Pasts, Portraits & Paints: Five Centuries of Artists & Their Materials by

Pasts Portraits & Paints : ,

Five centuries of Artists & Their Materials

Rubens Kahlo

8 1638

1944

Van

Gogh

Maia

Kadaneff

2021

Table

contents page

1 2

5 6

8 9

Artists (1) Artists L2) Artists (37

17 18

History

Artists

(2) (3)

Prehistory Antiquity Medieval

(4)

Sixteenth

(5)

Seventeenth

Age

century

Caravaggio

century

Rubens

( )

Van

Gogh

(8)

Kahlo

10 II

solvents

(6)

solvents

(7)

Eighteenth century Nineteenth

Geiricault

of pigments and

Poussin

of pigments and (5) Goya of pigments and

Artists

History

Artists

(1)

Artists (4) Rembrandt

12 13

History of pigments and solvents History of pigments and solvents History of pigments and solvents History of pigments and solvents History of pigments and solvents

Introduction

General scientific reactions

Century

17 20 21

solvents

(8)

Twentieth

Century

23 24

Conclusion

References

Introduction

Human beings constantly encounter new experiences which impact their convictions, their emotions, and their sense of self. In order to make sense of their ever-changing circumstances, humans express themselves through various creative means in an attempt to connect with others when words are not sufficient to communicate their complex feelings. Painting is a versatile medium that allows the artist to express themselves as explicitly or subtly as they would like without conforming to specific restrictions. The progression of materials available to express ourselves emphasizes our need for self-expression. This ebook explores how scientific advancements and chemical processes have improved artists’ abilities to express their values, vulnerabilities, emotions, religious and political convictions, and creativity, focusing on the sixteenth to twentieth centuries. Finally, I recreated three of the portraits in order to show the versatility of digital art which many artists use today. This demonstrates how seemingly minor differences can affect the perception of art and emphasize the timelessness of original works. -

General

Scientific

Reactions

When paints are applied to a canvas, they begin to dry and certain reactions occur between the pigments and solvents. These include oxidation, cross-linking, and hydrolysis. Oxidation: loss of electrons/Hydrogen atoms Cross linking: covalent bonds or chemical bonds form between polymer chains. Hydrolysis: polymers are broken down and a water molecule is released. (Sutherland, 2003) The composition of the paints and environmental conditions such as light, temp, relative humidity, and the presence of pollutants can affect the drying process, and explain surface texture, opacity, depth of tone of a paint layer that may or may not be intended by the artist. (Centeno & Mahon, 2009) Sometimes, metal soaps can form with fatty acids and heavy metals from different layers of paint. These can appear as foggy or crystalline white substances and can draw elements of the paint elsewhere from where they were applied which can create transparent layers and increase contrast in areas of paint. These have been observed in paintings from the fifteenth to the twentieth century. (Centeno & Mahon, 2009)

History since

pigments

and solvents

Prehistory

Art has been created since prehistory (3.3 million years ago), and the pigments used then were created by simply grinding raw or burnt materials into a powder. These pigments are still in use today. These pigments are carbon black, bone black, umber, red ochre, yellow ochre and lime white.

Umber (iron(III)-oxide, partly hydrated + manganese oxide + aluminium oxide) is a natural mixture from the earth. Grinding and washing the coloured earth leaves a mixture of minerals. The red colour results from the iron and manganese oxides and hydroxides. Burnt umber (anhydrous iron(III)-oxide) is made by roasting ochre. The brown-red colour darkened due to a loss of water. Yellow ochre (iron oxyhydroxide) is made from natural clay earth containing an iron oxide mineral, goethite. Carbon black (amorphous carbon) was created either by charring wood. Bone black (calcium phosphate + calcium carbonate +carbon) was created by charring bone or ivory. Lime white (calcium carbonate or calcium carbonate + calcium hydroxide) is derived from limestone, a rock composed of fossil remains of unicellular algae. The limestone is grounded and washed to produce a powdered white pigment. (Douma, 2008)

Since

Antiquity

In antiquity, the first paints were created and the variety of pigments expanded with blues and greens. Some of the pigments that emerged during this time, and later, are no longer in use for various reasons, including toxic components, unethical processes, and better alternatives. At this time, certain pigments called lakes emerge. Lakes are dyes that have become insoluble after interacting with a metal compound. (Encyclopædia Britannica, n. d.) The pigments which emerged during this time and remained in use until the sixteenth century are madder lake, carmine lake, realgar, malachite, orpiment, indigo, azurite, red lead, vermillion, green earth, verdigris, and lead white. (Douma, 2008), (Black, 2020) In some reactions, precipitation is used. Precipitation: formation of a solid through the combination of liquid solutes and solvents in a solution.

