Manchester historian Issue 21

ISSUE 14 | MAY 2014

The European Refugee Migrant Crisis History in the Headlines Israel-Palestine History in Features W

Behind every story‌ There is History

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ISSUE 21 | OCTOBER 2015 Issue 14: May 2014

What’s What’sInside Inside HISTORY BEHIND THE HEADLINES 4...Lost 4...DeathIN of a statesman HISTORY THE HEADLINES 5...In the eye of the beholder Hungary: Refugee Crisis...................................................4 6...Where are you really from?

Islamophobia....................................................................5 7...Everyday racism 8...Comedy of of errors Economic Impact Migration..........................................5 8...Selfish charity 9...How Britain brought football to the world

HISTORY YOU SHOULD KNOW

Edict of Expulsion HISTORY YOU.............................................................6 SHOULD KNOW 10...TheDiaspora Mayans ..........................................................7 Singapore African.........................................................7 apatheid The11...South Age of Discovery.

Hero or Villain: Enoch Powell............................................8 A YEAR IN PHOTOS Battle of Hastings .............................................................9 12...1984

Convicts of Australia........................................................10 IN FEATURES: TRAVEL TheHISTORY Crusades...................................................................11

14...Nothing great is ever easy Necropolis.......................................................................12 15...Opulence on the Orient Express Women on the Move.......................................................13 15...Pilgrims’ progress 16...Seeing what a man should see 17...Planes, trains and automobiles HISTORY IN 10 PICTURES 18...When people take flight The Holocaust............................................................ 14-15 19...Itchy feet: travel films UNDISCOVERED HEROES OF HISTORY HISTORY IN FEATURES

20...Flora Trsitan Space. ..............................................................................16

Israel-Palestine................................................................17 HISTORY IN MANCHESTER

The21...Bed Great Fire London.................................................18 to of bookshelves: recent discoveries at Chethams Barbarian 22...TheInvasion..........................................................19 Haçienda story 22...MHF film review: City Speaks Ellis Island.......................................................................19 The Vikings......................................................................20 HISTORY UPDATE 23...History Society farewell HISTORY UPDATES 23...Celebrations and congratulations at the History What’s Society Going onAwards in Manchester......................................21 24...Manchester Historian 2014-15 History Society ................................................................22

History Soc Sports............................................................22 Peer Mentors...................................................................23 Careers............................................................................23 Write for the Historian.....................................................24 Page 2

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Check out our YouTube channel for extra content.

Editors

Editors Head of Layout

Charlotte Johnson Alice Rigby

James Brannan Caroline Hailstone Laura Callard

Head of Copy-Editing Head of Marketing Head of Design Head of Online Web Head of Editor Copy-Editing

Kieran Smith Michael Cass Thomas Barnett Cai Reach Jennifer Ho Natalie Sharpin

Head of Marketing Layout Team

Joseph Barker Keir Forde

Head of Online

Muneera Lulaeb Editor

Design Team

Harriet Price Hebe Thorne Jamie Taylor Vidhur Prashar Laura Sullivan Jacob Taylor Tom Denman

Copy-Editing Team

Marketing Team

Imogen Gordon Clark Alexander Larkinson

Amelia Fletcher-Jones

Copy - Editing Team Chloe Wright Caroline Bishop Rebecca Hennel-Smith Kathyrn Newton Sarah King

Sophie Brownlee Online Team Sophie SarahDeacon Long Will Davis-Coleman Marketing Team Brogen Campbell

Jospeh Barker

Mattea Bubalo

Stephanie Keyte Online Team Jospeh Casson

Megan Gibb www.manchesterhistorian.com

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ISSUE 21 | OCTOBER 2014

A Note from the Editors The European Refugee Crisis has dominated headlines this summer as thousands of migrants abandoned their homelands, seeking asylum in Europe.

The motivation for their movement is complex, yet the majority of migrants are refugees escaping from violence, war and persecution in countries such as Syria, Afghanistan and Nigeria.

The influx of migrants into Europe has brought light upon one of the most contested debates of this century; EU leaders, internal politicians and national citizens continue to fight the ongoing battle to determine whether residence should be granted to migrants or not.

In response to this highly topical and controversial subject, this issue focuses on the movement of people throughout history, uncovering great tales such as the infamous travels of Vikings, and the sombre duty of the London Necropolis Company.

Did you know that in the 18th century, Australia was home to more than 162,000 European criminals? Or maybe you

have heard of ISIS but don’t really understand its history? Our writers have explored the movement of people throughout history to reveal stories that may be unknown to you, or that you want to know more about.

Take a look at What’s Going On in Manchester for information about upcoming gigs, films and events that you do not want to miss in the new few weeks!

Keeping you up-to-date with university life, our History Society, Sports and Careers columns will let you know what has been going on within the department and highlight events that you can be a part of! If you are interested in writing or working for us please email manchesterhistorian@gmail.com or get in touch on our facebook page.

“Consciousness is only possible through change; change is only possible through movement.”

Aldous Huxley

James and Laura

© 2015 latimes.com @TheMcrHistorian

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ISSUE 21 | OCTOBER 2015

HISTORY IN THE HEADLINES

Hungary and the Refugee Crisis Early in September this year, I was traveling through Hungary and arrived in Budapest at the same time as reports emerged that 30,000 refugees had entered the country and were stranded outside Keleti train station. Primarily a result of the ongoing Syria conflict, yet also a consequence of continuing violence elsewhere, this summer Hungary became a popular gateway into Europe. A large proportion of refugees followed the Western Balkans route into Greece, through Macedonia and Serbia, into Hungary or Croatia. The train station awash with individuals, couples and families, clutching their possessions and attempting to escape the danger and uncertainty of their homelands in favour of a better life elsewhere.

The Hungarian Prime Minister, Viktor Orbán, has refused to accept the emergency status of this crisis, instead referring to it as an example of ‘mass migration’. In an attempt to control the influx of refugees, in June 2015, the Hungarian government commissioned the construction of a 4-metre high fence to be erected as an act of protection across its borders. A police force containing 9,000 officers has been deployed to prevent, and arrest, undocumented refugees from entering the country. It is with this in mind that I began to question the attitude of the Hungarian leadership and their failure to acknowledge the similarities between this current crisis, and the mass migrations of Hungarian citizens in the aftermath of war and its oppressive occupation.

Laura Callard

role, in particular its finding a place within the European Union.

When in 1945, Soviet forces swept across the Hungarian frontier, conquering both the Hungarian and German forces alike, Hungary became a Satellite state, ruled by the Soviet’s puppet Mátyás Rákosi. In the aftermath of the Nazi regime, it did not seem possible to the Hungarian citizens that worse was to come. However they had not yet experienced the dictatorial leadership of Rákosi.

Modelling himself upon his idol, Josef Stalin, Rákosi used the protection of the Soviet Union to consolidate his rule and become one of the cruellest politicians Hungary had ever witnessed. Developing his own personality cult and imposing totalitarian rule across the country, he used his power to persecute, torture and kill anyone who posed even the smallest degree of threat to his reign.

In the small time between 1948 and 1956, the number of officials and intellectuals purged rose to approximately 350,000.

“Rákosi ... used his power to persecute, torture and kill anyone who posed even the smallest degree of threat to his reign...”

Hungary has played victim to two of the most infamously repressive and violent regimes of modern history. It was first occupied within the brutal confines of Nazi fascism and subsequently tortured during the occupation of the Soviet Union. Hungary has experienced an immeasurable level of violence and brutality, shaping and defining the view its leaders and politicians take of its own autonomy and its vulnerability to its more powerful neighbours. This has defined its international

Face to Face: Ocean Portraits by Dr Huw Lewis-Jones

The oppressive blanket of Communist rule lingered over the nation and in 1956 the Hungarian population retaliated. Powered by a sense of nationalistic fury and hatred, the people of Hungary armed themselves with petrol bombs and rifles and mobilised the nation against one of the world’s super powers.

Initially able to overcome their opponents, a sense of euphoria replaced the fear that had encompassed the country for so long.

Rebel fighters stood astride conquered Soviet tanks, waving their national flag, a gaping hole in the place where the Soviet emblem once imposed its rule. The symbolism was clear.

Hungary was liberating itself from the oppressive shackles of Soviet rule. The Western world was astounded.

Euphoria has a short life span. On 4th November Soviet forces rolled back into the country. The Hungarian resistance was brutally, and swiftly, crushed. The Soviet message had been sent, and the other Satellite States received the warning.

Over 2, 500 Hungarian fighters had been killed, and the repercussions of the uprising mirrored the cruelty of those in its prelude. In the aftermath of the 1956 Hungarian Revolution, 171,000 Hungarian citizens sought refuge in Austria, whilst a further 20,000 escaped into Yugoslavia. A 4-metre high fence preventing their entry was nowhere in sight. Help was provided to those in need.

This is the dilemma that troubled me when I saw the events unfolding in Budapest this summer. It is hard to understand how a country whose citizens sought and received refuge less than a century before, could refuse to provide relief for those in a similar position today. www.manchesterhistorian.com

ISSUE 21 | OCTOBER 2014

Islamophobia The term ‘Islamophobia’ is defined by the Runnymede Trust in 1997 as being an ‘unfounded hostility towards Islam’. There are some issues with this term. Specific emphasis on religion, race or individual phobias can cloud a precise a definition. However, arguably it is an invaluable term to use in discussing the current stance of the Islamic faith in the public eye.

