average annual rainfall varies widely across the country, from less than 50 mm along the coast, rising with the topography to between 500-800 mm in the Western Highlands, and dropping again to below 50 mm in the desert interior. Temperature depends primarily on elevation and in the coastal areas it is determined by distance from the o sea. Mean annual temperatures range from less than 12 C in the temperate highlands (with occasional o freezing) to 30 C in the coastal plains where temperatures have increased. The result is the occurrence of frequent prolonged hotter droughts during the last three decades interrupted by the occurrence of occasional flooding. Droughts were prevalent during the 1970s and 1980s with low rainfall and record high temperatures. Yemen is highly vulnerable to climate change-related impacts such as drought, extreme flooding, pests, and sudden disease outbreaks, changes in rainfall patterns, increased storm frequency/severity and sea level rise. These are serious concerns as Yemen's economy largely depends on its rural natural resources. The major impacts of climate change are: 

Increased water scarcity and reduced water quality leading to increased hardship;



Increased drought frequency, increased temperatures, and changes in rainfall patterns leading to degradation of agricultural lands, soils, and terraces;



Deterioration of habitats and biodiversity leading to expansion of desertification;



Reduced agricultural productivity leading to increased food insecurity and reduced income generating activities;



Increased sea levels leading to deterioration of wetlands, coastal mangrove migration, erosion, infrastructure damage, and saline intrusion into groundwater;



Increased climatic variability leading to the possibility of spread and growth of vector-borne and water-borne diseases; and



Impacts on coastal zones leading to a loss of tourism due to sea level rise including loss of beaches.

Fisheries Climate change has both direct and indirect impacts on fisheries and productivity, structure, and composition of the marine ecosystems on which fish depend for food.

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Coastal zones Sustainable use of the marine and coastal environment is an important driver of development. Coral reefs, sea-grass, and mangroves provide coastal zones with important biodiversity and fishery potential. Yet, Yemenâ&#x20AC;&#x;s coastal ecosystems are already experiencing degradation from man-made as well as climate causes. Layered on top of the prevailing conditions of poverty, environmental and climate factors create a number of pressing challenges for Yemen. Desertification, brought on by human land-use pressures and recurrent drought, has consumed significant land area and continues to threaten arable land. Depletion of forests along the western and south-western escarpment threatens species, communities, and reduces other services forests provide. These examples represent the type of current environmental concerns that could be exacerbated under climate change conditions. In response to these challenges, Yemen has sought support from the international community to promote sustainable development. The country has engaged in international environmental processes, developed national policies and plans, started strategic research programs, implemented monitoring mechanisms, facilitated ground-level development work, and sought to strengthen human and institutional capacities. Vulnerability assessment of key sectors Yemenâ&#x20AC;&#x;s first National Communication identified three main sectors that are vulnerable to climate change, water resources, agriculture, and coastal zones. The Yemen National Adaptation Program of Action (NAPA) effort focused on these critical sectors as they pose potentially severe implications to the citizens at large, and are considered to be in need of immediate and urgent adaptation. In close consultation with stakeholders several additional sectors were identified â&#x20AC;&#x201C; biodiversity, health, tourism - for which further delay in adaptation would significantly increase their vulnerability, and/or lead to much higher adaptation costs in the future. Water Water availability and quality are vulnerable due to changing patterns of rainfall, and this impacts directly on the livelihoods of communities. Groundwater sources are at risk from sea level rise and seawater intrusion. Agriculture & food security Drought, temperature variability, and changes in rainfall regime can lead to disastrous consequences for agriculture and food security. Climate change may imply degradation of agricultural lands, soils and terraces, desertification, which negatively affect agricultural incomes for local communities and can lead to national food insecurity as food production levels fall. Biological diversity Frequency of droughts, temperature fluctuations, and changes in rainfall patterns due to climate change will lead to deterioration and changes in the habitats of endangered and endemic species. The intense wave activity of storms already damages near shore coral reefs in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden. As sea levels rise and storms become more frequent Yemen may see an increase in intense wave activity. Coastal communities Flooding of low-lying areas and coastal erosion threaten coastal communities and their livelihoods. Communities may experience damage to household assets and property, constraints on services such as water supply and quality, and damage to agriculture.

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Coastal environment/infrastructure Deterioration of wetlands and mangrove forests can be expected along the shoreline as well as in islands in the Red Sea. As a result of sea level rise, Yemen can expect damage of infrastructural assets in coastal cities as well as to cultural heritage assets. Health Changes in climate will create more suitable conditions for the occurrence and spread of vector-borne and water-borne diseases such as malaria. Tourism Impacts include loss of beaches, degradation of coastal ecosystems, saline water intrusion, damage to infrastructure, and coral reef loss and bleaching.

3.10.2 Awareness on climate change Government has observed climate change impacts on the whole country, particularly the agricultural sector. But still there is no clear vision on the real impact in a well-informed manner. However, the government takes action at central level, such as the establishment of a high level Ministerial committee to deal with climate change. Some studies were conducted with donor support (WB, UNDP). As result of these studies some pilot projects are being planned for implementation and two are already being implemented. These are the Agro-biodiversity and Climate Change Adaptation Project (ACAP) and Pilot Project for Climate Resilience (PPCR). These two projects assess the effects on different sectors including agriculture. Yemeni farmers do not have the means to protect their crops from climate change. Predicted hotter and dryer climate will result in a gradual shift of climatic zones. This could lead to the displacement of the dry tropical climate prevalent in the coast into the interior and have an impact on the western and southern slopes. This displacement could bring about rainfall and push this climate towards the arid desert climate. It could extend the humid tropical region northward and increase the amount of torrential rain that falls on these slopes and other areas thus increasing the probability of flooding towards the west. Increasing rainfall could improve the climate in the plateaus, highlands, and western regions. The researchers are aware of climate change but due to the lack of funding few undertake studies and those studies that are made mention the lack of data availability. There is a need to support research with specific projects to enable them to investigate the impacts of climate change and ways of avoiding the negative impacts. Most of the technicians do not have good knowledge of climate change issues. Appropriate training and capacity building is an urgent need. The livestock sector in Yemen is a very important part of agriculture and plays a critical role in food security strategies, especially as it provides a reserve that can be converted into cash in bad times. Substantial formal and informal exports to Saudi Arabia provide an important source of income. Climate change is likely to have a major impact on the productivity of extensive pasture and on nomadic livestock patterns. In particular, if there is a combination of warming and drying, there are risks that desiccation and overgrazing of the most extensive grazing areas will accelerate the trend towards desertification. If the carrying capacity of rangelands dwindles, there may be increasing pressure on irrigated fodder, which would place under threat the whole stratified market system for small ruminants, which is the most profitable part of the Yemeni livestock economy. Finally, changing temperatures are likely to reduce livestock productivity by increasing disease burdens. Similarly, the rise in the sea level and deterioration of the coastal ecosystem as a result will lead to a poor fisheries sector.

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A lack of experience, finance and investment has resulted in the slow growth of the aquaculture sector in Yemen. Yemen needs climate change assistance programs to enable the government to create a greater awareness on climate change issues and increase the involvement of policy-makers, scientists, and the general public in understanding and assessing the impact of climatic change. All of these aspects point to a need to improve capacity building and technical assistance for the government and non-government institutions as well as the research agencies and Universities at both central and local levels.

3.10.3 National vision, policy, strategies In spite of the issues that climate change raises, as yet there is no strategy being formulated in Yemen. The government needs to create policy/strategy and a plan of action and incorporate this into the various sectoral policies and strategies. The national environmental legislation acknowledges concern about global environmental issues and calls for a national contribution to global efforts. The government is aware of the global efforts and ratified major international conventions on environmental issues of global concern in 1995/96. These conventions deal with climate change, biodiversity, ozone layer protection, trans-boundary movement of hazardous waste, and desertification control. Activities were initiated to fulfil national obligations towards some of these conventions. A survey was carried out on ozone depleting substances, a national ozone country program prepared, and projects developed to support the introduction of ozone friendly technologies in the private sector. The First National Communication on Climate Change and a draft Strategy and Action Plan on Biodiversity have been prepared. There are also several sector strategies either finalized or under preparation summarized as follows: National Water Sector Strategy (NWSSIP) In late 2007, the government took the decision to prepare an update of NWSSIP to run from 2009-2015. The objective was to incorporate changes in the light of experience and to provide a basis for a sector-wide approach to financing. The update is composed of four sub-sector strategies, action plans, and investment and financing programs. Each subsector program contains interfaces with other programs. An integrated approach across the water sector as a whole is to be achieved through sector oversight and coordination arrangements through joint planning and implementation of key inter-sectoral actions and through the central and decentralized planning functions contained in the integrated water resource management program. In addition, a sector-wide institutional development and capacity building program was prepared. The NWSSIP sub-sectors are:    

Integrated water resource management (IWRM); Urban water and sanitation; Rural water supply and sanitation; and Irrigation.

National Adaptation Program of Action (NAPA) The primary goal of the Yemen NAPA process is to identify priority measures to adapt to climate change and climate variability and translate them into project based activities that can address Yemen‟s urgent needs for adapting to the adverse impacts of climate change. Key elements of the process included the following: 

Adequate stakeholder representation in all phases of the process, including the NAPA document itself;



Synergy and consistency of adaptation measures with national and sectoral policies and plans; 134



Capacity building and awareness raising for adapting to climate change impacts; and



Country-driven criteria by which to evaluate and prioritize potential adaptation measures.

NAPA has identified three main sectors that are vulnerable to climate change: water resources, agriculture, and coastal zones. Yemen is promoting sustainable use through optimal allocation of water resources and use of improved quality control techniques and is working towards the protection of agricultural diversity, maintaining agricultural resources, and developing sustainable agricultural programs. Sustainable use of marine and fishery resources through the development and strict implementation of policy, legislative, and management tools are working to ensure harvest levels of coastal resources are maintained within the biological limits of Yemen's coastal zones. See Annex I for a list of adaptation projects in key vulnerable sector submitted within NAPA. National Food Security Strategy The government, under the leadership of the Ministry of Planning and International Cooperation (MOPIC) has asked the International Food Policy Research Institution (IFRRI) to help develop a National Food Security Strategy. This effort is actively supported by a number of international partners, including the European Commission (EU), the Germen Agency for Technical Cooperation (GTZ), the World Food Program (WFP), and the World Bank.

3.10.4 Institutional arrangements The understanding of the government was that climate change is a cross cutting issue, affecting several sectors, and moreover links more with the environment. So the government appointed the Environment Protection Authority (EPA) as a focal point for dealing with climate change and to act in a coordination role with all concern institutions. The government prepared the National Adaptation Plan of Action (NAPA). This was based on participatory planning as recommended by the Least Developed Countries Expert Group Guidelines. The goal was to identify priority measures to adapt to climate change and climate variability, and translate them into project based activities. Key elements of the process included the following: 

Adequate stakeholder representation in all phases of the process, including the NAPA document itself;



Synergy and consistency of adaptation measures with national and sectoral policies and plans;



Capacity building and awareness raising for adapting to climate change impacts; and



Country-driven criteria by which to evaluate and prioritize potential adaptation measures.

In 2009, the cabinet issued Decree No 349 for the establishment of the Climate Change Board, chaired by Deputy Prime Minister for Economic Affairs, Minister of Ministry of Planning and International Cooperation and membership of the following institutions: 

Ministry of Water and Environment;



Ministry of Agriculture and Irrigation;



Ministry of Fish Wealth;



Ministry of Finance;



Ministry of Telecommunication & Information technology;



Ministry of Local Administration;



Ministry of Transport;



Ministry of Oil and Minerals;



Environment Protection Authority (EPA): charged as a secretariat for the Board; and 135



National Water Resources Authority.

The main tasks of the board are to: 

Facilitate all issues related to the climate change;



Flow-up progress and steps for preparation of different projects for every sector;



Supervise all progress related to the preparation of the NAPA;



Coordinate with donors for finance;



Approve local and investment budgets allocated to climate change;



Make necessary Decrees related to climate change; and



Establish any required committees to deal with climate change.

3.10.5 Technical knowledge Government has observed that climate change impacts on the whole country, but particularly the agricultural sector. In the Tihama Zone there are already indications of climate change with increasing desertification, temperature increases, and drought. To deal with this the government requested assistance from international organizations. The result was the establishment of the Environment Protection Project in 1996, at the Tihama Development Authority (TDA). This project was financed by IFAD and the Yemeni Government. The project focused on land use, water saving, and support for rural women. As part of the project a green belt 102 km long and 100–150 m wide was established around Hodaida city to protect it from the sand dunes. Moreover, tree belts were established around 750 farms with an area of 20 ha each to protect the farms and the villages from the moving sand. The project also constructed 31 village wells with full pumping systems and irrigation networks. To provide forestry species plantlets to project sites, 6 central nurseries were established at Wadi Seham and Wadi Zabid. With a fund of about US$1m from the Cooperative Agricultural Credit Bank, easier loans were made available to the farmers in the region for digging wells and installing irrigation networks. About 47 livestock farms were established among poor rural families in which values have been recovered in four years. Also, 40 grass-cutter machines were provided free to farmers. Training on animal health and house economy was provided to enhance the capability of rural women. In the highlands of Yemen profound traditional knowledge on agriculture and a significant agro-biodiversity has developed over centuries. These well-adapted agro-ecosystems are now threatened by impacts of socio-economical, demographic, and climatic changes. The communities in the highlands retain important agro-biodiversity and traditional knowledge related to the utilization of their agro-biodiversity resources. Yemen is well known for its agro-biodiversity based on the large number of landraces of barley, wheat, sorghum, millet, lentil, and cowpea which have evolved over more than 2,000 years and for the construction and management of terraces which help to minimize land degradation and improve water use efficiency. A large number of landraces of different crops are still used within the prevailing and diverse farm systems to meet the food needs of these communities and those of their livestock. These landraces and their wild relatives and the associated local knowledge constitute important components of the traditional farming systems prevailing under harsh environments in rainfed mountainous regions. Concerning the natural flora, the Yemen highlands provide a large number of endemic species and ecological niches (Yemen First National Report to the Convention on Biological Diversity, 2004). Thus, not only is there potential for using wild plants, eg for food, fodder and energy, but also using their acclimatization potential to add important benefits to the stability and resilience of the agricultural landscape. These well adapted agro-ecosystems are part of a social-ecological system that has developed over centuries and serves as the life basis of the majority of the Yemeni people. At the same time water supply (rainfall input as well as distribution) requires up-scaling from the plot through the field/terrace to the catchment and landscape level. Therefore, agro-biodiversity should be understood as the biodiversity of 136

agro-ecosystems and agricultural landscapes, consisting of genetic, ecological, and cultural diversity. This invaluable agro-biodiversity should be conserved at all levels, including seeds, plants, terraces along agroecological gradients, and the various traditional rain-harvesting techniques. At seed level this addresses both in-situ (on-farm) and ex-situ (Gene-banks), as it provides an important genetic base for crop improvement programs, specifically for the development of crop varieties which are likely to be better adapted to impending shifts in climatic patterns.

3.10.6 Recent activities and projects Few projects have been established and conducted for climate change (Table 13). The main two projects being implemented are: ď Ž

ď Ž

Agro-biodiversity and Climate Change Adaptation Project (ACAP). The objectives are to: o

To enhance capacity and awareness at key national agencies and at local levels, to respond to climate variability and change; and

To better equip local communities to cope with climate change through the conservation and use of agro-biodiversity.

Pilot Project for Climate Resilience (PPCR). The objective is to identify the requirement and needs of the affected sectors to cope with climate change.

There are many projects being implemented in several sectors but they are not specifically targeted directly at climate change but fit partially or indirectly with climate change issues. The following fall into this category. Water resources and irrigation Several projects financed by multi-fund sources, the main objective of these projects are water resources management and enhancing irrigation efficiency of groundwater use and enhancing the use of service water. The major related projects financed by the Bank and/or other Agencies are summarized below. World Bank/IDA World Bank/IDA strategy in the water sector has been guided by the Country Water Resource Assessment Strategy (CWRAS, 2005). This provided for five areas of support in line with NWSSIP: (i) sector restructuring and institutional development; (ii) decentralized water resources management through assistance to NWRA and basin and local level initiatives; (iii) water resources management and water use efficiency through irrigation improvement; (iv) urban water reform and investment to expand coverage; and (v) rural water and sanitation reform and investment. These approaches have been incorporated into the Country Assessment Strategy (CAS) and have been translated into a series of sector work tasks and into five water sector projects. ď&#x201A;ˇ Table 11 Bank/IDA Sector Work on Water under NWSSIP Country Water Resources Assistance Strategy (CWRAS) in 2005 Technical assistance on NWSSIP implementation and M&E (2006 and 2007) A study on a Sector Wide Approach (SWAp) for water in 2006 Country Social Analysis (CSA) in 2006 Poverty and Social Impact Analysis (PSIA) study on the groundwater, irrigation and rural water and sanitation subsectors in 2007

137

 Table 12 World Bank/IDA funded projects Project

Description

Rural Water Supply and Sanitation Project (RWSSP)

Supports rural water sector reform, innovation and expansion of service coverage. RWSSP has been extended to December 2009 under a supplemental grant.

Urban Water Supply and Sanitation Project (UWSSP),

Supports urban water sector reform and expansion of service coverage.

Sana’a Basin Water Management Project (SBWMP)

Supports integrated water resource management and irrigation improvement in the Sana’a Basin.

Groundwater and Soil Conservation Project (GSCP),

Supports irrigation improvement and watershed management. GSCP has been extended to October 31, 2011 under a supplemental grant

Irrigation Improvement Project (IIP)

Supports organization of water user associations, irrigation advisory services and rehabilitation of major spate irrigation systems.

Germany Germany is providing support to the water sector through financial and technical cooperation. Financial cooperation, implemented by KFW, is mainly financing infrastructure investment in urban water supply and sanitation. Technical cooperation, implemented by GTZ, is focusing on: (i) institutional development; (ii) facilitation of reform processes; and (iii) capacity development at the national level (including the Technical Secretariat for Water Sector Reform in MWE) and at the local level (support to the water utilities). Current major programs financed by Germany are: on-going investment projects and capacity development in urban water utilities, a new demand-driven investment facility the Provincial Towns Open Program (PTOP), and Yemeni-German Technical Cooperation Water Sector Program in: (i) urban water reform and institutional development; and (ii) integrated water resources management, with support to NWRA to assist decentralized water management through the basin committees, basin plans, and monitoring of groundwater. The Netherlands The Netherlands has a long history of supporting Yemen‟s water sector in both urban and rural water and sanitation and in water resource management. In the rural water and sanitation subsector, The Netherlands has been active in Hodeidah and Dhamar under the Support to Rural Water Supply Project (SURWAS) since 1992, introducing the Demand Responsive Approach during the third phase of the project (19992001). More recently, The Netherlands has been pioneering targeted budget support to NWRA and General Authority for Rural Water Supply (GARWSP) through its Program Assistance to the Water Sector (PAWS). Under the 2007-2009 PAWS agreement, the Netherlands provides direct annual budget support to GARWSP and to NWRA, which contract to deliver an agreed program with identified outcomes. Japan Japan is supporting water resource management through technical assistance to NWRA to prepare the Sana‟a Basin Water Management Action Plan. Japan is also supporting rural water supply through GARWSP. Indirectly, Japan is also financing the Community Water Management Project (CWMP), which is implemented by WEC and supervised by the World Bank. Forests and rangelands The government has prepared different programs and projects to improve forestry and rangelands over all the country but due to a lack of funds no action has yet been taken. Animal production and health Several projects have been implemented to improve livestock production and although they are not directly to do with climate change they do address the same issues of drought and range degradation: 138



Rainfed Agriculture and Livestock Project (RALP): the main tasks of this project are to improve animal productivity in rural areas, enhancing research agencies, improving the capability of government staff and capacity building for the concern institutions;



PADZY: this is a French grant project aim at developing livestock productivity in some rural areas (in the districts in Taiz Governorate and Wadi Morr in Al-Hudaida Governorate).



Avian Influenza Preparedness Project: this project aimed to protect the country from Avian Influenza;



Other projects aim to protect the country from some diseases like Rift Valley Fever (RVF).

Plant production and protection The main goal of the Ministry of Agriculture and Irrigation (MAI) is to improve productivity for different crops particularly cereals and vegetables. Also the MAI implements activities aimed at reducing the diseases that affects plants. Due to lack of funding these activities are limited in their application.

3.10.7 Funding opportunities There are no public funds allocated for climate change adaptation, CDM, and mitigation except the government‟s contribution in donor-supported projects. There are no investment contributions from the private sector except for the construction of a desalination plant at Al-Mukha to provide Taiz Governorate with drinking water. Up to now there are no specific projects directly touching the Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation (REDD) and REDD+.

3.10.8 Conclusions and recommendations It is acknowledged that reversing the present degradation trends and sustaining the use and management of land resources can only be achieved by adopting a system of improved land, water, and vegetation use based on an integrated approach. Sustained mountain and watershed management will ensure the preservation, conservation, and sustainable exploitation of land resources; the formulation of national strategies, policies, and approaches for watershed management; and sustainable mountain development, would constitute a milestone for the rehabilitation and sustained use of land resources. There is a need to provide special training to staff in MAI and associated institutions in climate awareness and in developing a coherent response strategy Climate modelling capacity in Yemen is not yet sufficient. Developing the capability of technical specialists within related institutions is necessary to undertake climate modeling. Technical knowledge of climate change is very limited. Capacity building at two levels – at the policy and program level – awareness and technical capacity of staff in the MAI could be developed to take account of climate change in development programs. At the community level the aim is to increase awareness of climate change and develop response strategies. A system to broadcast weekly weather forecasts to farmers would be beneficial. Terraces rehabilitation: Terraces are the main agricultural source in the rainfed highlands. Rehabilitation and maintenance of terraces would allow communities to use them more efficiently which would result in more agricultural activities, increased income for families, and settlement of farmers. Establishment of flood protection structures: Communities need help in order to avoid damage to their fields and farms by providing flood protection structures to preserve crops and farms and save long-season production, and sustain livelihoods.

