World War I The other history
Odessa Specialized School # 1o, Ukraine
"Joining the war" (causes)
Just before the World War I Ukrainian lands kept remaining part of two Empires: the Russian Empire and the Austrian-Hungarian Empire. The empires were quite different in many ways. Their economical and social development, their cultural and educational levels, their administrative divisions were different. Accordingly, the state and development of Ukrainian provinces controlled by different states were different.
On the territory of the part of Ukraine which was included in Russia there were 9 provinces united into 3 large regions: Southwestern Region (Podilska, Volynska, Kyivska provinces), Left-bank Ukraine (Poltavska, Chernigivska, Kharkivska provinces) and Novorosiia (Katerynoslavska, Khersonska, Tavriiska provinces). The provinces, in turn, were divided into “povits” (a kind of districts), and “povits” were divided into “volosts” (a kind of smaller rural districts).
No doubt, that the nationalethical features weren’t taken into consideration with an administrative-territorial division. These territories became part of Ukrainian Soviet Republic which later became part of Soviet Union. Ukrainians also lived in such large regions as Kuban, the Black Sea provinces, Kursk region, Voronezh region, Holm region, Berestei region and others, which nowadays are parts of other states bordering with modern independent Ukraine.
The territory of West Ukraine (modern territory of Lvivska, Ternopilska, Ivano-Frankivska, Zakarpatska and most part of Chernivetska regions) were included in Austria-Hungary. The total area of the Ukrainian lands was over 700 000 square km. Ukraine was the largest country in the area among the dependent countries in Europe and the fourth one among the independent countries after Russia, Austria-Hungary and Germany.
The population of Ukraine before 1917 was over 48 million people. Only Russia, Austria-Hungary and Germany had bigger populations in Europe at that time. 2/3 or 33 million people of the inhabitants of Ukraine were Ukrainians, the rest of the inhabitants of the country were national minorities: Russians, 10%, the Jewish, over 4%, the Polish, Hungarians, Bulgarians and others.
In the countryside, there lived about 80% of the inhabitants of Ukraine, in towns and cities – up to 20%. In the countryside, there mostly Ukrainians lived, who were ploughmen. Towns and cities were multinational, mostly Russian and Jewish, and west Ukrainian regions were mostly Polish and Jewish. Every third inhabitant of Ukrainian towns and cities was Ukrainian. There were deep differences between the town and the countryside: the countryside spoke Ukrainian, the town spoke mostly Russian, and in the west – Polish, German and Hungarian.
Economically, Ukrainian territories including in the Russian Empire were the most developed, especially the south and the east of Ukraine. Donbas was coal-mining and metallurgy basis of the Russian Empire. At that time, coal production and metal process were the main indicators of the power of the country.
In fact, in 1913 Donbas produced 70% of the coal which was produced in the Russian Empire in all. During the war, in 1915-16, the plants located in Ukraine provided 96,7% of rolled iron, 68% of rolled section, 99% of double-T beams and channel bars, 53% of salt, 81% of tin, 90% of silver, 75% of cast iron. Besides, the farming produced 16 million tons of cash grain.
At that very time, any industry in the territory of Ukraine including in the Austrian-Hungarian Empire was almost absent. The only sectors being developed were the woodworking industry, the oil producing industry and the food industry. The countryside people suffered from the lack of land, the big amount of the population had to emigrate or go abroad in search of work.
As for the official causes of the war, there is no mystery that the war started after an act of terrorism was performed when the Serbian nationalist Havrylo Pryntsyp fatally wounded the successor to the Austrian throne Franz Ferdinand on 20 June, 1914, in Saraievo, Bosnia. But in fact, the main cause of the war was the sharpening of the economical, political and military-strategical interests between the leading countries of the world. For most of them it was necessary to redivide the previously divided world, and it was possible to do just with the help of power, by means of war.
The World War I was the period of destruction of sizeable territories, erosion of economy, the period of killing millions of innocent people, conditioning for revolutions, appearance national states. At the same time, it was the time of forming revenge lust, protection of honour in minds of lots of people. The global conflict opened the downfall of humanitarian decline that happened in spite of all the technical achievements of the modern civilization. In general, the war ruined the optimistic culture of Europe.
