• Hugh Hefner and the Playboy Empire •America’s Love Affair with Guns • The Declaration of Independence • Thanksgiving: A History of Tradition • Harlem: A Cultural Renaissance •Pocahontas: A Historical Exploration
NeW WORLD gettiNg OLD? ISSUE 28 | NOV 2017
the
THE AMERICAN EDITION Behind every story… There is History
www.manchesterhistorian.com
ISSUE 28 | NOVEMBER 2017
Contents HISTORY BEHIND THE HEADLINES The American Playboy ......................................................4
Social Media
Make sure to follow us for updates...
America’s Gun Affair .........................................................5 Celebrating Campbell Cooper ..........................................6
@TheManchesterHistorian
Naismith & Basketball ......................................................6
THE AMERICAN EDITION
@TheMcrHistorian
The Discovery of America .................................................7 A Lost Egalitarianism? ......................................................8
@ManchesterHistorian
The Vietnam War ..............................................................9 The Cuban Missile Crisis ................................................10 Edison’s Light Bulb .........................................................10 Jazz: A History ................................................................11 Michelle: An Icon ...........................................................12
The Team Editors
Shannon Winterbone Eva Tite Ellie Tivey Pip Woolley
Head of Copy-Editing
Georgia Jackson
The AIDS Crisis of the 1980s ..........................................15
Head of Design
Tim Carney
The Civil Rights Act of 1964 ...........................................16
Head of Online
Fergus Selsdon-Games
Head of Marketing
Eleanor Scrafton
Copy-Editing Team
India-Rose Channon Matthew Hobbs Tony Scott Amy Leahy
Design Team
Amelia Beecham Tilly Gambarotto Sean Jones Hannah Hall Helen Aron
Online Team
Abbie Llewellyn Annika Brooks Matthew Worsick
Marketing Team
Teagan Tallentire
The Harlem Renaissance ................................................12
HISTORY YOU SHOULD KNOW Thanksgiving Day ...........................................................13 The 19th Amendment ....................................................14
ICONIC FIGURES Pocahontas: A Lost Story .................................................17 Angela Davis: Feminist & Fugitive ..................................18 Jackie Robinson: Athlete to Activist ...............................18 Howard Hughes: Iron Man .............................................19
EXCLUSIVE INTERVIEW The October Revolution ..................................................20
HISTORY UPDATE What’s On In Manchester ...............................................21 History Society Announcements ....................................22 History FC ......................................................................22 2
www.manchesterhistorian.com
ISSUE 28 | NOVEMBER 2017
A Note from the Editors Welcome to the very first issue of The Manchester Historian this year! It’s a pretty bonkers world that we’re living in these days. You can barely turn on the TV without being greeted with fresh warnings of nuclear attack, World War Three, and the end of days. And who seems to be at the centre of it all? It’s America’s unlikely and controversial president, Mr Donald Trump. His presidency thus far has been categorised by disaster. There has been international scandal concerning just how much effect Russia had on Trump’s ascendancy to power. The turn around of White House staff seems to possess the same speed and unpredictability of the cast of this year’s Love Island. Hurricanes have ravaged the people of Puerto Rico and the East Coast. The most recent tragedy in Las Vegas has once more enflamed the worldwide debate about American gun control. There’s no escaping America in our news reports these days, so we thought it was only right that we make our first publication the American Edition. America these days seems to be displaying what can only be described as a fall from grace. Once widely believed to be the greatest country in the world, the birthplace of freedom, America is now a country of widespread grassroots protest, international ridicule and ‘fake news’. How did America get to this point? Why and how did this international decline begin? And where is this once great nation destined to proceed? Well,
@TheMcrHistorian
as History students, we all know we can learn an awful lot about the future by exploring the past. So, in this issue, we will address these questions through an exploration of everything from Pocahontas to Hugh Hefner, from the discovery of America to the Vietnam War.
“Our greatest weakness lies in giving up, the most certain way to succeed is always to try just one more time” - Thomas A. Edison We hope you enjoy the vast range of articles that we’ve got for you in this issue. Also make sure to keep an eye out for our updates on the History Society and History FC. Most of all, enjoy! If anyone would be interested in writing or working with us in the next issue, please email: manchesterhistorian@gmail.com, or get in touch through our official Facebook and Twitter pages.
Eva, Shannon, Ellie and Pip
3
HISTORY BEHIND THE HEADLINES
ISSUE 28 | NOVEMBER 2017
HISTORY BEHIND THE HEADLINES
Photo via: Pinterest
The American Playboy The man who men wanted to be, and who women wanted to be with Throughout his college days, Hefner admired the likes of Esquire magazine and felt inspired. Seeking more than a suburban dream with the white picket fence, Hefner set out to create a magazine in which men from all over America could relate to. In this, he could create a dialogue which discussed women, culture, and how to live the bachelor life. Playboy, although initially named Stag Party, sought to speak the undisclosed desires of American men. As Hefner said, “The notion of the single man began in the 1950’s. The idea of the bachelor as a separate life was new and obscure.” Marilyn Monroe graced the first issue of Playboy in 1953 and the rest was history.
form in all its glory, and for women to feel liberated by their own bodies. The lifestyle of Playboy was accessible through the magazine, watching Playboy After Dark, or attending one of the famous Playboy establishments.
“SEX IS THE DRIVING FORCE OF THE PLANET. WE SHOULD EMBRACE IT, NOT SEE IT AS THE ENEMY”
Hefner embarked on a mission to awaken a sexual revolution. He launched ‘Playmate of the Month’, an idea which Hefner had thought of whilst writing for a campus humour column named Shaft. Women posed for nude photos which many considered sexually liberating. This sought to promote the desirability of the everyday woman; the waitress from the restaurant, the secretary at the office. In profiling the women, a short excerpt talked about the girl’s hobbies, their occupation and a general idea of their personality, arguably humanising the idea of the pin-up girl.
During this era, an increase in sexology came to the forefront with Masters and Johnson’s work “Human Sexual Response”. The work was revolutionary to the way Americans viewed female sexuality, revealing that women were capable of multiple orgasms whilst their male counterpart was not. But not everyone was ready for new found sexuality to invade their homes. Hefner faced an obscenity law suit in 1963 after publishing nude pictures of Jayne Mansfield, described as “obscene, lewd, lascivious, and filthy”. When the charges were dropped following a hung jury, Hefner viewed it as a victory - not only for the magazine, but for freedom of speech.
Playboy emerged within a context of conservative sexuality. Many couples slept in separate beds and saved themselves until marriage, including Hefner himself. Playboy presented the opportunity to be open with sexuality, for men to appreciate the female
Following Hefner’s death on 27 September 2017, many have argued that Playboy did not seek to liberate women at all, only to oppress and dehumanise them; exploiting their bodies for the pleasure of men. In many ways, this is true. The pictures of the Playmates were an
4
object of visual stimulation, there to provide for the man’s desires. The women had to emulate the obedient counterpart, particularly within the Playboy clubs, where bunnies had to abide by strict guidelines. Looking at the development of the Playboy empire through the eyes of a 21st century context, it did of course add to the objectification of women and their bodies. However, if we consider Playboy within its own context - originating in the 1950s, in a post-war world which sought to augment the idea of marriage and children - Playboy offered a fantasy solace for all. Men and women all over America were waiting for someone to confirm that their sexual appetites did not make them outsiders. More than this, Playboy not only aimed to reconstruct ideas of sexuality, but to be actively involved in dialogue of civil rights and global affairs. Playboy offered commentary on the Civil Rights Movement, publishing interviews with Malcolm X and Dr Martin Luther King Jr. It candidly discussed the Vietnam War, and opened a forum in which men who were serving could share their uncensored experiences. It fought for women’s abortion rights fiercely, demonstrating that men were not the only ones who should have the right to choose the bachelor life. Considering this, it is hard not to view the Playboy Empire as not only the driving force of shifting perspectives within the American sexual realm - but also influential in shifting those of women’s rights, global affairs and civil rights.