139

Women empowerment: increasing awareness and education levels among women, especially of their rights, and mobilizing them into committees and associations will enable them to recognize their strengths and to share responsibilities more effectively with the community. Additionally, this will allow women to take decisions on matters and activities that concern them. More empowerment would result in giving women better status and provide them with better opportunities to reduce hardship, alleviate illiteracy, improve health status for themselves and their children, and contribute more positively to their community. Opportunities for Adaptation: Many opportunities exist for more effective integration of climate change adaptation within development activities whether or not effects of climate change are realized. As a point of departure, progress on adaptation to climate change will require: 

Improving governance, including an active civil society and open, transparent, and an accountable policy and decision-making process which can have a critical bearing on the way in which policies and institutions respond to the impact of climatic change on the poor;



Promoting steps towards the mainstreaming of climate change issues into all national, subnational, and sectoral planning processes, such as Poverty Reduction Strategies (PRS) or national strategies for sustainable development;



Providing a specific government agency (eg Ministry of Planning and International Cooperation) with a broad mandate to pursue mainstreaming adaptation to climate change across all sectors;



Combining approaches at government and institutional level with bottom-up approaches rooted in regional, national, and local knowledge;



Empowering rural communities so that they can participate in assessments and feed in their knowledge to provide useful climate-poverty information;



Conducting vulnerability assessments that are designed to fully address the different dimensions and causes of poverty;



Providing access to good quality information about the impacts of climate change such as earlywarning systems and information dissemination systems which can help to anticipate and prevent disasters; and



Integrating climate change impacts into economic planning for the national budget. The rate and pattern of economic growth is a critical element of poverty eradication and climate can have a powerful bearing on both. Integration will prevent climate change diverting limited resources away from long-term development priorities and into disaster relief and recovery activities.

140

Annex: Adaptation projects in key vulnerable sectors submitted within NAPA Water sector Develop and enforce water quality standards Implement local community-based monitoring systems for water quality Maximize the use of rainwater through water harvesting techniques in all sectors Develop regulations for water tariffs (prices) Encourage planting of crops with low water requirements (Avoid water-depleting crops such as Qat, banana etc) Introduce and expand drought, heat- and salinity-resistant varieties Generalize and enforce environmental impact assessment and water pollution control measures for all projects on all sectors Promote efficient use and equity in water allocation, so as to enhance socio-economic development and alleviate poverty Promotion of modern irrigation technologies to increase water use efficiency Implement watershed management, terrace rehabilitation and water harvesting projects Restore floodplains and coastal ecosystems as buffers against extreme events Develop and implement disaster preparedness and recovery programs, including forecasting, early warning and rapid response Restore or preserve mountain forests to reduce soil erosion and peak-flows Introduce climate change considerations in land use planning and infrastructure design (including planning near to wadis routes, building codes, and artificial routes for flowage â&#x20AC;Ś etc.) Encourage and expand water desalination using renewable energy sources, especially on Yemeni islands and coastal areas, where drinking water is not available or subject to seawater intrusion to ensure continuity of life Rely on modern technology, such as geographic information systems (GIS), for water resources management Implement artificial precipitation projects Apply integrated management of water resources, including surface water, groundwater and wastewater Disseminate information on water saving techniques in all economic sectors Adapting minimum environmental flow provisions (surface and groundwater) to the hydro-period of wetlands Encourage partnership with users and local communities in the management of water resources, and in financing, operation and maintenance of irrigation and rural water supply projects Undertake demand-side management measures (end-use technologies, recycling and conservation) Undertake supply-side efficiency improvement measures (leak reduction, optimize existing water regulation infrastructure, operation and maintenance) Build the capacity of central and local level institutions on the integration of environmental and sustainability issues within the district development process Promote research on adverse climate change effects on water resources in Yemen and disseminate research results to make use of them Establish 'Yemen Climate Impacts and Adaptation Research Network (YCIARN)' with specialized National Climate Change Research Centres for Priority Vulnerable Sectors Establish 'National Climate Change Research Centre for Water Resources' to undertake and coordinate research on immediate and future research needs Promote awareness of climatic variability and the potential risk of climate change at all levels of the community (public and decision makers), arrange local, regional and national awareness raising campaigns to disseminate information on water resources, their vulnerability and adaptation measures on all levels including school and university curricula Agricultural sector Apply efficient integrated natural resources management Apply efficient integrated land management Control and prevent land degradation and desertification Apply genetic improvement programs through introduction of drought-, salinity-, heat-, disease- and pest resistant/tolerant varieties/crops, adapting to new crops, collection and documentation of genetic sources and their utilization for plant breeding and improvement programs Improve crop management programs through changing sowing date, crop density, tillage practices, fertilizer levels, growing season for crop, making use of accumulated experience by farmers, collection and documentation of their local knowledge and experience, improving crop specific characteristics (harvest index, photosynthetic efficiency) and mitigation of the effects of drought Apply efficient watershed management Design and implement terrace rehabilitation programs 141

Construct dams where appropriate based on environmental impact assessment and technical and economic feasibility Apply irrigation efficiency improvement programs Apply water use efficiency improvement programs Apply improved irrigation practices such as optimal scheduling high frequency and low-volume water delivery, adequate drainage and salinity control Improve seasonal weather forecast quality Apply traditional technologies, such as multiple cropping and terracing Apply integrated rangeland management Preserve and restore wetlands Compensate water losses by using treated waste water and mosques waters for irrigation Promote research on adverse climate change effects on agriculture in Yemen and disseminate research results to make use of them Establish 'Yemen Climate Impacts and Adaptation Research Network (YCIARN)' with specialized National Climate Change Research Centres for Priority Vulnerable Sectors. Establish 'National Climate Change Research Centre for Agriculture' to undertake and coordinate research on immediate and future research needs Activate the environmental and agricultural extension role in coordination with the different extension departments Prepare agriculture manuals for the different zones of Yemen including sowing dates Utilization of flowing water in the wadis Drought-resistant crops New sowing dates Climate and other agriculture-related databases Activate and enforce existing laws, regulations, etc. Promote awareness of climatic variability and the potential risk of climate change at all levels of the community (public and decision makers): awareness campaigns to inform farmers on appropriate crops disseminate environmental-agricultural awareness on all levels including schools and universities. Establish flexible mechanisms for intervention especially for dealing with Qat and other water-depleting crops through providing for new alternative cropping Undertake measures to avoid adverse effects of urban planning on agricultural land Establish laboratories to test agricultural changes of crops and support existing laboratories at agriculture research centres for adaptation Support alternatives for fuel wood to control woodcutting and preserve plant cover through promotion of LPG use for cooking and solar energy applications for drying, heating, lighting â&#x20AC;Ś etc. Disseminate flowage/flood guidance stations at main wadis Establish, expand and manage natural protected areas. Coastal areas & fisheries Increase soft protection (e.g., beach nourishment and wetland construction and restoration) Construct coastal defence walls for coastal areas subjected to erosion Rely on technology, such as geographic information systems (GIS), to manage information Raise awareness of the need for coastal adaptation that is appropriate for local conditions targeting decision makers and planners down to local community organizations Develop regulations to phase out development in sensitive coastal areas Ensure that new development does not infringe upon the shoreline Re-plan coastal areas in accordance to environmental studies and specifications for protection of marine environment Protect existing investments by maintaining, extending and upgrading existing dyke systems to prevent damage to coastal infrastructure and human activities Construct marine tongues and wave suppressors to avoid waves-induced hazards Establish integrated coastal management network for all coasts of Yemen Protect coastal eco-tourism and implement market based incentives to promote sustainable tourism Expand green belt for coastal areas through protection and re-planting of mangroves and palms Integrated assessment of coastal zone vulnerability, including the capacity of existing coastal zone management policies to address impacts of climate variability and change Human processes of adaptation, and capacity of stakeholders and political institutions to respond to changing conditions 142

How stakeholders could benefit from potential opportunities that may be presented by climate change Climate change effects on marine species and migration birds Realistic cost estimates for different adaptation options within the coastal zone, including consideration of effect of differing rates of water level change Improved understanding of human activities and policies that affect coastal vulnerability to climate change, and existing adaptation barriers Address research work giving due attentions capacity building needs and awareness enhancement Establish 'Yemen Climate Impacts and Adaptation Research Network (YCIARN)' with specialized National Climate Change Research Centers for Priority Vulnerable Sectors. Establish 'National Climate Change Research Centre for Coastal Areas and Marine Resources' to undertake and coordinate research on immediate and future research needs Set up a national emergency plan to face natural disasters including climate change induced ones Strengthen the capacity and potential of individuals, agencies, and communities in the planning, implementation, monitoring and evaluation of Yemen NAPA projects Activate and enforce marine fishing regulating laws and regulations Issue licenses for definite types of marine resources and fishes Specify fishing seasons for each type Specify fishing areas Reduce current catch on fully and overexploited fisheries to restore health of fisheries Capacity building: training/education for use of efficient, marine environment-friendly fishing techniques and equipment Raise awareness of fishermen, sailors and all those related to marine environment through guidance and information services Raise awareness of islands inhabitants Involve relevant stakeholders and local communities in monitoring the implementation of valid fishing laws Establish marine protected areas Conduct studies and research on the following: Monitoring impact of climate change on marine resources Update the eco-graphical information on Gulf of Aden and red sea and their impact on fish and marine resources Climate change impacts on social and economic condition of population as a result of impact on fisheries resources Establish a climate change database

143

 Table 13 Climate change programmes in Yemen Programme

Status

Duration

Budget (US$)

Funding

Objective

Pilot Project for Climate Resilience PPCR

planned

2010-2011

1,500,000

WB/CIF

Mainstream climate resilience into development for transformational change.

Second National Communication on climate change SNC

2007-2009

405.000

UNDP/GEF

Assist Yemen with the activities necessary to prepare and report the Second National Communication (SNC) to the Conference Parties (COP) and on a continuing basis to strengthen Yemen's capacity to fulfil its commitments to the UNFCCC.

Institutional Capacity Development for the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) in Yemen.

2006-2007

120,000

UNDP Fund

National Capacity Self-Assessment for climate change, biodiversity and combating desertification.

2005-2007

200,000

UNDP/GEF

An assessment and planning process to support Yemen in addressing national and global environmental issues.

National Adaptation Program of Action NAPA.

2003-2004

220,000

UNDP/GEF

Communicating clearly to the international community the important activities that address Yemen’s urgent needs for adapting to the negative effects of climate change.

Adapting to Water Scarcity for Yemen’s Vulnerable Communities.

Initial National Communication on climate change.

Agro-biodiversity and Adaptation Project.

on-going

2010-2014

5,300,000

Enhance capacity and awareness at key national agencies and at local levels to respond to climate variability and change; and to better equip local communities to cope with climate change through the conservation and use of agro-biodiversity.

Thematic

Trust

Assist Yemen in developing its institutional capacity for hosting the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM), and to facilitate both government and private sector investment in projects that have the potential to reduce greenhouse gases (GHG) and qualify as CDM projects.

144

Integrated Coastal Management Project

Zone

planned

Study on climate impacts on Agro biodiversity (World Bank)

on-going

Rural Community Resilience to climate Change

National Probabilistic Assessment

Risks

Hadramout and Al Mahra Probabilistic Risks Assessment

Municipality of Sana’a Natural Disaster Risk Evaluation and Urban Planning

Sana’a Water Scarcity and Climate Change

Sana’a Integrated Storm water Management Plan

Study on climate change scenarios projections (2008/09)

Climate impacts on water resource management and agriculture (World Bank)

on-going

Rainfed Areas Livestock Project (RALP)

on-going

Water Sector Support Program (WSSP)

on-going

N/A

14,500,000

WB/LDCF

Demonstrate at pilot sites improved knowledge of climate change adaptation and diversified economic activities of coastal communities to address climate variability, and improved coastal resources conservation and management through the implementation of climate resilient ICZM.

145

Annex I: Forum Agenda DAY 1: MONDAY, 27 JUNE 2011 08:00 - 09:00

Registration

09:00 - 10:00

Welcome and Official Opening Session 1: Country stands on climate change and its impacts on agriculture and food security in the Near East region Chairperson: C. Nordheim-Larsen, UNCCD

10:00 - 10:50

10:50-11:05

Presentations -

Climate change likely impacts on food security related sectors in the Near East. 30 min M. Bazza, FAO

Country paper on climate change in Saudi Arabia. 20 min M. Darfaoui

Coffee break Session 1 (continued) Presentations -

Country paper on climate change in Syria. 20 min J. Hammoud

Country paper on climate change in Mauritania. 20 min K. Ould Atigh

11:05-12:05

Plenary Discussion. 20 min Session 1 (continued) Presentations 12:05 -13:30

Conceptual framework for climate change vulnerability assessment on water and agriculture sectors in the Arab region (T. Sadek, UN-ESCWA). 30 min Regional Policy: Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security in the Arab Region (S. Wahbi, LAS). 30 min

Plenary Discussion. 25 min 13:30-14:45

Lunch Session 2: Identification of priority needs to confront climate change impacts on agriculture and food security in the Near East countries Moderators: S. Abe; M. Bazza (FAO) & Facilitators Presentations: -

14:45-17:30

Country stands on climate change and critical needs identified through the analysis of Country Papers. 20 min Introduction of Group work. 30 min S. Abe, FAO

Group work (4 Groups: one per sub-region and one regional): -

Identification of priority needs to confront climate change impacts on agriculture and food security in the Near East countries Coffee break (group by group) 17:30

End of Day 1 146

DAY 2: TUESDAY, 28 JUNE 2011

08:30 -09:15

Session 2 (continued) Presentation of group work findings (Plenary) Session 3: Financial mechanisms and sources of funding for climate change Chairperson: A. Haddad, UNEP Presentations

09:15-10:45

Introduction to GEF structure, the Special Climate Change Fund (SCCF) and Least Developed Countries Fund (LDCF). 30 min FAO-GEF support to Member Countries. 30 min K. Morebotsane, FAO (By Videoconference)

Plenary Discussion. 30 min 10:45-11:00

Coffee break Session 3 (continued) Presentations

11:00-12:30

Introduction to financial mechanisms for climate change and their relevance for the Near East countries. 30 min Financial mechanisms for climate change: Access conditions and procedures. 30 min P. Gorin and D. Colbert, FAO

Plenary Discussion. 30 min 12:30-14:00

Lunch Session 4: GEF Focal Areas and LDCF/SCCF strategies (with emphasis on climate change adaptation in the food security related sectors) Chairperson: E. Darfaoui, KSA/FAO

14:00-15:30

Presentations -

GEF-5 Focal Area and LDCF/SCCF Strategies. 30 min GEF Project Cycle, Requirements and Formats. 30 min K. Morebotsane, FAO (By Videoconference) Plenary Discussion. 30 min

15:30-15:45

Coffee break

15:45-16:30

Introduction to Session 5

16:30

End of Day 2

147

DAY 3: WEDNESDAY, 29 JUNE 2011 Host Country Special Session Chairperson: D. Colbert, FAO 08:30-09:30

Presentation -

Climate Change in Lebanon: Challenges and Perspectives Salah Hajj Hassan, Ministry of Agriculture

Session 5: Group work to develop basic project information to address priority needs Moderator: A. Haddad, UNEP 9:30-12:00

Group work -

11:00-12:00

Develop basic project information for the GEF PIF format (one per group). 2h30 • Arabian Peninsula (Facilitator: Country resource person) • Middle East (Facilitator: Country resource person) • North Africa (Facilitator: Country resource person) • Regional project (Facilitator: FAO RNE) Coffee break (by group when done) Session 5 (continued) Group work presentations and discussion. 20 min each group

12:00-13:20

13:20-14:30

- Arabian Peninsula - Middle East - North Africa - Regional Project Lunch Session 6: Wrap-up session

14:30-16:00

Chairperson: M. Bazza, FAO

16:00-16:30

- Practical recommendations for follow-up action to address the identified gaps - Forum declaration and discussion of a roadmap for implementation of recommendations Closing

16:30

End of the Forum

148

Annex II: List of Participants COUNTRIES

ALGERIA Abdelkader RACHEDI Director of Planning Department of Forestry Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development, Algiers Tel: +213 21 91 53 11 Mobile: + 213 551 84 23 56 Email: rachediaek@hotmail.com Nabil TIBOURTINE Head of Office General Directorate of Economic Relations and International Cooperation Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Algiers Tel: +213 21 50 45 45 Mobile: +213 17 79 45 57 83 Email: narasa3@yahoo.fr EGYPT Mosad KOTB Director, Central Laboratory for Agricultural Climate, CLAC Agricultural Research Center, Giza Tel: +202-2-33367274 Mobile: +2017726863 +20119441339 Email: dr_mosaadkotb2003@yahoo.com Moustafa Sabry ELHAKEEM Consultant to the Minister of Environment Ministry of State for Environmental Affairs 30, Misr Helwan El-Zeraei Road, Maadi, Cairo Tel: +202-25266180 Fax: +202-25256454 Mobile: +20122269300 Email: dr_mostafaelhakim@hotmail.com IRAQ Mohammed Ghazi M. AL-DULAIMI Director-General State Board of Combating Desertification Abu-Gharib Baghdad Tel: 5112662 Mobile: 07901749311 Fax: 5111402 Email: desertification_agri@yahoo.com IRAN Ahmad DEHGHAN Head of Agricultural Development Research Group, Agricultural Planning, Economic and Rural Development Research Institute (APERDRI), 149

Ministry of Jihad-e-Agriculture Tehran Tel: +98-21-88902994 Mobile: +98-912-287-8794 Fax: +98-21-88896660 Email: ahmad_dehghan@yahoo.com LEBANON Adel KORTAS Former Minister of Agriculture President, the Lebanese Association on Nutrition and Development (LAND) The Association of the Water Friends in Lebanon PO Box 166046 Beirut Tel: +961-1-397525 Mobile: +961-3-147081 Fax: +961-1-611504 Email: acortas@dm.net.lb Salah ElHag HASSAN Advisor Ministry of Agriculture Beirut Tel: +961-1-849643 Fax: +961-1821900 Email: mmlebanon@hotmail.com Vahakn KABAKIAN Project Manager Ministry of Environment Beirut Tel: 01/976-565 Fax: 01/976-531 Email: vahakn@moe.gov.lb Samir SAFI Professor Lebanese University Faculty of Sciences II Beirut Mobile: 03-394962 Email: ssafi45@hotmail.com Salma TALHOUK Professor AUB Beirut Tel: 01-350000 Ext: 4508 Fax: 01-3744460 Email: ntsalma@aub.edu.lb Richard PATON Project Director Beirut Tel: 01-426630 / 71-537532 Fax: 01-426632 Email: rpaton@lri-lb.org 150

Siham SALMAN Enviromental Educational Activities Beirut Mobile: 03-381082 Tel: 01-898475 Fax: 01-898476 Email: siham@afdc.org.lb Patricia SFEIR Agriculture and Environment Manager Young Menâ&#x20AC;&#x;s Christian Association YMCA-Lebanon Bierut Tel: 01-490640 Fax: 01-490685 Email: patricia.sfeir@ymca-leb.org.lb Faten RAAD Researcher, Ministry of Agriculture Beirut Tel: 01-849643 Mobile: 03-738432 Email: faten_raad@yahoo.com Rime Fidawi YAKTIN Agriculture Officer CDR-Planning Department Beirut Email: rimay@cdr.gov.lb Lamia MANSOUR Team Leader Environmental Fund for Lebanon CDR, Tallet El Serail, Beirut Tel: +961-1-981931 Mobile: +961-3-777134 Fax: +961-1-981252/3 Email: lmansour@cdr.gov.lb Manar DAGHER Agricultural Engineer Horticulture and Agronomy Service Ministry of Agriculture Beirut Mobile: 03-667584 Email: manar_dag@hotmail.com Nisrine HAJJ Agricultural Engineer Tel: 08-900037147 Fax: 08-900057 Email: nisrine-el-hajj@gmail.com Claudio ERRIGHI Project Coordinator Beirut Tel: 70191416 Email: errighi@hotmail.com 151

Reine BARBAR Academic Society Faculty of Agricultural Sciences - USEK Beirut Tel: 70-937620 Email: reinebarbar@usek.edu.lb Hussein FAWAZ Regional Director â&#x20AC;&#x201C; North Africa Beirut Tel: +961i-1-780200 Mobile: +961-3-334535 Fax: +961-1-863958 Email: hussein.fawaz@iktissad.com MAURITANIA Cheikh Tourad Ould M. SAADBOUH Environmental Inspector Expert in Climate Change Ministry of Environment Rue 21- 185 Ksar, Nouakchott Mobile: +222-44461472 Fax: +22245253138 Email: tourad@voila.fr SUDAN Mona Abdelhafeez A. DAWELBAIT Director of Division of Planning Coordination and Environment Awareness Ministry of Environment, Forestry and Physical Development Khartoum Mobile: +249 912909177 +249 123756389 Fax: +249-153985606 Email: munabdelhafeez@hotmail.com Adil Mohamed Ali Seed AHMED Agricultural Engineer Higher Council for Environment & Natural Resources El gamaa Avenue, P.O. Box 10488 Khartoum Tel: +249-183-784279 Mobile: +249-912642060 Fax: +249-183-787617 Email: hcenr2005@yahoo.com sanjak1956@gmail.com SYRIA Maher BOUZOU Environment Director Damascus Directorate for Environment Damascus Tel: +963-11-4614440 Mobile: +963-93331160 Fax: +963-11-46376760 Email: dr.bouzo@gmail.com

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UAE Shahd AL HAMMADI International Cooperation Coordinator International Cooperation Department Ministry of Environment and Water PO Box: 1509 Dubai, UAE Tel: +971508870110 Direct: +971 4 2148527 Fax: +971 4 2655822 Email: SYALHAMMADI@MOEW.GOV.AE YEMEN Alladeen AL-SHARJABI Director-General of Forests Ministry of Agriculture and Irrigation P.O. Box 2805 Sanaâ&#x20AC;&#x;a Tel: +967-1-250977 Fax: +967-1-250976 Email: amaash@yahoo.com