There have been many significant historical events over the centuries that mark changes in attitude towards Islam and the Muslim people. These range from Christian crusades in the medieval Middle East, to 21st century acts of terrorism by extremist groups.

The most famous of these events was the 9/11 attacks on the Twin Towers in New York City back in 2001, which changed public perceptions of Islam from ‘alien’ to ‘enemy’ in a matter of hours. This increased open hostility and violence towards Muslim communities, even if they did not support Al Qaeda’s actions toward the Western world.

Labelling all Muslims as a threat to national security based upon the actions of a small extremist minority is completely preposterous. It is as

Sarah Massey irrational as dubbing all Christians homophobic, racist and backward due to the actions of the extreme Westborough Baptist Church in America.

Often overlooked are the effects of Islamophobia on Muslims in the UK. Islamophobia is detrimental to their economic, social and equal advancement. Constantly stereotyped, homogenised and discriminated against, British Muslims have become a waste within the economy and are more likely to be unemployed than their white British counterpart. In fact, 35 per cent of Muslim households have no adult in employment - double the national average. This exclusion from socio-economic improvement based upon their religious grouping is something that needs to change but cannot do so until the attitudes of the media and, consequently, the general public change too.

With regards to the prevention of Islamophobia, I personally believe that there are only two ways it can be achieved. Firstly, education is vital to make the strange into the familiar. Fear of the unknown creates negative responses in society and slows much needed integration. If more was done to get the public educated about the simple facts of Islam, then I believe this fear will be replaced with understanding. Secondly, the media needs to change its tack on the portrayal of Islam. Placing all Muslims under one stereotype is harmful to those who are far removed from acts of terrorism and wish to engage with their neighbours, communities and the culture around them.

Economic Impact of Migration Migrants: a benefit or danger to our economy?

In the past 20 years, the influx of migrants to the UK has been steadily rising. Figures show that in the last 5 years alone, net long-term migration to the UK was predicted to be roughly 1 million. But has this helped, or hindered our economy?

Typically, those who are immigrating to the UK tend to be of working age, either students or employment seeking. Although it is true they may bring along a dependent family member, the arrival of migrants tends to boost the labour force, consequentially increasing the potential output of our economy and therefore our GDP.

cent foreign nationals gained a qualification at degree standard or higher, compared to 29 per cent of those UK born.

However, this raises the question as to whether or not it is a good thing for UK born workers. With competition for jobs increasing, are we worse off and less employable than our migrant counterparts?

“From an economic point of view, a rise in net immigration has created more jobs...”

Not only do migrants increase the labour force, but also they increase spending within the economy, leading to an increased aggregate demand.

It thus follows that there will be an increased demand for labour, which will provide more jobs and further boost our economy.

In parts of the UK a negative stereotype has been assigned to foreigners arriving in the country, with some individuals questioning their work ethic.

Whilst this may be true in some cases, it is not a fair assessment to make of a whole population. A large proportion of migrants who relocate to England are professional workers, such as the 26 per cent of NHS doctors being of foreign nationality, which the NHS could not function without. Also, 38 per @TheMcrHistorian

Ravi Gembali

The most recent data available shows a fall in the employment of UK born people over the last 12-month period, whilst employment of migrants continues to increase. Additionally, from 2.9 million jobs created in the years from 1997 – 2011, 75 per cent of these were awarded to non-UK born workers.

So, should we accept migrants into our country in the vast amounts that we are? From a humanitarian perspective, we should allow those seeking refuge, such as the recent Syrian asylum seekers. From an economic point of view, a rise in net immigration has created more jobs, lowered unemployment rates, and boosted our GDP. Surely it is only fair that the most qualified for the job receives the job, right? Therefore, competition can only be viewed as a good thing!

I have reached the conclusion that statistically, the economic effect of migrants on the UK economy is positive. Instead of worrying about the effect of migration upon the economy, it would more beneficial to take of advantage of the increased opportunity for competition!

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ISSUE 21 | OCTOBER 2015

HISTORY YOU SHOULD KNOW

The Edict of Expulsion The expulsion of the Jews from England in 1290 was a relatively quick and efficient affair. The order that the Jews were to leave the country by All Saints day (1 November) was issued on 18 July and the last of the Jews had left England less than four months later.

Despite what the so-called Rochester Chronicle would have us believe, with its caricature of three Jews being beaten out of England by a Christian with a club, the departure of the Jews was a relatively peaceful affair (with several notable exceptions). Indeed, Edward I (r. 1272-1307) issued the Jews with orders of safe conduct out of England and ensured that those who could not afford passage on a ship leaving England were charged at an affordable rate.

Moreover, the Jews were allowed to leave England with their movable goods and a number of Jews were given permission to sell their property (in accordance with the Statute of the Jewry (1275) which required that such permission be obtained). That being said, the records of the Jewish properties which fell into royal hands demonstrate that a considerable number of Jews were not able to liquidate their properties prior to leaving England.

There is not space here to consider all the arguments which historians have used to explain the issue of the Edict, which range from religion to climactic change. Therefore, the argument which will be considered here, that the Edict was the price that was exacted from Edward in return for an enormous grant of taxation, is the one which most adequately explains the expulsion.

Dean Irwin

Edward’s request for taxation.

The stance which was adopted by the knights, of withholding consent until they had what they wanted, proved to be a wise decision given that Edward subsequently reneged on his promises to the barons.

The knights’ demand can only be understood within the context of the events of the 13th century. From c.1240 onwards there was an obvious change in royal policy towards the Jews when the Crown initiated an almost annual policy of severe taxation towards the Jews (which did not require Parliamentary consent). When the Jews were becoming increasingly hard-pressed they, in turn, applied pressure to their debtors and it was the knightly classes which suffered the most as a result of this.

If a knight could not pay his debt when it was demanded, then the Jews would often have no choice but to sell the debt to the great barons or the Church. The purchaser of the debt could then take over the land that had been put forward as surety for the debt, which resulted in the impoverishment a great many knights during the 13th century.

Thus, when considering the expulsion, it is perhaps more accurate to treat the Jews not as a religious minority but rather as one economic class which was expelled in an attempt to relieve the pressures which had been placed on another economic class (i.e. the knights).

It is important to remember that Edward I was not simply King of England but also Lord of Ireland and Duke of Aquitaine. In addition, it must be understood that unless the king was on military campaign, it was expected that the dominion which he was resident in was to meet his financial needs.

This became a problem in 1286-9 when Edward visited Gascony because this was a political, rather than a military, visit.

Although Gascony was a reasonably prosperous territory, it was far too small for its revenues to be able to sustain the royal entourage for an extended period of time. As such, Edward’s debts began to amass throughout his time in Gascony. Thus, by the time that Edward returned to England in 1289 he was in debt to the Riccardi of Lucca to the tune of £110,000 and the only way that Edward could hope to pay that was with a Parliamentary grant of taxation.

As a result of Edward’s debts, the Parliament which assembled at Westminster in 1290 had a great deal of leverage. The baronial classes called for an end to the abuses of Edward’s officials which had been detrimental to their status as landowners and when Edward consented to two pieces of legislation (Quo Warranto and Quia Emptores which were intended to give the barons further protections) they gave their consent to the taxation. In contrast, the price that was demanded by the knights of the shire was the issue of the Edict prior to giving their consent to

King Edward I Image from: http://www.historyofinformation.com/expanded.php?id=2258@

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ISSUE 21 | OCTOBER 2014

Singapore: a product of Chinese Diaspora

Chinese presence in Singapore has been prevalent throughout history with archaeological evidence of Chinese contact with Singapore as far back as the Song dynasty and Chinese documentation mentioning travels to Singapore across various centuries. Between 1819 and 1942 widespread economic and political strife in China saw an exodus of Chinese to Singapore. In the present, Chinese Singaporeans make up a majority of the population at 74.1%.

Political and economic strife has been a major factor in the growth of Chinese Diaspora to Singapore. The destruction caused by the Taiping Rebellion from 1850-64 saw mass migration to the British Colony of Singapore which became the capital of the British Straits Settlement.

Other political and economic turbulences including the Boxer Rebellion and various other political uprisings, the first and second Opium Wars and famines and other natural disasters added to the great Chinese diaspora and persuaded people to leave China for Singapore and other South East Asian colonies. Both Chinese traders were excited by the opportunities allowed by the free trade agreements and labourers were needed to aid the development of a growing economy and area until the ban on the Coolie trade in 1914.

The British laid the foundation for the development of Singapore into the economic powerhouse it is today by turning it in to one of Asia’s leading trading ports during its colonisation. The establishment as a leading trade port brought investment to Singapore and helped establish its economy.

Chloe Wright

However, the contribution of the Chinese to the development of Singapore is essential in understanding its development. Singapore attracted Chinese from all walks of life that were fleeing economic or political hardship in China. The free trade settlement and access to the trading routes of the world, especially after the opening of the Suez Canal meant that Chinese merchants and traders could trade on the global market. The development of the economy also meant that unskilled labourers were needed to fill the unskilled job market and helped in the growth of the metropolis we know today.