Kate McCoubrey
www.manchesterhistorian.com
ISSUE 28 | NOVEMBER 2017
HISTORY BEHIND THE HEADLINES
America’s Gun Affair Earlier this month, on 1 October 2017, a lone gunman named Stephen Paddock opened fire on a group of oblivious concertgoers at the Route 91 Harvest music festival in Las Vegas. The worst mass shooting in recent US history, killing 59 people and injuring 546 more, it should have shocked the world, but did it? According to the Gun Violence Archive, 12,269 people have been killed in the US in 2017 so far (information correct at time of writing), and included in this statistic are 282 mass shootings. News headlines about mass gun killings in the US come as a horror to many international spectators, but rarely a shock. These events leave us with one major question: why is it always the US? The USA has some of the most lax gun laws in the world, and attempts to restrict these are always met with fierce opposition. This love affair with firearms seems to be an innately American phenomenon. When Martin Bryant shot and killed 35 Australian citizens in Port Arthur, it took the government just twelve days to announce sweeping gun reform legislation. In the US itself, Kinder Egg chocolates are banned, due to the possibility of a child choking on the plastic toy container on the inside, despite the fact that there are no records of this actually occurring. This begs the question why a government, supposedly so concerned about accidental deaths, would allow a lethal weapon to remain legal and accessible. To many Americans, the Bill of Rights is of incredible importance, and the Second Amendment (1791) protects the rights for US citizens to keep and bear arms. The main purpose of the amendment was twofold,
Photo via: Flickr facilitating the citizen’s right to self defence, and allowing them to rise against a tyrannical government. The problem lies herein. Due to the fact that the amendment is written in the constitution, it is close to impossible for any governmental administration to take this right away legitimately. As this amendment is so fiercely entrenched in the American psyche, any action to make it more difficult to purchase firearms is considered a threat to the fundamental rights of the citizen that resides in the so-called ‘land of the free.’ Aside from this, guns are a fundamental part of American culture. Accurate figures are hard to come by, but the Congressional Research Service reported that in 2009, the US population as a whole owned around 310 million guns, at a time when the total population was around 307 million. According to the NCIS, in 2009 only 14 million firearm background checks were performed, only 4.5% of total firearm sales. This seems like a shockingly low percentage, but could also be considered largely irrelevant; after all, Stephen Paddock himself passed FBI background checks before going on to open fire on hundreds of people. It is not an uncommon image to see American
parents taking their young children down to the firing range, teaching them from an early age to join this rampant gun culture. Many gun-owning citizens have argued that outlawing firearms will only deter law-abiding citizens, meaning that such families cannot protect themselves against the likes of Stephen Paddock. However, it is doubtful how much use any gun would have been against the masses of rifles found in Paddock’s hotel room. The fear that many Americans have over losing their right to own firearms became even more apparent in the days following the October attack. The Guardian newspaper reported that sales of the Bump Fire device used by Stephen Paddock to alter a semiautomatic gun in order for it to mimic an automatic, rocketed as soon as reports came in of the shooting. Major manufacturer Bump Fire Systems reported their website as being down for two days due to high levels of traffic, and Cabelas, Walmart and Cheaper Than Dirt all sold out. There is no comprehensible situation in which a Bump Fire device would be necessary aside from in active warfare or mass shootings. Many Republicans, traditionally against any restriction to possession of firearms or firearm accessories, have declared that there is no use for Bump Fire, and have stated it is something they will look into. Spectators, both American and international, can only hope that this is the first step in a gradual process of gun control in a nation that sees an average of 27 people killed by firearms every day.
Rebecca Underwood Photo via: Flickr @TheMcrHistorian
5
ISSUE 28 | NOVEMBER 2017
HISTORY BEHIND THE HEADLINES
Celebrating Campbell Cooper Colin Campbell Cooper was an internationally renowned artist most popular for his works that celebrate the wonders of city life. In addition to painting, he was an avid traveller and from his education in Paris to his journeys around Asia, all his travels greatly influenced his work.
his time at the university, Cooper got married to the painter Emma Lampert and continued his travels. On one such journey, Cooper and his wife were aboard the RMS Carpathia during its rescue mission to help the survivors of the sunken RMS Titanic.
Born and raised in Philadelphia, Cooper was first inspired to become an artist when he attended the Philadelphia Exposition at the age of 20. He began his study of art at the Pennsylvania Academy and in 1886 moved across the Atlantic to join the Académie Julian in Paris. In Paris, he was exposed to the Barbizon style of art, famous for its loose brushwork and soft tones. Gradually, as Cooper began to paint cityscapes, his style transitioned from the Barbizon to an Impressionist style with visible brush strokes and an emphasis on movement. He remained an Impressionist painter until the end of his career.
Unsurprisingly, Cooper drew inspiration from the event for several of his paintings. Cooper’s work received rave reviews both abroad and at home. In one instance, his painting Fifth Avenue, New York was even bought by the French government to be displayed in the Musée du Luxembourg. Although many of his paintings portray florals, gardens and portraits, he is most remembered for his depictions of America’s increasingly vertical cityscapes. As The New York Times describes him, he is the “skyscraper artist par excellence of America” and is celebrated for his unusual talent of finding beauty in areas where few think to look.
In 1895, Cooper returned to the states and began teaching at the Drexel Institute of Art, Science and Industry (now Drexel University). During
Following the death of his first wife, Cooper moved to Santa Barbara, California in January
Photo via: Wikicommons 1912, where he would spend the rest of his life. He described his new environment as “so conducive to the sort of things a painter most craves – climate, flowers, mountains, seascapes”, and viewed Santa Barbara as a comfort from abandoning the “artistic universe of America” that is New York City. In fact, he maintained a studio in the city for ten years after his move to California. Cooper was also influenced by his father’s love of literature, writing books and plays, one of which even made it to the stage. Cooper died in Santa Barbara on November 6 1937 at the age of 81.
Aiswarya Kishor
Naismith & Basketball What is now one of the most popular sports in the world had a very humble beginning. Basketball was created in a Springfield, Massachusetts YMCA gymnasium in 1891 by Canadian James Naismith. Dr Naismith was given 14 days to create an indoor game to provide a creative and healthy indoor “athletic distraction” for a rowdy class of students during the brutal New England winter. Naismith had the idea of attaching baskets high on the wall and having players attempt to throw a ball into the basket as a score. Confronted with the problem of constantly needing someone to remove the ball from the basket, Naismith cut out the bottom of the basket, allowing the ball to fall through. Photo via: Wikicommons It’s hard not to focus on all the negativity in the news and media today. But in times like these, sport has the ability to lift our spirits. If your favourite team experiences success, that energy washes off onto you. Hopefully, this article will inspire a greater appreciation of one of the biggest global sports.
6
It is believed that Naismith drew up the original 13 rules of his new game of Basketball in about an hour. Most of these rules still apply today. Basketball became an instant success. Both players and fans were delighted at the prospect of being able to exercise in a fast moving and entertaining indoor game, shielded from the sharp bite of the hard winter.
It is difficult to say whether Naismith himself would have predicted the development of his newfound game and the global impact it currently has, both in its entertainment value and business accruement. Basketball is one of the world’s largest sports and is presently estimated to be played by over 400 million people, whilst having a fan population of over 2 billion. It is most popular in the National Basketball Association (NBA) in the United States of America, where some of the most well-known sportsmen have played and revolutionised Naismith’s game. These include Michael Jordan, Kobe Bryant, and Lebron James, who have a combined net worth of over $2 billion. It’s funny to think that a sport we always hear about is so relatively young. Looking at the developments since its origin, the sky is the limit for basketball. We should never overlook the positive impact it has, both on and off the court.
Cian Hickey www.manchesterhistorian.com
ISSUE 28 | NOVEMBER 2017
THE
THE AMERICAN EDITION
AMERICAN
EDITION
Photo via: Getty Images
The Discovery of America 12 October 1492 marks an event which was to change life on both sides of the Atlantic forever; this date represents the discovery of America. In 1492, the navigator Christopher Columbus, funded by the Spanish Crown, sailed westward from Spain in hopes of finding a new sea route to South and Southeast Asia. Despite initially believing he had reached Asia, Columbus soon realised that he had happened upon a wholly new continent, the land we know now to be America. Whilst this was not the aim of his voyage, this discovery served to bring far greater benefits to not only Spain, but, in time, the rest of Europe and the wider world. However, as with much of early modern history, where one prospers, another must suffer, and life for the indigenous people of America drastically changed. Before 1492, indigenous tribes ruled America, the largest being the Aztecs and the Incas. The most extensive native community, in the area currently known as Mexico, was the Aztec Empire. The capital was Tenochtitlan, a city in the middle of Lake Texcoco, and the Aztec ruler at the time of the Spanish conquest was Montezuma. The Aztecs were the most powerful tribe in this area and incorporated smaller tribes into their empire through war, including the Tlaxcalans and the Mixtecs. These conquered communities had to pay tribute, a kind of tax, to the Aztecs, which was often quite a burden for these smaller tribes. The Incas operated in a comparable way. Their stronghold was the area currently known as Peru, the capital being Cusco. They also incorporated less powerful tribes into their empire yet they achieved this through @TheMcrHistorian
negotiation and intimidation rather than war. The Incas also offered concrete benefits to the tribes they amalgamated, including trading opportunities and desirable commodities, in return for land and labour. Yet, life amongst these tribes was not free of violence and war before the Spaniards arrived, rather, tribes were in constant conflict with each other and some of the smaller tribes collaborated with the Spanish to bring down both the Aztec and Inca empires. Although the Spanish and native population appeared to cooperate in the early years of exploration, the colonisation of America soon brought death and destruction to the communities living there. European diseases devastated native communities, who were incredibly vulnerable due to lack of exposure. Smallpox was particularly deadly. Indeed, the onslaught of European disease killed far more natives than European swords. For those who survived, it became a life of hard labour and virtual enslavement. Conditions did improve for indigenous people as the sixteenth century wore on, as the enslavement of natives was prohibited in Spanish America and a “protector des indios” was appointed to protect indigenous interests. Yet, the discovery of America still represented a significant rupture in native life, a change from the old regime to the new which wrought havoc for the indigenous inhabitants living there. Whilst the discovery evidently brought disruption to the native populations, there were also profound effects on the other side of the Atlantic. The discovery of new land meant the discovery of new commodities, such as
tobacco, coffee and cacao bean. An elaborate trading system coined the ‘Columbian Exchange’ was developed, representing the trading of goods to and from America. These new commodities greatly influenced European culture. As smoking tobacco became a popular pastime, coffee houses emerged all over Europe. Furthermore, European diets changed, with potatoes being particularly popular. The Americas also contained a very high quantity of gold and silver, enriching Spain and Portugal, so much so that the English, French and Dutch were inspired to explore America themselves, leading to the colonisation of North America and the Caribbean. Additionally, due to the mass depopulation of native peoples and the significant number of workers needed to tend new lands and supply new trading networks, the Spanish cast their gaze away from America and began importing slaves from Africa, initiating the birth of the slave trade. The importance of the discovery of America is clear, the consequences of Columbus’ voyage in 1492 were to change the world forever. Whilst the ramifications of the exploration and colonisation that followed are still debated today, no one can deny that the discovery drastically changed lives on both sides of the Atlantic, both positively and negatively, and these changes are still felt today.