ORGANIZATIONS

AOAD Mahmoud MEDANI Adviser to the Director-General of the Affairs of Climatic and Environmental Resources Arab Organization for Agricultural Development Cairo, Egypt Tel: 33365798/33365795 Mobile: 0105287312 E-mail: rumedany@yahoo.com OR rumedany@gmail.com ESCWA Tarek SADEK First Economic Affiars Officer (Climate Change) Economic and Social Commission for Western Asia (ESCWA) United Nations (UN) Riad El-Solh, Beirut, Lebanon Tel: (961-1) 978520 Mobile: (961- 70) 824432 Fax: +961-1-981510 Email: sadekt@un.org Fidele BYIRINGIRO Economic Affairs Officer Economic and Social Commission for Western Asia (ESCWA) United Nations (UN) Riad El-Solh, Beirut Lebanon Tel: +961-1-978519 Fax: +961-1-981510 Email: byiringiro@un.org

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Sung Eun KIM Associate Economic Affairs Officer Water Resources Section Economic and Social Commission for Western Asia (ESCWA) United Nations (UN) Riad El-Solh, Beirut, Lebanon Tel: +961-1-9788522 Fax: +961-1-981510 Email: kim54@un.org ICARDA Hassan MACHLAB Country Manager, ICARDA-Lebanon Tel: 01-813303 , 08-955127 Mobile: +9613211553 Fax: 01-804071 Email: h.machlab@cgiar.org ICU Jose Antonio Naya VILLAVERDE Resident Representative of ICU in Middle East Beirut, Lebanon Tel: 009613242509 Email: iculiban@inco.com.lb Bruno SCHILL Agronomist Project Manager, ICU Beirut, Lebanon Tel: +9613470198 Email: Brunoschill@gmail.com Majida MCHEIK Consultant, ICU Head of Program Department Ministry of Agriculture Beirut, Lebanon Tel: +9611449781 Mobile: +9613602615 Fax: +9611849615 Email: ma_mcheik@yahoo.com Claudio ERRIGHI Agronomist Project Coordinator, ICU Beirut, Lebanon Tel: +96170141916 Email: errighic@hotmail.com LAS Shahira Hassan WAHBI Chief of Sustainable Development and international Cooperation League of Arab States Tahreer Square 11642 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Down Town Cairo, Egypt Tel: +20225750511 154

Fax: +20225740331 Mobile: +20106688105 Email: shuhryar@yahoo.com envsusdev.dept@las.int UNCCD Camilla NORDHEIM-LARSEN Programme Coordinator, Asia and Pacific, The Global Mechanism of the UNCCD at the International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD) Via Paolo Di Dono 44 00142 Rome, Italy Tel: +39 06 54592061 Fax: +39 06 54593061 Email: c.nordheim-larsen@global-mechanism.org UNEP Abdul-Majeid HADDAD Regional Coordinator Climate Change United Nations Environment Programme Regional Office for Asia P.O. Box 10880 Manama, Bahrain Tel: +973-17812777 Fax: +973-17825110/1 e-mail: majeid.haddad@unep.org UNESCO Sulieman SULEIMAN Programme Specialist ESD Regional Coordinator UNESCO Regional Office - Beirut PO Box 11-5244 Beirut, Lebanon Tel: +961-1-850013 Mobile: +961-3-942877 Fax: +961-1-824854 Email: s.sulieman@unesco.org George AWAD Communication and Information Officer UNESCO Regional Office - Beirut PO Box 11-5244 Beirut, Lebanon Tel: +961-1-850013 Fax: +961-1-824854 E-mail: g.awad@unesco.org

NATIONAL CONSULTANTS

JORDAN Malek MAHADIN Director of Studies and Policies Dept. 155

Ministry of Agriculture P.O. Box 2099 PO Code 11181 Amman Tel: +062-6-5686151 Mobile: +962-79-9038484 Fax: +962-6-5662 687 Email: mahadeen@moa.gov.jo MAURITANIA Kattary OULD ATIGH Engineer, Rural Enconmy Department of Agriculture Ministry of Rural Development Nouakchott Tel: +22222245567 Email: khattryatigh@yahoo.fr MOROCCO M‟hamed SEDRATI Consultant Tel: +212-64-1845 Mobile: +212-661484877 Fax: +212-64-1845 agrosed2006@gmail.com SAUDI ARABIA El Mostafa DARFAOUI Senior Natural Resources Expert, FAO, Riyadh- KSA Tel: +966 545623197 Email: elmostafa.darfaoui@fao.org Emdarfaoui@menara.ma SUDAN Sawsan Khair El Sied MUSTAFA Head of Technical Dept. Range and Pasture General Directorate (RPA), Ministry of Animal Resources and Fisheries, Khartoum Tel: +24983 775231 Mobile: +249912559438 Email: sawsanatkh@yahoo.com SYRIA Jalal HAMMOUD Director Drought Management Directorate Ministry of Agriculture MAAR Bulding – Al Hajazz Square Damscus, Syria Tel: +96311-23498361/23498380 Fax: +96311-23498361 Mobile: +963-933723617 Email: ha.jalal@yahoo.com

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TUNISIA Mohamed Lazhar EL ECHI Agronomist Ministry of Agriculture and Environment Tel: +21697441949 Email: lazharechi@yahoo.fr YEMEN Abdulkarem AL-SABRI Director-General of On-Farm Irrigation Ministry of Agriculture and Irrigation West of the Ministry Planning Sanaâ&#x20AC;&#x;a Tel: +967 1 253 459 Mobile: +967 777 253 559 Fax: +967 1 253 559 Email: akalsabri@yahoo.co.uk

FAO/RNE

Mohamed BAZZA Senior Water Resources Officer FAO Regional Office for the Near East P.O. Box 2223, Cairo, Egypt Tel: +20 23 331 6132 Fax: +20 23 749 5981 Email: mohamed.bazza@fao.org Piero MANNINI Senior Fishery Officer FAO Regional Office for the Near East P.O. Box 2223, Cairo, Egypt Tel: +20 23 331 6141 Fax: +20 23 749 5981 Email: piero.mannini@fao.org Shinya ABE FAO Regional Office for the Near East P.O. Box 2223, Cairo, Egypt Tel: +20233316000 (Ext. 2814) Fax: +20237495981 Email: shinya.abe@fao.org Faycel CHENINI Consultant FAO Regional Office for the Near East P.O. Box 2223, Cairo, Egypt Tel: +20233316000 (Ext. 2814) Fax: +20237495981 Email: faycel.chenini@fao.org Lori CURTIS Consultant FAO Regional Office for the Near East P.O. Box 2223, Cairo, Egypt 157

Tel: +20233316000 (Ext. 2822) Fax: +20237495981 Email: lori.curtis@fao.org Heba FAHMY Programme Clerk FAO Regional Office for the Near East P.O. Box 2223, Cairo, Egypt Tel: +20233316000 (Ext. 2802) Fax: +20237495981 Email: hebatallah.fahmy@fao.org

FAO/HQ

David COLBERT Senior Environment Officer, (TCIN) Viale delle Term di Carcalla, 00153 Rome, Italy Tel: +39 0657053849 Mobile: +39 348-870-1346 Email: David.Colbert@fao.org Patricia GORIN Climate Change Officer, (TCID) Viale delle Term di Carcalla, 00153 Rome, Italy Tel: +39 06-5705-54228 Mobile: +39-3469682245 Email: patricia.gorin@fao.org

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Annex III: Relevant References and Links 1. Relevant references: Water resources and drought management:      

FAO, NERC/08/INF/5: Climate Change: Implications for Agriculture in the Near East, Cairo, 2008. FAO, NERC/10/INF/09: Climate Change Adaptation and Mitigation: New Initiatives and Update on Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries, Sudan, 2010. FAO RNE, National Drought Mitigation Center University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Nebraska, USA: The Near East Drought Planning Manual: Guidelines for Drought Mitigation and Preparedness Planning, 2008, ISBN 978-92-5-106046-9. FAO RNE, National Drought Mitigation Center University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Nebraska, USA: A Review of Drought Occurrence and Monitoring and Planning Activities in the Near East Region, 2008, ISBN 978-92-5-105996-8. FAO RNE: Water resources in the Near East Region: Facts and figures, 2010. Turral H., Burke J. and Faurès J.M.: Climate change, water and food security FAO Land and Water Division, FAO water reports No 36, 2011.

Fisheries and Aquaculture:    

FAO: Climate change implications for Fisheries and Aquaculture: Overview of current scientific knowledge – FAO fisheries and aquaculture technical paper No. 530, 2009, ISBN 978-92-5-1063477. PaCFA: Strategic Framework for Fisheries, Aquaculture and Climate Change: A proposal by the Global Partnership Climate Change, Fisheries and Aquaculture, 2009. FAO RNE/FIPI/C1066: Adapting to climate change: the ecosystem approach to Fisheries and Aquaculture in the Near East and North Africa Region, FAO/WorldFish Workshop Proceedings, 2011, ISBN 978-92-5-106822-9. FAO: Strategy for fisheries aquaculture and climate change - Framework and aims 2011–16.

Forestry:   

FAO, FO: NEFC/2010/7: Assessing the risk and the vulnerability to climate change for the forestry and Ranges sectors in the Near East, Tunisia, 2010. CPF: Strategic framework for forests and climate change - A proposal by the Collaborative Partnership on Forests for a coordinated forest-sector response to climate change, 2008. FAO: Forests and Climate Change in the Near East Region - Forests and Climate Change Working Paper 9, 2010.

GEF:     

Biagini, B. and Dobardzic, S.: Accessing resources under the least developed countries fund, GEF, May 2011. Biagini, B. et al.: Strategy on Adaptation to Climate Change for the Least Developed Countries Fund (LDCF) and the Special Climate Change Fund (SCCF), GEF, 2011. Biagini, B. and Dobardzic, S.: Accessing resources under the special climate change fund, GEF, 2011. GEF: GEF-5 Initial STAR allocations, GEF/C.38/Inf.8, GEF Council Meeting June 29 – July 2, 2010. GEF: GEF-5 Focal Area Strategies, GEF, 2011.

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2. Useful websites and links cited during the presentations: http://www.fao.org http://neareast.fao.org http://www.thegef.org http://www.thegef.org/gef/guidelines http://www.thegef.org/gef/focal_points_list http://www.gefcountrysupport.org/report_detail.cfm?projectId=172 http://www.climatefundsupdate.org/listing/least-developed-countries-fund http://www.thegef.org/gef/gef_agencies http://unfccc.int/resource/docs/publications/ldc_napa2009.pdf http://www.climatefinanceoptions.org/cfo/index.php http://www.climatefundsupdate.org/ http://fenix.fao.org:8050/fenix-web/adam/ADAM.html http://www.forest-trends.org/documents/files/doc_2828.pdf http://www.markitenvironmental.com/assets/beginnersguide.pdf http://www.thegef.org/gef/node/1529 http://www.thegef.org/gef/node/3201 http://www.thegef.org/gef/node/3205 http://www.gcca.eu http://www.mdgfund.org http://adaptation-fund.org/ http://www.climateinvestmentfunds.org http://www.ipcc.ch http://unfccc.int http://www.thegef.org/gef/sites/thegef.org/files/documents/GEF_R5_31_CRP1.pdf http://www.thegef.org/gef/node/1890 http://www.thegef.org/gef/sites/thegef.org/files/documents/C.31.12OperationalGuidelinesIncremental Costs.pdf http://www.thegef.org/gef/sites/thegef.org/files/documents/GEF.C.28.18.pdf http://www.ifad.org/operations/gef/climate/11.pdf http://www.thegef.org/gef/sites/thegef.org/files/documents/CPEGlobal_Environmental_Benefits_Assessment_Outline.pdf http://www.thegef.org/gef/sites/thegef.org/files/publication/mainstreaming-gender-at-the-GEF.pdf http://www.thegef.org/gef/node/243 http://www.thegef.org/gef/node/1215 http://www.climatefish.org http://unfccc.int/resource/docs/publications/ldc_napa2009.pdf

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Annex IV: Original French version of Mauritania country paper I. Introduction Les effets adverses des changements climatiques Au plan isoclimatique, la Mauritanie est désertique à 70%, seule la partie méridionale du pays reçoit des précipitations supérieures à 300 mm/an et les températures sont en moyenne supérieures à 25°C. Le climat est saharien au nord et sahélien au sud et globalement chaud et sec. Il est sous la dépendance des variables latitudinales et l‟influence de la mer. Pour l‟ensemble du territoire, l‟instabilité interannuelle est grande. Les coefficients de variation qui permettent d‟apprécier la régularité d‟une chronique pluviométrique sont très élevés. Ils varient entre 0,30 et 0,70. Le couvert végétal est peu fourni et les ressources en eau sont limitées. La Mauritanie a ratifié la CCNUCC sur les changements climatiques en tant que pays non Annexe 1 de la Convention. Par conséquent le pays est tenu par l‟article 12 de la Convention Cadre de réaliser une Communication nationale devant contribuer à la lute contre les changements climatiques. Le pays a élaboré et adopté, au niveau interministériel, entre autres, deux communications la première en 2001 la deuxième en 2008 et le PANE (programme d‟Action National pour l‟Environnement) en 2006 en tant qu‟instruments de politique dans le domaine des changements climatiques. Ces documents fixent la vision du pays pour les décades suivantes en termes de réponse aux impacts des Changements Climatiques d‟une part et déterminent la responsabilité de niveau mondial de la Mauritanie en tant que pays non émetteur d‟autre part.. La forme la plus visible des manifestations des changements climatiques sur les écosystèmes terrestres en Mauritanie est la désertification et ses corollaires. En effet, la disparition de la végétation donne lieu à des mouvements de sables et à des bad-lands, selon la nature du substrat. Dans les deux cas de figures, les changements climatiques ont des conséquences négatives sur l‟environnement et les populations (rurales et urbaines). Ces conséquences sont d‟ordre écologique, social et économique. Les effets adverses des changements climatiques (variabilité climatique) sur les parcours et les ressources en eau concernent une diminution du potentiel de production, une augmentation de la charge animale, une rigidité de la notion de l‟espace vital et une multiplication des agglomérations favorisant la réduction de l‟espace pastoral, une baisse de la nappe phréatique et/ou la disparition de sources d‟eau naturelles (mares, lacs, ets.....). Par rapport aux systèmes de productions, les plus vulnérables et les plus touchés sont ceux tributaires des eaux des pluies, notamment l‟agriculture sous-pluie ou pluviale. Sur l‟état sanitaire des animaux et sur la survie du cheptel, le mode de gestion des troupeaux, les longs déplacements, la forte promiscuité près des puits sont les causes favorisant la contagion. Aussi, les périodes de disette font apparaître des syndromes de malnutrition et rendent les animaux moins résistants aux agressions et autres facteurs du milieu. Sur la productivité des animaux, l‟élevage du cheptel depuis 1950 fait apparaître la plus grande vulnérabilité aux effets de la sécheresse chez les bovins surtout, dont l‟effectif a été réduit d‟environ un tiers entre 1969 et 1975. Aussi, le manque de fourrage suite à la sécheresse a provoqué une baisse de performance chez le bétail. Si la carence est grave, les animaux cessent de grandir et perdent du poids. S‟il n‟y a pas d‟amélioration, la demande en viande ne pourrait pas être satisfaite par l‟offre nationale en 2015. Le déficit serait alors de l‟ordre de 54.000 tonnes. Par ailleurs, l‟offre globale nationale en lait en 2015 se situerait aux alentours de 519.000 tonnes et ne pourrait alors satisfaire une demande en constante augmentation. La population urbaine estimée à l‟heure actuelle à 55 % de la population ne représentait pas 5 % au début des années soixante dix. Suite à la décimation à une vaste échelle des animaux, la disparition des terres arables par l'ensablement et à la détérioration de la capacité financière, l‟exode rural qu‟ont connu les agriculteurs et les éleveurs et leurs familles a entraîné la formation de groupes socio-économiques extrêmement vulnérables. En ce qui concerne les écosystèmes marins et côtiers, les effets adverses des changements climatiques sont examinés à travers l'élévation du niveau de la mer et des températures, l‟augmentation de la fréquence des grandes tempêtes et les effets qu‟elles peuvent engendrer. L‟élévation du niveau de la mer entraînera un accroissement des inondations en période de tempête, l'érosion côtière, l‟accroissement des fréquences de tempêtes sur les côtes, l'infiltration d'eau de mer 161

dans les nappes, la disparition des terres basses et humides avec toute la biodiversité qui leur est associée, des effets majeurs sur l‟habitat humain et toutes les infrastructures socio-économiques établies sur la côte en particulier celles destinées aux pêcheurs traditionnels. Les cartes topographiques des différentes parties du littoral révèlent l‟existence d‟un certain nombre de zones basses ou fragilisées par les activités humaines, menacées par la remontée du niveau marin. Les simulations faites par les experts au cours de la préparation de la Communication Nationale I (CNI) en 2001 on estime : les dommages que pourraient engendrer les transgressions et inondations marines liées aux changements climatiques à 3 956 millions de $ en 2020 et 6 330 millions de $ en 2050. Le défi principal des autorités nationales Mauritaniennes est d‟assurer la sécurité alimentaire. Or, la diminution du potentiel agro- pastoral, provoquée par une variabilité climatique intense et des écosystèmes fragiles, a conduit les agriculteurs à mettre en exploitation des sols particulièrement sensibles à l‟érosion. De même, les éleveurs ont été amenés à surexploiter les parcours pastoraux, notamment : autour des points d‟eau et zones de concentration des animaux. Mettant l‟accent sur la maximisation de la production, les mesures d‟atténuation sont encore très négligeables et sont plutôt orientées vers le phénomène de la désertification: II. Sensibilisation aux changements climatiques FORMATION ET SENSIBILISATION DU PUBLIC L‟éducation, la formation et la sensibilisation du public sont les éléments fondamentaux de renforcement des connaissances sur les aspects de changement climatique. En effet, l‟Article 6 (a) de la CCNUCC invite les pays parties de "promouvoir et faciliter au niveau national, et si possible aux niveaux sousrégional et régional, et en conformité avec la réglementation national, et selon les capacités respectives ”: a. Le développement de la mise en œuvre de programmes d‟éducation et de sensibilisation du public sur les changements climatiques et leurs impacts; b. L‟accès du public à l‟information sur le changement climatiques et ses impacts; c La participation du public au traitement du changement climatique et ses impacts mais aussi aux stratégies de réponse; et d. La formation du personnel scientifique, technique et de gestion. En réponse à ce qui est cela, La Mauritanie a entrepris l‟ensemble des activités ci-dessus en insistant sur: 1. Les programmes d‟éducation et de sensibilisation du public aux différents niveaux national et régional; 2. La mise en place du site Web en langue française (www.pcc.mr) dévolu aux activités de changement climatiques pour le renforcement des capacités humaines, scientifiques, techniques et institutionnelles. Les structures ayant en charge le suivi du phénomène des changements climatiques sont conscients que la dimension éducation information et sensibilisation est incontournable pour une meilleure appropriation du phénomène des Changements Climatiques. Cette dimension agit en effet sur les comportements des individus et des opérateurs publics et privés en les conscientisant, les alertant et leur donnant les instruments d‟évaluation de la problématique du changement climatique et l‟occasion de les intégrer dans le vécu quotidien et le futur. En Mauritanie, depuis la ratification de la CCNUCC des efforts considérables ont été entrepris dans ce sens à travers la formation et la sensibilisation sur les différents aspects des CC au profit des acteurs publics, privés et la société civile. Bilan des activités de formation et de sensibilisation Les activités de sensibilisation et de formation sur les CC ont débuté en Mauritanie avec la mise en œuvre du Projet de la communication initiale. C‟est ainsi qu‟en 1998, les premiers ateliers de formation destinés à renforcer les capacités humaines du pays par rapport à la problématique des CC ont été organisés. Depuis lors un ensemble d‟activités comportant des mesures à court, moyen et long termes ont été mises en contribution. Il s'agit de :

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Bilan des activités de formation et de sensibilisation antérieures Les activités de formation et de sensibilisation passées s‟adressaient à des équipes opérationnelles devant répondre à des besoins immédiats d‟étude ou d‟analyse associées à des étapes de préparation des communications nationales. Dans le cadre de la communication nationale initiale (CNI) un soutien externe d‟ENDA TM a permis la formation des équipes d‟experts dans trois ateliers thématiques sur les modalités de réalisation des inventaires des GES suivant les lignes directrices du GIEC 1996 révisé, sur l‟analyse de l‟atténuation et sur l‟évaluation de la vulnérabilité et l‟adaptation ; Dans le cadre du PANA deux ateliers ont été organisés sur le Mécanisme de développement propre (MDP) et sur la vulnérabilité et les mesures d‟adaptation ; Dans le cadre de la Phase II d‟évaluation des besoins technologiques, deux autres ateliers visant le renforcement des capacités ont été organisés ; Au cours de la SCN et suite à un besoin exprimé par les experts en matière de bonnes pratiques dans les inventaires et d‟évaluation des incertitudes, l‟intérêt d‟un renforcement de capacité pour la mise à niveau du groupe d‟experts sur les nouvelles méthodes érigées de la décision 17/CP8 a été ressenti et un atelier de formation a été organisé en conséquence. Trois autres ateliers thématiques ont été également organisés, couvrant : - Les nouvelles méthodes de réalisation des inventaires - L‟analyse de l‟atténuation ; - L‟évaluation de la vulnérabilité et l‟adaptation - Un atelier additif de formation sur le guide de bonnes pratiques du GIEC en matière des inventaires avec l‟appui du NCSP. Bilan des activités de formation et de sensibilisation à moyen terme Elles s‟adressent à des décideurs chargés d‟élaborer des politiques de développement et aux membres de groupes de travail thématiques chargés de la définition des programmes et des moyens ; Au total, les activités suivantes ont été réalisées : 2 ateliers nationaux des décideurs sur la problématique des changements climatiques 12 ateliers de niveau régional de sensibilisation du public dans chaque chef-lieu de Wilaya ; 12 ateliers de formation de points focaux régionaux, dans chaque chef-lieu de Wilaya 2 ateliers de concertation sur les besoins et choix technologiques 5 ateliers de restitution des résultats des études thématiques 3 Ateliers de consultation sur les secteurs et régions vulnérables du pays 3 Ateliers régionaux sur la prioritization des secteurs vulnérables du pays plus de 1200 personnes parties prenantes, des différentes institutions susmentionnées, ont participé à ces rencontres. Au regard de la SCN, autant de rencontres et consultations ont été organisées en vue de conscientiser le public, les opérateurs économiques sur les enjeux de CC, mais aussi les décideurs sur l‟intégration de cette thématique dans les politiques et stratégies nationales de planification. Mais au cours de cet exercice, la Mauritanie a aussi participé à plusieurs rencontres sous régionales à Pretoria et Dakar organisées par ENDA, UNITAR, et NCSP pour le renforcement des capacités. Bilan des activités de formation et de sensibilisation à long terme : Elles s‟adressent aux jeunes étudiants des écoles, des lycées et des universités. Dans le cadre de la stratégie globale de formation à long terme, aucun outil didactique introductif à la problématique des changements climatiques n‟a été réalisé à nos jours. Un tel outil pouvant faire l‟objet d‟une sensibilisation des formateurs à la problématique des CC au profit des enseignants de l‟université et des écoles d‟Ingénieurs et de formation didactique. Cette approche est tout à fait nouvelle pour la 163