Politically, the contribution of the Chinese was even recognised by the British when the Chinese Protectorate was established 1877 to protect the human rights of the coolies working in Singapore. Furthermore, the British adopted a policy of ‘Chinese governing Chinese’, appointing Chinese officials to govern the Singaporean Chinese community. Hence, the contribution of the Chinese was even recognised by the British.

Therefore, Chinese political and economic strife saw the beginning of the diaspora to Singapore, a British colony at the time. Although the British laid the foundations for the develop it has received, the work and contribution of the Chinese made it into the success it is today.

Singapore Skyline

The Age of Discovery ‘The Age of Discovery’ is a nice name Eurocentric history gives to a period where the European powers took an expansionist approach to their political, economic and cultural objectives from the 15th to 18th centuries.

This piece will look at the motives and consequences these European powers. It was imperialism before it had a name, and laid the foundations of what we now call colonialism and globalisation.

There were various reasons for the initial exploration. Firstly, Religion was a big part; the Portuguese and Spanish were the first to explore, in the name of spreading the word of Christianity. Secondly, there was economic rationale; many European countries wanted materials, technology, ideas and, very specifically, food. Europe had heard of the rich luxury that the Far East lived in and wanted to gain a more prominent economic and cultural foothold.

In 1492, Christopher Columbus set out to establish settlements and began Spanish colonialism of the ‘New World’, regardless of who was already there, which was millions of Native Americans. The Europeans saw America as perfect for building a new civilisation. This was one of the first major moves of ‘The Age of Discovery’. A great book detailing this is, Bury My Heart at Wounded Knee, by Dee Brown, which documents the conquering and genocide of the Native American people by white European colonisers over a painful 500-year period.

Other European powers soon followed in these ventures. Britain, France, Germany, Belgium, Switzerland and others joined in to establish a @TheMcrHistorian

Madeline Jones network of what we can now see as a the beginnings of globalisation, founded on colonialism. There was a huge interest in exchanging goods from the different parts of the world.

This eventually led to the Columbian Exchange, a phrase coined by historian Christopher Colombus Alfred W. Crosby in 1972. This began as a means of exchanging foods, crops, animals and technology. However, it did not take long for this to develop into the Trans-Atlantic slave trade in the early 17th century. Once again, the Portuguese were the initiators of this imperialist move. Once human exploitation and dominance had begun, this cycle of slavery, trade and transport seemed unstoppable and became integral to the workings of the European economies. Much like the genocide of Native Americans, white Europeans also felt the need to treat the people of Africa, Asia, South America and the hundreds of islands in the Indian, Pacific and Atlantic Oceans in a brutal, inhumane method of exploitation and control.

The Europeans, once curious about the mysterious ‘New World’, were determined to portray it as culturally, politically, economically and socially inferior. The ‘Age of Discovery’ spiralled into an exploitative, greedy, inhumane system that still affects our world today.

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H E R O

O R

Enoch Powell “As I look ahead, I am filled with foreboding; like the Roman, I seem to see ‘the River Tiber foaming with much blood.”

These are the words of Enoch Powell from his infamous ‘Rivers of Blood’ Speech made on 20th April 1968 at the General Meeting of the West Midlands Area Conservative Political Centre. Made in recognition of the growing opposition towards the Labour government and their attempts to combat race discrimination through the 1968 Race Relations Bill, the result was a passage that many, on all sides of the immigration debate, cite through its’ powerful and controversial messages surrounding race and immigration.

Born in Stechford, Birmingham on the 16th June 1912, Powell studied Classics at Cambridge from 1930-1933, then working in Sydney as curator of the Nicholson Museum, before returning to Britain in 1939 to join the Royal Warwickshire Regiment. However, Powell never experienced combat, which plagued him with guilt to the day he died. When asked how he would like to be remembered, he stated ‘having been killed in the war’.

Joining the Conservative Party after the war, Powell worked for the Conservative Research Department and was finally elected as MP for Wolverhampton South West in the 1950 General Election. In this period, Powell’s opposition to immigration began to grow. He was shocked at the decline of Britain’s imperial grasp across the Empire following the proclamation of the Indian Independence Act of 1947, which saw British India divided into the two independent dominions of India and Pakistan.

ISSUE 21 | OCTOBER 2015

V I L L A I N ?

James Brannan ing the governments toughening of race discrimination laws, and stated in his speech that although “many thousands” of immigrants wanted to integrate, he contended that the majority did not, and that some had vested interests in fostering racial and religious differences “with a view to the exercise of actual domination, first over fellow-immigrants and then over the rest of the population”.

Reaction to the speech came thick and fast, with Heath sacking Powell from his Shadow Cabinet, and The Sunday Times branding the speech as ‘racialist’ and ‘evil’. However by the end of the month Powell had received over 120,000 predominantly positive letters and a Gallup poll showed a 74% of support for the speech.

Powell was turned into a national public figure, gaining vast levels of support across the country, even influencing a number of succeeding high profile MPs and Prime Ministers like Nigel Farage, who tried to get Powell to support UKIP and stand for them in the 1990s, and Margaret Thatcher, who stated that Powell had “made a valid argument, if in sometimes regrettable terms.”

With the current migrant crisis sweeping Europe and the world, we are seeing the effect that migration has, with regards to the significant improvement of people’s lives, as well as political opinion. Therefore this begs the question, Enoch Powell – Hero or Villain? You’ll have to decide for yourselves, we here at The Historian couldn’t possibly comment…

It was under Edward Heath’s appointment of Powell as his Shadow Secretary of State for Defence following the 1967 General Election where Powell’s stance on immigration became clear to see. Although welcoming Commonwealth immigrants a few years earlier, in 1967 he spoke of his opposition to the immigration of Kenyan refugees, after the African leader Jomo Kenyatta’s discriminatory policies led to the flight of thousands of Kenyans from the country.

Around the similar time, Harold Wilson’s Labour government began to draft what would become the 1968 Race Relations Act, a set of amendments to the 1965 Race Relations Act, whereby it was made illegal to discriminate in public places on the grounds of colour, race, or ethnic or national origins, with the 1968 act focussing specifically on housing, employment, and public services.

It was through the influx of West Indian immigrants into Britain following the Commonwealth Act in 1962 and the tightening of the laws surrounding discrimination that led Powell to talk at great length in opposition to the changing nature of Britain’s stance and attitude towards immigration, and prompted him to give his now infamous speech known as the ‘Rivers of Blood’ Speech.

Powell’s speech drew on the expressive opinions of his constituents regarding immigration, with claims that one man told him that “In this country in fifteen or twenty years’ time, the black man will have the whip hand over the white man”. Other constituent’s tales include an elderly widow who was shocked to not be able to turn black lodgers away when renting rooms of her house out. These statements further pushed Powell into condemn

Enoch Powell www.manchesterhistorian.com

ISSUE 21 | OCTOBER 2014

Battle of the Month

The Legacy of the Battle of Hastings The Battle of Hastings took place in 1066. The town 7 miles from the site of the battlefield and the year of the battle hold iconic status in British history, not simply because Norman forces led by William the Conqueror successfully invaded and took a stronghold of England, but also because the disposition from the throne and the death of the Anglo-Saxon King Harold Godwinson led to a huge cultural transformation.

A cultural transformation on this scale would not be seen again until the 19th century; the conquering of England

by William of Normandy marked a moment of huge significance for British culture. The Norman invasion of England brought a new culture which mixed and intermingled with that developed by the Anglo-Saxons, to cultivate a society which has seen language, politics, architecture and governmental systems develop into the structures and aspects of society that we see even to this day.

Will Bain

a further indication of the cultural shift brought by the invasion can be found by analysing the use of ‘Norman’ given names of new-borns in England after 1066, especially male names.

So-called ‘Norman names’, such as Richard, William, Robert and Henry, became much more popular as England adjusted to the post-conquest style of life and society. The Norman influence unsurprisingly ties in with the migration of an estimated 8000 Normans to England. As the 11th century drew to a close and the 12th century emerged, more and more accounts of Norman men marrying English wife were becoming common, demonstrating an unhurried yet crucial cultural change as the medieval years continued.

“The Norman influence unsurpringly ties in with the migration of an estimated 8000 Normans to England......”

As Harold Godwinson and his army fell defeated at the hands of William the Conqueror’s forces in October 1066, mere weeks after defeating the Norwegian forces led by Harold Hardrada at Stamford Bridge, not one castle could be found on English soil. It was the Normans who brought castles to English shores, commencing building within days of the conquest. These fortifications, of which 86 were said to be built in William the Conqueror’s 21 year reign, established themselves as symbols of Norman dominance.

Among those included in the Norman’s rapid assembling of castles include Warwick Castle, Dover Castle and Carlisle Castle, all of which still stand strong today. Alongside the dominance they illustrated, these castles housed the rich and powerful, providing a base from which the aristocracy could establish control of their new conquest effectively. If there was any reminder for the impact the Norman Conquest exerted on medieval and modern British society and culture, look no further than the grand structural creations in the form of castles which are spread throughout Britain.