Amelia Beecham
7
THE AMERICAN EDITION
ISSUE 28 | NOVEMBER 2017
A Lost Egalitarianism? “WE HOLD THESE TRUTHS TO BE SELFEVIDENT, THAT ALL MEN ARE CREATED EQUAL; THAT THEY ARE ENDOWED BY THEIR CREATOR WITH CERTAIN UNALIENABLE RIGHTS; THAT AMONG THESE ARE LIFE, LIBERTY, AND THE PURSUIT OF HAPPINESS” When conflict broke out between bands of American revolutionaries and British soldiers in April 1775, few had the ultimate objective of independence in mind. Initially fighting for their rights as subjects under the British crown, the growing support of the movement pushed it to dramatically change course, in favour of full independence from Britain. The period of early 1776 was particularly transformative; public debate was stimulated from January, when Thomas Paine – a recent migrant from Britain - published a pamphlet entitled Common Sense, which praised the cause of republicanism, and tensions rose even higher after colonialists learned of Parliament’s passage of the Prohibitory Act in February, which declared American boats as enemy vessels and enabled a blockade of US ports. Although the pressure to declare independence from Britain was great, the political prowess required to push thirteen separate state governments to sign a single document delayed the process of independence until June. On 7 June, Virginia’s Richard Henry Lee presented the first resolution of the Independence Declaration to Congress. While the resolution was met with Congressional resistance, their suggestion of a means of formal discussion enabled the foundation of a five-man
8
committee headed by Thomas Jefferson, which concluded in the formal acceptance of the document by Congress on 4 July 1776. The Declaration saw independence as a ‘natural right’ of the US citizenry, and put forward a list of grievances related primarily to abuses of the legislative rights of that citizenry by the British crown, thus viewing independence as the single obligatory course of action. A reprinted version of the handwritten document was distributed across the thirteen states, primarily through publication in newspapers and readings to public audiences. A backlash of action ensued; crowds protested and tore down any remaining markers of royal authority. In terms of the British reaction, the Conservative party denounced the contents of the Declaration for its failure to consider the “life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness” of Americans of African origin. The Document itself was thus neglected until the 1790s, with the act of presentation used more readily in public circles than the actual printed content. However, this changed from the 1790s onwards – with the document proving itself as possibly one of the most important influences on the course of US and world history. One could argue that the document’s contemporary significance lay in its tangible departure from the power politics of the day; instead, the focus on the idea of ‘equality under the law’ created a new egalitarian political discourse that has continued to resonate with communities not only in the US but across the world. Perhaps more specifically, future attempts to secure rights under the law, such as the French
Declaration of Rights, seem to emulate the US declarations, and even developments made on US soil were made with the Declaration in mind, such as the publication of the Bill of Rights and the Constitution. In wider historical terms, the ideal of equality has been the bedrock of independence movements across US history ever since, with 1848 women’s rights activists modelling their demands on the document’s core principals, and the African-American protest movement of the 20th century adopting the renowned Conservative denunciation in their attempts to demand and fight for their own civil rights. Today, the desire to emulate Jefferson’s eloquent appraisal of ideals such as equality and justice remains a celebrated subject on American soil, but a void is beginning to develop between the egalitarian ideals published in the 1776 Declaration and their application in the practicalities of daily US life. Grievances raised in the ‘Black Lives Matter’ movement show that egalitarian treatment across the board has by no means been achieved, and the developments caused by the re-invigoration of the extreme right-wing in the US political arena perhaps serves as a reminder that liberty and conservatism don’t always go hand in hand. So, while the Fourth of July certainly remains a widely-recognised celebration of the egalitarian ideals that the US was founded upon, the influence of these ideals in the everyday life of the citizenry remains less certain.
Beth Cole
John Trumbull's painting ‘Declaration of Independence’ Photo via: Wikicommons www.manchesterhistorian.com
ISSUE 28 | NOVEMBER 2017
THE AMERICAN EDITION
The Vietnam War The Vietnam War (1955-1975), was a significant conflict in American history. When reflected upon today, it often instills a sense of regret. An immensely costly war in terms of casualties, displacement and destruction, the conflict is often perceived as one fought for nothing more than ideological motivations. But what was the Vietnam War and how did it impact the USA? In the immediate years following the end of the Second World War, two ideologically opposite superpowers emerged - the USSR and US. While Britain’s power waned, the industrial and military might of the American and Soviet states had expanded massively as the war had progressed and the post-war decades would see the two nations vying for supremacy of political influence worldwide. The two nations could not enter into a direct conflict with one another, as they each possessed weapon arsenals large enough to assure mutual destruction. This led to the period known as the Cold War (1947-1991), in which the nations sought to compete indirectly with one another for worldwide dominance. The two superpowers instead found success in influencing smaller nations in the form of military and economic aid. The region of Southeast Asia was considered a key fighting ground in America’s quest for global supremacy of capitalism. Agitation in Vietnam in the 1950s saw the country poised between communist sympathisers, supported by the Soviets in the North, and the relatively new Republic of Vietnam in the South. Since 1947, America had adhered to the “Truman doctrine” of foreign policy - to intervene and contain the threat of communist expansion wherever possible. The threat of communism growing within Vietnam had ramifications beyond Vietnam itself. President Eisenhower alluded to the
domino theory in speeches, detailing how the fall of Vietnam to communism would see neighboring countries fall in order. US intervention in Vietnam was built up over time - there was no formal declaration of war. First came supplies to support the South’s pro-American leader Diem, then military advisors. A further 12,000 soldiers were deployed by 1962. The 1964 Gulf of Tonkin incident saw a US warship engaged by North Vietnamese torpedo boats, allowing President Johnson to pass a resolution that permitted the full deployment of the US military in Southeast Asia in place of the previously limited presence. By 1968, over half a million troops had been deployed to bolster South Vietnamese military operations. Tactical differences were significant. Whereas the US fought a conventional war, mobilising infantry units and relying on air superiority, the North Vietnamese utilised guerrilla tactics to effect ambushes. This had a demoralising effect on both the American forces and the public at home. There had been support for the war when morale was high and the belief that the US were helping liberate the Vietnamese while the threat of communism
Photo via: history.com persisted. However, as the war dragged on and casulties rose - nearly 60,000 KIA by the war’s end and 150,000 wounded, public appetite for the war faded. The Tet offensive was a watershed moment. An anti-war movement grew over time. Numerous controversies fueled opposition to war such as the use of chemical agents orange and napalm, which destroyed swathes of the Vietnamese countryside and injured and killed thousands of civilians. As public opposition grew and the futility of the conflict became greater realised, the US government scaled back military involvement in the early 1970s, with the last American troops withdrawn in 1973. The conflict ended in 1975 as North Vietnamese forces swept through the Southern capital. Despite the scale of US military intervention, the US suffered defeat. The war had lasting consequences. The US economy dipped in the 1970s as war expenditure and an unsteady global market hurt domestic consumers. America’s stature as a global power took a hit while Cold War tensions persisted. The Vietnam War remains a significant event in American cultural history with numerous films centered on the conflict. The policy of US interventionism died down somewhat, although returned in 1990 during the Gulf War and later conflicts in the Middle East. Were lessons learnt? Despite the great cost in American lives lost, US foreign policy has continued to pursue interventionism abroad, believing the cost necessary to maintaining America’s belief in capitalism and freedom.
Sean Jones Photo via: nbcnews.com @TheMcrHistorian
9
ISSUE 28 | NOVEMBER 2017
THE AMERICAN EDITION
The Cuban Missile Crisis
Photo via: Wikicommons
success of liberty”, highlighting the means to which the leader of the free nation would go to secure the democratic ideology. His counterpart, Nikita Khrushchev was similarly passionate about the communist movement and believed that “history [was] on [their] side”. The passionate sentiments of both leaders would be tested when the Cold War directly impacted the survival of the human race.
Off the coast of Florida, the Communist Robert F Kennedy, the US Attorney General, president, Fidel Castro, had overrun the island described the Cuban Missile Crisis as a clear of Cuba and signed a secret agreement with moment where the US and USSR ‘brought the theCommons Soviets to maintain nuclear missiles in The aftermath of the Sharpeville Massacre. Wikimedia world to the abyss of nuclear destruction’. Those case of any further US-sponsored attacks. thirteen days in October 1962 were arguably When American spy planes discovered the the most dramatic in Cold War relations, missile sites, Kennedy refused to accept namely due to the severity and consequence of their proximity and set up a Naval Blockade using nuclear weapons. around Cuba. Here, a period of brinkmanship began, in which both the US and USSR failed By 1962, tensions between the United States to withdraw. By the second week of critically and the Soviet Union were immensely strained stressed tensions, Kennedy, in an attempt to following a period of chaotic developments. rectify the situation, publically declared that Events such as the Berlin Crisis and the failed the US would not invade Cuba if the missiles Bay of Pigs invasion destabilised US and USSR were removed within twenty-four hours. To relations. Elected in 1960, President John F entice the USSR further, Kennedy promised Kennedy wanted to “assure the survival and
to remove US missiles in Turkey. At the last minute, Khrushchev agreed to the concessions and the potential nuclear Armageddon was resolved. Regardless of their opposing ideals, both leaders had attempted to resolve the situation for the good of humanity, recognising the repercussions of the potential disaster. The fall of the Berlin Wall in 1989 symbolised the end of the Cold War and never has the use of nuclear weapons been processed as a legitimate answer to the assertion of a dominant world ideology. The potential fallout of the Cuban Missile Crisis would have been catastrophic and unattainable: hundreds of millions would have been annihilated. Therefore, the parallels between this incident and the current foreign relations between the US and North Korea are unsurprisingly similar. The lessons of history continue to shape our understanding of current affairs, making the experience of the Cuban Missile Crisis more prevalent than ever before.