Antiquity

: : O

cont

Madder lake is derived from the roots of the plants alizarin (1,2dihydroxyanthraquinone) or purpurin (1,2,4-trihydroxyanthraquinone). The roots are dried, crushed, and hulled. Then they are boiled in weak acid in order to dissolve the dye. They are then fermented to hydrolyze anthraquinones from the glycosides. The extracted dye is transformed into a pigment by being dissolved in hot alum (aluminum potassium sulphate; AlK(SO4)2 · 12 H2O) solution. Finally, the pigment is precipitated with soda or borax. Carmine lake is made of two species of scale insects, cochineal (carminic acid) and kermes (kermesic acid). The insect material is extracted with hot water and reacted with sulfuric acid. The red pigment is a result of the precipitation of the hot extract with an alum solution. Orpiment (arsenic sulfide) is created when the mineral orpiment is heated with sulfur, allowing a more pure orpiment to vaporize. This pigment went out of use in the nineteenth century. Indigo (2,2'-biindolinyliden-3,3'-dion) dye is derived from plants, the most typical being woad. The freshly cut plants are soaked, then packed into vats, and fermented. The resulting substance is dried and grounded. Azurite (basic copper(II)-carbonate) was created by grinding, washing and sieving mineral azurite. More coarsely grounded the azurite created darker pigment. Artists stopped using this pigment in the eighteenth century. Red lead (lead(II,IV)-oxide) is produced by heating litharge (PbO) in air or oxidizing atomized molten lead at high temperatures. This pigment went out of use in the nineteenth century. Vermillion (mercuric sulfide) was created by crushing, and purifying the mineral by washing and heating. Artists stopped using this pigment in the nineteenth century. Green earth (complex aluminosilicate minerals) was created by grinding the natural material glauconite and celadonite. Different percentages of the minerals produce colors varying from “cold bluish greens to warmer yellow and olive hues.” Verdigris (basic copper acetate) was created artificially using the acetic acid by-product of winemaking. The acetic acid from winemarc, which was placed on copper plates, reacted colourant, was released by the mangoes the cows were fed. Artists stopped using this pigment in the nineteenth century. Lead white (basic lead(II)-carbonate) was created by making strips of metallic lead react with vinegar (weak acetic acid) and CO2 under heat. After a few months, a white crust is formed on the surface of the lead. This crust is scraped off, dried, and grounded. In the 19th century when its poisonous lead content restricted its manufacture and sale as an artist’s pigment.” (Douma, 2008)

Since

the

Medieval

Age

Near the end of the medieval age, the variety of blue and yellow pigments expanded. Some of these were first used in glassmaking and pottery, and were later adopted in oil painting. Additionally, improved means of sourcing minerals, and mining and production of particular metals along with technological advances in manufacturing increased the possibilities. (Berrie, 2015) These pigments are ultramarine, lead tin yellow, smalt, indian yellow, and copper resinate.

Ultramarine (complex sulfur-containing sodium aluminum silicate) derives from lapis lazuli stone. The stone is grinded, mixed with wax, and kneaded in a dilute lye bath. The crystals wash out and are collected. Alternatively, artificial ultramarine, also known as French ultramarine is made by heating a finely grounded mixture of China clay, soda ash, coal or wood, charcoal, silica and sulfur at red heat for one hour and then allowing it to cool. The mixture is then washed to remove excess sodium sulfate. Finally, it is dried and grounded. (Douma, 2008) Lead-tin yellow was made of two different compounds, lead stannate (Type I), and lead-tin oxide silicate (Type II). Lead, tin, and quartz compounds were fused at about 800° C. The resulting substance was a yellow lead glass pigment that was grounded and sieved. (Douma, 2008) The addition of antimony to lead-tin yellow created deeper yellow pigments. (Berrie, 2015) Artists stopped using this pigment in the eighteenth century. (Douma, 2008) Smalt (potassium glass containing cobalt) is created by roasting cobalt ore. The resulting cobalt oxide is melted with quartz and potash or added to molten glass. It is then poured into cold water. During this step, the blue melt disintegrates into particles, and these are grounded. Then, cobalt, nickel and iron oxides are melted with siliceous sand. (Douma, 2008) Finely grounded smalt had a weaker color intensity so it had to be in much greater concentrations in paint than in glass. Alternatively, artists used larger particles but these were difficult to spread and oil dulled their colour. Therefore, artists sometimes painted a coat of lead white and sprinkled coarse smalt particles over it. Varnishes dulled the colour so they were not applied over smalt. Although smalt is a glass, it is not very stable since its formula does not contain stabilizing ions such as calcium, lead or barium, therefore, works that were once quite blue now look more grey. (Berrie, 2015) Indian yellow (magnesium euxanthate) was made from heated cow urine which was then strained, pressed by hand, and dried. The calcium or magnesium salt of an organic acid, the colourant, was released by the mangoes the cows were fed. Artists stopped using this pigment in the nineteenth century. Copper resinate (copper resinate) was created by boiling turpentine, sometimes waxes, and pieces of verdigris together. It created a viscous, transparent mass which was allowed to dry, and later pulverized. Artists stopped using this pigment in the seventeenth century. (Douma, 2008)

Sixteenth

Century

Developing new blue and yellow pigments was an important progress in the Renaissance and Modern Era. Blue pigments were associated with scientific advancements which were valued. Therefore, artists used them although they were aware that these pigments had short half-lives and they would turn grey within a few decades, and despite them being difficult to use as they could not be grounded finely. (Black, 2020) There were no stable orange pigments before the sixteenth century; Realgar and orpiment which could produce an orange colour reacted with copper compounds. Moreover, these were toxic and foul smelling and were therefore highly unpleasant to use. In the sixteenth century, orange was commonly made by mixing red and yellow pigments. (Berrie, 2015)

: :

Naples yellow (lead(II)-antimonate) is created by calcining a lead compound (oxide, nitrate or lead white) with an antimony compound (oxide, sulfide or potassium antimonate). (Douma, 2008)