In this war that lasted from 1914 to November, 1918, in all, 38 countries took part which made 87% of the world’s population at that moment.
Unfortunately, there were some other causes of the war, too. It goes about so-called “Ukrainian question�. At least five European countries had their own interests as for Ukrainian territories, and none of them wanted to make way for the rivals. This situation finally resulted in fierce battles on the territory of Ukraine.
The political situation in Ukraine itself didn’t facilitate the settlement of the foreign policy feud’s sharpening. The country was totally disconnected, there was no integrated centralized power, different parties and unions appeared every moment non-stop, nobody heard and listened to one another. Sadly, there was no the only leader to rule the country. The common people appeared to be between the two fighting sides, between two fires.
"At war" (everyday life)
With the beginning of the war, Ukrainian people were involved into combat operations at the front. Over 4,5 million Ukrainians from the Russian Empire were mobilized into the Russian Army, and over 300 000 Ukrainians from the territories of East Galicia, Bukovyna and Zakarpattia were mobilized into the Austrian-Hungarian Army. On the territories of West Ukraine hard and lasting combat operations took place.
Let’s omit the detailed listing of the victories and defeats of both fighting sides. Fierce fighting lasted from 1914 to 1916. Among the fallen, wounded, lost and captured during the fighting from both sides there were lots of Ukrainians as well as the Germans, Russians, Austrians, Hungarians, the Polish. The territory of Ukraine where there was the front was considerably ruined, a big amount of civilian (peaceful) population was killed, some villages were just wiped off the face of the earth.
However, neither of the fighting sides gained an edge. Meanwhile, the war was gradually getting the features of stale-war. The discontent both in the two armies and among the civilian populations was growing up. The “Ukrainian question� still kept being sharp.
On the territory of the Kyiv and Odessa military districts there were located 36 infantry divisions, 11 field engineer regiments, 2 pontoon regiments, 3 railroad regiments. In the Austrian army, 9 regiments were formed of Galician Ukrainians which made 8,7% of the army. In the Stanyslavskyi, Horodotskyi, Ternopilskyi, Chortkovskyi field engineer regiments and in Lvivskyi and Zolochivskyi Streletskyi regiments there were up to 60% of Ukrainians.
Nevertheless, despite such a large amount of Ukrainians including in the Russian and Austrian armies, they, Ukrainians, didn’t receive any liberalization from the side of both empires concerning their national status. Moreover, on the Ukrainian territories which were under war, repressions against peaceful people started from both fighting sides. Anyway, let’s not blame anybody but try to draw a lesson so that not to make the same mistakes at present and in the future.
The Ukrainian society was also torn into pieces. Numerous parties and unions appeared, existed for a while and disappeared. Some political leaders appealed Ukrainian people to join the Russian side, others appealed them to join the Austian-Hungarian side. There were also leaders who appealed Ukrainian people to fight for the independence of the country. Unfortunately, there was almost no chance for Ukraine to become independent at that time. There were no forces in the country to resist such powerful empires.
Thus, within 1914-16, under existing conditions of the war, the so-called “Ukrainian question�, and, first of all, the question of renewal of Ukrainian statehood remained unsolved in spite of all the variants worked out by the Ukrainian political forces.
" After the
war" (consequences)
In the condition of war, the economy of Russia was in the extremely hard position. The needs of the front were so huge that the rhythm of the economy had to be at a much higher level than it was. The production of weapon, ammunition, provision, uniforms for the army was the first priority of the economy. As the war lasted for 4 years, the industrial production showed the signs of disproportion and imbalance.
In the Ukrainian provinces including Russia, the situation in the economy was the same as in the whole empire. Besides, there existed the sharp lack of fuel and manpower because over 4 million people were mobilized into the army. From the mines of the coal industry of Donbas up to 40% of the work force was mobilized at the beginning of the war.
However, as a result of redistribution of the work force, the number of workers increased considerably. In 1916, coal mining in Donbas increased by 3,2 million tons compared to 1913 and reached 27,84 million tons. But the loss of the Dombrovytskyi coal basin and increasing of the consumption of coal by the transport caused the fuel crisis in the country, and, in turn, led to shortening of metal smelting.