Tom Verheyden
Edison’s Light Bulb The invention of the light bulb was a process that took the scientific community the best part of the 19th century to complete and perfect. It was on 27 January 1880 that Thomas Edison, a relative newcomer to the field of research, was able to patent his light bulb design and make it ready for mass production. This pioneering invention has gone down as one of the most important in world history; it was able to transform the world at the time of its creation and is still hugely significant in the lives of people today. The darkness of night had been illuminated, which altered the work and leisure patterns of many people. Of course, Thomas Edison took a comprehensive share of the plaudits for achieving this astounding feat, but the history of electric lighting can be traced back to when Alessandro Volta made copper glow as a result of his experiment to create the battery in 1800. For most historians, it has become widely accepted that Thomas Edison was not the original inventor of the light bulb. English scientist Joseph Swan had exhibited his
10
own prototype in December 1878, the same year that Edison had begun work on his own design. The issue with these bulbs concerned the length of time they provided light for, usually only lasting a matter of minutes. Edison could see where Swan was going wrong, and claimed that he and his team had tested over six-thousand materials in his quest to find an appropriate filament. He finally had a practical option when carbonised bamboo was tested. It was a resilient, incandescent material with a high resistance, which was cheap to produce, and would last for 1200 hours. Edison’s light bulb was revolutionary. He took his invention around the globe, exhibiting it in Paris in 1881 and at the Crystal Palace in London the following year, showing the widespread demand that this scientific feat had managed to garner. He exclaimed that it gave out “one of the most brilliant lights which the world has ever seen”, and it quickly began to replace lighting options such as candles, gas, and oil-based lamps which were unsafe because of the fire risk that they posed.
Photo via: Wikicommons Edison was able to deliver light to the world in a way that no one before him had been able to. It was just one in a multitude of important inventions that he brought to the world, which also included the phonograph and a primitive version of the motion picture camera. However, the light bulb itself has become the symbol of imagination and innovation, a testament to the creation that Edison was able to perfect.
Steve Biko www.mg.co.za Jake Gill
www.manchesterhistorian.com
ISSUE 28 | NOVEMBER 2017
THE AMERICAN EDITION
Jazz: A History culture. Armstrong gained worldwide fame for his recording of Body and Soul in 1930 which championed the techniques of scat and improvisation.
Louis Armsstrong. Photo via: Wikicommons Our modern perception of Jazz is considered to have taken form in the streets of New Orleans around the late 19th century, yet its origins can be traced back almost one hundred years earlier to West Africa. With the arrival of the slave trade, a new style of music emerged from Africa which allowed displaced Africans to use their voices as a survival tool in traditional folk song. One of the predecessors of jazz includes The Work Song, whose key feature, “the call and response”, was echoed in many of the early vocal performances of jazz. In contemporary times this feature can still be heard in such songs as So What by Miles Davis. The abundance of rhythmic content is another element drawn from Africa which can be seen as the backbone of jazz music. Traditionally, rhythm was something that could be extracted from the everyday, with anything from tools, shells or the human body being utilised to pull the music together. Although this formed the basic foundation of jazz, rhythm went through many transformations to become the recognisable genre which dominated the early part of the 20th century. However, it is perhaps no surprise that New Orleans is the city where jazz really took hold. As a port it was privy to many different cultures and had a thriving nightlife where musicians would come together to learn and blend a mixture of styles. In 1817, the city council established “Congo Square” where public slave dances, later renamed “the ring shout”, would take place using instruments which were characteristic @TheMcrHistorian
of indigenous African music. Soon this combined with European musical traditions such as harmony, the use of chords to accompany the main tune of a piece, and classical instruments such as the piano and saxophone. The combination of these elements developed the syncopated rhythms of Ragtime, which started to appear in print around 1897 and was recorded for the first time by Charles Booth in 1901. Its popularity and influence began to spread across America to the extent that an association for Black musicians was founded by James Reese Europe in New York, 1910. Yet, the word “Jazz” didn’t actually appear in print until 1913 and is believed to have been taken from the slang word “jism” which means “spirit or energy”. This was used as a uniting term for the migration of musicians who left New Orleans for other large US cities. With this movement emerged some of the most notable jazz musicians. Louis Armstrong, Bessie Smith and Duke Ellington gave their first performances in the 1920s, eventually culminating in the Harlem district of New York, which became a hub for jazz
Duke Ellington Big Band, Munich 1963 Photo via: Wikicommons
Despite the growing popularity, jazz did face its fair share of opposition. It was prohibited in dancehalls across America during the 1920s and it was banned in Nazi Germany for its racial roots and its spirit of individualism. Moreover, the introduction of television in the 1950s and the dominance of Rock and Roll from the 1960s lessened its popularity. However, the creation of new genres of music established the development of Fusion Jazz. Sub-genres such as Free Jazz and Afro-Cuban became popular and with the arrival of synchronizers in the 1980s, jazz seemingly had a new face. Indeed, many music genres popular today can be traced back to jazz, with R&B (Rhythm and Blues) still containing many of the same rhythms. Nowadays jazz is still a well-respected genre and artists such as Gregory Porter and Norah Jones are making waves on the charts. Films such as La La Land are also seeking to glorify the genre. However, the film did raise some problematic questions of ownership. La La Land was highly criticised for promoting “the white saviour complex” and taking away this expression of cultural heritage and its contribution to American culture. Moreover, there is debate over whether white people partaking in the genre is appropriation or just an attempt to create a discourse where music can genuinely be seen as a universal language. What we can be certain about is the political and regenerative nature of jazz and the spirit of its heritage; jazz will always create a voice for the individual.
Helen Aron
11
ISSUE 28 | NOVEMBER 2017
THE AMERICAN EDITION Photo via: Wikicommons
Michelle Obama is recognised globally for her position as First Lady of the United States, a position she held from 2009 to 2017. Being the first African American First Lady, Michelle Obama is an icon of the progressive and more liberal America which was practiced under the Obama administration. Obama was named Most Fascinating Person of the year in 2009 as she took the country by surprise through her controversially modern approach to the historic role. She did not just receive respect because of her marriage to Barack Obama - but also for the way in which she used the platform of First Lady to support change for others. Michelle Obama has been heavily praised for her support of LGBT rights. She publicly announced her support for same-sex marriage in May 2012, stating that for her it
Michelle: An Icon was a matter of fairness and equality which is granted to everyone under American law, no matter “who we love.” To this day Obama continues to use her influence to promote LGBT rights in the media, recently speaking out against the anti-LGBT “religious freedom” bills passing through the state legislatures in Mississippi. One specific achievement of Obama’s time in the White House was the initiative ‘Let’s Move!’ which aimed to tackle the increasing rate of childhood obesity in America. ‘Let’s Move!’ seeks to reduce childhood obesity to 5% by 2030 through the encouragement of healthier food options in schools, clearer food labelling, and more opportunity for physical activity for children. 597 museums and gardens in all 50 states have signed up to offer active exhibits and healthy food choices as part of ‘Let’s Move! Museums and Gardens’. This is an important step in educating the public about the dangers of obesity and it provides accessible spaces for families to be active together.
Not only has Obama supported and raised awareness for LGBT rights and the health of children, she has also helped advance the campaign for women’s rights around the world. Obama launched the ‘Let Girls Learn’ initiative in March 2015, which aimed to help grant education to the 62 million girls around the world who don’t have access to schooling. When Obama made a trip to North Africa in the Summer of 2016, she announced that $5 million from the Obama administration would be spent addressing gender-based violence and poor sanitation in villages, with the aim of encouraging young girls into education. It is clear why Michelle Obama has proved to be an extremely popular First Lady. She was willing to take a stand on contentious issues, and fight to introduce essential change at both a national and international level.