Mauritanie et sera prise en considération dans la troisième Communication Nationale. Un cadre de concertation et de formulation de propositions concrètes sera créé pour introduire la dimension Changement climatique dans les casiers scolaires. Une fois mis en place comme cours cet outil permettrait une pérennisation de l‟activité de sensibilisation et assurerait son extension au grand public. Bilan des activités de formation et de sensibilisation relatives au MDP Le Mécanisme de Développement Propre (MDP), qui constitue un axe majeur de coopération entre les pays développés et ceux en développement, représente depuis 2005 une thématique de formation prioritaire pour la Mauritanie. En effet, il est primordial de maîtriser les règles et procédures régissant ce mécanisme de flexibilité, qui, avec l‟entrée en vigueur du Protocole de Kyoto, constituera le principal canal de transfert de ressources financières et de technologies propres entre le Nord et le Sud. En préparation à l‟entrée en vigueur de ce nouveau mécanisme de financement, deux ateliers d‟information ont été organisés au profit des institutions étatiques, des industriels et des ONG concernés par ce nouveau mécanisme de financement. Le but était de préparer ces différents acteurs à la mise en œuvre de cet instrument de coopération internationale. Les thèmes traités ont porté sur : i) les changements climatiques et le MDP ; ii) et (ii) les critères d‟éligibilité des Projets MDP ; Un premier atelier de formation ciblant les institutions gouvernementales a été organisé en 2005. Il a porté sur les modalités d‟identification et de développement de projets pouvant accéder aux mécanismes de financement liés à la CCNUCC et au Protocole de Kyoto dont principalement le Mécanisme pour le Développement Propre (MDP). Son objectif était de : Doter ses institutions de l‟information et des outils, leur permettant de tirer profit des opportunités offertes par les mécanismes de financement prévus dans le cadre de la CCNUCC et de son PK ; Dégager quelques idées de projets dans les secteurs prioritaires susceptibles d‟être éligibles au financement dans ce cadre et qui seraient élaborés pour être présentés aux bailleurs de fonds. En 2007, le second atelier a été organisé au profit des institutions public et privé, les aspects techniques du MDP y ont été débattus. III. Vision nationale, politique et stratégies relatives aux changements climatiques La Mauritanie a fait des avancées significatives particulièrement dans le domaine de l‟environnement au plan des politiques et de ratification des engagements internationaux. Il y a lieu de signaler, d‟autre part, que le pays a signé des accords internationaux dans le domaine de l‟environnement au cours de la décennie 1990, il s‟agit notamment de : 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

11.

Textes internationaux (Accords, traités et conventions) sur l‟environnement ratifiés ; Convention relative à l'utilisation de diluant en peinture, Genève 1921 ; Traité interdisant les essais d'arme nucléaire dans l'atmosphère, en plein air et sous mer, Moscou 1963 ; Convention africaine sur la conservation de la nature et des ressources naturelles, Alger 1968 Traité sur la non-prolifération des armes nucléaires 1968 ; Accord pour l'établissement d'une commission pour la lutte contre le criquet du désert dans le Nord-Ouest de l'Afrique, Rome 1970 ; Convention relative à la protection de l'héritage culturel et naturel mondial, Paris 1972 ; Convention sur le règlement international pour prévenir les abordages en mer, Londres 1972 ; Convention établissant un comité permanent inter-état de lutte contre la sécheresse au Sahel, Ouagadougou 1973 ; Convention internationale sur le droit civil pour les dommages de pollution des hydrocarbures, Bruxelles 1969 et le Protocole de 1969 et 1976 et de 1976 ; Convention internationale sur l'établissement d'un fonds international de compensation des dommages résultant de la pollution des hydrocarbures, Bruxelles 1971 et le Protocole de 1976, 1971, 1976 ; Convention internationale de 1973 pour la prévention de la pollution par les navires et son Protocole de 1978 (MARPOL 73/78). 1973, 1978 ; 164

12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30.

31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. 37. 38. 39. 40.

41.

Protocole sur l´ intervention en haute mer en cas de pollution par des substances autres que les hydrocarbures 1973 ; Convention internationale de 1974 sur la sauvegarde de la vie humaine en mer et son Protocole de 1978 (SOLAS 1974+PROT 78) 1974, 1978 ; Convention internationale de 1979 sur la recherche et le sauvetage maritimes (SAR 79). 1979 ; Convention des Nations Unies sur les droits de la mer, Montego Bay 1982 ; Protocole amendant la Convention sur les zones humides d'importance internationale, spécialement en temps qu‟habitat aquatique, Paris 1982 ; Convention sur les zones humides d'importance internationale, spécialement en temps qu‟habitat aquatique, Ramsar 1983 ; Accord portant création dún Centre régional de réforme agraire et de développement rural pour le Proche-Orient, Rome 1983 ; Protocole de Montréal sur les substances appauvrissant la couche d'ozone, Montréal 1987 ; Convention de Bâle sur le contrôle des mouvements transfrontières des déchets et substances dangereuses, Bâle 1989 ; Convention internationale de 1990 sur la préparation, la lutte et la coopération en matière de pollution par les hydrocarbures (OPRC 90) 1990 ; Accord portant création de lÓrganisation intergouvernementale dínformation et de coopération pour la commercialisation des produits de la pêche en Afrique, Abidjan 1991 ; Convention sur l'interdiction du développement, de la production, de l'emmagasinage et de l'utilisation des armes chimiques et de leur destruction, Paris 1993 ; Accord sur l'établissement d'une organisation au Proche Orient sur la protection des plantes, Rabat 1993 ; Acte constitutif du Centre pour les services dínformation et dávis consultatifs sur la commercialisation des produits de la pêche dans les pays arabes, Manama 1993 ; Convention et Protocole de Vienne pour la protection de la couche d'ozone 1994 ; Convention cadre des Nations Unies sur les changements climatiques, New York 1994 ; Convention sur la diversité biologique, Rio de Janeiro 1994 ; Accord relatif à la mise en œuvre de la partie XI de la convention des Nations Unies sur les droits de la mer du 10/12/82, New York 1994 ; Accord pour la mise en œuvre des dispositions de la convention des Nations Unies sur les droits de la mer du 10 Décembre 1982 relatives à la conservation et la gestion des stocks halieutiques et poissons grands migrateurs, New York 1995 ; Convention des Nations Unies de lutte contre la désertification dans les pays éprouvés par une grave sécheresse et/ou désertification, particulièrement en Afrique, Paris 1996 ; Traité dínterdiction complète des essais nucléaires 1996 The African Nuclear-Weapon-Free Zone Treaty, Cairo 1996 ; Convention sur l´ interdiction de l´ emploi, du stockage, de la production et du transfert des mines antipersonnel et sur leur destruction, Oslo 1997 ; Convention sur la conservation des espèces migratrices appartenant à la faune sauvage, Bonn 1998 ; Convention sur le commerce international des espèces de faune et de flore sauvages menacées d'extinction, Washington 1973 et amendée à Bonn en 1979, CITES 1998 ; Traité international sur les ressources phytogénétiques pour lálimentation et lágriculture, Rome 2001 ; Protocole de Cartagena sur la prévention des risques biotechnologiques relatif à la Convention sur la diversité biologique 2004 ; Convention de Stockholm sur les Polluants Organiques Persistants (POPs, Stockholm) 2004 ; Amendement au Protocole de Montréal relatif à des substances qui appauvrissant la couche d´ ozone 2005 ; Convention de Rotterdam sur la procédure de consentement préalable en connaissance de cause applicable a certains produits chimiques et pesticides dangereux qui font l´ objet d´ un commerce international 2005 ; Protocole de Kyoto à la Convention cadre des Nations Unies sur les changements climatiques 2005 165

a). Politique et/ou stratégies nationales relatives aux changements climatiques et étendue de leur mise en œuvre et/ou inclusion dans les plans nationaux de développements en cours. La Mauritanie figure parmi les PMA (Pays les moins avancés) en même temps qu‟elle est signataire et ayant ratifié toutes les conventions issues de Rio, en particulier la CCNUCC et son protocole dit Protocole de Kyoto, la Convention sur la biodiversité et la Convention sur la lutte contre la désertification. A ce double titre elle a été parmi les pionniers à se lancer dans ce processus de préparation des programmes et des rapports pour la conférence des parties, ce qu‟il lui a valu la qualité de référence dans les exercices de concertation à l‟échelle régionale voire continentale. Il s'agit principalement de l'élaboration et la mise en œuvre du plan d‟action national pour l‟environnement (PANE) en 2006. Le processus en Mauritanie a pour ainsi dire suivi toutes les étapes établies par les directives du Groupe des Experts des PMA (LEG). L‟élaboration du document du PANA (Programme d'Action Nationale aux fins d'Adaptation aux changements Climatiques) s‟est inspiré des éléments directeurs figurant dans ces mêmes directives, notamment: a) Une approche participative associant les parties prenantes, en particulier les communautés locales; la participation des hommes et des femmes de la collectivité, du secteur privé, des ONG et organismes de la société civile, a été essentielle pour deux raisons. D‟abord, ceux-ci sont en mesure de fournir de l‟information sur les stratégies actuelles d‟adaptation qui vise à améliorer le PANA. Ensuite, c‟est eux qui seront les plus touchés par les changements climatiques et qui seront donc les principaux bénéficiaires des mesures prioritaires prévues par le PANA. Cette représentation a été étendue aux wilayat des écosystèmes caractéristiques du pays. b) Une approche multidisciplinaire qui n‟exclut aucune profession considérée sensible aux variations climatiques. c) Une approche complémentaire prenant appui sur les plans et programmes existants, dont les plans d‟action nationaux (PAN/LCD, PANE) au titre de la Convention des Nations Unies sur la lutte contre la désertification, les stratégies et plans d‟action nationaux relatifs à la diversité biologique relevant de la Convention sur la diversité biologique et les politiques sectorielles nationales; d) un développement durable ayant pour axe majeur la lutte contre la pauvreté. Pour faciliter l‟intégration des Changements climatiques dans le système de planification nationale et de développement durable du pays, il était fondamental d‟accroître la connaissance des planificateurs et décideurs des impacts sur le quotidien économique de tout un chacun. En particulier, les résultats d‟évaluation de la vulnérabilité des différents secteurs de l‟économie et les stratégies sectorielles d‟adaptation. .b). Autres initiatives de dimension nationale ou sectorielle ayant pour objet de faire face aux changements climatiques dans les secteurs liés a la sécurité alimentaires. Dans le cadre de cette initiative, un Cadre stratégique de lutte contre la pauvreté (CSLP ) à l‟horizon 2015 a été élaboré en 2001. Les objectifs à long terme de la stratégie sont entre autres : (i) (ii)

ramener la proportion de la population vivant en dessous du seuil de pauvreté à 27% à l‟horizon 2010 et à 17% à l‟horizon 2015 ; (ii) atteindre, avant l‟horizon 2015, les objectifs du développement social sur la base des recommandations des divers sommets mondiaux et (iii) réduire les disparités sociales et régionales.

IV. Arrangements institutionnels S'agissant des structures mandatées à travailler sur les CC, la Mauritanie dispose d'un organe appelé Cellule des Changements Climatiques dépendant du Secrétariat d'Etat Délégué auprès du Premier Ministre Chargé de l'Environnement et d'une Autorité Nationale Déléguée créée pour l'agrément les projets MDP. Au cours de la préparation des deux Communications Nationales ainsi que la réalisation de l'IGES ce département a été l'agence de tutelle de l'unité de coordination et a travaillé en étroite collaboration avec 166

les Ministères publics en charge des secteurs: de l'Agriculture du Pétrole et l'énergie de la Santé, de l'Hydraulique de l'Industrie du Transport de la Météorologie et des Collectivités locales etc.....de la Société civile, le Patronna, l'Université de Nouakchott des ONGs et des partenaires à la coopération et au développement. Ce travail a été réalisé grâce à l'appui financier accordé par le Fonds de l'Environnement Mondial (FEM) et à travers l'assistance technique du Programme des Nations Unies pour l'Environnement (PNUE). La réalisation de l'inventaire dans le cadre de la présente seconde communication a été effectuée par un groupe d'experts sectoriels nationaux appuyé par un dispositif institutionnel d‟orientation composé essentiellement de responsables d‟autres secteurs clés. Au plan de son opérationnalisation l‟IGES a démarré par une première phase de collecte et d'harmonisation des données, de recalcule des émissions ainsi que de compilation des informations. Cette phase a été suivie par une étape d‟analyse faisant recours aux instruments recommandés par les directives de la CCNUCC. Le rapport d'inventaire a été placé sur le site web du programme changement climatique de la Mauritanie. Le travail qui a été fait reflête un bon niveau de coordination qui a été reconnu et approuvé par la communauté international à la Mauritanie par la voix du Sécretaire Exécutif de la Convantion lors de son discours d'ouverture du segment ministériel de la COP14/MOP4 à Poznan en Pologne en décembre 2008. Il s‟agit essentiellement de tous les secteurs émeteurs tel que : Les ministères des mines, des transports, de l‟Industrie, du Pétrole et de l‟Enérgie, du Développement Rural, de la Societé Civile et du Patronna ainsi que les secteurs liés aux aspets d‟Adaptation aux CC : tel que le Ministère de l‟Urbanisme, de l‟Hydraulique et le Comité National de Suivi du Climat qui costitue l‟Organe supreme sur la prblématique des Changements Climatiques. Le niveau de concertation des différents intérveneant reste très aléatoire et dominé par l‟improvisation. Il y‟a une forte confusion des taches et parfois une redondence. V. Connaissances techniques Les mesures de politiques environnementales prises par le pays remontent aux années 80 pour faire face à la dégradation généralisée des ressources naturelles renouvelables terrestres. Dans ce cadre, le Gouvernement a élaboré le Plan Directeur de Lutte Contre la Désertification (PDLCD) qui donne les articulations fondamentales dans une démarche intégrée de lutte contre la désertification. Les orientations du Plan sont formulées de manières opérationnelles dans le Programme Multisectoriel de Lutte Contre la Désertification (PMLCD). Par conséquent, la prise en compte de la dimension environnementale s‟est caractérisée au cours des dernières années par l‟adoption d‟un arsenal juridique (Lois, codes et décrets) riche et varié touchant aux domaines de l‟environnement, de la foresterie, de la chasse et de la protection de la nature, des mines, du pastoralisme, de l‟eau, de la réorganisation foncière et domaniale. Plusieurs projets et programmes concernant la lutte contre la dégradation des terres, la protection et la régénération des écosystèmes naturels et la gestion durable des ressources naturelles renouvelables terrestres ont été exécutés et d‟autres sont en cours. On note parmi ces programmes et projets : le PDIAIM (Projet de développement intégré de l‟agriculture irriguée de la Mauritanie); le PDRC (Programme de Développement Rural Communautaire) avec la Banque Mondiale; le PADEL (projet de gestion des parcours et le développement de l‟élevage) avec la BAD. D‟autres petites actions ont été entreprises et/ou sont en cours d‟exécution, particulièrement par les ONGs, avec l‟appui du Fonds Mondiale de l‟Environnement (FMD). La mise en application des conventions environnementales internationales ratifiées par la Mauritanie et de l‟arsenal juridique national qui lui est rattaché s‟est traduite dans la Stratégie Nationale de Développement Durable (SNDD) et le Plan d‟Action National pour l‟Environnement (PANE). Ces deux documents stratégiques constituent les instruments qui doivent permettre de planifier l‟ensemble des activités en matière de gestion environnementale et d‟orienter la prise de décision politique sur les questions relevant du Développement durable. En effet, La SNDD fournit un cadre conceptuel général qui intègre à la fois les dimensions d‟ordre social, économique et environnemental. C‟est ainsi qu‟elle se concentre à la fois sur la logique du développement durable, sur la mise en exergue 167

des enjeux au niveau national, ainsi que sur la nécessité d‟articuler de façon cohérente cet objectif avec le Cadre Stratégique de Lutte conte la Pauvreté (CSLP), document de référence en matière de développement économique et social. Du point de vue temporel, cette Stratégie Nationale de Développement Durable représente une vision sur 10 ans et se retrouve ainsi calée sur l‟horizon 2015 qui est celui visé par le CSLP et les Objectifs du Millénaire pour le Développement (OMDs).  Niveau de connaissances des techniciens sur les changements climatiques Les performances des techniciens nationaux dans le domaine des changements climatiques restent en deçà des attentes, néanmoins le pays dispose d'experts pleins de volonté et de dynamisme et qui ont démontré leurs capacités au cours de la préparation des deux communications nationales et la réalisation de l'IGES. Dans l‟objectif de renforcer la connaissance scientifique de l‟expertise du pays sur les changements climatiques et leurs impacts sur la vie des communautés, l‟accès et l‟usage de la technologie de l‟information, comme l‟internet, ont été essentiels pour l‟échange efficient et le partage de l‟information tant à l‟intérieur qu‟à l‟extérieur du pays. Le réseautage de l‟information a été une importante réalisation dans la dissémination et l‟acquisition de l‟information sur les changements climatiques. Malgré tous ces efforts on note une absence de volonté de lecture chez beaucoup de nos experts. Pour rendre aisés le développement et le transfert de technologies propres il est important d‟avoir un réceptacle qui sied où l‟on peut développer facilement des instruments légaux et économique appropriés.  Failles en matière de connaissances nécessitant une mise à jour Des insuffisances notoires demeurent dans ce cadre pour hisser le changement climatique au même niveau et titre que la lutte contre la pauvreté. On exprime les besoins en renforcement de capacités institutionnels et techniques en particulier dans le domaine de : - La formation en recherche et observation systématiques - la collecte et l'analyse de données - Le perfectionnement et la formation pratique sur le suivi du climat et l'établissement d'un système d'alerte précoce sur les événements climatiques rapides. Il y a également des problèmes d'encrage institutionnel, de mobilisation des moyens financiers; des problèmes liés à la recherche, la collecte et l'actualisation régulière de l'information au niveau national sur les Changements Climatiques. Des difficultés d'établissement et de développement de liaisons avec les agences et institutions nationales et internationales dans le domaine du transfert technologique. Une réticence des acteurs privés dans la prise de conscience vis à vis des phénomènes des changements climatiques. Le système éducatif exclu, des actions de sensibilisation et de formation sur le phénomène des CC. Mesures d’adaptation aux changements climatiques adoptées par les agriculteurs, les pêcheurs, les éleveurs, etc. S'agissant des mesures d‟adaptation aux changements climatiques adoptées par les agriculteurs, les pêcheurs, les éleveurs, il n'existent pas de mesures particulières développées et adoptées par ceux_ci, néanmoins et lors de la préparation du PANA (Programme d'Action National aux fins d'Adaptation aux changements climatiques), la Mauritanie a fait un diagnostic établi de façon participative qui a abouti à l'identification d'un ensemble de mesures d'adaptation et d'atténuation spécifiques, On peut citer : 

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

Meilleure connaissance des régimes des eaux de surface Construction d'ouvrages de ralentissement des crues en zones pluviales et oasiennes Promotion des techniques économes en eau en zone oasienne Diffusion de la technologie de goutte à goutte dans la vallée et zone oasienne Promotion de la mobilité du cheptel Réorganisation des populations victimes des changements climatiques Promotion et développement de l'aviculture familiale Amélioration des techniques culturales en zone pluviale 168

9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18.