This is not to say that Normans didn’t also provide inspiration on the governmental side of English culture. Before the Norman conquests, the more sophisticated government system was actually held by the Anglo-Saxons over their Norman counterparts.

Hence, the Normans would retain the Anglo-Saxon framework, changing the government personnel instead. At the end of William’s reign, all high-profile members of government and the royal family were Normans. Without this reformation, major legacies of the era, such as the Doomsday book, which is crucial to our knowledge of English society in the aftermath of 1066, would not exist.

This is therefore a perfect illustration of Norman influence.

The invasion didn’t immediately change the face of English society and culture. Though, as England developed under their reign, their actions would change the face of English culture forever, with the impact still found in today’s modern society and culture, making the Battle of Hastings and the Northern invasion one of the important events, if not the most, in our history.

One of the other most potent legacies of the Norman Conquest came in the form of Anglo-Norman, introduced to England from across the channel as a northern dialect of ‘Old French’, a Gallo-Romance dialect spoken from the 9th century. This replaced the traditional old English and brought with it many French words still in practice to this day (‘coup’ and ‘debut’ to name a couple). The ‘Old English’ language suffered greatly as a result of the events of 1066, with French and Latin becoming the new languages of the government, the nobility and the Church. Ultimately, these languages became greatly associated with the higher classes and more sophisticated style of life that the Normans aimed to bring with them. In contrast, Old English struggled with the cultural shock, being brandished a language of the poor, the uncivilised or uneducated.

Alongside this switch to a more Norman style of communication, @TheMcrHistorian

The Bayeux Tapestry 9

ISSUE 21 | OCTOBER 2015

HISTORY YOU SHOULD KNOW

Convicts in Australia On the 26th January 1788, just over 750 convicts and their children landed in Sydney, Australia and started a trend which would span almost 100 years. In these 100 years around 162,000 criminals would be shipped to Australia.

January 1788 marked the first European settlement in Sydney however this was no normal occupation; instead of free settlers these were convicts who were sent to populate Australia and endure gruelling labour. Some would work 14 – 18 hours a day all in the name of building the modern Australia.

After this initial ship two more would arrive in 1790 and 1791. Eventually in 1793 free settlers would arrive, nevertheless New South Wales still remained a colony dominated by a large

First Fleet arriving in Botany Bay, Sydney 21st January 1788. population of criminals. In the 1800s convicts were sent further afield to places like Norfolk Island, Tasmania and Moreton Bay to create further penal colonies.

Rosie Wright

rapists or murderers which is part of the reason they weren’t actually imprisoned. They instead were tried for petty crimes such as theft and others were political prisoners. Whilst those criminals who had committed very serious crimes were locked up in order to keep the public safe, there wasn’t necessarily the need or the space to lock up those who had committed lesser crimes.

With overcrowding and an ever-expanding population in Britain the transportation to Australia was seen as a suitable solution. Despite their less serious crimes, the convicts were still victims of cruelty such as lashes and leg irons. The long days and the hard labour were clearly not punishment enough for these criminals.

The end of transportation came in the latter part of the 19th century.

Australia’s population had boomed and there were now enough people to take on the work needed to construct and develop the country.

All in all, just over 800 ships had taken 162,000 convicts to Australia.

This certainly changed the dynamics of Australian society and helped to cement Australia as a strong dominion. The era of transportation is still seen as a very important part of Australian history with eleven convict settlements making it onto the list of UNESCO world heritage sites in 2010.

One fifth of the first convicts who landed in Australia were female. They were sent along with the free-settlers to specialist female factories which produced textiles. Some of these factories would go above and beyond their normal functions, for example the Parramatta Factory became a welcoming place for pregnant women and even served as an orphanage.

Female prisoners in the 1800s could potentially escape their sentences by marrying.

Marriage and motherhood were seen as the utmost of importance for a woman and so they were more useful to society in these positions as opposed to being imprisoned. In actual fact only six percent of convicts were technically ‘locked up’ as most were seen as more valuable as part of a labour force.

The system of using prisoners for labour was founded in by Governor Phillip who was Commander in Chief of the penal colony of New South Wales. Instead of leaving convicts behind bars and therefore being pretty useless to society he decided that all criminals – whatever the crime – should be put to work as carpenters, nurses, servants and shepherds.

From 1810 the convicts were used more specifically to help build and develop Australia as a British colony. The abundance of criminals in Australia was certainly an advantage to this dominion and without their hard work and labour Australia might not have been such a strong British colony. Convict labour helped to lay the foundations of modern Australia by building roads, causeways, bridges, hospitals and other important amenities.

The convicts were also employed by free settlers to work for them as well as land owners. Criminals were indeed very useful in the fabrication of Australia. The convicts that were sent to Australia were however not

Hyde Park Barracks, Sydney, Australia www.manchesterhistorian.com

ISSUE 21 | OCTOBER 2014

The Crusades At the Council of Clermont in 1095, Pope Urban II preached for the First Crusade as an ‘armed pilgrimage’: a penitential war that imitated the suffering of Christ whilst recapturing the Holy Land of Jerusalem from the Muslims. This appealed to many different members of Western European society, from lowly peasants who normally worked on their feudal lords’ lands, to devout monks looking for the ultimate way to cleanse their sins and fight in the name of God. It was also seen as honourable for the youngest sons of lords who would inherit no land and normally would be sent away to monasteries for clerical work.

Rebekah Shaw

The knightly ideology of ‘chivalry’ is one that has lasted and cemented itself in modern memory. Yet in reality, these knights became so accustomed to warfare and strict order of conduct that they caused a significant change in societal class ideals in the 12th century. Knighthood was a permanent occupation, so traditional soldiers who were called to battle by their lords and returned to resume their normal lives afterward were largely replaced by knights. These professional warriors felt they were due their own lands, castles and spiritual rewards and they associated themselves with the lordly classes of the aristocracy.

The radical change in attitude by the Church, was not always welcome, such as in the “The infamous lord-turned- This now in favour of this ‘just’ war, shows the case of the infamous lord-turned-knight knight Thomas of Marle, Thomas of Marle, who was given the title influence of new monasticism upon the way piety was expressed by Christian followers. worst man who ever lived’ in historical who was given the title ‘the ‘the Before Pope Gregory VII’s (r.1073-85) clerical records. This due to his scandalous worst man who ever lived’ brutality both on and off the battlefield. revision of the papal attitude to religious warfare and his backing of the Militia Christi ... due to his scandalous (‘Christ’s Knights’), the Church was not in Many knights were left in the Levant – the brutality both on and off geographical area encompassing nearfavour of any kind of earthly warfare. For example, William of Normandy carried out eastern Mediterranean countries including the battlefield.” his conquest of England in the name of the Cyprus, Israel, Palestine, Jordan, Lebanon – to Church, and had their support, on the condition that he did defend the recently conquered Jerusalem. The area was already penance for his sins in battle: spiritual warfare to counteract home to an already hugely ethnically and religiously diverse earthly warfare and the spilling of blood. population. Hence, conflict became inevitable after their setting up of the ‘Crusader States’ in an attempt to convert locals to The spiritual warfare of monks before the 1090s consisted Western Christendom. largely of prolonged prayer and fasting to free them of the sins of their inner demons. Conversely, after Gregory VII, the Church The Crusades were a major part of medieval European and changed its view to one of inherently ‘good’ warfare. This was Near-Eastern heritage, giving many members of Western society in the name of the Lord, physically and mentally challenging the opportunity to change their lives and become part of the for those taking part, and also eradicating non-Christian groups lifestyle of knighthood and chivalry, as well as marking a fresh, that had settled in the Holy Land. The backing of the Church can bloody, chapter in the history of the Christian Church. therefore be seen as the underlying attraction for many Western Europeans to the Crusades.

Promise of entry to heaven was good enough for many. So much so that, despite the First Crusade being poorly controlled and lacking in long-term planning for settlement, the conquest of Jerusalem was very successful and attracted more to the crusading mission. Most enticed by the new crusading form of spiritual warfare were those who chose to become Knights of the Holy Orders, usually already minor lords or at least wellconnected upper classes.

The systemisation of the Cistercian Order of monks was central to the Second Crusade (1145-49) in which knights played the biggest part. Famously branching from the Cistercians were the Knights Templar and Hospitallers, becoming known as ‘fighting monks’. Branded as Militia Christi, these knights stood to gain indulgences after the Crusades holding prominent positions within society, or would be blessed with martyrdom if they died in battle in the service of the Lord.

@TheMcrHistorian

Knights pay homage to Saladin

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ISSUE 21 | OCTOBER 2015

Necropolis: A Ghost Train?

Though macabre in appearance and plaintively bizarre, the concept of a train designed solely to transport bodies for burial became a respected and useful feature in Victorian life.

With London’s population exploding during the 1850s graveyards became increasingly congested and piles of rotting corpses were a major public concern. Indeed, Victorian values surrounding death and mourning were severe: they were fascinated with the concept.

With the high mortality rate of London, death became an accepted norm of city life, especially during the cholera outbreak of 1848, which killed nearly 15,000 people living in London at the time. The limited amount of space led to half buried graves, with many believing the smell of rotting corpses led to miasma and the spread of numerous contagious diseases. Contaminated water supplies and terrible sanitation caused great concern and the demand for urgent change.