Solvents: Mineral oil, also known as naphtha, turpentine, colophony, linseed oil, pine resin, and mastic were used in paints and glazes in the sixteenth century. (Berrie, 2015), (Douma, 2008) Mineral oil, also known as naphtha was used as a diluent to spread paint thinly. This way, translucent oil paints could be used to blend hues, colours or glazes, or make clear varnishes. Some sources which mention scent suggest distillates of balsams or turpentine or essential oils which were often mentioned in treatises on painting were used as well. These would have required tapping trees or grinding seeds, purifying, and refining using filtration or distillation. Other sources include mixing different oils such as pine oil and petroleum or walnut oil, mastic and petroleum, and then heating them. Mineral oil was also used in medicine and the purest sources went there. Strides in method and apparatus for distillation for medicine improved the sourcing for paint. Spirits of turpentine would have been prepared by distilling resin. (Berrie, 2015)

Seventeenth

Century

In the seventeenth century, there were advancements in some pigments that already existed and new pigments were used.

Other cobalt minerals such as erythrite and cobaltite were probably used to produce cobalt as well. Artists stopped using this pigment in the eighteenth century. (Douma, 2008) Van dyck brown (iron(III)-oxide, partly hydrated + manganese oxide partly hydrated + humic acids) is derived from earth compounds such as soil and peat which are composed of 90% organic matter, and small amounts of iron, alumina or silica. These compounds were heated to remove excess moisture, then dried and homogenized. (Douma, 2008) Naples yellow and lead antimony oxides were used in different versions than the previous glassy ones. (Berrie, 2015)

Solvents: A recipe for a copper resinate glaze recommends that it is re-heated before use to make it flow more easily. These also contain a drying oil. This method was no longer used after the seventeenth century. (Douma, 2008)

Baroque period 1600-1750, Rome: characterized by elaborate, detailed, dramatic style.

Caravaggio (1571-1610) The Italian artist Michelangelo Merisi da Caravaggio was often surrounded in chaos. His name was frequently mentioned in police records in Rome and he ran away after supposedly committing manslaughter (Lecture, 2019). After he was pardoned, the crew members on a ship he wanted to take back to Rome believed he was still wanted and would not allow him to board. By the time they realised their error, the ship had sailed away with his baggage. As he chased the ship along the shoreline, a previous wound was 1infected in a swamp and he passed away before making it back to Rome (Lecture, 2019). It seems paradoxical that given the chaos in his life, Caravaggio was able to paint peaceful works. It seems painting could have been an outlet for his strong emotions (Lecture, 2019). Caravaggio earned an income through commissions from a cardinal who loved his work (Lecture, 2019).

Even when his work was commissioned, Caravaggio, like many other artists, inserted himself into some of his works when he could relate to the narrative they portrayed. In David with the Head of Goliath (1609-10) Goliath’s head resembles Caravaggio (Lecture, 2019). In the Story of David and Goliath, the giant was defeated by a faithful man. Caravaggio painted this work while on the run and was questioning his own faith. In this portrait, his teeth are green (Lecture, 2019).

David

with the Head

of Goliath

4609

lo )

In 2010, remains with DNA that matched 40-50% of his relatives', had green teeth, which supports that Goliath was supposed to be himself (Lecture, 2019). This could be explained by lead and other toxins in paints which could have contaminated him because artists often put the tip of their paintbrushes in lips to pinch the tip. These toxins could explain some chaos in his life as well (Lecture, 2019).

The spotlight effect on Caravaggio’s works is called chiaroscuro and his style was replicated by the Caravaggisti until the mid-seventeenth century (Lecture, 2019).

Rubens (1577-1640)

]

As a diplomat, the Flemish artists Peter Paul Rubens travelled a lot which allowed him to see the works of other artists. He often copied the works of other artists he admired while changing certain details in order to modify the effect it had on the observer (Lecture, 2019). For instance, he was in Italy from 1600 to 1608. For example, in his 1612-4 recreation of Caravaggio’s Entombment (1603-4), he made Mary appear older and showed Jesus’ suffering in order to make the scene more realistic (Lecture, 2019).

Caravaggio

Entombment

( 1603-4 )

Rubens

Entombment

( 1612 )

→

His 1638-40 Self-Portrait, which he painted while in Italy, is dark, simple, and honest. He looks old and tired (Lecture, 2019). He wears a glove on right hand covering bent joints from arthritis and holds a sword in his left, a symbol of his diplomat. He did not let his arthritis stop him from painting (Lecture, 2019).

Rubens Self Portrait -

(1638-407

kadanoff Recreation 12021 ) -

Poussin (1594-1665)

The French artist Nicolas Poussin often focused on capturing stoicism in an emotional moment. His art even inspired a Poussiniste movement of neo-stoicism which revived stoicism for a Christian audience (Lecture, 2019), (Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy, n. d.). For example, in St. John on Patmos (1640), he portrays St. John banished on Patmos by those who disagreed with him. He is surrounded by ruins of grand civilizations. The artists wanted to convey that those who banished him will crumble as those civilizations did, and he and Christianity will be glorious (Lecture 2019). Poussin would have seen ruins in his time in Italy which would have allowed him to paint the ruins accurately. St. John is shown stoically as he is writing instead of being outwardly angry about his misfortune (Lecture 2019). St John .