Substitution du combustible ligneux Amélioration génétique des races locales de bovins Préservation de la diversité des populations de poissons Introduction de nouvelles espèces fourragères dans les parcours naturels Formation et information des OSP (organisations socio-professionnelles) et des AVB (agents de vulgarisation de base). Traitement des fourrages grossiers et blocs multi nutritionnels Restauration et gestion intégrée des terres basses et zones humides Développement des cultures fourragères Mise en place d'une unité de fabrique d'aliments de bétail Amélioration des connaissances des ressources forestières et sa gestion durable

VI. Liste de projets/activités récents sur les changements climatiques Le pays ne compte pas à l'etat actuel des projets spécifiques sur les changements climatiques et la sécurité alimentaire, il existes des programmes et/ou projets en cours d'exécution qui contribuent aux mésures d'aténuation et d'adaptation dans les domaines de la gestion rationnelle de l'eau, des tèrres arables, des parcours, des ressources naturelles et de la fixation des populations dans leurs terroires. On peut citer parmis ces projets ceux qui suivent: le PDIAIM (Projet de développement intégré de l‟agriculture irriguée de la Mauritanie); le PDRC (Programme de Développement Rural Communautaire) avec la Banque Mondiale; le PADEL (projet de gestion des parcours et le développement de l‟élevage) avec la BAD. Le PSSA (projet spécial pour la sécurité alimentaire ave la FAO) Le projet de la ceinture verte de la ville de Nouakchott VII. Opportunités de financement La Mauritanie bénéficie d'allocations annuelles à travers le Fonds pour l'Environnement Mondiale (GEF), le Fonds Spécial pour les Pays les Moins Avancés (PMA) dans le cadre des activités de sensibilisation de préparation de documents et du financement de certaines activités liées aux changements climatiques. D'autres opportunités sont prévues à travers le Fonds d'Adaptation 2011, pour les pays en voie de développement; Parmi les projets liés directement aux changements climatiques en cours d'exécution on peut citer : le projet d‟Adaptation aux Changements Climatiques en zone Côtières (ACCC) projet GEF. - Le projet de la sauve garde de la ville de Nouakchott (fonds propres de l‟Etat). Le projet de l‟électrification de certaines agglomérations situées sur le chemin de fer, par l‟utilisation de l‟énergie photovoltaïque réalisé par la SNIM (Société Nationale de l‟Industrie et les Mines). Un ensembles de petits projets ou de travaux sur les changement climatiques exécutés par les ONGs notamment sur les bio-gaz et d‟autres actions sur les mesures d‟aténuations et d‟adaptations, financés par les Fonds de carbones gérés par la Banque Mondiale. Par ailleurs, ce même Fond appuie la Mauritanie dans les activités de sensibilisation, de formation et dans le cadre de l‟identification des projets MDP. -

Sur les Fonds publics, l‟état prend en charge le projet de la sauve-garde de la ville de Nouakchott ; sagissant du secteurs privé, nous observons une réticense vis-à-vis des effets des chngements climatiques et une absence totale d‟actions orientées spécifiquement aux mesures d‟aténuations et d‟adaptation. Ce fonds est très peu connu et le pays ne profite pas des opportinités offertes pour le moment car les compétences pour la formulation de projets qui remplissent les conditions imposées par ce Fonds sont très réduites. Ce fonds finance pas mal de projets en Mauritanie tels que : Projet Biodiversité (projet régional qui regroupe la Mauritanie et le Sénégal), Projet ACCC (Adaptation Cotière sur les CC) , Projet PASK II ( avec une composante environnementale et une multitude de petits projets au profit de la société civile. Ce fonds intérvient dans les activités de sensibilisation et de formation sur les Changements Climatiques. Ce fonds n‟intérvient pas en Mauritanie pour le moment. 169

VIII. Conclusions/Recommandations En matière des besoins en renforcement des capacités humaines identifiés on peut citer: 

    

la formation des acteurs dans le domaine de l‟évaluation de la vulnérabilité des secteurs socioéconomiques clés du pays face aux impacts des CC; (impacts sur les ressources en eau, sur l‟agriculture, sur la forêt, sur les zones côtières, sur les systèmes écologiques, sur l‟économie, sur le social et la santé, etc.); la formation sur l‟identification et l‟analyse des options d‟adaptation face aux Changements Climatiques (Il s‟agit ici d‟acquérir les compétences nationales capables de préparer des stratégies de riposte contre les effets adverses des CC ). Le renforcement des capacités des élus locaux et des collectivités locales dans le domaine des CC; la formation permanente sur les nouvelles directives de préparation des Communications Nationales et sur les méthodologies et les bonnes pratiques d‟inventaire des émissions de GES ; la modélisation climatique et manifestations régionales des CC sont essentielles dans ce processus ; la maîtrise des mécanismes de financement ciblant les CC et en particulier le FEM et le MDP.

Sur le plan institutionnel, il y a lieu tout d‟abord de consolider les comités nationaux mis en place pour la coordination et le suivi des actions liées à la CCNUCC. Afin de réaliser cet objectif, ces comités devraient avoir une existence organique et juridique officialisée. La participation à ces comités devrait être au plus haut niveau en cherchant à assurer une pérennité de présence de leurs membres. Ceci contribuerait, dans l‟immédiat, à faciliter la collecte et la validation des données nécessaires à la réalisation des études des Communications Nationales, et à terme, permettre l‟intégration des questions relatives aux CC dans les préoccupations nationales de développement socioéconomique. Par ailleurs, les membres de ces comités devraient être intégrés dans des réseaux internationaux afin d‟avoir la possibilité d‟échanges permanents d‟informations avec leurs homologues dans les autres pays : 

L‟introduction d‟espèces et variétés de cultures et d‟arboricultures adaptées aux conditions climatiques et pédologiques des différentes régions agricoles du pays;  L‟implication d‟un grand nombre de chercheurs - universitaires des facultés et écoles d‟ingénieurs et des cadres de l‟ONM (office national de météorologie), à coté de leurs homologues étrangers, dans des réseaux de recherche scientifique à l‟échelle internationale constitue le meilleur moyen pour atteindre cet objectif de renforcement. Les besoins de formation en MDP des opérateurs économiques Les principaux besoins de renforcement des capacités des opérateurs économiques pour leur permettre d'améliorer la maîtrise du processus de montage de projets MDP ont été exprimés comme suit :  

Dans le domaine de la conception, la formulation (élaboration de PDD) et le suivi de projets MDP Sur les questions de contours d‟approbation, de validation et d‟enregistrement des projets MDP ainsi que les méthodologies de vérification et de certification ; Les besoins de formation en MDP des acteurs institutionnels   

le besoin de perfectionnement afin de permettre aux cadres nationaux d'améliorer la maîtrise de la formulation et du montage de projets MDP ; Le souhait de connaître les contours du processus d‟approbation, de validation et d‟enregistrement d‟un projet MDP et les modalités de financements de ces projets sur le marché du carbone ; la faiblesse des capacités des experts nationaux à mener à terme des analyses complètes sur les coûts/avantages des options technologiques proposées.

170

LISTES DES ACRONYMES MDP

Mécanisme pour le Développement Propre

CCNUCC

Convention Cadre des Nations Unies sur les Changements Climatiques

FEM

Fonds pour l'Environnement Mondial

PANE

programme d‟Action National pour l‟Environnement)

PANA

Programme d'Action Nationale aux fins d'Adaptation aux changements Climatiques

PMA

Pays les moins avancés

PNUE

Programme des Nations Unies pour l'Environnement

PDIAIM

Projet de développement intégré de l‟agriculture irriguée de la Mauritanie

PDRC

Programme de Développement Rural Communautaire

PADEL

Projet de gestion des parcours et le développement de l‟élevage

ACCC

Adaptation aux Changements Climatiques en zone Côtières.

Communication Nationale

GIEC

Groupe Intergouvernemental d'Experts sur l'Evolution du Climat

PAN/LCD

Plan d'Action National de Lute Contre la Désertification

SNDD

Stratégie Nationale de Développement Durable

CSLCP

Cadre Stratégique de Lutte Conte la Pauvreté

OMDs

Objectifs du Millénaire pour le Développement

PANA

Programme d'Action National aux fins d'Adaptation aux Changements Climatiques

GES :

Gaz à Effet de Serre

ONM

Office National de Météorologie

PSSA

Projet Spécial pour la Sécurité Alimentaire

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Annex V: Original French version of Morocco country paper I. INTRODUCTION Le Royaume du Maroc a connu tout au long de son histoire des épisodes de sécheresses et d‟inondations exceptionnelles, caractérisés par la perte des récoltes, la baisse du niveau des nappes phréatiques, la réduction des débits des sources et des puits, voire leur assèchement. Les pertes humaines, les pertes économiques, les épidémies et les flux migratoires se soldaient par des conséquences désastreuses sur le développement humain des populations. Ces catastrophes naturelles 20 extrêmes ont été à l‟origine de troubles sociaux et politiques qui ont été rapportés dans des écrits historiques datant des siècles passés. Au cours des trois ou quatre dernières décennies, la multiplication de ces épisodes exceptionnels, au Maroc et dans le monde, signait de façon quasi certaine la perturbation du système climatique. Les travaux scientifiques du GIEC, dans son quatrième rapport de 2007, l‟ont d‟ailleurs confirmée. Pour illustrer notre propos nous évoquerons ci-dessous quelques exemples des manifestations des changements climatiques vécues par le Maroc. 1. Inondations Celle de la vallée du ZIZ en 1965 a marqué les esprits par l‟ampleur de ses dégâts, et a déclenché le lancement d‟une politique ambitieuse et visionnaire de construction de barrages pour maitriser les crues dévastatrices, mobiliser les ressources en eau, et réaliser un million d‟hectares irrigués. Au cours des deux dernières décennies (1990-2010) une nouvelle série d‟inondations catastrophiques, 21 en terme de pertes humaines et de dégâts matériels importants se sont succédées à un rythme accéléré. 2. Sécheresses. Dans l‟intervalle 2000-2008 le Maroc a connu cinq années avec une pluviométrie déficitaire, dont trois années agricoles présentent un déficit très sévère: -36,0% en 2004/2005, -34% en 2004/2007 et -26% en 2007/2008. Les deux décennies précédentes ont connu près d‟une quinzaine d‟années sèches avec tout leur cortège d‟impacts négatifs sur l‟ensemble des ressources naturelles, notamment sur les ressources en eau, et par voie de conséquence sur les productions agricoles. 3. Hausse de la température La Seconde Communication Nationale d‟avril 2010 révèle qu‟entre 1960 et 2000 les deux tiers du 22 territoire ont enregistré une hausse qui dépasse le 1°C , confirmant ainsi les conclusions du 4ème rapport du GIEC, tant en ce qui concerne la hausse de la température moyenne annuelle, que le rythme et la succession des sécheresses et des inondations recensées. Cette tendance avait déjà été signalée dans la Communication Initiale du Maroc en date d‟octobre 2001. L‟analyse des enregistrements effectués par la Météorologie Nationale montrait une tendance nette à la 23 hausse de la température moyenne annuelle, comprise entre 0,6°C et 1,1°C à l‟horizon 2020 . Les émissions des gaz à effet de serre n‟ont pas cessé d‟augmenter au cours de l‟année 2010, malgré les engagements pris par les pays industriels dans le cadre du protocole de Kyoto. Le réchauffement s‟est accentué et les catastrophes naturelles extrêmes ont redoublé en nombre et en intensité. Le système climatique ne cesse de nous donner les preuves de ses modifications de plus en plus marquées. Le régime des précipitations, la violence des orages et l‟intensité des inondations et des sécheresses

Calamités naturelles et fatalité historique (Pr. M. Naciri) Drought, Water management and Food production Actes de la Conférence d’Agadir 21-24 novembre 1985 Famines et épidémies au Maroc aux XVI et XVII siècles de R.Rosenberger et H.Triki 21 Ourika 1995 ; El Hajeb 1997 ; Settat et Mohammadia 2002 ; Tan Tan, Nador, Al Hoceima et Khénifra en 2003 ; plaine du Gharb 2009/2010 22 Seconde Communication Nationale avril 2010 23 Communication Nationale Initiale octobre 2001 172

observées sur l‟ensemble des continents attestent de plus en plus de la pertinence des conclusions des ème 24 travaux scientifiques du GIEC (4 Rapport du GIEC ). La Région MENA (Moyen Orient et Afrique du Nord) dont le Maroc fait partie, sera la région la plus durement affectée par les catastrophes naturelles extrêmes. Les pertes économiques cumulées suite aux inondations et aux sécheresses répétées, les importations massives de céréales, pour limiter les risques de pénurie alimentaire, et le budget mobilisé pour compenser quelque peu les pertes d‟emploi dans l‟espace rural, pour assurer la sauvegarde du cheptel, pour approvisionner certaines régions en eau de boisson, pour remettre en état les infrastructures détruites, sont autant de dépenses engagées au détriment des investissements pour le développement humain durable. 25

La chute du PIBA signe la vulnérabilité de l‟agriculture dont la répercussion sur l‟économie nationale se 26 traduit par la baisse du PIB . L‟emploi et le revenu des populations seront affectés sérieusement, la population rurale en paiera le plus lourd tribut. L‟accroissement de son appauvrissement en sera le signe le plus évident. II. LA SENSIBILISATION L‟article 6 de la CCNUCC traite de l‟éducation, de la formation et de la sensibilisation du public. Il précise les obligations des Parties quant à la nécessité d‟élaborer des programmes de sensibilisation et d‟éducation du public sur les changements climatiques, dans le cadre d‟une approche participative. Les pays développés sont invités à développer « des programmes de coopération pour venir en aide aux pays en développement, techniquement et financièrement. L‟ampleur des changements climatiques et de leurs impacts potentiels sur le développement économique et social en général, et la sécurité alimentaire en particulier, requièrent une sensibilisation de toutes les couches de la société, et plus particulièrement des décideurs. Dans le cas du Maroc, la mobilisation et l‟engagement se sont déclarés au plus haut niveau de l‟Etat comme en témoignent les Discours Royaux, les annonces du Gouvernement, et l‟adhésion aux principes et valeurs édictés par la Convention Cadre des Nations Unies sur les Changements Climatiques (CCNUCC). II. 1 Les Discours Royaux La sensibilisation sur la précarité des ressources naturelles terrestres et marines, végétales, animales et hydriques, sur la centralité du développement humain et sur la problématique de l‟environnement de manière générale, a occupé une place de choix dans les Discours et les Messages Royaux. Prononcés en diverses occasions, ils bénéficient d‟une large écoute et d‟une abondante diffusion dans les médias audio visuels et la presse écrite. Ainsi ils participent à la sensibilisation de l‟ensemble des couches sociales à la rareté des ressources en eau, aux effets néfastes des catastrophes naturelles, et les informent sur les mesures envisagées pour en limiter les conséquences sur les populations. Pour chaque problématique abordée, les Discours et les Messages Royaux constituent une feuille de route pour le Gouvernement, le Parlement, les Collectivités Locales et les Services concernés des administrations centrales et locales. Les ONG s‟en inspirent et organisent ateliers et séminaires pour en débattre. Elles en assurent ainsi une meilleure diffusion, et vraisemblablement un meilleur moyen d‟adhésion par la proximité des populations concernées. II. 2 Les Journées mondiales La célébration institutionnalisée des Journées mondiales de l‟Alimentation, de la Terre, de l‟Environnement, de l‟Eau, de la Forêt, des Zones humides… est une autre occasion pour l‟ensemble des acteurs concernés (départements ministériels, organisations internationales, médias, fondations, ONG ..) d‟informer, d‟échanger et de débattre sur l‟état des lieux, et sur la politique engagée par le 24 25 26

Bilan 2007 des changements climatiques : rapport de synthèse. Produit intérieur brut agricole Produit intérieur brut 173

Gouvernement, notamment pour assurer la sécurité alimentaire, lutter contre les effets des changements climatiques et améliorer le niveau économique et social des populations. En outre tous les acteurs concernés organisent, à l‟échelon local, des manifestations spécifiques à chaque journée, pour associer les populations des quartiers et des douars, les élèves des écoles, collèges et lycées, à la campagne de sensibilisation sur la thématique de la Journée. II. 3 La Stratégie Nationale d’Education et de Sensibilisation à l’Environnement et Développement Durable

Le Plan d‟Action National pour l‟Environnement (PANE), destiné à enrayer les dégâts estimés à près de vingt milliards de dirhams par an, nécessite pour sa mise en oeuvre la prise de conscience par les populations de ce que représente la préservation de toutes les composantes de l‟environnement pour leur bien être, leur sécurité alimentaire, et l‟avenir de leurs enfants. Le vécu des populations à travers les conséquences des sécheresses et des inondations, et l‟audience accordée à ces événements par les médias audio visuels et écrits, constituent un outil formidable d‟information et de sensibilisation de base de la population. Mais pour mieux valoriser ce vécu, et le transformer en une force d‟action qu‟elles pourront déployer au sein de leurs villages et de leurs quartiers, ces populations ont besoin d‟éducation pour améliorer leurs connaissances et approfondir leur sensibilisation. L‟éducation et la sensibilisation, ciblées et spécifiques selon les groupes cibles identifiés, sont les moyens les plus adéquats pour arriver à changer les mentalités et les comportements responsables des pollutions et des dégradations constatées sur l‟environnement. La Stratégie Nationale d‟Education et de Sensibilisation à l‟Environnement et au Développement Durable, a été élaborée dans le cadre d‟une approche participative, associant l‟ensemble des acteurs concernés. C‟est ainsi que le Secrétariat d‟Etat à l‟Eau et l‟Environnement a regroupé des représentants des départements ministériels, des établissements publics, des organisations internationales, de la société civile et du secteur économique et social pour en débattre et la valider à l‟occasion d‟un Forum National réuni les 17 et 18 juillet 2007. III. VISION NATIONALE, POLITIQUE ET STRATEGIES RELATIVES AUX CHANGEMENTS CLIMATIQUES III.1 LA VISION NATIONALE : Des origines de la vision à une vision prospective. Mobiliser à grande échelle les ressources hydrauliques mobilisables pour irriguer un million d‟hectares, protéger les populations contre les inondations, moderniser les pratiques agricoles, développer l‟accès à l‟eau potable, telles sont les grandes lignes de la vision ambitieuse qui va transformer les secteurs de l‟eau et de l‟agriculture, asseoir les bases du développement économique et social, et de la sécurité alimentaire de la population. Soucieux d‟être au diapason avec les préoccupations de la Communauté internationale, le Maroc a participé à de nombreuses Conférences traitant de la dégradation de l‟environnement, de la surexploitation des ressources naturelles, et de leurs conséquences sur l‟avenir de la Terre. Pour y faire face il a signé plus d‟une cinquantaine de conventions et de traités internationaux relatifs aux décisions et mesures qu‟il convient de prendre. La multiplication des épisodes de sécheresses et d‟inondations, au cours des quatre dernières décennies, a confirmé la justesse et la pertinence de cette nouvelle politique hydro agricole, lancée en 1967 par Feu Sa Majesté le Roi Hassan II et poursuivie par Sa Majesté le Roi Mohammed VI. Justesse et pertinence qui ont permis de résister aux dégâts des épisodes de sécheresses, et de limiter l‟extension des inondations dévastatrices, posant ainsi les jalons de l‟adaptation aux effets néfastes des changements climatiques, et de la réduction de la vulnérabilité des secteurs vitaux pour le pays, l‟eau et l‟agriculture. III. 2 POLITIQUE ET STRATEGIES RELATIVES AUX CHANGEMENTS CLIMATIQUES III.2.1 L’adhésion aux Conventions de RIO : un engagement politique Au Sommet de la Terre à RIO en 1992, la présence de Son Altesse Royale Sidi Mohammed, Prince Héritier du Royaume du Maroc à l‟époque, et Roi du Maroc actuellement, à la tête de la délégation 174

marocaine, se voulait être un signe fort de la volonté du Maroc de contribuer à la réduction des gaz à effet de serre, et réduire la vulnérabilité des secteurs vitaux de son économie pour un développement socio-économique durable. Le Maroc adhère aux trois Conventions de Rio, et notamment à la Convention Cadre des Nations Unies sur les Changements Climatiques (CCNUCC) qui sera ratifiée en 1995. Il adhérera en 1997 au Protocole de Kyoto, et aux Objectifs du Millénaire en 2000. Ainsi le Royaume du Maroc scellait son engagement auprès de la Communauté internationale pour mettre en œuvre les objectifs, les principes et les valeurs de ces conventions. Cet engagement va se traduire par une ferme volonté politique de doter le Maroc des structures, des institutions et de l‟arsenal juridique nécessaires pour leur mise en œuvre. III. 2. 2 Les Stratégies Au cours des deux dernières décennies, aux réformes de l‟économie nationale pour se maintenir dans le concert des nations qui ont embrassé le processus de la mondialisation, le Maroc s‟est doté progressivement de stratégies nationales et de plans sectoriels ayant pour objectif d‟engager un processus de développement humain durable, et de se conformer aux recommandations des Conférences des Parties (COP) des trois Conventions de Rio, dont nous ne traiterons que ce qui concerne la CCNUCC. Les Stratégies mises en œuvre par le Maroc comportent deux catégories : III. 2.2.1 Stratégies générales Il s‟agit des stratégies de portée générale qui englobent l‟environnement et la sécurité alimentaire, et concernent toutes les Conventions de Rio. La Stratégie Nationale pour la Protection de l‟Environnement et le Développent Durable est adoptée en 1995. Les termes concrets de ses objectifs et des priorités pour l‟action environnementale sont déclinés dans le Plan ci-dessous. 27 • Le Plan d‟Action Nationale pour l‟Environnement (PANE). • La Stratégie Nationale d‟éducation et de sensibilisation à l‟environnement et au développement durable (Projet ENV/2004/081-284 soutenu par l‟UE) Elle cible les différents segments du grand public, ainsi que l‟ensemble des décideurs et des acteurs de la société civile. •

• Renforcement des connaissances. Face à l‟importance d‟une base de données fiable sur les questions environnementales dans leurs différents volets, la DMN, l‟INRA, le CRTS, l‟IAV Hassan II, l‟ENIM, les Universités, le CNRST, l‟EHTP, 28 l‟ENFI, l‟EMI , s‟organisent pour répondre à cette nécessité. Ces Institutions lancent des programmes de recherche pour approfondir les connaissances, et imaginer des solutions et des mesures à mettre en œuvre pour répondre aux défis des changements climatiques. La Charte pour l‟Environnement et le Développement Durable est mise en chantier suite au Discours du Trône de 2009. Celle ci« ambitionne de créer une dynamique nouvelle, et réaffirmer que la préservation de l‟environnement doit être une préoccupation permanente de tous et de 29 toutes, dans le processus de développement durable du Royaume. » • Autres plans sectoriels D‟autres Plans, tels que le Plan Emergence pour l‟Industrie, le Plan Azur pour le Tourisme pour ne citer que ceux la, n‟omettent pas d‟aborder les questions de la réduction des GES, de l‟efficacité énergétique et de la pollution dans leurs approches de développement de leur secteur respectif. •

III.2.2.2 Stratégies spécifiques Elles vont concerner le volet atténuation des émissions de GES et le volet adaptation pour lutter contre les effets néfastes des changements climatiques.