In comparison, in 1913 Ukrainian plants produced 3,04 million tons of cast iron, and in 1916 they produced only 2 816 million tons. 36 blast furnaces stopped working in 1916. Even the defense industry received only a half of the necessary metal. Predictably, the lack of fuel and metal brought to shortening of machine production, even for the army.
The Ukrainian provinces of Russia were the close rear of the East front which demanded lots of military production. Naturally, the amount of the work force of Ukraine grew up steadily and in 1917 reached 893 000 people which was 200 000 more compared to 1913. Among the workers there were more and more teenagers, women (133 000), war prisoners (100 000). The number of regular workers went down.
At most enterprises the working day became up to 16 hours. The workers of the military plants received additional payment measuring from 6 to 25% of the salary, so-called “military pay rise�. Nevertheless, increasing of prices, first of all, for foodstuffs, rendered this pay rise null. The threat of hunger was obvious. Queues of many thousands were becoming rife. There was not enough bread even for soldiers.
The transport, especially the railway transport, was on the brink of collapse. There were not enough steam engines, carriages, so in 1916, 150 000 carriages of untransported goods were accumulated on the railway. The ways out of the Black and Baltic Seas were closed for Russian steam vessels. Within 1914-1916, 1400 enterprises were closed.
The aftermath of the war for Ukrainian countryside people was not less hard. In 1914, out of 32 638 million Ukrainian inhabitants 27682 million, or 84,8%, were peasants. The Agrarian reform hadn’t solved the land problem. Immigrants from Germany had on average 65 hectare of land for the yard, Bulgarians had on average 50 hectare, and Ukrainians had 11 hectare. And this state of things remained and even worsened after the war.
The crop capacity on the territory of the Right-bank reached 12 centner from a hectare, in South Ukraine – 8,5 centner. The areas under crops shortened by 13,3%. The crop production shortened by 800 000 tons, the sugar production – by 565 000 tons. The butchering was shortened by 40%. The total number of horses decreased by more than 1 million animals.
The total output volume of import of agricultural machines became 30 times less than it was before the war. The import from Germany and Austria stopped completely. As a result of mobilization of ablebodied men for the war, the Ukrainian village lost 30% of working hands.
Besides that, the village had to carry out the trench, horse-yard and road service which diverted peasants from keeping their own households and farming. Partly, the problem of working hands in the Ukrainian countryside including Russia was solved due to refugees from West Ukraine.
The speculation with grain in the inner market reached unprecedented size. Axes, spades, sickles, saws disappeared from the sale. There was serious lack of clothing, shoes, soap. Flint replaced matches, home-made cloth replaced drapery. The countryside life suddenly turned out to be in the Middle Ages. In 1917, 640 000 peasant yards of Ukraine didn’t have crops, 1400 – horses, 1142 – cows.
The monetary inflation was growing up each year of the war and reached 414% in 1917, the taxes were growing up, too. All these circumstances were placed as a heavy burden on the shoulders of Ukrainian workers and peasants. Foreign loans were becoming larger and larger, the dependence from creditors was becoming worse and worse. The World War, apparent signs of crisis in the industry, in the transport system, in the agricultural sector stressed the social contradictions. Strikes of workers were becoming more and more often throughout the country.
Peasant disturbances were mostly against landowners, although there were anti-war strikes of peasants, too, especially among those who were mobilized for the army. They broke into government institutions, shops, had street fights with the police. Peasants protested against paying taxes, confiscation their horses for the army, population census which took place in 1916. The authorities used their strength to “calm them down�.
There were serious protests among soldiers during the war years. These protests had different forms, such as escape, non-participation in fights, officers’ murders, voluntary captivity and others. There were considerable ravages of the war which are inevitable in a state of any war.
Therefore, at the end of 1916 – the beginning of 1917 both the economical and social situation were in such a state that a social explosion was quite possible. So, the World War and its after-effects became the catalyst of revolution in Russia and Austria-Hungary. Ukrainians began seriously thinking of forming a separate state on the Ukrainian territory, the national movement was becoming stronger. But lots of time and events had to pass before there appeared the national state of Ukraine.
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Thanks for you attention!
Odessa School # 10, Ukraine