Consequently, The London Necropolis Railway opened in 1849 by Sir Richard Broun and was seen by many as a way to solve the disposal of bodies. The railway carried both cadavers and their mourners to the place of burial, Brookwood Cemeter.

Adding a strange efficiency to the whole process, corpses were separated into class. Intriguingly, those of middle or upper class were concerned with the body of a poor or vagrant person to be lying in the same carriage as their loved ones.

The carriages for the mourners were also split and separated, as more luxuries were afforded with each upgrade. Coffins were placed in the highest standard of accommodation during the journey, which interesting harks back to the concept of ancient burial, where comforting items were placed with loved ones to help them on their ‘journey’.

Though in no way Egyptian in appearance, Victorian fascination with death, religion and the afterlife can clearly be

Elizabeth Rose Whittingham

seen here. Victorians collected ‘momento moris’, with these small tokens of loved ones including lockets of cut hair, death masks and photographs. For the first class carriages holding the dead was hugely important, with graveyards becoming important places of intense reflection.

Although death was a constant factor, it was weaved into everyday life, as the London train of 1849, transporting bodies for burial, showed in all forms. Yet, Brookwood Cemetery was just a small factor of death and the disposal of bodies. Although a train for the dead seems chilling in many respects, there were more grisly details within the cities.

Cremation was a strange concept during the Victorian times, with burial accepted as the normal way to treat the dead.

However, the expensive of burials meant gravediggers were severe, with reports citing workers playing games of skittles with bones of the dead, the skull used as a balling ball. Once again, the rich sought to avoid these activities, as bodies were moved to small gated churchyards, avoiding Highgate cemetery and raising their dead above the bodies of the poor.

There were few options; the London necropolis? Over-crowded cemeteries?

Though death was an accepted factor, it was also an unavoidable problem and inconvenience for the Victorians.

So, although Victorian attitudes towards death appear unusual, macabre and bizarre, they were arguably sparked by death being woven into squalid urban conditions, high mortality rates, stacked coffins and over-crowded cemeteries. London, it seems, was at risk and death was omnipresent.

Once again, class always played a part, would it be a first class carriage, ornate door and comfortable journey for loved ones, or an over-crowded cemetery? Certainly, new forms of burial were encouraged by the Victorians. Garden cemeteries, adorned with ornate graves, are still present within London.

While Brookwood Cemetery is still the largest cemetery in the United Kingdom and one of the largest in Europe, the railway closed in 1945 and first class tickets are no longer available.

Necropolis: a literal ghost train? www.manchesterhistorian.com

ISSUE 21 | OCTOBER 2014

W O M E N I N H I S T O R Y Women on the move Nicole Campbell

During the early to mid-20th century, five million African-Americans made the passage from the former slave-holding south to the industrialised cities of the north and west United States.

Cruel Jim Crow laws and tough financial situations forced families to move hundreds of miles to states such as New York, Illinois and Michigan, where demand for blue-collar workers was increasing due to the onset of the First World War. It was also during this period that migrants, particularly from the West Indies, began to make their move toward America in search of a ‘better’ lifestyle. This mass movement from the 1910s to the 1970s became known as the ‘Great Migration’.

As with much of African-American history, women are often under-represented, if at all, within scholarship. It is because of this that the role played by millions of female migrants, be they mothers, wives or daughters, is frequently diminished.

However understated the part played by female members of the household may be it is difficult to deny that life journeying north would have been much more problematic had women not taken on responsibility. Families of working-class backgrounds regularly relied on wives and daughters to bring in a wage additional to that of the (usually male) breadwinner.

Whilst moving through the southern and mid states, these women typically hired themselves out as domestic servants or nannies to white households, whilst their husbands and children worked in the fields. More often than not, women were then expected to come home and attend to household jobs such as cooking, cleaning and sewing. These jobs were harsh and offered a bleak outlook for those in the south. Conditions were poor for any person of colour, but were even poorer for women. It was for this reason that for black women the northern states held promise of a better life.

Perhaps it was because these women faced such tough conditions within society – where they were mostly seen as labourers (as opposed to white women who were expected to remain at home as housewives), whilst repeatedly facing sexual and physical violence, as well as encountering the daily racism of the United States – which spurred so many of them into activism. Two significant women who made the move to the northern states were Ella Baker and Amy Ashwood Garvey.

class and family connections enabled her to move north), she certainly used these advantages to the best of her ability. By joining groups such as the Young Women’s Christian Association, Baker became an avid activist in all aspects of African-American life. These initial engagements meant she later became involved with Martin Luther King Jr.’s organisation, the Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC). Additionally, Baker continued her commitment to women’s rights by remaining a part of organisations such as the Women’s International League for Peace and Freedom until her death in 1986.

As for Ashwood, later becoming Ashwood-Garvey (following her brief but significant marriage to political orator and activist of Black Nationalism and Pan-Africanism movements, Marcus Garvey), migration from her homeland of Jamaica to the bustling streets of Harlem was one which would hopefully help the spread of activism for black women; her move to the US was largely a way to further her activist career. As co-founder of the Universal Negro Improvement Association (UNIA) at the tender age of seventeen, her relocation to the New York neighbourhood of Harlem four years later in 1918 meant Ashwood was in the centre of all things African-American, at a time when African-Americans as a whole were struggling to find a voice. As secretary of the women’s division of the UNIA, Ashwood encouraged women of African descent to celebrate their heritage within communities such as Harlem, and across cities like Chicago and Detroit.

Ultimately, without the migration of these women – whether they were passionate activists such as Baker and Ashwood, or those women who remained in jobs in order to keep their families from going hungry – life across the States would have resulted in a much more difficult journey, for both those part of the Great Migration, and for activists eagerly advocating the Civil Rights Movement.

Born in Virginia, and raised and educated in North Carolina, Ella Baker was the typical African-American woman trying to ‘make it’ by moving to New York at the height of the Great Migration during 1927. Though Baker had opportunities that many other black women of the time did not, (she studied at Shaw University in Raleigh, graduated as Valedictorian of her Women on the move @TheMcrHistorian

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HISTORY IN 10 PICT U R E S Holocaust: The Transportation and Liquidation of the Ghettos

A

B

C

D

E www.manchesterhistorian.com

ISSUE 21 | OCTOBER 2014

S

G

F

H

I

J

A: September 1939: Nazi occupation of Poland, beginning of Second World War

B: October 1939- February 1940: Registration of Jews for forced labour, restrictions on Jewish life

C: October 1940- Ghettos established, such as Warsaw Ghetto established 16 October 1940, over 350,000 Jews sent to Warsaw D: November 1940 - Warsaw Ghetto sealed off from outside world all liberties suspended

E: December 1940- 1941 - Starvation in ghettos causing major diseases and high mortality rates F: 1940- 1941 -Smuggling food and medicine into ghettos

G: 1941-1942- Phased transportation of Jews from ghettos to concentration camps known as ‘labour camps’. Given food and therefore unsuspecting of the impending horrors

H: 1942- The final phase of mass deportations to concentration camps generates more reluctance to submit to movement, as news has spread about killings. Jews begin to forcably resist their movement I: 1942- 1943- Himmler declares liquidation of ghettos

J: 1943- Ghetto uprisings, Nazi forces destroy ghettos and blow up synagogues @TheMcrHistorian

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ISSUE 21 | OCTOBER 2015

HISTORY IN F E A T U R E S The Journey to Space

Humans have dreamt of spaceflight since antiquity. The first recorded use of a rocket was by the Chinese in 1232 against the Mongol hordes – reports that ‘iron pots’ could be heard for 15 miles when they exploded upon impact.

In 1250, the Norwegian Konungs skuggsjá mentioned the use of “coal and sulphur” as the best weapon for ship-to-ship combat. The National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) states that, “Rockets appear in Arab literature in 1258 AD, describing Mongol invaders’ use of them on February the 15th to capture the city of Baghdad. Quick to learn, the Arabs adopted the rocket into their own arms inventory and, during the Seventh Crusade, used them against the French Army of King Louis IX in 1268.” In 1261, Roger Bacon developed the correct formula for gunpowder by using 75 per cent saltpetre.

Scientific and technological transaction has been fluid; gradual progress has been made through ‘tinkering’ rather than revolution, thus making rocket technology difficult to trace.

However, in the latter half of the 20th century there was a significant turning point – rocket technology was developed to be powerful enough to overcome the force of gravity and open space to human exploration.

Natalie Sharpin Robert Goddard began an analysis of rockets. He concluded three ways to improve conventional solid-fuel rockets and developed the mathematics of rocket flight, proving that a rocket would work in a vacuum.

When published in 1920, Goddard’s ideas attracted worldwide attention and were openly both praised and ridiculed.

In the late 1950s these isolated advances in space technology became a dramatic arena for Cold War competition, which pitted the democratic, capitalist United States and the communist Soviet Union against each other. On the 4th of October 1957, a Soviet R-7 intercontinental ballistic missile launched Sputnik (“traveller”), the world’s first man-made object to be placed into the Earth’s orbit. In the US, space was seen as the next frontier; a logical extension of the grand American tradition of exploration. It was therefore crucial not to lose ground to the Soviets. In addition, this demonstration of the overwhelming power of the R-7 missile, seemingly capable of delivering a nuclear warhead into US air space, made gathering intelligence about Soviet military activities particularly urgent.