Communication Nationale Initiale 2001 Météorologie Nationale, Institut National de la Recherche Agronomique, Centre Royal de télédétection Spatiale, Institut Agronomique et vétérinaire Hassan II, Ecole Nationale des Industries Minérales, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique et Technique, Ecole Hassania des TP, Ecole Nationale d’Ingénieurs Forestiers, Ecole Mohammadia d’Ingénieurs, 29 Seconde Communication Nationale 2010 175 28



Le Plan National de lutte contre le Réchauffement Climatique (PNRC) « recense le portefeuille des actions gouvernementales ainsi retenues pour lutter contre les changements climatiques…en vue de permettre la visibilité et la communication sur ces actions, initialiser et optimiser le pilotage interministériel…il sera utilisé pour lancer une dynamique territoriale de lutte contre les 30 CC à l‟aide de plans territoriaux de lutte contre les CC. » 31  Le portefeuille des projets MDP Il comporte près de soixante projets présentés qui se situent à différentes étapes du processus MDP. La réduction des émissions de GES attendue est de l‟ordre de 8,4 millions de TEq CO 2 par an. Parmi les plus avancés cinq projets sont enregistrés, neuf sont en cours de validation, quatre PDD approuvés. Seize projets sont approuvés au niveau de l‟Autorité Nationale Désignée (AND) au niveau du NIP. Vingt quatre projets sont en cours de développement. 32

 Nouvelle Stratégie Energétique La nouvelle stratégie élaborée en concertation avec l‟ensemble des opérateurs se préoccupe, en premier lieu, de la sécurité d‟approvisionnement énergétique et de la disponibilité de l‟énergie au meilleur coût. 33 Selon les prévisions du MEMEE la demande énergétique primaire va quadrupler d‟ici 2030, et la consommation électrique serait multipliée par quatre et jusqu'à six entre 2008 et 2030. Quatre axes sont retenus : •

Le développement des énergies renouvelables pour porter leur contribution à 18% dans la production électrique en 2012 et à 42% en 2020, • La promotion de l‟efficacité énergétique dans les secteurs de l‟industrie, du transport et de l‟habitat, • Le renforcement des capacités de production et l‟amélioration de la gestion de la demande, • L‟augmentation des parts de charbon et de gaz naturel dans le mix énergétique national pour réduire la part des produits pétroliers de 60% à 40% à l‟horizon 2030. La réalisation des programmes identifiés dans chacun de ces axes est confiée à :   

l‟Office National de l‟Electricité en ce qui concerne la filière éolienne, l‟agence MASEN (Moroccan Agency for Solar Energy) pour l‟énergie solaire, l‟ADEREE (Agence pour le Développement des Energies Renouvelables et la promotion de Efficacité Energétique) pour développer des études et des projets pilotes dans ces domaines, en partenariat avec des opérateurs publics et privés.  la Société d‟Investissement Energétique, dotée d‟un capital initial d‟un milliard de dollars, peut participer dans ces différents projets pour encourager les investisseurs intéressés. Les investisseurs les mieux offrants, notamment dans le développement d‟industries locales de fabrication des composants de chacune des technologies, seront retenus dans ces programmes.  Nouvelle Stratégie de l‟eau La politique des barrages lancée en 1967 a posé les premiers jalons de la mobilisation des ressources hydriques en vue de satisfaire les besoins en eau potable et ceux des secteurs économiques du pays. La loi 10/95 sur l‟eau responsabilise tous les acteurs concernés par sa production, sa conservation, sa distribution et son utilisation, et crée les Agences de Bassin Hydraulique pour sa mise en œuvre. La nouvelle stratégie prévoit son adaptation et la promulgation des textes d‟applications complémentaires. Pour faire face à la tendance manifeste de raréfaction de ces ressources, une nouvelle stratégie s‟impose pour répondre à la croissance quasi exponentielle de la demande. Six grands axes ont été définis dont nous en rappelons ci-dessous les plus importants :     30 31 32 33

La gestion de la demande et de la valorisation de l‟eau qui doit aboutir à économiser 2,4 milliards 3 3 de m /an d‟eau d‟irrigation, et 120 millions de m /an d‟eau potable et industrielle. Le développement de l‟offre : la construction d‟une cinquantaine de grands barrages et près de 3 1000 petits barrages mobilisera 1,7 milliards de m La préservation et la protection des ressources en eau, du milieu naturel et des zones humides. La réduction de la vulnérabilité aux risques naturels liés aux inondations et aux sécheresses.

Seconde Communication Nationale 2010 Mécanisme de Développement propre (voir Seconde communication Nationale) Seconde Communication Nationale 2010 Ministère de l’Energie, des Mines, de l’Eau et de l’Environnement. 176

 Le Plan de Protection Contre les Inondations (PNPCI) Le PNPCI répond à la prévention des risques d‟inondations dont la répétition et la force dévastatrice se sont accrues au cours des trois dernières décennies. L‟étude qui a été engagée a permis de répertorier quatre cent sites de zones à risques réels et potentiels d‟inondations. Une cinquantaine ont été traités.  Nouvelle Stratégie agricole : le Plan Maroc Vert Face aux multiples défis des changements climatiques et à la diminution des réserves mondiales en produits alimentaires de base, la flambée des coûts des matières premières et des produits agricoles ont tiré la sonnette d‟alarme des gouvernements et des institutions internationales sur l‟intensification des risques de pénurie alimentaire. Le Maroc, dont l‟un des axes politiques prioritaires a de tout temps été la sécurité alimentaire, se devait de mettre en œuvre une nouvelle stratégie agricole. Le Plan Maroc Vert adopté en 2008 développe une révision profonde de la politique agricole pour passer à une vitesse supérieure en matière de production, de productivité, de qualité et de valorisation de la spécificité des produits de terroirs. Le Pilier 1 de ce plan a pour objectif d‟insuffler un développement accéléré à une agriculture capable d‟avoir une forte productivité et une forte valeur ajoutée. Le Pilier 2 prend en charge le secteur de la masse des petits agriculteurs pauvres, voire très pauvres. Ce pilier offre un accompagnement solidaire, dans le cadre de l‟agrégation autour d‟opérateurs ou d‟associations dotés d‟outils de valorisation (logistique, encadrement, transformation). Il faut améliorer et valoriser la production agricole traditionnelle, ou reconvertir les exploitations vers une filière plus rentable. • Le Plan National d‟Economie d‟Eau d‟Irrigation (PNEEI) L‟agriculture consomme actuellement près de 90% des ressources en eau du Maroc. L‟intensification de l‟irrigation, dans le cadre du Plan Maroc Vert, se fera sur l‟économie d‟eau réalisée par la reconversion de 550000 hectares en irrigation localisée. Ce plan sera réalisé sur les dix ans à venir, son coût global est de 37 milliards de dirhams. De 2008 à 2010 90000 hectares sont équipés. Le PNEEI repose sur trois axes :  Modernisation des réseaux collectifs d‟irrigation pour la reconversion en irrigation localisée,  Reconversion à l‟irrigation localisée à la parcelle,  Amélioration de la valorisation agricole. 3 L‟économie d‟eau attendue est de 2,4 milliards de m .  Nouvelle Stratégie pour les pêches maritimes : HALIEUTIS Elle s‟appuie sur la mise à niveau et la modernisation du secteur pour mieux valoriser les ressources halieutiques. Elle s‟inscrit dans le cadre d‟une exploitation durable de la ressource, et de la promotion d‟une pêche responsable auprès de tous les acteurs concernés. Performance, qualité et compétitivité en sont les maîtres mots.  L‟INDH Destinée à réduire la pauvreté, la précarité et l‟exclusion dont les effectifs frôlent des pourcentages élevés, l‟Initiative Nationale de Développement Humain est une démarche participative, associant à parts égales les autorités locales, les services publics et la société civile, pour identifier les actions à engager au niveau de la commune rurale et urbaine, au niveau du douar ou du quartier urbain pour atteindre ses objectifs. Les activités génératrices de revenus, les projets de développement qui seront retenus et mis en œuvre dans ce cadre ont pour objectif d‟améliorer les conditions de vie de ces populations, d‟accroître la sécurité alimentaire et l‟utilisation rationnelle des ressources naturelles. La réduction du surpâturage et du bois de feu, l‟économie d‟énergie et l‟utilisation des énergies renouvelables réduiront la pression sur les forêts. Cette initiative participe au même titre que les autres Stratégies et plans nationaux à la réalisation des Objectifs du Millénaire pour le Développement (OMD) auxquels le Maroc a souscrits. IV. ARRANGEMENTS INSTITUTIONNELS Le Maroc se dote d‟un nouveau Département ministériel dès après son adhésion aux Conventions de Rio en 1992. Ses structures vont évoluer en fonction de la mise en œuvre des engagements souscrits et de l‟appréciation de sa responsabilité dans l‟atténuation des émissions de gaz à effet de serre (GES) et dans les mesures d‟adaptation qu‟il adoptera pour limiter la vulnérabilité de ses ressources vitales. 177

Au fil des changements de Gouvernement qui se sont succédés, depuis la ratification des dites Conventions, le Secrétariat d‟Etat à l‟Eau et l‟Environnement est actuellement le département en charge du Dossier Climat en collaboration avec les autres départements ministériels. IV.1 Le Secrétariat d’Etat à l’Eau et l’Environnement (SEEE): Institutions et services mis en place Nous n‟évoquerons dans ce chapitre que les structures en charge des différents dossiers relatifs aux changements climatiques. Le SEEE associe les départements ministériels et les établissements publics dont le secteur économique et social est concerné par toute action à entreprendre en matière d‟atténuation des GES et d‟adaptation aux impacts des changements climatiques. Il en est de même pour certaines associations de la société civile. 

Le Service Changement Climatique est chargé de la coordination et du suivi de la mise en œuvre des engagements du Maroc vis-à-vis de la CCNUCC et du Protocole de Kyoto. Ce service fait partie de la Direction du Partenariat, de la Communication et de la Coopération (DPCC). Il est chargé de la gestion administrative et financière de toutes les activités relatives aux changements climatiques en collaboration avec les autres institutions des CC dont il assure la coordination et le secrétariat.

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Le Comité National des Changements Climatiques est créé en 1996. Il comprend les départements ministériels concernés (Energie, Eau, Agriculture, Forêts, Affaires étrangères); les Institutions Nationales (DMN, CRTS, IAV Hassan II…) et une ONG (GERERE). Organe consultatif et d‟appui au Projet RAB, il a joué un rôle important dans l‟élaboration de la Communication Nationale Initiale en 2001. Créé sans base juridique il n‟a pas été très productif. Le Centre d‟Information sur l‟Energie Durable et l‟Environnement (CIEDE) est créé en 2000 dans le cadre du projet RAB et du partenariat entre les membres du Comité National sur les Changements Climatiques, notamment le Ministère de l‟Energie et des Mines et le Département de l‟Environnement. Ses attributions (collecte et traitement de l‟information sur l‟énergie et le développement durable) sont ressenties par ses partenaires comme essentielles pour la prise de décisions et la sensibilisation des populations. Le Comité National Scientifique et Technique (CNST-CC) est créé en 2000 avec pour mission immédiate l‟appui du Département de l‟Environnement à la préparation de la COP 7 en ce qui concerne les questions d‟ordre scientifique et technique relatives aux CC. Il est composé d‟experts nationaux, à l‟image du GIEC, pour constituer à terme l‟autorité scientifique nationale chargée des questions relatives aux CC. Il a contribué à l‟enrichissement et à la validation des études techniques de la Communication Nationale Initiale qui sera présentée au cours de la COP 7.

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Par la suite il a assuré l‟appui technique du département dans des missions d‟évaluation de projets, et de formulation de nouveaux projets.. 

L‟Autorité Nationale Désignée MDP (AND MDP) est mise en place par l‟Arrêté ministériel du 18 septembre 2002. Elle comprend le Conseil National du MDP et le Secrétariat permanent du CNMDP. Elle représente l‟Etat marocain vis-à-vis des organismes et des opérateurs nationaux qui souhaitent participer aux projets entrant dans le cadre du MDP. Il en est de même pour les organismes internationaux du MDP Elle examine les dossiers des projets présentés par les opérateurs nationaux et leur délivre l‟approbation écrite s‟ils ont satisfait aux critères du MDP et qu‟ils contribuent au développement durable du Pays. Cette institution remplit parallèlement d‟autres fonctions liées à ses compétences et ses attributions.

Le Département de l‟Environnement s‟appuie sur d‟autres institutions dont :     

Le Conseil Supérieur de l‟Eau et du Climat, Le Comité Interministériel de l‟Aménagement du Territoire, La Météorologie Nationale (DMN), L‟ADEREE (Agence pour le Développement des Energies Renouvelables et l‟Efficacité Energétique) en remplacement du CDER, Le CRTS, (Centre Royal de Télédétection Spatiale), 178

 Le CMDP (Centre Marocain pour le Développement Propre,) Les quatre premières institutions, qui sont appelées à jouer un rôle de premier plan, seront renforcées en moyens humains et matériels. IV. 2 Autres départements Le Ministère de l‟Agriculture et des Pèches Maritimes est chargé de promouvoir le développement des productions agricoles et halieutiques pour nourrir la population. Sa responsabilité en matière de sécurité alimentaire ne doit pas masquer son importante contribution dans les émissions de GES qui est de l‟ordre de 25% des émissions totales du Maroc. Le Ministère chargé de l‟Habitat, de l‟Urbanisme, et de l‟Aménagement de l‟Espace dont la production de GES du secteur du logement vient en seconde position après l‟agriculture. Le Ministère de l‟Equipement et du Transport est concerné par le secteur du transport (efficacité énergétique et qualité des carburants). Le Ministère du Commerce, de l‟Industrie et des Nouvelles Technologies de l‟Information est concerné dans le cadre de l‟efficacité énergétique, de la réduction des GES du secteur de l‟industrie. Le secteur de la forêt, dont le Haut Commissariat aux Eaux et Forêts et à la Lutte Contre la Désertification (HCEFLCD) est en charge, est un énorme puit de séquestration du CO 2 malgré la production de GES par le bois de feu et par la déforestation. Le Ministère de l‟Intérieur, par l‟intermédiaire des collectivités locales, est en charge de la mise à niveau et de la gestion des décharges publiques, Les autres départements ministériels sont également associés à la réflexion et à la coordination dans toutes les activités en rapport avec les changements climatiques, chacun dans la limite de ses attributions. Toutes les parties concernées par les changements climatiques se retrouvent au niveau du Conseil National de l‟Environnement, du Conseil Supérieur de l‟Eau et du Climat, des Conseils de Gouvernement et de Ministres pour débattre des orientations et des actions à mettre en œuvre en matière de climat. Les deux Chambres du Parlement offrent l‟espace où députés et Conseillers peuvent interpeller le Gouvernement, et faire part des préoccupations des populations. Il en est de même au niveau des instances des Collectivités locales. Ainsi, malgré quelques réticences et querelles de chapelle, la coordination entre les départements ministériels concernés dispose d‟espaces multiples où elle peut s‟exercer. IV. 3 l’arsenal juridique Il va sans dire que la mise en œuvre des engagements souscrits par le Maroc doit être soutenue par un arsenal juridique qui va préciser le contenu des décisions et des mesures engagées, les droits et les devoirs des citoyens et des acteurs concernés, et les sanctions en cas de manquement au respect de ces textes et règlements. Près d‟une dizaine de lois, sept (7) décrets d‟application et neuf normes ont été adoptés depuis la Loi n°10-95 sur l‟eau jusqu‟à la Loi 16-09 sur les énergies renouvelables. D‟autres textes sont en cours d‟étude ou dans le circuit d‟approbation. V. CONNAISSANCES TECHNIQUES Etudes et projets exécutés L‟adhésion à la CCNUCC fait obligation aux pays Parties d‟élaborer régulièrement une Communication Nationale sur l‟état des émissions anthropiques par leurs sources et de l‟absorption par leurs puits, des gaz à effet de serre. Tenant compte des moyens en ressources humaines et financières des pays en développement, la Convention engage les pays développés à coopérer avec les pays en développement pour leur apporter les soutiens dont ils ont besoin pour s‟acquiter de leurs obligations dans la lutte contre le réchauffement climatique. C‟est ainsi que le Maroc a pu bénéficier de la coopération des instances internationales, multilatérales ou bilatérales, pour renforcer les compétences de ses cadres en charge de l‟application de la CCNUCC. Nous nous limiterons volontairement à quelques projets relatifs de manière spécifique au renforcement de capacités avant d‟en citer d‟autres pour les secteurs vulnérables. 179

 Projet PNUD/FEMRAB/94/G31 (1995-2003) Il avait pour objet le « Renforcement des capacités des Pays Maghrébins (Maroc Algérie, Tunisie) en matière de changements climatiques » au moyen de sessions de sensibilisation et de formation pour élaborer la Communication Nationale Initiale, mettre en place le Comité National des Changements Climatiques et créer le Centre d‟Information sur l‟Energie Durable et l‟Environnement (CIEDE).  Projet PNUD/FEM MOR99G32 Renforcer des capacités nationales pour utiliser divers modèles mathématiques, des méthodes d‟évaluation des impacts sur l‟agriculture pluviale, et des impacts socio-économiques sur le milieu rural en cas de sécheresses, pour élaborer les inventaires des émissions et de l‟absorption des GES et les simulations de divers scénarions qui seront présentés dans la Communication Nationale. Projet PNUE « Evaluation de l‟Impact et de l‟Adaptation aux CC dans les Zones Côtières du Maroc (2004-2005)  Projet PNUD/FEM/2006 «Auto évaluation Nationale des Capacités à Renforcer en matière d‟Environnement (ANCRE)» PNUD-MOR/03/G31/00013695 Ces quatre projets ont répondu, en leur temps, aux besoins spécifiques de renforcement des capacités nécessaires pour l‟élaboration de la Communication Nationale Initiale et de la Seconde Communication Nationale, ainsi que pour la recherche d‟une meilleure coordination dans la mise en oeuvre des trois Conventions de Rio. 

Après l‟adhésion et la ratification de la CCNUCC et du Protocole de Kyoto, le Maroc s‟est engagé volontairement à atténuer ses émissions de GES, à prendre des mesures de réduction de la vulnérabilité des secteurs de l‟eau et de l‟agriculture, et d‟adaptation aux impacts des changements climatiques. Ces mesures vont figurer en bonne place dans toutes ses nouvelles stratégies nationales de développement économique et social durable, notamment dans la Stratégie Energétique Nationale et dans celles de l‟Eau, de l‟Agriculture et des pêches maritimes pour ne citer que ces quatre secteurs.. La formation de nouveaux profils de cadres, de techniciens et d‟ouvriers qualifiés dans les nouvelles technologies relatives à ces mesures, et aux engagements souscrits, occupera la place qui lui revient de facto, dans chaque projet qui sera mis en œuvre.   

   

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Les Zones côtières Projet PNUE «Evaluation de l'Impact et de l'Adaptation aux Changements Climatiques (AIACC) dans les zones côtières du Maroc » [2004-2005] Renforcement des capacités dans certains pays du METAP pour l‟évaluation du coût de dégradation de l‟environnement dans les zones côtières [juin 2006] Le projet ACCMA - Adaptation aux Changements Climatiques au MAROC portant sur l'adaptation à l'élévation du niveau de la mer et aux événements climatiques extrêmes dans le littoral méditerranéen oriental [2007-2010]. L‟Agriculture Etude d‟impact des CC sur le secteur agricole au Maroc (2008-2010), Partenariat du MAPM, BM, FAO, DMN, INRA. Adaptation aux CC au Maroc pour des oasis résilientes (octobre 2009-Décembre 2011) avec de multiples objetifs dont l‟amélioration des connaissances des impacts des CC sur les écosystèmes et les Communautés Projet de modernisation de l‟agriculture irriguée de l‟Oum Er Rbia (2010-2016) avec des composantes de formations des cadres de l‟ORMVA et des fermiers. L‟Eau et l‟assainissement Programme National d‟Assainissement au niveau du Bassin du Sebou (2008-2012) Il comporte un volet « appui institutionnel » et un volet « protecyion des ressources. Energie Programme d‟appui à la réforme du secteur : Appuyer la mise en œuvre de la nouvelle stratégie énergétique et l‟intégration au marché européen et euro méditerranéen de l‟énergie. Etude de définition des besoins du secteur de l‟énergie en ressources humaines spécialisées. Cette étude a été lancée au mois de septembre de 2010 et devrait être close en 2011. 180

Les Universités, les Etablissements de formation des cadres et de formation professionnelle ont mis en place des formations appropriées en matière d‟atténuation et d‟adaptation aux CC. Cependant les effectifs sont restés limités jusqu‟à ces dernières années faute d‟une demande relativement timide. Avec l‟accélération de la réalisation des programmes de production d‟énergie électrique éolienne et solaire les offres de recrutement ne sont pas complètement satisfaites. La ferme volonté d‟exiger des investisseurs le développement d‟une industrie locale de fabrication de composantes des équipements éoliens et solaires a incité les opérateurs privés à conclure avec l‟Etat une Convention dont l‟objectif est de créer trois instituts de formation de 5300 ingénieurs, de 17900 techniciens et de 23000 ouvriers qualifiés dans les métiers des énergies renouvelables et de l‟efficacité énergétique. Mesures d‟adaptation aux changements climatiques adoptées par les agriculteurs, les pêcheurs, les éleveurs, etc. Outre les technologies ancestrales en matière de gestion des resources en eau, de choix de cultures adaptées aux conditions climatiques et de gestion des parcours collectifs, les agriculteurs et les éleveurs et les pêcheurs sont attentifs aux propositions qui leur seront faites par les services publics, les associations professionnelles et les ONG, dont les cadres et les agents ont été sensibilisés et formés à cet effet. Les nouvelles stratégies nationales et leurs plans d‟action dont les priorités tournent autour de la réduction de la pauvreté et de l‟exclusion, de l‟exploitation rationnelle et durable des ressources naturelles du pays, de l‟assurance de la couverture de tous les besoins prioritaires de la population n‟ont pas omis l‟amélioration des capacités de tous les acteurs de chaque secteur. La réalisation des objectifs d‟atténuation des gaz à effet de serre, de la réduction de la vulnérabilité du pays aux effets néfastes du réchauffement climatique nécessite la mobilisation de chaque individu, au niveau de chaque communauté urbaine et rurale. Pour chaque secteur de l‟économie dont les activités ont une incidence sur le changement climatique, les acteurs sont éduqués et sensibilisés pour changer leurs comportements.  Agriculture et ressources en eau Dans se secteur les agriculteurs sont sensibilisés pour améliorer leurs pratiques agricoles dans l‟utilisation de l‟eau, dans les travaux des sols, dans le choix des cultures et des semences sélectionnées appropriées aux conditions climatiques et édaphiques de leur terroir. La pratique de l‟irrigation de complément dans les zones d‟agriculture pluviale, et de l‟irrigation localisée dans les périmètres d‟irrigation font partie des modifications prioritaires que le Plan Maroc Vert s‟est engagé à promouvoir dans le cadre du Plan National d‟Economie d‟Eau d‟Irrigation.  Pêches maritimes Le Plan Halieutis se propose de dynamiser le secteur des pêches maritimes. L‟exploitation des ressources halieutiques doit être durable, respectueuse des cycles biologiques des diverse espéces par l‟application rigoureuse des prescriptions de gestion responsable des pêcheries et de l‟utilisation des méthodes et des outils de pêche appropriés.  Energie Dans la nouvelle stratégie énergétique nationale le consommateur d‟énergie, que ce soit au niveau de l‟individu ou de l‟entreprise de quelque nature qu‟elle soit, est un acteur clé de la réduction des gaz à effet de serre. La sensibilisation à l‟efficacité énergétique, à l‟utilisation des énergies renouvelables pour réduire les énergies fossiles est une action dont l‟intensité est appelée à une croissance exponentielle lorsque tous les programmes envisagés prendront leur vitesse de croisière.  Elevage et gestion des espaces pastoraux Les espaces pastoraux sont d‟une importance capitale pour l‟élevage extensif. Leur gestion traditionnelle, qui en assurait une certaine durabilité du couvert végétal, a été dépassée par la surexploitation et la déviation d‟une partie de ces terres, vers une agriculture de subsistance des populations pauvres de ces espaces. La volonté de mettre un frein à une évolution certaine vers une dégradation totale de ces espaces, qui conduira inexorablement à leur désertification, s‟exprime dans la mise en œuvre de projets d‟amélioration pastorale. A titre d‟exemple nous citerons le projet de développement des parcours et de l‟élevage dans l‟Oriental dont les objectifs concernent l‟amélioration des conditions socio économiques des populations, la préservation des ressources annuelles, la séquestration du carbone, la lutte contre la désertification et la gestion des ressources en eau. 181