Patmos

( 1640 )

He portrays a stoic death in Death of Germanicus (1628), in which Germanicus is looking to the higher power of the gods and restraining various emotions, while his wife and the women look emotional (Lecture 2019). Death of Germanicus ( 1628 )

Rembrandt (1606-1669)

]

Though he was trained to paint photographically, the Dutch artist, Rembrandt van Rijn, chose to paint impressionistically. This style was characterized by dabs of colour that were not blended together, and only created a cohesive image from afar (Lecture, 2019). Rembrandt also used the impasto technique which consisted of layering paint and creating an illusion of layers. Rembrandt painted several portraits to express himself throughout various circumstances in his life (Lecture, 2019). His first Self-Portrait from 1628-9 is youthful. The impasto technique is visible as he scraped lines in the hair to reveal previous layers and add movement (Lecture, 2019).

Self Portrait (1628-9) -

In his 1640 Self-Portrait, he looks well off; his clothing is nice and elaborate. By this time he had gotten married to a wealthy woman named Saskia (Lecture, 2019).

Self Portrait ( 1640 ) -

His 1642 Self-Portrait is sombre and emotional. His wife had just died and he was left with a one-year-old son (Lecture, 2019). He became very poor even with his late wife’s money because he did not spend it responsibly. He still had nice clothing but was losing his home (Lecture, 2019). Additionally, his late wife’s family threatened to hold money from him if he remarried so he lived a woman named Hendrickje under common law later. His frustration over his circumstances caused him a lot of stress which can be seen in his expression (Lecture, 2019).

Self Portrait -

4642 )

( 1669 )

His 1669 Self-Portrait focuses on his face. His forehead is less creased and he looks more relaxed, though he looks older than his age (63). By this time, he has gained a fuller perspective on his life (Lecture, 2019).

Rembrandt cont.

Aristotle with

Rembrandt also inserted his own convictions into some of his work. In 1653, he was commissioned to paint a philosopher and chose to paint Aristotle with a Bust of Homer (Lecture, 2019). Aristotle represents knowledge and Homer was inspiring as he was remembered although he was poor and blind. Moreover, Aristotle is wearing a pendant with an image of Alexander; a disappointing student who made Aristotle question his teaching abilities (Lecture, 2019). It seems Rembrandt would have chosen these subjects because he was doubting his own future legacy (Lecture, 2019). The Three Crosses

Best

of Homer

(1653)

•

Second State

(16537

Around this time, it was popular for elites to commission art from mythological and religious stories. However, Rembrandt often chose unusual stories to depict (Lecture, 2019). His etching of The Three Crosses, Second State, (1653) depicts Longinus’ conversion, implying that he believed it is never too late to find faith (Lecture, 2019). The

Anatomy

Nicholas

Twp

Lesson ( 1632 )

Dr .

Rembrandt was also known for depicting his subjects honestly. He gained recognition for The Anatomy Lesson of Dr. Nicholas Tulp (1632) which depicts students actively involved, learning and engaged (Lecture, 2019). Egbert Lesson Anatomy 4619 )

1086

Comparingly, Keyser’s similar work, Dr. Egberts' Lesson on Anatomy (1619), is more posed and the students look overly confident, which is more comforting to the public, but less realistic (Lecture, 2019). The Nightwatch 4642)

Rembrandt’s most famous work is The Nightwatch (1642). Similarly, it is more realistic than other works with the same subject (Lecture, 2019). As this is a militia and not a group of professionals or volunteers, Rembrandt shows that these people do not know what they are doing (Lecture, 2019).

Eighteenth

Century

In the eighteenth century, Prussian blue and cobalt green were created. (Douma, 2008)

Prussian blue (iron(III)-hexacyanoferrate(II)) is created by the precipitation from a solution of potassium ferrocyanide by a saturated solution of iron(III)-chloride. The pigment is created by the combination of the ferric ion (from the chloride) and ferrocyanide have to be in different oxidation states (ferric vs ferrous). Cobalt green (cobalt(II)-oxide-zinc(II)-oxide) is created by calcining cobalt(II)-chloride and zinc(II)-oxide at medium temperatures. (Douma, 2008)

•

Rococo period 1730-1780, France: characterized by decorative, elaborate style following Baroque. Romanticism 1780-1850, Europe: characterized by showing strong emotions.

Goya (1747-1828)

Crusifixion (

1780)

Fransisco Goya was a Spanish painter influenced by the French style because The Royal Academy Of Fine Art Of San Fernando in Madrid was based on the French Royal Academy of Painting and Sculpture (Lecture, 2019). Goya first applied to the academy year after year with historical and virtuous works as these were the expected subjects. This was important to him because it would guarantee commissions (Lecture, 2019). After several failed attempts he began working for artist Fransisco Bayeu who was close with artist Anton Raphael Mengs who ran the Madrid Academy (Lecture, 2019). He later made it into the academy with Crucifixion (1780). Although his skill is remarkable, it is clear that he was not passionate about the subject as Jesus is standing on a ledge and almost appears to be dancing, therefore, there is a lack of profound seriousness (Lecture, 2019).

By 1793, he had gone completely deaf, and his suffering made him empathetic to others, which is evident in his later work (Lecture, 2019). For example, his Drunken Mason (1786) was commissioned. The Upper class often enjoyed having paintings depicting what seemed like the “simple life” of the lower class (Lecture, 2019). Contastingly, Injured Mason (1786) which is almost identical other than the masons’ sad expressions show the reality and struggle of the lower class (Lecture, 2019).