Clare Tiplady
The Harlem Renaissance On a quest for self-definition, African Americans in post-WWI America sought a new collective identity for themselves through political mobilisation, social commentary, and a mastery of the arts. The Harlem Renaissance was 1920s Harlem’s artistic and intellectual contribution to this quest, known at the time as the ‘New Negro Movement’. This movement was, in many ways, the consequence of the ‘Great Migration’, during which a staggering number of African Americans fled the segregation and persecution of the Jim Crow south for the ‘Promised Land’ of the industrialised, urban north. Tightknit African American communities flourished in northern economic centres like New York, Chicago and Detroit. These communities fostered a mingling of minds, and precipitated ambitious works of art and pioneering political observations. African Americans of the Harlem Renaissance constructed a new collective identity for themselves through various mediums and schools: artists, like the much-celebrated Jacob Lawrence, illustrated both the peculiarities and trivialities of quotidian
12
African American life; writers, particularly Jean Toomer – who penned the pioneering work Cane (1923) – forced the recognition, and celebration, of African American works of prose; and musicians, like Duke Ellington and Fats Waller, demonstrated through jazz the proficiency and marvel of African American culture. These great figures, along with countless others, forced the contemplation of the plight of African Americans, whilst simultaneously compelling the recognition of African Americans as a civilised and culturally sophisticated people. Inevitably, though, the Harlem Renaissance was not a faultless success. African Americans were frequently exhibited not as civilised, but as ‘primitive’. The Cotton Club presented to its strictly white audience a roster of black performers against a backdrop of plantation-themed décor. In this respect, it can be argued that African Americans did not develop a new identity for themselves as refined and urbanised, but were merely ogled by the white bohemians of New York wanting to dip their toes in the ‘Jazz Age’. Nonetheless, it is difficult to ignore the positive legacy of the Harlem Renaissance. The socio-political organisations that
blossomed in that era, serving as outlets for African American art and theory, went on to institutionalise and mobilise African American voices during the Civil Rights Movement. Moreover, many works of the Harlem Renaissance received high praise from the white public and press, such as Langston Hughes’ poem The Weary Blues (1926). The Harlem Renaissance not only paraded African Americans’ artistic and intellectual capabilities, it successfully narrated the realities of the African American experience to a wider audience. Black art was brought from the sidelines of wider American consciousness to the very forefront of cultural discourse.
Harry Sherrin
Via: U.S. National Archives & Records Administration.
www.manchesterhistorian.com
ISSUE 28 | NOVEMBER 2017
HISTORY YOU SHOULD KNOW
HISTORY YOU SHOULD KNOW
The First Thanksgiving, Photo via:Wikicommons.
Thanksgiving Day Nowadays, Thanksgiving is a national holiday. There’s a parade in New York, and everyone gathers with their families and loved ones to eat turkey, spend time with one another and give thanks. But Thanksgiving hasn’t always been like this. The first Thanksgiving took place in 1621 in Plymouth, Massachusetts. Pilgrims from Britain came over to the US to settle in 1620 but the journey and the harsh winter meant they lost more than half their people – and the rest were severely malnourished. They were struggling for resources so they formed a relationship with the nearby Wamponoag Indians. They taught the Pilgrims how to fish, hunt, and plant crops, and by Autumn 1621 the Pilgrims had enough resources to feed their people. As a thank you, they invited the Wamponoags for a celebration, which then became the first ever Thanksgiving.
unhappy with this portrayal being taught to school children as they think it paints a very positive picture of relations between the Europeans and the Native Americans. They believe children should be taught about the controversial history surrounding the settling of Europeans in the present US in more depth, and their treatment of the Native Americans already living there. Some Native Americans even gather on a hill which overlooks Plymouth Rock on Thanksgiving each year and call it their ‘National Day of Mourning.’ The Pilgrims celebrated Thanksgiving again in 1623 after a period of drought ended. Thanksgiving had now caught on in the New England colonies and it was celebrated as a time of giving thanks, but it also included fasting which is wildly different to the Thanksgiving celebrations of today.
This particular Thanksgiving didn’t include some of the things that are now synonymous with the holiday. They didn’t eat turkey, but instead most likely ate deer, goose, cod, and lobster. Their Thanksgiving was also a three day celebration and included hunting as well as eating.
Of course, there is some debate as to whether the Pilgrims and the Wamponoags established the first example of Thanksgiving, as in ancient times, people paid tribute to their gods for the harvest and gave thanks. However, the theory of the Pilgrims is the most widely believed and taught.
There is some controversy over Thanksgiving as some think that it celebrates the oppression of the Native Americans by the Europeans, and that the Pilgrims were taking advantage of the Wamponoags. It is widely believed by most Americans that this was just a feast to give thanks – hence Thanksgiving – for their help with their harvest and to celebrate their friendship. However, Native Americans are @TheMcrHistorian
Thanksgiving did not become popular across the United States until 1789 when George Washington issued the first Thanksgiving proclamation. He wanted the people of America to celebrate the winning of the war of Independence and the ratification of the US constitution. Despite this, the idea of Thanksgiving as an annual holiday did not properly come into place until the 19th century.
In 1817, New York and a few other states decided to have an annual Thanksgiving holiday but there was no fixed date as each state had its own particular Thanksgiving day. In fact, a Thanksgiving day was not truly ratified until 1863 when Abraham Lincoln declared the fourth Thursday of November the official Thanksgiving to bring the nation together under the care of God and in the midst of the civil war, to help the nation heal its wounds. During the Great Depression, Franklin D Roosevelt passed a bill in 1939 which brought Thanksgiving forward a week to the third Thursday of November so retailers had more time for sales in the run up to Christmas and could earn more money. This was met with much opposition and caused controversy as Thanksgiving had then been set as the fourth Thursday in November for a considerable period of time. He had no choice but to pass a bill (however reluctantly) in 1941 to make Thanksgiving the fourth Thursday of November once again. The introduction of turkey and cranberry sauce as Thanksgiving staples actually predates the settling of the day of Thanksgiving. The author Sarah Josepha Hale - who wrote Mary Had a Little Lamb - campaigned for Thanksgiving to be a national holiday in 1827, and published recipes for turkey, stuffing, mashed potatoes, and cranberry sauce so that people could create a feast to celebrate.
Rosie Wright 13
HISTORY YOU SHOULD KNOW
ISSUE 28 | NOVEMBER 2017
The 19th Amendment 18 August 1920 marks the day American women were granted the right to vote under the constitution, with the addition of the Nineteenth Amendment. This signified a judicial end to the contradiction and hypocrisy which had tainted the lives of women for so long. Men had enjoyed universal suffrage for almost a century already when the amendment ultimately decided that women also had a valid opinion on the issues concerning their country. The battle for women’s suffrage and, essentially, equality under the constitution is a long and convoluted one, which arguably remains unresolved today. However, this event in 1920 certainly marks the climax of the women’s suffrage movement hitherto, and has paved the way to modern societal and political equality. Although female suffrage has been a longstanding battle throughout the whole of history in America, with the passing of local laws in the 18th century determining women unable to own property or vote, the reactionary backlash only truly evolved in the middle of the 19th century. The movement for women’s rights was launched on a national level through a convention located at Seneca Falls, New York in 1848. Here, the Declaration of Sentiments was signed by 300 women and men, a document demanding an end to discrimination against women. This organised convention of dissent was the catalyst for other meetings and with the areas of Rochester and Worcester following shortly after it soon became an annual occurrence. As a result, the event has often been described by historians
Artists’ Suffrage League Poster: Wikicommons
14
as “the single most important factor” in the origins of the suffragette movement. Despite this monumental event, the following years saw major setbacks, and increased restrictions on women’s social and political mobility. The Fourteenth Amendment in 1864, in stark contrast to the later Nineteenth Amendment, stated that voters and citizens of the US were only recognised as male under law. This fact highlights the sheer power of the women’s rights movement as it functioned outside of the political establishment. However, around the same time as the Fourteenth Amendment, progress for women was still being made with females entering the “professional” world of work. In 1869,
Votes for WomenPoster: Wikicommons
Suffragette Steamroller Cartoon: Wikicommons Arabella Mansfield was the first female to be granted the right to study law, and, in 1872, Victoria Claflin Whitehall was the first female presidential candidate. In this same year, the American Woman Suffrage Association decided to focus exclusively on gaining voting rights for women as a constitutional agreement. In 1890, the merging of the National Women Suffrage and the American Woman Suffrage Association to create the National American Women Suffrage Association gave the campaign for suffrage unity and thus the force necessary to wage state-by-state campaigns for votes. It can be argued that the dominant narrative of the entire women’s rights movement begins and ends in Britain and the United States. In England, organised dissent on women’s right to vote happened later than the US, in around 1866 with the creation of a petition, which was eventually admitted to parliament with around 1,500 signatures. Unlike the United States, the suffragette movement in Britain was characterised by oscillating
waves of extreme change, as opposed to a slow consistent progression. The period between 1870 and 1905 is often referred to as “the doldrums” in Britain, due to the lack of mobilisation and enthusiasm of suffragists throughout the period. However, 1905 marks an explosion of civil disobedience and mass militancy within the female population of Britain. The campaigns involved heckling politicians, chaining themselves to Parliament, hunger strikes and the bombing of buildings. The British campaign culminated in limited women’s suffrage in 1918 and universal suffrage in 1928. This degree of militancy was not mirrored in the United States. Though the American movement did incorporate acts of militant violence, hunger strikes and being chained to buildings at certain stages of the campaign, progress in the US was generally of a peaceful nature. It seems that the battle for equal rights for women has always been a story of instability and turbulence. This story is ongoing, with the glass ceiling still firmly in place as issues such as the pay gap remain systemic within society. That said, the progress made within the last century is monumental in terms of the judicial treatment and recognition of women, especially in America. The catalytic decision by the American government to add the Nineteenth Amendment to the constitution was critical to the dramatic change in the status of women during the 20th and 21st centuries.