“one small step for man, one giant leap for mankind.”

In 1903, Russian mathematics teacher Konstantin Tsiolkovsky published the first serious scientific work on space travel. His work was essentially unknown outside the Soviet Union, but inside the country it inspired further research, experimentation and the formation of the Society for Studies of Interplanetary Travel in 1924. In 1912, across the Bering Strait,

In 1958 the US launched Explorer I, designed by US Army under scientist Wernher von Braun. The President signed a public order creating NASA and two security-oriented programs were also set up to exploit the military potential of space and use satellites to gather intelligence. Nevertheless, in April 1961, Soviet cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin became the first person to orbit Earth. From 1961 to 1964, NASA’s budget was increased almost 500 per cent and launched Project Mercury.

On the 16th of July 1969, US astronauts Neil Armstrong, Edwin “Buzz” Aldrin and Michael Collins set off on the Apollo 11 space mission. On the 20th of July, Armstrong became the first man to walk on the moon, famously calling the moment “one small step for man, one giant leap for mankind.” With this, the US effectively won and astronauts came to be seen as the ultimate American heroes. In 1975, the joint Apollo-Soyuz mission astronauts officially greeted each other, with their “handshake in space” symbolising the gradual improvement in US-Soviet relations.

In the 21st century, focus has shifted to deep space. Just this year on the 14th of July, NASA’s New Horizons probe has lifted the veil on Pluto performing the first-ever flyby of the faraway dwarf planet, zooming within 7,800 miles of its surface. Space has not only become a frontier for the discovery of new knowledge, but despite discussions on the peaceful uses of space, it has become an extension of colonialism. This month, flowing water has been found on Mars. Elon Musk, CEO of SpaceX has already voiced ideas to create a new Martian biosphere, using fusion bombs to blast the sky every few seconds, creating a temporary “sun” over each pole.

The Alumni Athletic Club in 1910, Alexander Watson Hutton top centre, Wikimedia Commons

As we have tried to understand and control our environment on earth, we are seeking to control and understand our solar system, galaxy, and universe. Concepts found in films such as Interstellar are fast becoming a reality. In 2004, Virgin CEO Richard Branson founded Virgin Galactic dedicated to providing commercial space travel. Despite tragedy in 2014 when the fourth rocket powered test flight broke apart in mid-air, Virgin have continued to facilitate this new form of conspicuous consumption.

Space travel is to replace the yacht and private jet of today.

The cosmos is becoming a space in which large themes of human history are being played out – an extension of the arena of human triumphs and struggles.

www.manchesterhistorian.com

ISSUE 21 | OCTOBER 2014

Israel-Palestine: A region in conflict The region occupied by the people of Israel and Palestine has seen more than a thousand years of bloodshed. The modern conflict therefore is not an out of place occurrence and follows in a long line of violent history. Due to the nature of the topic this article shall attempt to present a balanced overview of the narrative of events.

Historically the state now known as Israel was located along the lucrative Silk Road from China, as well as at the ‘cultural edge’ or ‘fault line’ of Europe, Africa and Asia, as scholar Samuel P Huntington would describe. The latter applies to the contemporary situation more so now than it has done since the conclusion of the Crusades.

Therefore it could perhaps be said that conflict was more than likely to ensue in this region and indeed it did. Starting from ‘biblical’ sources onward, conflict is documented throughout Assyrian and Persian rule B.C.E and revolts under Roman rule into the Common Era. The trend continues in the ‘Middle Ages’, as there was a back and forth control between various Muslim dynasty’s of differing geographic origin in the ‘Levant’ as well as the Crusaders, before the Mamluks eliminated European presence in 1291. Finally the Ottoman Turks wrested control of the region from the former in 1516 and ruled for around 500 years until their fall at the end of the First World War at the hands of the British.

However the total area of Palestine was not just claimed by the Arab Nationalists but also by the international Zionist movement, who had a longer standing agreement with Britain. Having already rejected the British proposal of part of Uganda being their new homeland in 1903, the Zionist Organisation received the Balfour Agreement in 1917, confirming Britain’s willingness to establish a “Jewish homeland” in Palestine. Thereafter thousands of Jews emigrated between the wars, particularly during times of persecution.

Although initially supportive of Zionism and its goals, support soon waned as British officials realised that the goals of Zionism and Arab Nationalism were incompatible.

Both sides enacted their share of rebellion against Britain and conflict against one another during the years of the mandate. In 1947 Britain indicated to athe newly formed UnitedFFNations it would let its Pele during game against Malmö in 1960,than Brazil won 7-1. mandate expire the following year.

Before the expiration date the U.N Wikimedia Commons then moved to bring about a partition of the region between the Jewish and Arab Palestinian people.

Though Resolution 181 was adopted the plan to partition the country was never implemented, instead the two groups clashed continuallyknown as the 1947-48 Civil War- up to and including the expiration of the British Mandate on the 14th May 1948. On the afternoon of the very same day Israel declared its statehood and independence. Within the next few days, armies from Egypt, Jordan, Syria and Iraq entered Israel.

The Israeli-Palestinian conflict continued unabated within the larger Arab-Israeli War, with the Palestinian people working with the members of the Arab League to try and overthrow the new state at its inception.

The League failed in its goal, and Israel survived as a state with all parties signing an armistice in 1949. Israel now encompassed around ¾ of what had been Mandatory Palestine. The Gaza Strip and West Bank were occupied by Egypt and Jordan respectively. No agreement was secured by the Arab League for the 700,000 Palestinian refugees displaced by the war.

No agreement was secured by the Arab League for the 700,000 Palestinian refugees displaced by the war.

This brings us to the origins of the modern source of strife in the region. Even before the conclusion of war, Britain and France began dividing up the fallen Ottoman Empire between themselves along the infamous Sykes-Picot line in 1916. The territory that had been known as Southern Syria under Ottoman rule was now designated Palestine by the British.

The British were later affirmed in their role of ‘caretaker’ of Palestine and their other new possessions in the ‘Levant’ when they were given a mandate by the League of Nations in 1922, to administer said territory “until such a time as they were able to stand alone”.

With their authority over ‘Mandatory Palestine’ now secure, the promises that Britain had made before and during the war now came into play.

The British had promised various Arab tribes through T.E. Lawrence that they would be able to establish their own nation in exchange for their The Alumniagainst Athleticthe Club in 1910, Alexander Watson Hutton top assistance Turks. centre, Wikimedia Commons

@TheMcrHistorian

Thomas Barnett

The Israel-Palestine conflict forms the epicentre of conflict in the region and is the crux of the wider Arab-Israeli conflict, with none of the Arab League formally recognising the State of Israel –save for Egypt and Jordan after peace talks in 1979 and 1994 respectively. The subsequent conflicts in the region became embroiled in the politics of the Cold War with both ‘East’ and ‘West’ jostling for power in the ‘Third World’.

More Palestinian people have been forced to flee with every war and in some cases unable to return home if the territory was captured by Israel. The Palestinians continue to advocate politically -and some groups violently- for recognition as a state.

Most nations in the modern era recognise Palestine as a state, except those traditionally considered ‘Western’ nations. Violence and conflict from various terrorist and state organisations continue on both sides.

There appears to be no end in sight for this region in conflict.

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The Great Fire of London 1666 The Great Fire of London is one of the most well-known disasters in London’s history. Bringing major devastation to the City, the fire blazed for almost five days from Sunday 2nd September to Wednesday 5th September. It followed on from another catastrophic strike to medieval London, the Great Plague, however the fire arguably left behind greater social and economic problems.

It is well known that the fire broke out on Pudding Lane at Thomas Farriner’s bakery, at around 1am on Sunday 2nd of September. The initial cause of the fire is contested; it may have been the result of a spark from his oven falling onto a pile of fuel, or the mistake he made when trying to put out the fire.

Nevertheless, due to the wind and a long dry summer, the fire quickly spread across the city, making its way through 373 acres in just four days. It burnt around 13,200 houses, 84 churches and 44 company halls to the ground, leaving London devastated and demolished.

Once the fire had been extinguished and the severity of its damage exposed, attention soon turned to blame, and it wasn’t long until angry Londoners pointed the finger at foreign immigrant groups. What perhaps exacerbated the persecution of substantial immigrant groups, and caused Londoners to be suspicious of them, was England’s ongoing conflict with France and the Netherlands in the Second Anglo-Dutch War. This generated a climate of anxiety and hatred towards outsiders. Historian Neil Hanson has argued it made it easier for Londoners to conclude that the fire was an act of terrorism, most likely carried out by the Dutch, who were seeking revenge after England’s attack on 140 Dutch ships and the town of West Terschelling in August 1666. At the end of September, a Parliamentary Committee was appointed to investigate the fire. The most intriguing and most remembered trial of the investigation was that of a French man, Robert Hubert, as his trial encapsulated the despairing attempts of the State to find a scapegoat for the fire and put an end to the violence and persecution of innocent foreign groups. Robert had initially confessed to starting the fire at Westminster, and then later, when the real details of the fire’s origin emerged, claimed that he had set it off at the bakery on Pudding Lane.