Goya gained recognition as he created tapestry designs for the Royal Tapestry Factory which was owned by Mengs at the time (Lecture 2019). By 1788, he was established and painted several royal family portraits. Additionally, had been allowed to insert himself in the background for further recognition (Lecture, 2019). The Drunken Mason ( 16867

The

Injured

Mason

(1686 )

Goya cont. His later work was considered Romantic. He later published a collection of 80 prints named Los Caprichos (1799) ridiculing and criticizing society (Lecture, 2019). Among others, were What a Sacrifice! (1799), depicting a young attractive daughter marrying an ugly rich man and The Sleep of Reason Produces Monsters (1799) (Lecture, 2019). The

what

sacrifice !

4799)

Later, Goya saw the horrors of the Peninsula war first hand and expressed his sorrow and disgust towards it (Lecture, 2019). His painting Third of May (1808) shows a man risking his life in front of others. The hole in his right palm is reminiscent of Jesus (Lecture, 2019).

sleep of

Reason Produces

Monsters 4799)

•?&g↳ggge

Third

of May 4808 )

Goya cont. He published another collection of 82 prints named Disasters of War (1799). This collection included They Could Still Be of Use (1810-15) which depicts extremely injured soldiers still expected to fight for their country (Lecture, 2019). Why? (1810) depicts a soldier smirking as he strangles another man (Lecture, 2019). They Take Advantage (1810-14) shows soldiers taking whatever they can from corpses (Lecture, 2019).

They

could still

(1810

Be Of Use

why ?

agio)

They

Take

(1810

Advantage -

Later, Goya painted fourteen dark murals in his home, later named the Black Paintings (Lecture, 2019). These demonstrate that his mindset had worsened due to witnessing many atrocities first hand (Lecture, 2019).

For example, Two Old Men Eating (1819-23) is dark and impressionist. The subjects almost look demonic (Lecture, 2019).

Two

Old Men

Eating

(1819-23)

Another Black Painting, Fight With Cudgels (1820-3), depicts two men stuck in the ground fighting each other. It seems they cannot escape brutality and violence and suggest Goya was scarred from the war (Lecture, 2019).

Fight

with

Cudgels

( 1820

Nineteenth

Century

The first ready-mixed paints were introduced in the late nineteenth century, and ready-made primers were low in pigments to enhance adhesion and reduce cost, and high in oil to increase penetration into the substrate for good binding power. (Alderson 1984) Numerous pigments of various colours emerged in the nineteenth century. (Standeven 2013) These pigments are cobalt blue, chrome orange, emerald green, chrome yellow, cadmium yellow, cadmium red, lemon yellow, zinc white, viridian, cobalt yellow, cobalt violet, cerulean blue, and chrome green. (Douma, 2008), (Alderson 1984)

: : D

: O

Cobalt blue (cobalt(II) oxide-aluminum oxide) is created by homogenizing cobalt(II)chloride (CoCl2 · 6H2O) and aluminum chloride in a mortar and heating the mixture. Chrome orange (basic lead(II)-chromate) is created by the precipitation of solutions of lead salts with alkaline chromate or bichromate solutions at high temperature. Emerald green (copper(II)-acetoarsenite) is created by reacting sodium arsenite with copper(II)-acetate. Artists stopped using this pigment in the nineteenth century. Chrome yellow (lead(II)-chromate) is created by the precipitation of neutral solutions of lead salts with chromate or bichromate solutions. Cadmium yellow (cadmium sulfide (CdS)) is created by the precipitation of a solution of cadmium(II)-nitrate with a solution of sodium sulfide. Lemon yellow (barium chromate or strontium chromate or mixture of lead chromate + lead sulphate) is created by the precipitation of barium chloride solution with a solution of potassium chromate or dichromate. Zinc white (zinc(II)-oxide) was created by using the zinc smoke derived from molten zinc, which was heated to 150°C and collected in a series of chambers. Viridian (chromium(III)-oxide dihydrate) is created by calcining a mixture of boric acid and potassium bichromate and washing the material it forms. Cobalt yellow (potassium cobaltinitrite) is created by reacting cobaltous salts with acetic acid and subsequent mixing with concentrated solution of potassium nitrite. Cobalt violet (cobalt(II)-phosphate or cobalt(II)-arsenate) is created by dissolving cobalt chloride and sodium hydrogen phosphate in deionized water, then pouring the solutions together and filtering off the resulting precipitate. Cerulean blue (cobalt(II)-stannate) is created by mixing cobaltous chloride with potassium stannate, then washing the mixture. Then it is mixed with silica and calcium sulfate and the resulting mixture is heated. (Douma, 2008) Chrome green (ferric ferrocyanide) was created by precipitating Prussian blue on chrome yellow. (Chrome, n. d.)