Eleanor Scrafton www.manchesterhistorian.com
ISSUE 28 | NOVEMBER 2017
HISTORY YOU SHOULD KNOW
The AIDS Crisis of the 1980s The early 1980s was a scary period to live through for American homosexual men. Homophobia and discrimination not only effected day to day life but it went hand in hand with the threat of a highly infectious and fatal disease that had no known cure. The so called ‘AIDS crisis’ of the 1980s originated, paradoxically, from the medical progression of the 60s and 70s. The successful dissipation, and in some cases eradication, of infectious diseases in the 1970s infused the world with optimism. Funded by the World Health Organisation, a coalition of world health workers had successfully created a vaccination against smallpox, the world’s most fatal infectious disease. Therefore, the faith in the success of modern medicine had dramatically increased. However, social developments created the context for an epidemic which would rock the world. A string of events brought the visibility of homosexuality into the public domain. The British government began to re-examine the law on male homosexuality and prostitution in 1954. In 1957, a committee headed by John Wolfenden reported that homosexual activity between consenting adults in private should no longer be a criminal offence. The recommendations put forward were eventually enacted in 1967, and in 1972 the first Gay Pride March took place in London. In America, homosexuality was also being brought into the spotlight and attitudes were beginning to change. In 1973, the American Psychiatric Association removed the inclusion of homosexuality as a disease in the DSM. However, the social progression surrounding homosexuality created a sociology of blame when AIDS erupted onto the scene in the 1980s. Immunodeficiency disease AIDS originated in Sub-Saharan Africa in the 1930s. Although it has been reported that it reached America as early as the 1960s, the first case was detected and recorded by doctors in 1981.
During this period, being diagnosed with AIDS was to be given a death sentence, and it had begun to spread rapidly throughout gay communities. The media described AIDS as a ‘gay cancer’ or the ‘gay plague’ which gave impetus to intense anxieties towards the gay community. However, it was the work of American journalist Randy Shilts that directed the sociology of blame towards homosexual men and engendered discrimination towards them. His 1987 publication, And the Band Played On, pinpointed ‘Patient Zero’, a homosexual flight attendant, as the carrier and cause of the AIDS epidemic in America. Shilts’ work culminated in intense homophobia. Fear and ignorance towards AIDS was widespread, mainly because the transmission and nature of the disease was, in the early stages, largely unknown. Right wing politicians and hate-inciting preachers attributed the AIDS epidemic to the work of God. It is no secret that Christians and other religions condemn homosexuality, regarding it as bad or evil. The rhetoric therefore of religious moralists and Christians deemed AIDS as a punishment for sexual sin, particularly the sin of sodomy or homosexuality. Christian churches used AIDS as proof that their teachings on homosexuality were correct and used the
Photo via: Flickr epidemic among homosexual men in the 1980s to extract theological richness from a disease they believed was saturated in deviance and sin. Many politicians, including the Ronald Reagan White House refused to acknowledge the epidemic initially. The Reagan administration, in not responding to the epidemic, allowed hundreds of thousands of needless deaths to occur from the disease. The abhorrent neglect of the state was counteracted by AIDS activist groups being set up in an attempt to gain funding for AIDS research, which was wholly disproportionate to the epidemiological significance. Discrimination against homosexuality was openly presented in the public domain through propaganda, such as the famous advert; ‘AIDS: Don’t Die of Ignorance’. However, publicity campaigns and celebrity announcements, including one from basketball star Magic Johnson, attempted to counter the incorrect perception of AIDS as solely a homosexual disease. Stars such as Freddie Mercury also worked tirelessly to arouse media attention to the fact that people of all sexual orientations were susceptible to the dangers of AIDS. The AIDS epidemic of the 1980s was like no other before it. It was intertwined with profound social and cultural meaning, it gave impetus to long-term and broadranging effects on both social institutions and cultural configurations. Furthermore, the social tragedy of the AIDS crisis has been intrinsically embedded in the social fabric of many communities. The stigmatization of sufferers and carriers is an epidemic in itself, which, to this day, has not been eradicated.
Grace Young Photo via: Flickr @TheMcrHistorian
thegrandtour.it
15
HISTORY YOU SHOULD KNOW
ISSUE 28 | NOVEMBER 2017
The Civil Rights Act of 1964
Martin Luther King, The March on Washington 1963. Photo via: Wikicommons Passed by President Lyndon B. Johnson on 2 Americans were lynched in thousands, July 1964, the Civil Rights Act was arguably and Southern States wasted no time in the most revolutionary legislation concerning introducing the Black Codes which restricted African Americans since the Emancipation African American freedom. For example, Proclamation of 1863, which freed slaves every Southern State rewrote its constitution from bondage. The Civil Rights Act of 1964 in order to prohibit African Americans prohibited segregation in public places, from voting, including Literacy tests and made employment discrimination illegal, Grandfather Clauses to ensure the franchise and integrated all schools and other public remained white. African Americans lived with facilities. This act made it unconstitutional to segregation, a principle made legal on the discriminate on the grounds of race, gender, grounds of ‘separate but equal’ as a result of nationality, religion, and so on. Plessy vs. Ferguson, 1896. The Act was arguably born in John F. Kennedy’s presidency. Following the 1960 Civil Rights Act, the Civil Rights commission found that 57% of African American housing was judged to be unacceptable, life expectancy was seven years shorter for African Americans and infant mortality was twice as great. After being sworn in on Air Force One following Kennedy’s assassination, Johnson was able to pass the act in the spirit of continuing what Kennedy wanted, in addition to the hypocrisy of the Cold War hanging over America. Whilst America condemned the Russians and branded itself the ‘land of the free’, African Americans were still treated as second class citizens. Racism has been a continuous problem throughout the United States since the conclusion of the Civil War in 1865. Despite Lincoln introducing the 13th, 14th, and 15th amendments, white supremacist attitudes have not disappeared. Disaffection with the legislation was first demonstrated by the assassination of Lincoln on 15 April 1865 by John Wilkes Booth, in an attempt to revive the confederacy cause. From 1865-77, the United States entered a period of Reconstruction in attempt to repair the damages inflicted by war. The failures of Reconstruction, combined with the bitterness of the Southern States, deepened racial prejudice. The Ku Klux Klan quickly grew in numbers following the war, African
16
Abiding by rules branded the ‘Jim Crow Laws’, equal facilities were non-existent and fear tortured the lives of many African Americans. Between 1880-1930, 3220 African Americans were lynched. As a result of the continuing violence and discrimination several African American Activist groups were established. Most famously, the NAACP, founded by W.E.B. Du Bois in 1909, which practiced non-violent ways to fight racism and discrimination. This non-violent approach became key to the Civil Rights Movement, which saw African Americans participate in peaceful protests such as sit-ins, freedom rides, and boycotts, despite the violent response of white Americans.
Most famous for his non-violent approach was Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. who performed his iconic I Have a Dream speech at the March on Washington in August 1963, a year before the passing of the Civil Rights Act. Rosa Parks was also a key figure in the movement, sparking the Montgomery Bus Boycott which led to the desegregation of public transport whilst, the desegregation of Central High School in Arkansas saw the ‘Little Rock nine’ brave white mobs to attend school. Ernest Green became the first African American to graduate from this school in 1958. Despite the struggles of African Americans in their fight for equality both amongst their own community as well as with white America (not everyone believed in the non-violent approach, such as famous Black Power activist Malcom X), the Civil Rights Act was a revolutionary step forward in terms of equality and legislation. It is also important to remember that whilst the Act was primarily targeted at African Americans,it prevented discrimination on all grounds, helping women and Americans of other nationalities to gain equal opportunity in America. Although it was progressive, many African Americans (along with a large number of whites, but for different reasons) were dissatisfied with the Act as they felt it did not go far enough. This is evident through continued campaigning, such as King’s march from Selma to Montgomery in 1965 in protest of voter discrimination which generated The Voting Rights Act of 1965. The Civil Rights Act of 1964 was a stepping stone, albeit a large one, in the fight for equality that still continues in this day.
Amy Leahy
President Johnson signs the 1964 Civil Rights Act. Photo via: Wikicommons www.manchesterhistorian.com
ISSUE 28 | NOVEMBER 2017
FIGURES YOU SHOULD KNOW
FIGURES YOU SHOULD KNOW
The Baptism of Pocahontas. Photo via: Wikicommons
Pocahontas: A Lost Story Pocahontas is a renowned historical figure, thanks in the most part to the eponymous Disney film that placed her firmly in our historical awareness. Daughter of Powhatan, the leader of an Algonquin tribe, Pocahontas’ life has been sanitised and romanticised to erase any suggestion of the violence of colonialism, from her supposed relationship with John Smith, to her experiences in England. Despite her fame, very little about her actual life is commonly known.
Photo via: Wikicommons @TheMcrHistorian
In both film and literature, John Smith is represented as a romantic interest, despite the fact that when he met Pocahontas she would have been 11 years old. In Smith’s account of his travels, he tells of the Powhatans, who captured Smith and were preparing to kill him until Pocahontas laid her head on top of his, preventing the execution from taking place. Pocahontas’ gallant act to save Smith’s life, and her subsequent involvement with the settlers, is perhaps why she is so often linked romantically with a man almost three times her age. Smith repeated this story some years later with another girl in Pocahontas’ place and scholars believe that he may have fabricated the tale in order to present Pocahontas as civilised to Queen Anne, to whom he wrote of his travels. Smith’s true intentions are far from the only part of Pocahontas’ life that has been removed from historical narratives. In 1613, tensions between the settlers and the Algonquin worsened, and any good will between the two came to an end. Pocahontas was deceived by the English settlers and held for ransom. During this time, she converted to Christianity and changed her name to Rebecca. A year later, she married John Rolfe, deciding to stay with the settlers rather than to go back to her
old life. When Rolfe travelled to England in 1616, Pocahontas joined him, leaving behind the world she knew. In London, Pocahontas was treated by many significant people as royalty. It seems that much of society had very little idea on how to address her and her father, treating and entertaining them as royal visitors. In spite of her own actions and her marriage to Rolfe, it seems unlikely that Pocahontas succeeded in convincing the British to trust the Algonquin, considering the treatment of Native American tribes in the following years. Pocahontas never returned to her birthplace, she died not long into her journey back to Virginia. She is buried at St George’s Church, Gravesend. Although there is a statue, her grave is unmarked, lost in a fire in 1727 along with a large portion of her life’s history.