Nevertheless, Robert was found guilty and was hung, despite details emerging that he wasn’t even in London when the fire started. Robert’s trial paints a picture of the need to find a foreign scapegoat to put xenophobia on the streets to rest, particularly as King Charles II’s declaration that the fire was an Act of God had not proved an adequate explanation to Londoners.

Another overwhelming problem caused by the fire was large scale evacuation from London. As the fire began to spread across the City, many Londoners gathered their belongings and fled

Laura Nolan

to the river to load their goods onto boats, while others rushed through the City gates and sprawled out onto the fields outside of London to get away to safety. Indeed, what backs up evidence that there was a surge of people evacuating the City is the diary of Samuel Pepys, which has become one of the most used sources of the Great Fire to date. Before burying his diary in the garden, Pepys wrote an entry for the 2nd of September, recording how, ‘poor people staying in their houses as long as till the very fire touched them, and then running into boats or clambering from one pair of stairs by the waterside to another’. The evacuation of people from London was somewhat intensified by Charles’s encouragement to resettle. It is thought that Charles feared a rebellion occurring among the devastated refugees, which would only heighten social disruption if coupled with the ongoing persecution of foreigners. Undoubtedly, this large movement of people led to a decrease in London’s population, and resulted in masses of people entering London’s surrounding towns looking for work and a place to live.

The social problems caused by the Great Fire were severe and overwhelming. While London may have benefited from the fact that the fire had destroyed, and therefore sterilised, the filthy streets associated with the Great Plague, it is undeniable that it greatly disrupted London’s society, depriving many people of their homes and caused the violent persecution of innocent foreign immigrant groups.

The Great Fire www.manchesterhistorian.com

ISSUE 21 | OCTOBER 2014

The Barbarian Invasions The period of Barbarian Migration which marked the decline and fall of the Roman Empire covers quite a large period of history, ranging from the 4th century right up to the 9th. It is extremely hard to pinpoint exactly where each Barbarian tribe was at what time during the Migrations, as the written sources are often contradictory; and establishing an individual sense of any one tribe’s material culture is near impossible. Of two things we can be certain however: that the ‘invasions’ were often purely a result of migration rather than a preconceived attempt to attack the Empire, and that these massive shifts of ethnic populations had a profound effect on the creation of what we know as modern Europe.

Most infamous of the migrations perhaps, is that of the Visigoths which concluded in the sacking of Rome itself in 410. The capital of the powerful Roman Empire had not been sacked for near 800 years, and the impact of the calamity was felt across most of the known world. The chronicler St. Jerome remarked that ‘the city which had taken the whole world was itself taken’. The Visigoths were an ethnic grouping of Germanic tribes within the larger collective peoples referred to as Goths. In their migrations during this period they settled and conquered across the Mediterranean, from Spain to Greece. Interestingly, they were the only culture to establish cities from the decline of the Roman Empire to the establishment of the Carolingian. They

Fraser Corrywright also created what is known as the Visigothic Code, a work that defined the way in which many Christian kingships were run in the centuries that followed.

The Visigoths are a powerful example of the false dichotomy of barbaric invaders and Civilized Romans that defines the Migrations. Indeed, on the surface it can be viewed that the Visigoths and their ilk were simply invading and destroying the edifice of civilization that Rome represented, when in actual fact the truth is more complicated. While there was no doubt much destruction and loss of life as a result of the migrations, there was also a blossoming of new cultures and empires as populations shifted. Britain became Anglo-Saxon, the Frankish Kingdom began to emerge, paving the way for the Carolingian’s, and the Byzantine Empire came into existence.

So we must view the ‘Barbarian Invasions’ and the Fall of Rome as more a transition period of migrations, which served as a catalyst for the creation of the medieval European world centuries later. Similarly, the so-called Barbarians themselves were varied and culturally complex, as much a part of the Roman world as the Romans themselves;

to the point where defining them as significantly less civilized than the Romans is a fallacy.

Ellis Island: A Gateway into a New World

‘Give me your tired, your poor, your huddled masses, yearning to breath free’ begins the inscription below the Statue of Liberty. Yet despite this, early 20th century immigration to the United States was often greeted with hostility and not the open arms you’d expect in a country built by immigrants for immigrants.

Across the Upper New York Bay from the Statue of Liberty, welcoming immigrants into the nation is Ellis Island. Consisting of five buildings, most notably the Ellis Island Immigration Centre, it was for 12 million immigrants their introduction to the United States.

In the late 1800s immigration rose sharply, and the previous processing centre of Castle Garden was deemed unfit for use. The US government purchased Ellis Island and constructed a grander immigrant holding station. On 1st January 1892, a girl from Ireland named Annie Moore was the first person to be admitted via the centre. Five years later it burnt down, but in 1900 it was reopened and built larger to accommodate the growing number of arrivals. In 1907, the US had its highest number of immigrants in its history, with Ellis Island processing 1.25 million arrivals that year.

The island developed a reputation as “The Island of Tears” due to its sometimes brutal treatment of new arrivals and its rejection of people that were hoping for a new start in life after a mammoth transatlantic voyage. In spite of this though, the island only ever rejected two per cent of immigrants.

Anti-immigrant rhetoric would spell the end for Ellis Island, as immigration went into decline. Pre 1890s immigrants and their descendants (mainly from West and North Europe) disliked the new wave of @TheMcrHistorian

James Huyton

immigrants from Southern and Eastern Europe. During the First World War, immigration fell sharply as foreigners came under increasing suspicion. 1921 saw the passage of the Quota Laws and 1924 saw the introduction of the National Origins Act. These restrictions were based on a percentage system according to the number of ethnic groups already living in the US. During wartime the island was used by the Navy as a dormitory building, yet when it returned to being an immigration centre it was never as busy as in the peak wave of immigration. In November 1954, Ellis Island was officially shut down.

Today, Ellis Island is still mostly closed. The main Immigration Centre is now a designated national park and a museum dedicated to the islands past – the Ellis Island National Museum of Immigration.

Ironically, more people arrive at the island yearly to visit the museum than ever did when it was a processing centre. The rest of the island, including the Immigrant Hospital, is off limits to the public and falling into disrepair.

Ellis Island

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ISSUE 21 | OCTOBER 2015

The Vikings: raiders or settlers?

Lloyd Hammett

Between the 8th and late 11th century, the Vikings ventured from their Scandinavian homelands and began their assault on the memory of Europe. The name Viking is thought to derive from vikingr (pirate). Indeed, we use the term ‘Viking’ with little discrimination and it is now a term with great historical and pseudo-historical baggage. Traditionally, the Vikings have been portrayed as raiders and pillages, causing destruction and leaving swiftly.

In 793, the monks on the island of Lindisfarne, off the northeast coast of England, were devastated by Viking arrivals from the sea. The monks’ misfortune is the first clearly dated event in the saga of the Vikings. However, Lucien Musset has also called it the last and most dramatic exodus in the long story of migration after the Goths and Vandals. Eventually, the Vikings migrated and settled in the islands of the north Atlantic, Britain, Normandy, Sicily and the heart of Russia.

A more positive, nuanced view of the Vikings is becoming visible: that they became part of and influenced the cultures that they infiltrated, often for the better.

Many reasons for migration have been cited; Vikings as exiles from political upheaval, the consolidation of the Vestfold dynasty in Norway under The Vikings Harald Harfagr 880s-890s, political infighting in England and Frankia that facilitated Viking activity, climate change, overpopulation, and technological change which together enabled Viking expansion.

However, more simplistically, the Scandinavian world was already expanding eastward and westward by the late 8th century, evidenced by the establishment of the Svea trading colony at Staraja Ladoga in northern Russia. This expansion of trade generated an increase in piracy; furs were an important export and these trade routes saw a measurable rise in business.

Trading centres were huge areas of wealth and resources including livestock, metalwork, human capital, which were all important commodities to be stolen. Booming trade was generated in tandem with the piracy dependent on that trade.

In essence, there was nothing special about the violence the Vikings are associated with.

What makes the Vikings special to England in particular, is the transformative effect they had in nation-building. Although they tended to pick out liminal spaces on the edge of other kingships, their settlement created hybrid cultures. Creating links through marriage, trade and political alliances with

Natalie Sharpin

indigenous communities, the cross-cultural activity generated a perpetual motion of settlement. Consequently, the identity of the ‘Vikings’ is difficult to pin down. Olaf Guthfrithsson was a member of the Norse-Gael Uí Ímair dynasty, king of Dublin from 934 to 941 and briefly king of York in 927 but was expelled the same year by king Æthelstan of England. Olaf partook in aggressive ‘Viking’ activities such as raiding, but was also a great king who had his own poet at court, fostered children, and married Irish princesses.

The Scandanavianisation of English place names by the local people and scribes can be shown to be common by the 12th century and is evidence of significant colonisation. For instance, -thorpe, -thwaite, -by, and -kirk.

Crucially, there was a rapid recovery from Viking attack and those areas that suffered most in the 9th century appeared most prosperous in the 10th including Dublin and York in the British Isles, and Normandy in France.