•

Romanticism 1780-1850, Europe

Géricault (1791-1824)

Théodore Géricault was a French impressionist artist. He was trained in academic style but developed his own style and was sometimes considered undisciplined (Lecture, 2019). Coming from a wealthy family, he could paint what he wanted without worrying about income (Lecture, 2019). His most well-known piece is The Raft of the ‘Medusa’ (1819). This painting was based on a raft that sailed on the sea for fifteen days after a ship hit a sand bank and 150 people were forced to make a raft because there were not enough lifeboats for everyone on board (Lecture, 2019). They had originally attached themselves to one of the lifeboats but eventually it let them go because it was too heavy to go anywhere. By the end of the 15 days only fifteen had survived (Lecture 2019). The incident was on the news but the government took no responsibility for it. One of the survivors, a doctor, sued the government and lost his job (Lecture, 2019). Géricault thought it was important to show the public how horrible the experience had been and he hoped it would put pressure on the government (Lecture, 2019). This is a large, gruesome work. He skillfully depicts despair and suffering and even details waterdrops and nail heads. He carefully planned this piece with several sketches which show how his image evolved (Lecture, 2019).

Raft of

The

Medusa '

(1819 )

•

Impressionism 1860-1890, France: characterized by small, visible brushstrokes and accurate depiction of light. Post-Impressionist 1886-1905, France: characterized by subjective depictions, preferring evoking emotion over realism, following Impressionism.

Van Gogh (1853-1890)

Vincent van Gogh was a Dutch, post-impressionist artist. He originally wanted to be a missionary as his dad was a minister but was dismissed as a missionary because he was not capable of helping others spiritually (Lecture, 2019). He expressed a profound and intense need to paint (Lecture, 2019). He was self-taught and painted as a hobby to express himself, and he connected with other artists in Paris (Lecture, 2019).

One of his most well-known works, Potato-Eaters (1885), depicts country people eating a meal. He meant to show his ability to paint figures, but put more importance onto the mood and the message that they had earned their food honestly for their hard work. This idea explains why the lighting is harsh and dim and the people look frail and dirty (Lecture, 2019).

Potato Eaters

4885 )

His Self-Portrait With Bandaged Ear (1889), depicts him after a moment of intense fear and argumenting with a friend artist, Paul Gaugin. Van Gogh directed his anger towards himself rather than his friend and cut his ear off (Lecture, 2019). Van with

Gogh self Portrait Bandaged Ear ( 1889 ) -

Recreation

kadonoftzjz , ,

Twentieth

Century

During the twentieth century, pre-mixed paints became established. A new red and white pigment were developed. These pigments were cadmium red and titanium white.

Cadmium red (cadmium sulfide (CdS) + cadmium selenide (CdSe)) is created by the precipitation of a solution of cadmium(II)-nitrate with a solution of sodium selenide. Titanium white (titanium dioxide) is created by several industrial methods based on both minerals anatase and rutile. Concentrated sulphuric acid chemically breaks down the ore. The resulting iron and titanium sulphate is then dissolved in water and boiled to produce the precipitation of the titanium as metatitanic acid and separate it from the iron. Barium carbonate is then added to the precipitate to neutralize the acid. Then, it is calcined. The pigment is usually manufactured with approximately 30% titanium oxide and 70% barium sulphate. (Douma, 2008)

Solvents: Synthetic resins were created in the twentieth century. Previously, all paints and varnishes were made from naturally occurring oils, gums, and resins which were handmixed by the artist. There were good quality ready-mixed paints by the 1920s. New oils could be processed and natural products were replaced by the mid twentieth century. (Standeven, 2013) Ripolin paints, which were leading in manufactured paints included a wide variety of oils and resins. (Standeven, 2013)

Kahlo (1907-1954)

]

The Mexican artist Magdalena Carmen Frida Kahlo y Calderòn was encouraged by her father to paint, draw and photograph. She contracted polio which left her right leg smaller than her left at six years old (Barney-Sanchez, 1997). In high school, she joined a group of activist students. She met her future husband Diego Rivera during this time as he painted murals at the school in support of ideals developed during the Mexican Revolution (1910-1920) but they did not speak again until she was twenty-one in 1928 (Barney-Sanchez, 1997).

She was severely injured in a bus accident at eighteen and sustained multiple fractures and was pierced by a metal rail through her torso. She endured more than thirty operations and suffered several miscarriages and abortions (Barney-Sanchez, 1997). Her father constructed an easel over her hospital bed so she could paint while lying down and her mother installed a mirror so she could see herself for portraits (Barney-Sanchez, 1997). This accident left her psychologically scarred as well. Kahlo expressed her experiences, her identity, and her values in her art, and sometimes expressed her hardships with dark humor (Barney-Sanchez 1997), (Google, 2021). For example, The Bus (1929) conveys two distinct themes. The first is the disproportion of wealth which she depicts by including, from left to right, a housewife, a blue-collared man, a barefoot mother, a businessman, and a young girl, presumably Kahlo herself (Google, 2021). The second, is an allusion to her bus accident. This painting includes an example of the dark humor she included in her art as the young boy is looking out the window to the left and there is a storefront which says ‘La Risa’, which means ‘The Laugh’ (Google, 2021).

The Bus

(1929 )

Kahlo and Rivera married in 1929 (Barney-Sanchez 1997). They lived in the United States for a while as Rivera had commissions (Barney-Sanchez, 1997). Their relationship was tumultuous and they each had many lovers but loved each other (Barney-Sanchez, 1997). Kahlo often painted pieces that resembled a collage of objects (Google, 2021). Kahlo painted Diego and I (1944) for her husband’s 58th birthday. The combined portrait with Rivera on the left and Kahlo on the right, shows their unison (Google 2021). The red in this painting conveys their deep love. The other pairs, the sun and the moon, and the conch and the scallop show their unison as well (Google, 2021).