India-Rose Channon
17
FIGURES YOU SHOULD KNOW
ISSUE 28 | NOVEMBER 2017
Angela Davis: Feminist Fugitive Photo via: Wikicommons Angela Davis is undoubtedly an iconic figure in 20th century American history. The Rolling Stones’ Sweet Black Angel was dedicated to her, and it was reported last year that a biopic of her is now in the works. Yet, the same Angela Davis was fired from her professorship by Ronald Reagan and described by Richard Nixon as being a “dangerous terrorist.” How can one woman be viewed so differently? To this day, Angela Davis continues to be an important feminist figure. In her book Women, Race and Class, Davis explored the racial and socioeconomic barriers that hold back the female suffrage and reproductive rights movements. Whilst the idea of intersectional feminism is widely promoted today, Davis’ book was published in 1981. She was a pioneer of the notion that women of colour face unique challenges in their liberation. For white women, the 1980s was a time of ever increasing social and
economic equality. For women of colour, Davis argued, it was an unrelenting battle against discrimination in the labour market (often forced into domestic roles) and higher education. Hoping to inspire cooperation in her work, the activist often drew attention to the important work done by both white and black women in Reconstruction era, leading to the creation of the South’s first public school system. By uncompromisingly drawing attention to these problematic points and repeatedly stressing that cooperation between white women and women of colour must take place to achieve equality, Angela Davis partially inspired the third-wave feminism movement that we see today. Arguably, Davis’ role in the Soledad prison incident cemented her position as an African American political figure. She was a supporter of the Soledad Brothers, three black men accused of killing a white guard at California’s Soledad Prison. One Brother took control of a courtroom in August 1970 and proceeded
Jackie Robinson: Athlete to Activist Jackie Robinson is a significant figure in African American history. He raised issues of race relations, not only in sport, but in society as a whole by becoming the first African American to play in Major League Baseball, erasing the colour line in the United States’ national pastime.
When the Brooklyn Dodgers signed Robinson in 1947, he became a role model in the fight for equality. Until this point, baseball, much like the majority of American society, was segregated. Robinson encountered several barriers before becoming a member of the Dodgers, including players creating a petition to prevent Robinson becoming their teammate. Some feared white fans would not accept black players and may stop attending games. When Branch Rickey, the Dodgers manager, proposed the idea of signing Robinson to the Major League owners, there was a vote against allowing him to play, fifteen to one. Almost two years after first meeting with Rickey, Robinson was finally permitted to play his first game. As he walked out onto Citi Field on 14 April
18
1947 he was not just a baseball player, but a civil rights pioneer, becoming an inspiration for African Americans to fight against segregation and racism in the United States. As Robinson became a sports icon, he also became a national hero. His baseball career encouraged people to question America’s principles of racial equality and launched further campaigns for equal rights. As baseball was the nation’s favourite pastime, bringing the issue of race to its stadiums brought it to the forefronts of people’s thoughts. In 1947, Robinson made headlines throughout the country - becoming the first African American to be on the cover of both Time and Life magazine. Robinson used his position as the most visible black man in America to become a spokesperson for the Civil Rights Movement. Once retired from the game, this became his main priority. In 1957 Robinson sent a telegram to President Eisenhower calling on him to veto the Civil Rights Bill in its current form, as many felt it was too weak, and far from achieving racial equality. His
to shoot a judge dead. The firearm used in this attack were registered to Angela Davis. A warrant was issued for her arrest; she became the third woman ever to be placed on the FBI’s ‘Ten Most Wanted’ Fugitive List and was later held in solitary confinement. She was found not guilty by an all-white jury in 1972. Davis would later say that her ordeal lead her to “understand much more concretely many of the realities of the black struggle of that period.” Davis became an outspoken critic of the ‘prison-industrial complex, comparing it to slavery. Before the Soledad incident, Angela Davis had been a well-educated, welltravelled assistant professor in philosophy, which is sadly hardly typical of the AfricanAmerican experience. Her unfair persecution at the hands of the law made it starkly apparent that this could happen to any black person in the United States, and she became determined to change this.
Lily Sheehan
Photo via: Wikicommons
words did not go unheard, and Robinson kept fighting this cause, eventually leading to the Civil Rights Act of 1960 which attempted to resolve some of the limitations of the 1957 Act. Robinson continued pushing for equality and became an NAACP board director. His continued determination can be considered as one of the factors which helped to catalyse the introduction of the 1964 Civil Rights Act, which finally saw African Americans guaranteed the same rights as the rest of the population. Robinson did not just erase the colour line in baseball, but strongly contributed to erasing the colour line in American society.
Tiggy Hillbery
www.manchesterhistorian.com
ISSUE 28 | NOVEMBER 2017
Howard Hughes: Iron Man ‘Genius, billionaire, playboy, philanthropist’ (The Avengers, 2012) – the assured words of Tony Stark’s self-identification are comparable to the impressive historical figure of American inventor Howard Hughes. In fact, the character of Tony Stark and his father (also named Howard) have been confirmed to have been inspired by Hughes’ life and achievements. Born in 1905, the son of a successful inventor and businessman in Texas, Hughes demonstrated an early interest in technology which would sustain itself in his ventures throughout his life and contribute significantly to the United States as we know it today. After losing both parents by the age of 19 and inheriting a large portion of the considerable family fortune, Hughes was able to move to Los Angeles to pursue a career in filmmaking. He won an Academy Award for Two Arabian Knights in 1928 and received nominations for multiple other films. His $3.8 million production of the aviation film Hell’s Angels (1930) was originally produced as a silent film, but Hughes insisted
on extending production to include sound. This was an important decision in consolidating his undeniable influence in the early days of Hollywood and today the film is widely recognised as one of the first sound-action films. Hughes famously suffered from severe obsessive-compulsive disorder and in 1958 he locked himself in a film studio’s screening room for more than four months, a memorable and disturbing incident which is relayed effectively in Martin Scorsese’s The Aviator (2004). The film delves into Hughes’ personal and professional life between 1927-1947 and takes a particular focus on Hughes’ considerable aviation exploits. Despite encountering four serious separate flying injuries, Hughes was extremely successful in his aviation endeavours. In 1932 he founded the Hughes Aircraft Company and began work on building his first private custom aircraft – the Hughes H-1 Racer. This plane would go on to break the airspeed record in
FIGURES YOU SHOULD KNOW
Photo via: Wikicommons 1935 and in July 1938, Hughes set the record for his round-the-world flight – completed in 3 days, 19 hours and 17 minutes. Not only was Hughes making history in the world of cinema, but in the world of aviation as well. The Howard Hughes Medical Institute in Miami, Florida was launched in 1953 as a result of Hughes’ personal interest in science. In 1966, Hughes moved to live in Las Vegas and purchased numerous casinos, giving him immense influence in the state of Nevada before his death in 1976. He is credited as having written: ‘I like to think of Las Vegas in terms of a well-dressed man in a dinner jacket and a beautifully jewelled and furred female getting out of an expensive car’ – a statement that displays just one of many of Hughes’ considerable contributions to modern America.
Eva Tite
Your weekend to Budapest starts right here – Budapest is one of our most popular destinations for societies, and it’s not hard to see why. From the world famous Ruin Bars to the revitalising thermal baths dotted all over the city, Budapest offers some truly unique experiences. It also is one of the most affordable cities in Europe, so you don’t have to spend much to have a great time! During the day you can explore the city and enjoy sightseeing. The Houses of Parliament, Fisherman’s Bastion and St Stephen’s Bastion are just a few of the highlights of the amazing Hungarian architecture that lies within the city. Take a cruise down the Danube river around sunset and experience Budapest in golden hour. Once the night is in full swing, the city becomes the party capital of Europe. It can be hard to know where you should go first – we’ve got you covered though. The Invasion Team have an amazing bar crawl through the best bars in Budapest lined up for you and your society. Prepare for a weekend you’ll never forget, or maybe you will… Depends on how much you have to drink!