VI. LISTE DE PROJETS/ACTIVITES RECENTS SUR LES CC Le Maroc, dans le cadre de son adhésion aux principes et valeurs de la mondialisation, a développé plusieurs accords de libre échange, dont les droits et obligations lui imposent d‟ouvrir ces frontières à la concurrence internationale, de mettre à niveau ses législations et son économie pour accéder aux marchés et pour une meilleure compétitivité de ses produits. L‟élaboration de stratégies nationales dans les divers secteurs de son économie s‟est imposée pour qu‟il soit en mesure d‟être un partenaire à part entière dans le cadre de ces accords. Ces Stratégies, bien que développées chacune pour son secteur spécifique, ne manquent pas de partager des ensembles d‟activités à cheval sur deux ou plusieurs stratégies. Le Plan Maroc Vert, dédié au développement de l‟agriculture pour en faire un moteur de croissance du PIB, et par conséquent de l‟économie nationale, a prévu d‟intervenir dans l‟économie des ressources en eau pour pouvoir satisfaire les besoins de l‟extension des périmètres irrigués et l‟intensification de la production agricole. Les projets des bailleurs de fonds portent en général, sauf cas particuliers, sur le volet eau pour l‟irrigation, le traitement des eaux usées pour les réutiliser et la recharge artificielle des nappes dont une partie sera utilisée pour l‟irrigation.

182

Annex VI: Original French version of Tunisia country paper I. Introduction

La Tunisie est située dans une zone géographique de transition entre climat tempéré et climat aride. Le climat tunisien est marqué par deux saisons thermiques, l‟hiver et l‟été. L‟automne et le printemps constituent deux intersaisons peu marquées, l‟automne s‟avérant plus chaud et plus variable que le printemps. Les facteurs qui influencent la répartition des précipitations en Tunisie sont au nombre de trois : la latitude, le relief et la continentalité. La saison pluviale s‟étend de septembre à mai avec un maximum de pluviométrie en hiver. La pluviométrie est caractérisée par une variation spatiale nord-sud très importante. Au Nord, le cumul pluviométrique moyen se situe entre 400 et 1000 mm/an; au Centre, la pluviométrie moyenne varie de 300 à 400 mm/an ; le Sud de la Tunisie est quant à lui caractérisé par un climat aride et une pluviométrie faible et très variable. Au total, la variabilité pluviométrique et les phénomènes extrêmes d‟ordre hydro-météorologique sont caractéristiques du climat tunisien. Les sécheresses et les inondations peuvent souvent atteindre une magnitude catastrophique. Au cours du siècle dernier, 14 inondations et 18 sécheresses ont été répertoriées, soit au total 32 évènements. Une année sur trois connaît une situation extrême sans que l‟on puisse toutefois décelerer une périodicité ni de fréquence cyclique manifeste. Néanmoins, en considérant la distribution de ces phénomènes extrêmes au cours du siècle dernier, on observe une augmentation de leur nombre. En effet les études du climat de la Tunisie des 50 dernières années ont montré que la seconde moitié du siècle passé a surtout été marquée par une plus grande fréquence d‟événements extrêmes (sècheresse inondations), à savoir 18 événements contre 12 pour la première moitié. L‟historique des épisodes de sécheresse et d‟abondance des pluies en Tunisie sur le siècle passé montre que la seconde moitié du siècle dernier a révélé une plus grande fréquence d‟événements extrêmes (sécheresse - inondations), avec des conséquences économiques importantes. Le nombre et le degré d‟événements de pluies fortes indiquent une fréquence et intensité de pluies extrêmes inconnues auparavant. Les sécheresses sont restées par contre un phénomène récurrent. Les années dites très sèches (déficit pluviométrique supérieur à 50 %) se montrent rares au Nord, mais fréquentes au Centre et au Sud. La persistance de la sécheresse s‟avère plus faible au Nord et plus importante au Centre et au Sud. L‟analyse de la température a permis aussi de distinguer deux périodes, celle s‟étendant de 1950 à 1975 et celle se situant entre 1976 et 2004. Si la première période a été caractérisée par une stabilisation ou un léger refroidissement, la seconde a été marquée par un réchauffement dépassant 1°C dans certaines régions. La période 1976-2004 est également caractérisée par une plus forte variabilité des températures et un nombre plus important des extrêmes absolus. L‟impact des événements extrêmes (surtout les sécheresses) se traduit par une baisse des réserves dans les retenues des barrages, à titre d‟exemple ces réserves n‟étaient que de 30% et 23% respectivement en 1988 et 1989, qui n'ont pu satisfaire que 74% des besoins du secteur agricole, qui pour combler ce déficit s'est rabattu sur une surexploitation de certaines nappes. Ceci s'est traduit par une augmentation de la salinité des eaux mobilisées et par un colmatage dans les conduites. Sur le plan socio-économique ces événements sont traduits par un déficit entre la production et la consommation en céréale ainsi queles autres productions qui ont subi les mêmes tendances. Ce déficit se traduit par augmentation des importations en céréales et une baisse de revenu des agriculteurs. Cette situation illustre l'ampleur des pertes et dommages occasionnés par les événements extrêmes sur le plan national, régional et individuel. En effet, à l'échelle nationale et régionale, ces pertes vont se traduire par une baisse de la part de l'agriculture dans le PIB, dans l'emploi et dans la contribution à la couverture de la balance commerciale. Les dommages qui en découlent concernent, sur le plan environnemental, la dégradation des ressources naturelles (eau, sol, couvert végétal) et sur le plan économique et social, le dysfonctionnement de certaines infrastructures agricoles de base et la perte d'une part du marché. 183

En matière de politiques agricoles, et pour faire face aux répercussions socio-économique des ces évènements, les stratégies publiques agissent essentiellement sur les aspects relatifs à la modernisation des structures agricoles et la régulation optimale du secteur et essentiellement aux soutiens financier des petits et moyens agriculteurs afin d‟assurer la durabilité de l‟activité agricole. II. Sensibilisation aux changements climatiques En matière de sensibilisation, le MEDD, et en collaboration avec les autres départements concernés, la société civile et le secteur privé, procède à la réalisation d‟un ensemble d‟actions visant la sensibilisation du grand public en matière de protection de l‟environnement, et en mettant l‟accent ces dernières années sur la question des changements climatiques, les impacts qui en découlent, les mesures d‟adaptation et l‟effort d‟atténuation. Ces thèmes en relation avec les changements climatiques ont été le cadre de plusieurs manifestions nationales et régionales et même internationales. Des décisions ont été prises en matière de sensibilisation à la protection de l‟environnement associant tous les partenaires de développement et qui sont les suivantes:

     

une intégration de l‟éducation environnementale dans le système éducatif, la mise en place de clubs d‟environnement, la formation des éducateurs et des enseignants, la production de supports pédagogiques et didactiques dédiés à l‟environnement et au développement durable. la création d‟un réseau de formateurs et de coordinateurs régionaux de l‟éducation à l‟environnement, l‟aide aux ONGs actives dans le domaine de l‟environnement

En ce qui concerne l‟adaptation du secteur agricole aux changements climatiques agricole et, et dans le cadre du projet « Appui à la mise en œuvre de la Convention-cadre des nations unies sur les changements climatiques » (CCC/GTZ), un programme de diffusion des résultats de l‟étude « stratégie d‟adaptation de l‟agriculture tunisienne et des écosystèmes aux changements climatiques » a été identifié et réalisé en 2007 et porte sur la réflexion et la mise en œuvre au niveau régional de cette stratégie. L‟objectif de ce programme est d‟une part la présentation aux participants des résultats de l‟étude «Stratégie nationale d‟adaptation de l‟agriculture tunisienne et des écosystèmes aux changements climatiques» et d‟autre part, permettre aux participants de cerner et assimiler les éléments suivants :



Les données de bases vulgarisées concernant le climat et le CC ainsi que les projections du climat attendus sur la Tunisie à l‟horizon 2030-2050,  Les impacts déjà observés et ceux attendus du CC sur la Tunisie à l‟horizon 2030,  Les grandes lignes de la stratégie d‟adaptation et son plan d‟action. Ce programme a rassemblé les gens de l‟administration régionale, les organisations professionnelles et la société civile, et des ateliers régionaux ont été le cadre de réalisation de ce programme, Les discussions entre les participants et les organisateurs de ces ateliers ont été fructueuses et ont porté sur la vulnérabilité spécifiques aux régions, aux mesures d‟adaptation les mieux adaptées aux régions ainsi qu‟aux moyens pour opérationnaliser la stratégie nationale à l‟échelle régionale. Il est à signaler que de nombreuses mesures d‟adaptation sont évoquées par l‟assistance et sont déjà appliquées par certains agriculteurs, mais il apparait important de réaliser des études spécifiques à des régions représentatives que ce soit en termes de climat, de spéculation ou de vulnérabilité. Ces études qui englobent l‟aspect technique, économique et social permettront d‟affiner la problématique et d‟adapter les solutions de la stratégie nationale au contexte régional. Rappelons que les dirigeants locaux souhaitent des mesures d‟adaptation intégrées ce qui nécessite d‟impliquer tous les secteurs, d‟où la nécessité d‟une approche participative. En conclusion, le changement climatique reste quand même une « énigme » pour la majorité des participants d‟où des efforts particuliers d‟information sont à consentir à ce sujet. III. Vision nationale, politique et stratégies relatives aux changements climatiques En matière de politique environnementale, la Tunisie a signé et ratifié la majorité des conventions internationales qui se rapportent à l‟environnement, entre autre la CCNUCC à Rio de Janeiro (Brésil) en 184

1992, et l‟a ratifiée en juillet 1993 en tant que Partie Non-annexe 1 de cette convention. Au sens de l‟article 12 de ladite convention, le pays s‟est donc engagé à transmettre à la Conférence des Parties les communications décrivant ses efforts déployés pour atténuer les émissions globales de GES, contribuant ainsi à la lutte contre les changements climatiques globaux attendus. En matière de politique nationale relative au changement climatique, les axes suivants constituent la base de la politique nationale dans ce domaine : La coordination avec les structures et les organisations mondiales, et la participation aux efforts internationaux pour faire face aux changements climatiques, dans le cadre des accords et protocoles internationaux en la matière. Dans ce cadre la Tunisie a adopté la CCNUCC en 1993 et ratifié le PK en 2002 et respecte les engagements nationaux dans le cadre de ces protocoles. - La consolidation du cadre institutionnel pour mieux cadrer les changements climatiques. Pour ce fait, de nouvelles structures ont été créées au sein du MEDD à savoir : une représentation nationale du PK, une structure (AND) qui se charge du MDP et des commissions sectorielles appeler à adopter les mesures relatives à la vente des émissions des GES. - La consolidation de l‟intégration des changements climatiques dans les stratégies sectorielles de développements, et l‟élaboration de programmes d‟actions. (Agricultures et écosystèmes, Santé, tourisme, adaptation du littoral aux CC) - L‟exploitation des potentialités disponibles pour réduire les émissions des GES, et procurer des crédits importants dans le cadre du MDP La Tunisie a transmis sa première communication nationale au titre de la CCNUCC à la Conférence des parties (COP) en 2001, cette communication contient les informations relatives à l‟inventaire des GES pour l‟année 1994, une évaluation de la vulnérabilité de la Tunisie à l‟élévation des niveaux de la mer due au réchauffement global et une évaluation du potentiel national d‟atténuation des GES. -

Actuellement les autorités compétentes sont entrain d‟achever la seconde communication nationale au titre de la CCNUCC pour la transmettre à la COP, cette communication sera éditée au cours de la première semestre de l‟année 2011. Elle contient des projections de GES en Tunisie aux horizons 2010 et 2020 compte tenu des scénarios d‟atténuation, elle comporte aussi : -

un Inventaire National des GES pour l‟Année 2000, une évaluation de la vulnérabilité de l‟agriculture aux variations climatiques attendues, une évaluation de la variation accélérée du niveau de la mer, des mesures prises et les actions programmées pour l‟atténuation des émissions de GES, les prédispositions du pays en matière de Formation, d‟éducation, de suivi et de planification de la lutte contre les changements climatiques sont aussi reportées.

Les termes de référence pour la réalisation de la troisième communication sont en cours d‟élaboration. D‟après la deuxième communication nationale, les émissions nettes de GES en Tunisie en l‟an 2000 sont évaluées à 32,1 millions TE-CO2, ce qui correspond à un coefficient d‟émission équivalent de 3,4 TECO2 par habitant. Les émissions brutes sont évaluées à 37,8 TE-CO2 soit 3.92 TE-CO2 par habitant. (émissions nettes = émissions brutes – absorption de GES). Le CO2 (63,9%) domine les émissions nettes de GES, suivi par le CH4 (18,2%) et le N20 (17,9%). L‟absorption du CO2 sous forme organique, par la biomasse, est estimée à 5,7 millions TE-CO2. La forêt, mais aussi l‟arboriculture (oléiculture) représentent un puits majeur pour le carbone. Les quantités brutes de GES sont dominées par les émissions du secteur de l‟énergie (20,8 MTE-CO2 ; 55%), suivie par l‟agriculture (7,6 MTE-CO2 ; 20%), les procédés industriels (4 MTE-CO2 ; 11%), l‟UTCATF (3,5 MTE-CO2 ; 9%), puis les déchets (1,9 MTE-CO2 ; 5%). Toutefois, la projection des émissions globales de GES pour les années futures selon un scénario de référence ont été calculée (deuxième communication nationale) , et donne une quantité de 53,1 MTECO2 pour l‟année 2010, et 75,4 MTE-CO2 pour l‟année 2020 en émissions brutes, et une quantité de 46,2 MTE-CO2 pour l‟année 2010, et 66,9 MTE-CO2 pour l‟année 2020 en émissions nettes. Le scénario de référence se base sur les hypothèses suivantes : -

la consommation en énergie primaire, incluant la biomasse, augmenterait à une cadence moyenne de 4,5% par an pour atteindre 10,1 millions de tep en 2010, et environ 15,8 millions de tep en 2020. 185

la demande sur les divers produits connaitrait une croissance soutenue, 5% pour les produits pétroliers, 5,5% pour le gaz naturel ; la consommation d‟électricité connaitra également une croissance soutenue de l‟ordre de 9% entre 2000 et 2020; la demande en termes de biomasse-énergie accusera une croissance beaucoup plus faible, d‟abord de l‟ordre de 0,4% par an en 2010, puis négative (-1% par an) dans la période 20102020.

La Tunisie a aussi ratifié le Protocole de Kyoto en Juin 2002 qui n'inclut aucun engagement de limitation des émissions pour les pays en développement. Par contre, en le ratifiant, la Tunisie peut bénéficier des opportunités de financement provenant du MDP. Les politiques de développement socio-économique sont élaborées dans le cadre des plans quinquennaux de développement. La politique environnementale de la Tunisie, qui a fait l‟objet de ce rapport, est inscrite dans le cadre du onzième plan de développement socio-économique qui s‟étale sur la période 2007-2011, le document intitulé « Onzième plan de développement » élaboré en juin 2007. La politique environnementale de la Tunisie est une politique nationale (Le Ministère de l‟environnement est le responsable de cette politique) dont les axes sont élaborés en étroite collaboration avec tous les départements, ces axes doivent constituer la base de la politique environnementale pour chaque activité économique, La politique environnementale adoptée par la Tunisie est celle qui considère l‟adéquation entre développement économique et social d‟une part et la protection de l'environnement d‟autre part, elle est admise comme une constante de l‟action de développement intégré et durable. En effet, la politique volontariste de protection de l‟environnement en Tunisie, depuis plusieurs décennies, intègre l‟ensemble des activités de développement du pays, aux plans sectoriels et territorial (assainissement urbain, embellissement des villes, conservation des eaux et des sols, sauvegarde des ressources naturelles et de la biodiversité, maîtrise de l‟énergie, gestion des déchets solides, ….). Les encouragements des approches sectorielles de mise de l'environnement au service du développement sont intégrés dans les plans quinquennaux de développement économique et social ème ème ème (IX , X et XI -1997-2011- plans). Concernant les mesures d‟atténuation des GES, la stratégie vise la limitation de l‟émission des GES dans l‟atmosphère, l‟identification et le contrôle des secteurs de l‟économie émetteurs de GES, des inventaires réguliers des émissions polluantes et le développement d‟une gestion équilibrée et un suivi régulier de la qualité de l‟air. Pour se protéger contre les impacts négatifs du changement climatique, la Tunise a adopté une approche se basant sur : • • • • •

Une bonne collabration entre toutes les structures avec les organisations internationales en relation avec les changements climatiques, La contribution à l‟effort internationale pour faire face au changement climatique dans le cadre des conventions et protocoles onusiens, Renforcement du cadre instiututionnel pour maitriser les imapcts des changements climatiques, en profitant du mécanisme du développement propre, Intégrer la composante changement climatique dans les stratégies sectorielles de développament et l‟élaboration des plans d‟actions pour le renforcement de l‟adaptation des écosystèmes naturelles et des secteurs économiques, L‟utilisation des moyens nationaux pour réduire les émissions des GES et en même temps faire en profiter le pays de ce que pourrait offrir le mécanisme de développement propre.