Diego

and I

4944 )

kadanofqzjzR.ge

creation

Conclusion : These artists’ increasing range of colours and materials which facilitated the painting process allowed them to express themselves more effectively over time. Moreover, recreating these paintings allowed me to have a newfound understanding for these artists skills and observe how slight alterations can have a big impact on perception the final work. More specifically, since my recreation of Rubens’ 1638-1640 Self-Portrait is lighter in tone and the colours are more saturated, Rubens appears less tired.

Rubens Self Portrait -

4638-407

Conclusion

Recreation

Conclusion cont

Since my recreation of Van Gogh’s Self-Portrait with Bandaged Ear (1889) is more simplistic, it does not evoke emotion as strongly.

Van with

Gogh self Portrait Bandaged Ear ( 1889 ) -

Recreation

Since my recreation of Kahlo’s Diego and I (1944) is less textured, it appears more calm than the original.

Diego

and I

4944 )

Recreation

References

Chemistry:

Alderson, C. (1984). Re-Creating a 19th Century Paint Palette. Bulletin of the Association for Preservation Technology, 16(1), 47-56. doi:10.2307/1493914

Berrie, B. (2015). Mining for Color: New Blues, Yellows, and Translucent Paint. Early Science and Medicine, 20(4/6), 308-334. Retrieved February 23, 2021, from http://www.jstor.org/stable/24760385

Black, C. (2020). The Half-Life of Blue. In Black C. & Álvarez M. (Eds.), Renaissance Futurities: Science, Art, Invention (pp. 118-129). Oakland, California: University of California Press. doi:10.2307/j.ctv1f8853c.12

Centeno, S., & Mahon, D. (2009). The Chemistry of Aging in Oil Paintings: Metal Soaps and Visual Changes. The Metropolitan Museum of Art Bulletin, 67(1), new series, 12-19. Retrieved February 23, 2021, from http://www.jstor.org/stable/40588562

Chrome Green 50ml. Natural Pigments. (n.d.). https://www.naturalpigments.com/chrome-green50ml.html. Douma, M., curator. (2008). Pigments through the Ages. Retrieved month day, year, from http://www.webexhibits.org/pigments.

Encyclopædia Britannica, inc. (n.d.). Lake. Encyclopædia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/technology/lake-pigment.

Standeven, h. (2013). Oil-based house paints from 1900 to 1960: an examination of their history and development, with particular reference to Ripolin enamels. Journal of the American Institute for Conservation, 52(3), 127-139. Retrieved March 8, 2021, from http://www.jstor.org/stable/42751301

Sutherland, K. (2003). Solvent-Extractable Components of Linseed Oil Paint Films. Studies in Conservation, 48(2), 111-135. Retrieved February 23, 2021, from http://www.jstor.org/stable/1506796

Art history:

Barney -Sànchez, H. (1997). Frida Kahlo: Her Life and Art Revisited. Latin American Research Review, 32(3), 243. https://search-ebscohostcom.ezproxy.Marianopolis.edu/login.asps?direct=true&AuthTyoe=cookie,ip,url&db=aph& AN=9711053185&site=ehost-live&scope=site

Google. (n.d.). The Hidden Meanings In Frida Kahlo's Paintings - Google Arts & Culture. Google. https://artsandculture.google.com/story/the-hidden-meanings-in-frida-kahlo-spaintings%C2%A0/MwISAVsIDncgLQ.

Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. (n.d.). https://iep.utm.edu/neostoic/. Lecture notes. 16th to 19th century art, (Elena Cerrolaza,) December 2019, Marianopolis.

Wilson, M. (2004). From Obsession to Betrayal: The Life and Art of Pablo Picasso. Sexual Addiction & Compulsivity, 11(3), 163-182. https://doiorg.ezproxy.marianopolis.edu/10.1080/10720160490521237

Art:

ArtStor. (2021). https://library-artstor-org.ezproxy.marianopolis.edu/.

CENTRAL european art DATABASE (CEAD) selection - Olomouc Museum of art - GOOGLE Arts & culture. https://artsandculture.google.com/exhibit/central-european-art-databasecead-selection/KQIiiWMgkKqwJw.

Caravaggio, Michelangelo Merisi da. (1609-1610). David with the Head of Goliath. Retrieved from https://library-artstororg.ezproxy.marianopolis.edu/asset/LESSING_ART_1039490384

Caravaggio, Michelangelo Merisi da, 1573-1610. (1602-3). Entombment. [painting]. Retrieved from https://library-artstororg.ezproxy.marianopolis.edu/asset/ARTSTOR_103_41822003036876 Fight With Cudgels, 1820 by Francisco Goya. (n.d.). https://www.franciscogoya.com/fight-withcudgels.jsp. Francisco Goya y Lucientes. (Drawn and etched about 1810–1814; whole series first published posthumously 1863). Se aprovechan. (They take advantage); Fatales consequencias de la sangrienta guerra en España con Buonaparte. Y otros caprichos enfaticos [Disasters of War], plate 16.. [Prints]. Retrieved from https://library-artstororg.ezproxy.marianopolis.edu/asset/AWSS35953_35953_29381865 Gogh, Vincent van, 1853-1890. (1885). Potato-Eaters. Retrieved from https://library-artstororg.ezproxy.marianopolis.edu/asset/ARTSTOR_103_41822000051712