@TheMcrHistorian
19
ISSUE 28 | NOVEMBER 2017
INTERVIEW WITH PETER GATRELL
The October Revolution This month marks the 100-year anniversary of the October Revolution. Dane Massey interviewed Peter Gatrell – a scholar of Russian history, to get his thoughts on the event. Dane Massey: October 25th marks the centenary of the Bolshevik coup of Russia in the 1917 October Revolution. How did the event change the shape of the 20th century? And what mark has it left on our world today? Peter Gatrell: “The most obvious change is that it challenged the fundamental assumptions in pre-revolutionary Europe that there was a solid foundation based around private property, around governing elites that might allow some opportunity for democratic accountability or expression through parliament. What happened, as a result, of the revolution is that Russia threw down a gauntlet to the established order meaning that if you were a nonrevolutionary state you had to react to what’s going on in Russia. So, it changed the context of the 20th century because if you were part of the non-privileged majority, you might look to Russia as the country that spoke up for you – as a Chinese peasant, or as an African worker, or a minor in Spain or in Britain. Therefore, you have a division of the world into two blocks – east and west. People talk about a Cold War after 1945 – the Cold War began in 1917!” DM: Do you believe that learning about the October Revolution is important to everybody, rather than just academics reading about it? Should everybody know about it? PG: “Well fundamentally yes because if we set aside for the moment the idea that the revolution was a tragedy, we know that by the 1930s, the Great Terror - which continued into the aftermath of the Second World War - killed millions of people, which we can’t deny was one of the consequences of Stalinism. Nevertheless, at the same time – in 1917 – the mood for millions of ordinary people, inside and outside of Russia, was that revolution was not just an adventure, but an opportunity for freedom. So, there is
20
Russian Revolution of 1917 Photo via: Wikimedia Commons clearly a big gap between the vision of freedom in 1917, and the Gulag in say 1938 – which was the opposite of freedom. For the historian, you must take the idea seriously that people had in 1917 that this was a chance for freedom.” DM: Is the Russian Revolution distinct from other revolutions you have come across? PG: “I think the ideas that drive revolutions and revolutionaries are fundamentally about overturning one set of rules and systems of government and property relations for another. In my understanding, the important area of similarity is that many of these revolutions are bound up with the ideas of emancipating the peasantry.” DM: The man at the man at the head of the October Revolution was Vladimir Ilyich Ulyanov – Lenin. Does a revolution require a leader to unite the people? Or, can change be inspired by the masses alone? PG: “I think the answer to that question is probably both because Lenin believed there couldn’t be a revolution without leadership because the opposite of that would be anarchy or counter-revolution. So, he regarded himself as a kind of dictator. He didn’t regard dictatorship as a bad thing, he believed that dictatorship was firm leadership. Without that ruthlessness, the door was open for people to embark on counter-revolution and Lenin was
something of a historian like most of the Bolsheviks – they read their history. They knew that revolutions could easily become counter-revolutions, and they were very anxious that this would happen in Russia.” DM: It’s a difficult question, but do you believe that the 1917 October Revolution was a tragedy or triumph, or both? PG: “I think the revolution was a triumph that turned into a tragedy. It was a triumph because it was propelled with ideas of liberation … But the tragedy is that there was so much violence, partly violence that the Bolsheviks encouraged because they wanted to destroy their opponents. The idea of the 1920s was resurfacing in the 1930s with Stalinism, the idea that it was all about ‘us’ – backs against the wall. Or, if we don’t industrialise, if we don’t collectivise, if we don’t keep a firm grip on power, the whole project will dissolve and Russia will become a counter-revolutionary society. So, you might hate the things that Stalin did, but you’ve also got to understand that from the Bolsheviks point of view – this was about defending the gains that they had made in 1917.”
Dane Massey
www.manchesterhistorian.com
ISSUE 28 | NOVEMBER 2017
What’s On In Manchester UNIVERSITY EVENTS • • • • •
6 November @17:15 Media Club: Introduction to working in Publishing 9 November @17:00 Meet the Professionals: Legal sector for Humanities students 15 November @11:00 - 15:30 The Postgraduate Study Fair @ Manchester Central 20 - 26 November: Wellbeing Week 22 November: Postgraduate Taught Courses Open Day
GETTING INTO THE CHRISTMAS SPIRIT • • • • •
4 November onwards: Ice rink @ Cathedral Gardens 10 November - 20 December: Christmas Markets 29 November - 3 December: Nativity! the Musical @ Palace Theatre 25 November - 7 January: ELF the Musical @ The Lowry 9 December - 1 January: Winter Wonderland Indoor Theme Park @ EventCity
CLUB NIGHTS • • • • • •
12 November: Gemma Collins Meet and Greet @ Kiki 17 November: Lo-Fi w/ Binh ‘All Night’ @ Hidden 25 November: Riot Jazz Returns with Special Guest Band Agbeko @ 256 1 December: MSC Big Band x Ad Hoc Records @ Club Academy 5 December Applebum Xmas Carnival @ Antwerp Mansion 16 December: WHP Jackmaster & Numbers Present
GIGS • • • • • •
9 November: Wolf Alice @ O2 Apollo 11 November: Ghostpoet + Special Guests @ Academy 11 November: Blondie @ O2 Apollo 16 November: BadBadNotGood @ O2 Ritz 7 December: The Mouse Outfit @ Band on the Wall 16 December : Liam Gallagher @ Manchester Arena
SPECIAL SUGGESTION 23rd November: Excavating the Reno @ Whitworth Art Gallery Legendary Manchester nightclub ‘The Reno’ was once the haven of Manchester’s mixed race and minority community. Once visited by the likes of Muhammed Ali and Bob Marley, The Reno played a key role in the cultivation of Manchester’s now vibrant, diverse culture. The building was sadly demolished in 1986, but awardwinning playwright Linda Brogan has teamed up with Salford University’s archaeology department to excavate it. On 23rd November, Whitworth Art Gallery will display an exhibition of The Reno’s archives. Be sure to go down and check it out.
@TheMcrHistorian
21
ISSUE 28 | NOVEMBER 2017
HistSoc Announcments Hi everyone! As your new 2017-2018 History Society Committee we wanted to introduce ourselves and tell you a bit about what we’ve got planned over the next academic year. So far, we’ve had two successful events; our annual Freshers’ bar crawl and a trip around Manchester Museum. It was really great meeting everybody who turned up for the events and we hope to see you all again! This year we’re hoping to do some socials in conjunction with other societies, such as LitSoc and PolSoc. We’re also in the process of preparing for our 2018 trip to Budapest. Every year we have a weekend break (2 – 5 February 2018) to go sightseeing, shopping, and clubbing, all of which are great stress relievers after exams in January. Budapest is a beautiful city where you can see plenty of historic sites, such as St. Stephen’s Basilica, go to ruin bars, and attend a Spar-ty. The booking page is open for deposits until Friday, December 8, so if you’re interested check out the details on the University of Manchester History Society page on Facebook. As for the rest of 2018, we have yet to plan any socials but are hoping to do a lot of events throughout the year; some not involving alcohol for those who don’t drink. In the meantime, expect some news about the Student vs Staff Football Match and the Summer Ball! If you ever have any questions about the society or the History degree itself, please don’t hesitate to get in contact with us!
17/18 HistSoc Committee President – Tiggy Hillbery Vice-President – Zeni Bellwood Academic Officer – Emma Ratheram Careers Sec – Ruth Bretts Secretary – Martha Norman-Long Social Sec – Tom Verheyden Social Media Sec – Caitlin Hughes Tour Sec – Tori Williams Treasurer – Clare Tiplady
History FC Having been newly promoted to Division 1, History FC in the 2016-17 season led an inspiring campaign against the odds. The season began badly, with a thumping 4-1 defeat at the hands of Division 1 veterans Geography FC. Having to quickly find our feet, we decided to mirror Antonio Conte’s tactical success in the Premier League with Chelsea and move to the risky 3-4-3 formation. This decision turned out to be a stroke of genius and by Christmas we were sitting in 2nd place and pushing for promotion to the Premier Division. We finished the season in a respectable position in the top half of the table. The end of last season signalled the end of an era for many History FC players who all left University to move onto greater things. Only 4 veterans remained in the team. With not long before the season began, and after several stages of trials, we managed to assemble a squad with the hope of achieving promotion to the Premier Division. This included the magnificent transfer of Jack Pierce from Law FC to History FC. With an average height of well under
22
six-foot and a concentration of defensiveminded players, there existed many doubters to our success and a tactical change from last season was very much required. We began the season with an unfortunate 1-0 defeat to the Division 1 newcomers: The Faculty of Life Sciences FC. The score would have likely been very different if we had been able to convert the abundance of goal-scoring opportunities at our disposal. Instead, an early second half goal gave them the victory. Despite the loss, it was a positive start to the season. We changed to a 4-4-1-1 formation for our next game against Slems Opal Gardens & Canterbury Court FC. It was here we showed our potential as a team, winning the match 2-0. We dominated from start to finish. Our squad was only limited to two goals due to a man of the match performance from their keeper. Scoring began with a thumping effort from midfield maestro Arthur Briggs and was rounded off with a tap in from winger Patrick McMahon.
We faced league leaders Athletico Hulme in our most recent game. After achieving a top-half finish in the Premier Division last season, the opposition brought their a-game; dealing us an emphatic 7-3 loss. Our goalscorers once again were Arthur and Patrick accompanied by striker Matt Walsh. If anyone is at a loose end on a Wednesday afternoon, come down to Wythenshawe Sports Ground and watch us propel ourselves into the Premier Division!
Freddie Melvin
www.manchesterhistorian.com
ISSUE 28 | NOVEMBER 2017
THE MANCHESTER HISTORIAN
The Manchester Historian is a growing magazine seeking writers studying single or joint honors History degree to write articles, interviews and reviews with a historical slant to chronicle our vibrant and fast changing world. In return, the Historian offers great opportunity for budding journalists to gain experience as well as for students to develop writing and research stills to complement their degree and their employability. View our previous issues at http://issuu.com/manchesterhistorian No experience is necessary; we are simply looking for an interested and enthusiastic team of writers and contributors. We welcome article suggestions too, so whether you’d like to write or not, please contact us at any time during the year with your ideas. f:@TheManchesterHistorian @TheMcrHistorian
t:@TheMcrHistorian
e:manchesterhistorian@gmail.com 23
ISSUE 28 | NOVEMBER 2017
Harlem by Langston Hughes What happens to a dream deferred? Does it dry up like a raisin in the sun? Or fester like a sore— And then run? Does it stink like rotten meat? Or crust and sugar over— like a syrupy sweet? Maybe it just sags like a heavy load. Or does it explode?
24
www.manchesterhistorian.com www.manchesterhistorian.com