IV. Arrangements institutionnels La ratification de la CCNUCC par la Tunisie a été suivi par la création d‟un dispositif pour l‟application et le suivi de la convention et du protocole de kyoto. A la faveur de ce dispositif, on a mis en place :

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•

Le point focal national des changements climatiques : il relève du Ministère de l‟Environnement et du Développement Durable et a pour mission de coordonner, collecter et diffuser l‟information auprès du secrétariat de la convention et de la COP, et de représenter la Tunisie dans les négociations internationales et régionales. Selon la convention Internationale, le point focale national doit être une organisation active en matière de mise en œuvre de la convention. Le Centre d‟information sur l‟energie durable et l‟environnement : il a été crée en 2001 au sein de l‟ANME (Agence Nationale de Maitrise de l‟Energie sous tuelle du Ministère de l‟Industrie et de la Technologie). Il a pour mission de mettre en œuvre l‟article 6 de la convention relatif à la sensibilisation, la formation, l‟éducation et l‟informlation dans le domaine des changements climatiques. La Commission Nationale des Changements Climatiques (CNCC) : Créée en 2001, sa mission est d‟assurer la coordination et la concertation de la position des différents acteurs concernés par les changements climatiques en Tunisie, en vue de formuler la position antionale qui sera défendue lors de négociations internationales. L‟Autorité Nationale Désignée (AND), appelée Bureau National pour le MDP (Mécanisme pour le Développement Propre) créée en décembre 2004 au sein du MEDD et formée des représentants des parties concernées par le MDP et par les changements climatiques, elle a pour mission : - Suivre le processus des projets proposés pour bénéficier du MDP - Evaluer le degré de réponse des projets proposés aux conditions du MDP et notamment aux objectifs de développement durable, - Coordonner avec les parties extérieurs et notamment le conseil exécutif du MDP dans le cadre de la COP, - Coordonner avec lesautres parties nationales la préparation des requêtes de financement dans lecadre du MDP, - Assurer lesuivi des requêtes et en informer les parties concernées de la suite accordée aux projets. La Commission Nationale du Développement Durable (CNDD) a été créée en Tunisie, à l'initiative du Président de la République (11 octobre 1993). La CNDD complète le cadre institutionnel mis en place depuis 1988 pour la protection de l'environnement et la mise en œuvre de la stratégie de développement durable. La CNDD agit pour le réajustement des programmes de développement nationaux et leur harmonisation dans l'objectif du développement durable : - Elaboration et mise en œuvre d‟une stratégie et d‟un plan d'action national pour le développement durable ; - Préserver les droits des générations futures à un environnement saint et viable ; - Mettre un terme aux modes de production et de consommation non rationnels sur le plan écologique - Proposer les mesures réglementaires appropriées pour endiguer la pollution; - Renforcer les structures institutionnelles et les procédures assurant la pleine intégration des questions d'environnement et de développement à tous les niveaux, - Favoriser la participation des groupes, des collectivités locales, des organismes et particuliers intéressés au processus décisionnel, aux niveaux local, régional et national, - Elaborer un système de comptabilité écologique fondé sur l'utilisation de nouveaux indicateurs du développement, - Evaluation périodique des réalisations en matière de changements climatiques et identification des orientations dans le cadre de l‟exécution de la CCNUCC

Le Ministère de l‟Environnement et du Développement Durable est chargé de mettre en œuvre la politique de l‟Etat en matière de protection de l‟environnement et la rationalisation de l‟exploitation des ressources naturelles. Pour ce fait, il est le premier mandaté de la question des changements climatiques tout en associant les autres départements, avec leurs institutions sous-tutelles, en relation avec le sujet. Les principaux acteurs travaillant sur la question des changements climatiques à coté du MEDD sont : -

Le Ministère de l‟Agriculture, des Ressources Hydrauliques et de la Pêche, Le Ministère de l‟Industrie et de la Technologie, Le Ministère du Commerce et de l‟Artisanat, Le Ministère de l‟Intérieur et du Développement Local Le Ministère des Affaires Etrangères 187

Le Ministère du Transport Le Ministère du Développement et de la Coopération Internationale, Le Ministère des Finances Le Centre International de la Technologie de l‟Environnement de Tunis…. (le CITET sous-tutelle du MEDD) L‟Agence Nationale de la Maitrisde de l‟Energie (sous-tutelle du MIT),

V. Connaissances techniques En matière d‟études relatives aux changements climatiques, le MEDD, et en collaboration avec les ministères concernés, a procédé à la réalisation d‟un ensemble d‟études stratégiques en vue d‟évaluer les effets potentiels des changements climatiques et l‟élaboration de stratégies et de plans d‟actions sectoriels pour le court, le moyen et le long terme. Les principales études stratégiques réalisées ou en cours de réalisation sont : Stratégie nationale d‟adaptation de l‟agriculture tunisienne et des écosystèmes aux changements climatiques, • Identification des effets socio-économiques et environnementaux de l‟élévation potentielle du niveau de la mer sous l‟effet des changements climatiques et conception d‟une stratégie et d‟un plan d‟action pour l‟adaptation du littoral à ce phénomène, • L‟adaptation du secteur de la santé en Tunisie aux changements climatiques • Identification des éventuels effets environnementaux et économiques des changements climatiques sur les activités touristiques en Tunisie, et préparation d‟une stratégie et d‟un plan d‟action pour l‟adaptation du secteur aux changements climatiques • Etudes de la sensibilité des écosystèmes naturels tunisiens, dont les foreêts et les parcours, face aux changements climatiques, • Etude sur le cadre législatif et réglementaire en relation avec lamise en œuvre du MDP en Tunisie, • Préparation d‟un portefeuille de projets nationaux d‟adaptation aux changements climatiques • Elaboration d‟une stratégie nationale d‟adaptation aux changements climatiques en se basant sur les études sectorielles déjà réalisées Concenrant les projets en relation avec les changements climatiques on peut citer : •

• L‟instauration d‟un projet système maghrébin d‟alerte précoce à la sécheresse Le changement climatique est un domaine récent en matière de politique environnementale, il est évident que la mise en œuvre de la CCNUCC reste confrontée à certaines contraintes telle que : La faible capacité nationale d‟expertise et d‟étude en matière de diagnostic, d‟ingéneirie de la conception et de programmes d‟intervention dans lesdifférents domaines liés aux changements climatique, - Le manque d‟ONGs opérant dans le domaine de l‟environnement et du développement durable, spécialisées dans les domaines relatifs aux changements climatiques, - La faiblesse de réalisation des programmes de formation, d‟apprentissage et de développement des compétences dans ledomainedes changements climatiques, Certaines mesures d‟adptation aux changements climatiques ont été diffusées auprès des agriculteurs à travers des circuits autre que le circuit public (la vulgarisation) tel que la société civile, on peut citer l‟exemple de l‟Association Pour l‟Agriculture Durable « APAD » qui groupe un certains nombre d‟agriculteurs tunisiens qui partagent et échangent leurs expériences en matières de semis direct et plus généralement de l‟agriculture de conservation ou l‟agriculture durable, constituant ainsi un bon exemple d‟adaptation aux changements climatiques et d‟atténuation des effets des GES. -

En effet, les pratiques culturales conventionnelles peuvent avoir des effets négatifs non seulement sur les rendements mais aussi peuvent constituer une menace pour l‟environnement. Ces pratiques sont de plus en plus considérées comme responsables de la dégradation des ressources naturelles (érosion, perte de fertilité du sol, pollution des nappes, effet de serre additionnel ..). A ces contraintes s‟ajoute celui de l‟eau qui est un facteur vital pour l‟humanité. Devant ces contraintes majeures qui menacent même la viabilité des exploitations agricoles surtout celles qui se trouvent dans des zones arides et accidentées, et dans un contexte de changements 188

climatique qui ne pourrait qu‟aggraver cette situation, des agriculteurs tunisiens ont adopté la technique du semis direct ou encore l‟agriculture de conservation. Les agriculteurs des zones arides sont toujours exposés aux aléas climatiques qui auront comme impact : l‟instabilité voir même la baisse des rendements dû à une perte de fertilité des sols à cause de l‟érosion, et un manque de bilan en eau voir même la détérioration de la qualité physique du sol. Depuis plusieurs années, de nouveaux systèmes de cultures sont mis en œuvre qui cherche à répondre à ce défi à travers des pratiques dites conservatrices comme le semis direct, les techniques culturales simplifiées, l’agriculture raisonnée, sans oublier l’agriculture biologique qui obéît à un cadre réglementaire spécifique. Toutes ces activités s‟intègrent dans ce qu‟on appelle « l‟Agriculture Durable ». Ces systèmes de cultures induisent une modification des successions de cultures, de la gestion des résidus de cultures, de la fréquence des façons aratoires et des apports d‟amendements organiques permettant ainsi une amélioration de la gestion de la matière organique dans le sol. En effet, la fraction organique du sol a depuis longtemps été identifiée comme une composante majeure dans le maintien des fonctions clés du sol. Ainsi, les matières organiques sont le moteur de l‟activité biologique puisqu‟elles constituent la source de carbone et d‟énergie pour les organismes hétérotrophes. Plus récemment, des fonctions environnementales sont attribuées aux matières organiques comme la lutte contre l’effet de serre additionnel en séquestrant le carbone dans les sols. L‟Agence Française de Développement (AFD) et le Fond Français pour l‟Environnement (FEEM) soutiennent, techniquement et financièrement, depuis une dizaine d‟années la dynamique du développement de l‟agriculture de conservation en Tunisie, (institution publique de développement et de recherche) et l‟association pour l‟agriculture durable (APAD qui est une association d‟agriculteurs tunisiens qui s‟engagent à apporter aux agriculteurs une réponse chez eux et avec eux en vue d‟améliorer la circulation de l‟information et du conseil technique, de sensibiliser les agriculteurs du danger de la dégradation des sols, de la désertifications et au réchauffement climatique). VI. Liste de projets/activités récents sur les changements climatiques 1. Agriculture L‟étude de l‟adaptation de l‟agriculture tunisienne aux changements climatiques est la première étude sectorielle réalisée en Tunisie dans le domaine des CC, elle a aboutit à l‟identification d‟une stratégie et d‟un plan d‟action à court et à moyen terme. En matière de recherche-développement, les changements climatiques ont constitué un cadre important, et ce à travers des programmes de recherche qui ont concerné : •

L‟intégration de l‟étage bioclimatique et son évolution et ses spécificités dans les programmes de recherche agricole qui ont été orientés vers l‟identification des besoins régionaux basés essentiellement sur les paramètres climatiques, dans ce cadre les structures de recherche ont développé un certain nombre de programme qui ont porté sur : - Inventaire et description des ressources génétiques nationales (animales et végétales) afin qu‟elles participent à la consolidation des recherches nationales visant à concevoir des génotypes s‟adaptant mieux à la rareté des eaux, à la salinité du sol, et résistantes aux maladies. - Sélection des espèces végétales adaptées aux conditions climatiques, ex : variété de blé dur « Nasr » qui s‟adapte avec l‟étage bioclimatique sub-humide (Nord de la Tunisie‟), variétés de blé tendre « Hidra » et de luzerne « Massouj » qui s‟adaptent avec l‟étage bioclimatique semi aride. Sélection de variétés d‟olives à irriguer et résistants à la sécheresse…, Identification de paquets technologiques des produits agricoles (animale et végétale) adaptés aux conditions naturelles et aux systèmes de production, - Création d‟un Observatoire des régions arides qui est un réseau formé de 6 stations locales, chaque station contient une station d‟observation des paramètres climatiques, et le MARHP veille à la généralisation de ce programme. - Intégration des changements climatiques, comme axe principal, dans la deuxième stratégie décennale relative à la recherche scientifique agricole, et la création d‟un comité de programmation et d‟évaluation chargé de cet axe (décret N° 1318 de l‟année 2010, 31 mai 2010), la composition de ce comité a été formulé et elle va travailler pour l‟identification des programmes de recherche future relatifs à cet axe. 189

2. Ressources en eau et irrigation Grâce à sa politique ambitieuse et clairvoyante en matière de mobilisation et d‟exploitation des ressources en eau, la Tunisie a réussi gérer ses ressources afin de satisfaire toutes les demandes en eau même pendant les périodes de déficit en eau qui sont prépondérantes dans un climat aride et semi aride. Avec des ressources qui atteindront leur limite de mobilisation, et dans un cadre de changement climatique, la pression sur la demande en eau va augmenter ce qui nécessitera une autre vision basée essentiellement sur la gestion de la demande. L‟étude stratégie d‟adaptation de l‟agriculture tunisienne et des écosystèmes aux changements climatiques a apprécié la politique menée par la Tunisie en matière de mobilisation et d‟exploitation des ressources en eau tout en recommandant les orientations suivantes : Poursuivre le programme de gestion de l‟eau – qui va dans la bonne direction – par écosystème toutefois, plutôt que par bassin versant – de manière à tenir compte des bénéfices des services environnementaux de ces derniers, - S‟engager à appliquer rigoureusement le Code des eaux dans le dessein particulier de protéger les ressources souterraines et d‟en actionner la clause de nécessité face aux changements climatiques, c'est-à-dire introduire une législation spécifique aux changements climatiques dans le code des eaux qui régie la gestion des ressources en eau, surtout la gestion durant les périodes de pénurie (sécheresse). En matière d‟études, des études sur les perspectives du secteur de l‟eau à l‟horizon 2050 vont être réalisées, afin d‟aboutir à une straatégie complète et globale jusqu‟à cet horizon, tout en mettant l‟accent sur les aspects quantitatifs, qualitatifs, économiques, technologiques et recherche scientifiques, tout cela doit être étudié dans le cadre des changements climatiques. -

Il s‟agit de mettre à jour les analyses prospectives dans le domaine de l‟eau en tenant compte des impacts attendus des changements climatiques. Le projet aura ainsi comme objectif de mettre à jour le niveau des ressources disponibles et dresser des scénarios d‟évolution des usages selon les différentes projections des besoins des secteurs de l‟économie. Cela devrait aboutir à des outils d‟aide à la décision en matière d‟arbitrage entre les usagers de la ressource. Dans le domaine de la recherche-développement, et pour faire face aux changements climatiques prévisibles, une initiative tunisienne en matière d‟économie d‟eau d‟irrigation a été développée par l‟Institut des Régions Arides de Medenine (IRA) (région du Sud Est tunisien) intitulée « utilisation du diffuseur enterré pour l‟économie d‟eau d‟irrigation et l‟injection des eaux (non utilisées) des sources et des ouvrages de petite, de moyenne et de grande hydraulique ». Cette technique est inventé par un chercheur de l‟IRA et a fait l‟objet de plusieurs essaies chez des agriculteurs et a donné des résultats plus que satisfaisants, donnant une productivité par mètre cube d‟eau utilisée trois fois supérieur à celle de la technique du goutte à goutte. Il est à signalé que l‟inventeur de cette technique a reçu le prix l‟ UNESCO de l‟eau en 2009. Dans le domaine de l‟utilisation des eaux non conventionnelles dans l‟agriculture, un projet intégré relatif à l‟utilisation des eaux usées traitées et la rationalisation de la gestion des ressources naturelles est en cours de réalisation, et ayant pour objectifs : -

La concrétisation des objectifs du plan d‟action relatif à la maitrise de la pollution marine d‟origine terrestre méditerranée (PAS MED) La maîtrise de l‟utilisation des ressources en eau en particulier les eaux usées traitées dans le secteur agroicole, Limiter les effets de la dégradation des sols et des changements climatiques sur la productivité du secteur agricole dans les zones arides.

3. Pêche et aquaculture : Concernant le secteur de la pêche, un projet de protection des ressources marines dans le golf de Gabès (région du Sud Est tunisien) en cours de réalisation, il permettra d‟évaluer les effets des changements climatiques et des activités économiques, particulièrement les activités industrielles et de la pêche, sur les ressources naturelles dans le golf de Gabès, il vise aussi à préparer une stratégie de gestion durable de la biodiversité à travers la réalisation de projets pilotes pour l‟installation de récifs artificiels et la proposition d‟activités économiques, environnementales et touristiques pour la valorisation de la biodiversité dans legolf de Gabès. •

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•

Production et protection des cultures 4. Sécurité alimentaire La crise alimentaire de 2007-2008 était en partie liée à des baisse de la production dans de grands pays exportateur sous l‟effet d‟altération des conditions climatiques (sécheresse en Australie, inondation en Asie du Sud Est, et.). Cette situation est donc susceptible de se répéter voire même de s‟aggraver sous l‟effet des changements climatiques. Les études faites en Tunisie sur l‟adaptation au CC n‟ont pas pris en considération les implications du CC sur la production agricole mondiale et donc sur la disponibilité des produits alimentaire sur le marché international. Or la Tunisie a fait toujours du recours au marché international qui est l‟un des principaux instruments de la sécurité alimentaire. Les CC prévisibles devraient d‟une part avoir des impacts négatifs sur l‟activité agricole nationale, mais aussi sur certains pays exportateurs de denrées alimentaires de base (blé, riz…), cette situation peut engendrer la perturbation des marchés internationaux de ces produits avec une flambé des prix affectant ainsi la sécurité alimentaire nationale si des mesures ne seront pas prises dans l‟immédiat. Pour relever ce défi, la Tunisie a élaboré à la fin de l‟année 2007 une stratégie à court terme ayant pour objectifs : -

La production de 27 Mqx de céréale en 2014 contre 19 Mqx comme moyenne réalisée au cours du dixième plan (2002-2006), La réalisation de l‟autosuffisance en blé dur avec un objectif de production de15 Mqx L‟augmentation des rendements de q/ha à 20 q/ha en 2014 L‟extension des superficies irriguées réservées aux céréales pour atteindre 120 milles ha avec un rendement moyen de 50 q/ha Développement de la production et l‟utilisation des semences sélectionnées afin d‟atteindre 500 000 qx en 2014 qui permettra la couverture de 31% de la superficie emblavée, Développement du taux de collecte à 60% du volume de la production

Pour atteindre ces objectifs, les mesures mises en place sont : -

L‟intensification des programmes de recherche relatifs la sélection de nouvelles variétés à haute production et résistantes aux maladies, L‟intensification des programmes de vulgarisation et de formation adressés aux agriculteurs afin d‟améliorer la rentabilité des céréales, L‟amélioration de l‟utilisation des engrais chimiques et des pesticides par les agriculteurs, L‟incitation des agriculteurs par l‟intermédiaire des prix à la production

VII. Opportunités de financement La mobilisation et la protection des ressources naturelles est une composante essentielle de la politique de l‟état, ceci se traduit par l‟importance des investissements publics alloué à ce secteur. En effet, plus de 60% (64% en 2011) des investissements publics dans le secteur agricoles sont alloués à la mobilisation et à l‟exploitation des ressources en eau, au développement du secteur forestier (boisement et reboisement et amélioration des parcours…), et à la conservation des eaux et du sol. Des stratégies à moyen et à long terme dans le domaine de la protection des ressources naturelles et plus particulièrement les ressources en eau, la réhabilitation des terres dégradées, le reboisement forestier et pastoral, sont élaborées et bénéficiées d‟un effort important par les instances publiques en matière de recherche de financement internationaux. Concernant le niveau d‟investissement par le secteur privé dans les mesures d‟adaptation aux CC, et mis à part le programme d‟économie d‟eau dans le secteur agricole, il est difficile de cerner le volume d‟investissement alloué à cette activité par manque d‟information. En matière de coopération bilatérale et multilatérale finançant les travaux sur les changements climatiques ont peut citer : -

Le projet « Appui à la mise en œuvre de la Convention Cadre de Nations Unies sur les Changements Climatiques » hébergé au Ministère de l‟Environnement et du Développement Durable, avec l‟appui de la Coopération Allemande (GTZ),

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Niveau de connaissance au sein du pays sur : 1) 2)

les mécanismes de financements des CC, tels que, le Mécanisme pour un Développement «Propre - MDP (Clean Development Mechanism – CDM), Fonds pour l‟Environnement Mondial - FEM (Global Environment Facility - GEF), le programme de de la protection des ressources naturelle de Siliana d‟un coût de 30 MD dont 5 MD provenant du FEM, l‟objectif du projet est de mettre en place un système de gestion durable des terres et de la biodiversité de larégion de Siliana, de créer un parc national à Djebel Esserrej et en valoriser le patrimoine naturel et biologique, évaluer l‟efficacité du secteur agricole de la région et créer une système de suivi-évaluation de la qualité des sols dans la région de Siliana Les fonds de carbone gérés par la Banque Mondiale; la Tunisie a bénéficié du soutien de ce fond dans le cadre des 2 projets (MDP) relatifs à la collecte et brûlage par torchère du méthane produit dans la décharge contrôlée de Djebel Chakir et dans 9 autres décharges contrôlées réparties surtout le territoire les nouveaux mécanismes, tel que Réduction des Emissions à partir de la Déforestation et la Dégradation des forêts – REDD (Reduction of Emissions from Deforestation and forest Degradation - REDD).

VIII. Conclusions/Recommandations En effet, plusieurs études sectorielles dans le domaine des changements climatiques (agriculture et écosystème, santé, tourisme..) ont été réalisées et ont aboutit à l‟identification de stratégies et de plans d‟actions. Actuellement le Ministère de l‟Environnement et du Développement Durable, et en collaboration avec les différents départements concernés, est entrain de réaliser une étude synthétisant tous les travaux qui ont été faits afin d‟identifier une stratgégie nationale d‟adptaion aux changements climatiques. En matière d‟atténuation, et dans le cadre de la mise en œuvre du Protocole de Kyoto, plusieurs activités ont été menées visant la mise en place des conditions favorables à l‟exploitation du potentiel d‟atténuation des émissions de GES et le développement de projets dans le cadre du Mécanisme de Développement Propre (MDP). A ce titre, une stratégie nationale visant à accélérer le processus MDP et à se positionner sur le marché international de carbone a été élaborée en 2005. La mise en œuvre de cette stratégie est appuyée par plusieurs programmes et projets qui visent le renforcement des capacités nationales et le développement rapide de projets MDP dans tous les secteurs concernés, notamment les domaines de maîtrise de l'énergie, de promotion des énergies renouvelables, de gestion des déchets, du transport, des procédés industriels et du boisement/reboisement. En matière d‟efforts réalisés dans le domaine de l‟atténuation des GES, une quarantaine de projets ont été évalués par l‟AND dont 2 seulement ont été enregistrés auprès du Conseil exécutif de la convention et concerne le domaine des déchets solides. Le MEDD a aussi réalisé une étude sur le portefeuille des projets MDP en Tunisie et qui a été destinée à une plus grande diffusion aussi bien au niveau national, qu‟auprès des opérateurs internationaux. Toutefois et malgrés les efforts développés dans le domaine des changements climatiques, certains aspects nécessitent un renforcement tel que : •

Le renforcement des capacités : - En matière d‟ingénierie - En matière de vulnérabilité et d‟adaptation des techniciens dans les différents secteurs public, privé et associatif. Les besoins qui se font sentir concernent les domaines suivants :

la vulnérabilité du littoral suite à l‟élévation de la mer,

le suivi de la gestion des ressources en eau, et

les systèmes d‟alerte précoce relatifs à desphénomènes climatiques extrêmes

Du secteur privé afin de créer des compétences nationales capables d‟assurer l‟accumulation nécessaires des connaissances en matière de changements 192

climatiques et à se positionner comme partenaires privilégiés des institutions privées étrangères. • •

La promotion du Mécanisme du Développement Propre et surtout comment impliquer davantage le secteur privé dans ce processus afin d‟acquérir les compétences nécessaires en vue d‟une participation efficace à toutes les étapes du cycle de projets en Tunisie Le renforcement des structures responsables des changements climatiques tel que : - Le point focal de CCNUCC -

L‟Autorité Nationale Désignée (AND)

Liste des abréviations PIB :

Produit Intérieur Brut

MEDD :

Ministère de l‟Environnement et du Développement Durable

ONGs :

Organisation Non Gouvernementale

CC :

Changement climatique

COP :

Conférence des parties

CCNUCC :

Convention Cadre des Nations Unies sur les Changements Climatiques

GES :

Gaz à Effets de Serre

CNCC :

La Commission Nationale des Changements Climatiques

ANME :

Agence Nationale de Maitrise de l‟Energie

AND :

Autorité Nationale Désignée

MDP :

Mécanismepour le Développement Proprre

CNDD :

La Commission Nationale du Développement Durable

Mqx :

Million de quintaux

Qx :

Quintaux

MD :

Million de Dinars

GTZ :

Agence de Coopération Allemande

UTCATF :

Utilisation des Terres, Changement d‟Affectation des Terres et Forêts

MTE-CO2 :

Millions de tonnes Equivalent CO2

NB. Il est à signaler qu‟après le 14 Janvier 2014, plusieurs départements ont changé de nom, le Ministère de l‟Agriculture des Ressources Hydrauliques et de la Pêche et le Ministère de l‟Environnement et du Développement Durable ont été fusionné sous le nom du « Ministère de l‟Agriculture et de l‟Environnement »

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