Gogh, Vincent van, (1853-1890). (1889). Self-Portrait with Bandaged Ear. Retrieved from https://library-artstororg.ezproxy.marianopolis.edu/asset/ACOURTAULDIG_10313599362 Google. (n.d.). Plate 24 from 'The Disasters of War' (Los Desastres de la Guerra): 'They can still be of use.' (Aun podrán servir.) - Goya (Francisco de Goya y Lucientes) - Google Arts & Culture. Google. https://artsandculture.google.com/asset/plate-24-from-the-disasters-ofwar-los-desastres-de-la-guerra-they-can-still-be-of-use-aun-podr%C3%A1n-servir-goyafrancisco-de-goya-y-lucientes/FQFRR_BybSM9XA. Google. (n.d.). The sleep of reason produces monsters - Francisco Goya y Lucientes - Google Arts & Culture. Google. https://artsandculture.google.com/asset/the-sleep-of-reasonproduces-monsters-francisco-goya-y-lucientes/AgEEXDTF0jemSg. Goya, Francisco de. (1780). Crucifixion. [painting]. Retrieved from https://library-artstororg.ezproxy.marianopolis.edu/asset/LESSING_ART_1039902346 Goya, Francisco, 1746-1828. (1786). Drunken Mason sketch for tapestry cartoon. Retrieved from https://library-artstororg.ezproxy.marianopolis.edu/asset/ARTSTOR_103_41822000807261 Goya, Francisco de. (1786-1787). The Injured Mason. [painting]. Retrieved from https://libraryartstor-org.ezproxy.marianopolis.edu/asset/SCALA_ARCHIVES_1039930566 Goya, Francisco, Spanish. (1814). (Executions of the) Third of May, 1808, in Madrid: The Shootings on Pio Principe. Retrieved from https://library-artstororg.ezproxy.marianopolis.edu/asset/AIC_930011 Goya: Disasters of War 32. Goya | Disasters of War 32 - Why? - por Qué? (n.d.). https://eeweems.com/goya/goya-disasters-of-war-32-why-por-que.php.

Goya, Francisco de. (1819-1823). Two Old Men Eating. [painting]. Retrieved from https://library-artstor-org.ezproxy.marianopolis.edu/asset/LESSING_ART_1039902180 Keyser, Thomas de, artist. Dr. Egberts' Lesson on Anatomy. Retrieved from https://libraryartstor-org.ezproxy.marianopolis.edu/asset/28558113 Lecture notes. 16th to 19th century art, (Elena Cerrolaza,) December 2019, Marianopolis. (1642) Poussin, Nicolas, 1594-1665. (1645-50). St. John on Patmos. Retrieved from https://libraryartstor-org.ezproxy.marianopolis.edu/asset/ARTSTOR_103_41822000820819 Poussin, Nicolas. (1627). Death of Germanicus. Retrieved from https://library-artstororg.ezproxy.marianopolis.edu/asset/LESSING_ART_10310119572 Rijn, Rembrandt van. (1629). Youthful Self Portrait. Retrieved from https://library-artstororg.ezproxy.marianopolis.edu/asset/LESSING_ART_10310119642 Rijn, Rembrandt van,1606 - 1669. (1640). Self Portrait at the Age of 34. Retrieved from https://library-artstor-org.ezproxy.marianopolis.edu/asset/ANGLIG_10313767044 Rijn, Rembrandt van. (1669). Self Portrait at the Age of 63. Retrieved from https://libraryartstor-org.ezproxy.marianopolis.edu/asset/LESSING_ART_10310119776 Rijn, Rembrandt van, 1606-1669. (1653). Aristotle with a Bust of Homer. [painting]. Retrieved from https://library-artstororg.ezproxy.marianopolis.edu/asset/ARTSTOR_103_41822003070479 Rijn, Rembrandt van, Dutch, 1606-1669, European; Dutch. (about 1660). Christ Crucified Between the Two Thieves (The Three Crosses). [Prints]. Retrieved from https://libraryartstor-org.ezproxy.marianopolis.edu/asset/AMICO_BOSTON_103841629 Rijn, Rembrandt van. (1632). The Anatomy Lesson of Dr Nicolaes Tulp. Retrieved from https://library-artstor-org.ezproxy.marianopolis.edu/asset/AWSS35953_35953_30936376

Rijn, Rembrandt van, 1606-1669. (1642). Nightwatch: Militia Co, of Captain Frans Banning Cocq. Retrieved from https://library-artstororg.ezproxy.marianopolis.edu/asset/ARTSTOR_103_41822000426096 Rubens, Peter Paul, Sir, 1577-1640. Entombment. Retrieved from https://library-artstororg.ezproxy.marianopolis.edu/asset/ARTSTOR_103_41822000721124 Rubens, Peter Paul. (1638-1640). Self-portrait. [painting]. Retrieved from https://library-artstororg.ezproxy.marianopolis.edu/asset/LESSING_ART_10310119919 Théodore Géricault. (1819). The Raft of the 'Medusa'. Retrieved from https://library-artstororg.ezproxy.marianopolis.edu/asset/LESSING_ART_1039490436 What a sacrifice! - Francisco Goya y Lucientes - GOOGLE Arts & culture. (n.d.). https://artsandculture.google.com/asset/what-a-sacrifice-francisco-goya-ylucientes/rQFVoK97ioUOjQ.