The Normans were the most successful Vikings of them all. In 911, the Frankish king Charles the Simple, in an effort to reduce raids and destruction, offered a large amount of land in northern France to a band of Vikings led by Rollo in return for obedience to the Frankish crown.

Gradually, the local term for “Norsemen” contracted to “Norman”. The Normans traded with kingdoms and empires across the globe, provided soldiers to act as a Papal guard and not long after the conquest of England in 1066, turned their attention to Italy and Sicily, and were a driving force behind the Crusades.

In short, Viking migrants brought England cultural and political coherence; their Norman descendants brought England a heritage we still call our own today including a love of hunting and wine; buildings built for war as well as God, such as the Tower of London and the Cathedrals at Durham and Ely; the French language, including names such as William, Richard and Robert replacing Ethelred and Godwin; the Domesday tradition, and above all a language of power and courtly culture. However heavily we subscribe to the archaic image of the Vikings as barbarian raiders, it is beyond doubt that the Viking migration is fundamental to our national story.

For some people the feeling of success can only be achieved after completing a monumental and grueling task, the ecstasy is sweeter when the aim is that much harder. How else can you explain the agony extreme travellers go through if not in terms of the self-fulfillment they must feel on completion of their dreams? www.manchesterhistorian.com

ISSUE 21 | OCTOBER 2014

What’s going on Around Manchester?

University Events:

• Monday 16th November: Postgraduate Study Fair, Manchester Central • Tuesday 17th November: Law Fair • Rotating Wednesdays and Saturdays: University Heritage Campus Tours Getting into the Spirit of this Halloween!

• Bugged Out – Warehouse Project.

• Girls on Film (Rocky Horror Special) – Deaf Institute.

• Sixth Birthday Halloween Special - Antwerp Mansion.

Remember, Remember the 5th of November!

Head to Plattfields Park on 5th November for a night of fireworks, rides and food around a bonfire!

Food and rides start at 19.00, Bonfire lit at 19.30! Free Entry!

Top Three Films: Suffragette (12A): Meryl Streep, Helena Bonham-Carter and Carey Mulligan, all take part in the dangerous fight between women and the state, in the quest to achieve equality.

The Martian (12A): Abandoned by his crew on Mars in the aftermath of a deadly storm, an astronaut (Matt Damon) must learn to survive on a hostile planet.

Legend (18): During the 1950s and 1960s, London played victim to the brutal violence and crime of the gangster twins, Ronald and Reginald Kray. Tom Hardy stars in the action-filled story about the underbelly of London’s gangster criminal network.

If you wish to write reviews for films or events in Manchester please email: manchesterhistorian@gmail.com

Upcoming Gigs: • Friday 30th October : Peter Hook and the Light, Manchester Academy.

• Thursday 19th & Friday 20th November: Happy Mondays, Manchester Academy.

• Saturday 21st November: Everything Everything, Manchester Apollo Club Night Suggestions: Events: • Friday 20th November: Stevie Wonderland & Ben Pearce: The Sextape Series – Gorilla • Friday 27th November: Cinematic Orchestra – Albert Hall • Saturday 28th November: Amine Edge & DANCE Present CUFF – Albert Hall Your Daily Fix: • Mondays: Afterlife - Sound Control • Tuesdays: Gold Teeth – Deaf Institute • Wednesdays: Juicy – Joshua Brooks • Thursdays: P.A.R.T.Y – Sankeys • Fridays: Best in Stand Up – The Comedy Store • Saturdays: FAC 251 – Factory • Sundays: Afterlife MCR – South @TheMcrHistorian

James Hopkins giving a Heritage Tour

The Deaf Institute

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ISSUE 21 | OCTOBER 2015

History Society Hello everyone, and welcome to the History Society for the 2015/16 academic year! After a very busy Welcome Week and Week 1, we’ve kicked the year off with a bang and have loved seeing so many of you at our events or passing by the Welcome Week Fair stall. The History vs. English Pub Crawl has been one of our most successful events to date, with over 250 people turning up – thank you all for making it so special!

The activities and festivities are not over, and the Society has much more to offer you for the rest of this year.

Socials & Events: As the year continues, we will be holding a variety of socials and events. In the past these have ranged from movie nights and museum trips, to pub crawls and night out socials. Here are some of the things we have planned for the rest of this term: 29th October – Annual Pub Quiz Held with departmental staff, to be followed by a social for those who wish to stay on for the night.

November – Post Reading Week Social We will be holding a social in mid-end November to keep spirits high as the term draws to an end

Jamie Taylor & Dan Bunter

16th December – the Annual Departmental Christmas Party (followed by a social) Every year the department throws a wonderful party with beautiful (and free) food and drink for staff and students. We will be chasing this event up with our very own social.

More events are currently in the pipeline catering to all different interests and activities. We will keep you informed of details as we move forward.

Berlin! 4th-7th February 2016 The History Society this year are also going on tour in collaboration with the Politics Society to Berlin! We have two competitive price packages on offer; one to travel by coach for just £154, one to travel by flight for only £229. To find out more, check out our booking website: http://invasion.com/historyandpolitics/ Academic Support & Careers Information The society also has committee members dedicated towards providing academic support and careers information to history students. All of our careers information will be circulated via our social media pages and by email, and our academic page, the UoM History Forum, is a platform for students to discuss their academic needs and share information with each other. https://www.facebook.com/groups/UoMHistoryForum/ Follow us!

To make sure you are up to date on all of our news, events and information, make sure to join the History Society on the official Students’ Union website (it’s free!). We will also use our Facebook and Twitter accounts to post all relevant information, including about events, socials, academic support and careers information.

Join our Facebook/Twitter page: www.facebook.com/groups/uomhistorysociety | @UoMHistSoc

History FC – Squad Assembled, Ready for Action After weeks of advertising and holding trials, History FC has now assembled a very strong squad, preparing for the first league fixture on Wednesday 7th October.

History FC is one of the University of Manchester’s oldest 11-a-side football teams, having competed in the ISSL campus league for many decades. After suffering two successive relegations, the team has stabilised over the last two seasons. Having retained a strong core from last season, the team will be aiming for promotion out of division two this year.

The campus league has five divisions of ten teams, consisting of a mixture of subject and halls teams. In addition to Wednesday afternoon league fixtures, there are also cup and plate competitions running on Saturday mornings. Now in my third season with History FC, I can say that the ISSL campus league provides a very good standard of competitive football, whilst also ensuring the game is played in an enjoyable, good-spirited manner.

As captain of History FC, I am looking forward to the challenge of playing as well as managing the team, something I have never had to do before.

An added challenge will be managing my personal fitness, having dislocated my ankle at the end of last season. However, having defeated division one side Chemical Engineering 4-1 in a pre-season friendly, I am confident that the squad has great depth and is capable of being successful in the league and cups this season.

This year we welcome back former captain Lewis Ryder, returning to the University of Manchester to study for an MA in History after taking a year

out to teach English in China. It is great to have him around, not only as a fantastic player, but also as a former captain, he will be helpful in running the team.

For the 2014-15 season, History FC struggled in the first-half of the campaign, but fought back with some stunning comebacks and victories in the second-half of the season. Highlights included scoring two late goals to draw 3-3 against the league winners the Islamic Society, as well as taking cup winners Whitworth Park A all the way to a penalty shoot-out in the quarter-final, only to lose out 4-1.

I am eager to get back playing, even though the cold, dark winter months can make the conditions down in Wynthenshawe testing in the extreme, the competitive football and great team spirit certainly makes it worthwhile.

For more regular updates on how the team is doing this season, do follow us on Twitter @HistoryFCManUni. www.manchesterhistorian.com

ISSUE 21 | OCTOBER 2014

Peer Mentors The Peer Mentor Scheme within the History department is entering its tenth year. Throughout the past 10 years, the scheme has aimed to ensure that every new student in Manchester feels welcome and supported during his or her first year at University. This year is no different.

The student-to-student support programme aims to help first years in the transition into Higher Education and mainly focusses on the social side of university life. However, second and third year mentors also provide academic support to their mentees, often helping out with course selection or any difficulties using the library. The scheme is a less formal approach to problems or questions students may have. During this difficult period of adjustment, mentors provide a sup-portive network and are the first point of contact if a problem arises.

Harriet Boland

Already this year, the peer mentors ran the History Welcome Week Quiz which saw all the first year academic groups compete to be crowned Quiz Champions 2015. The event was held at Christie’s Bistro during Welcome Week and an array of sandwiches and cake were provided by the cafe to keep energy levels high! In the morning student coordinators Jamie and Harriet hosted the quiz, with the ever so charismatic Dr Max Jones taking on the role of quiz master in the afternoon.

The scheme’s success is down to the commitment and enthusiasm of the student peer mentors, and with a great team behind us this year we hope it can be as supportive as ever.

Unlike a lot of disciplines, History has very few contact hours and is a subject which requires a significant amount of self motivation. First year students may find this adjustment intimidating or daunting. The Peer Mentor scheme hopes to re-assure new students and help them adapt to University life.

So what is it that peer mentors do? Students can set up and run their own social events to welcome students, strengthen the History community and create friendship ties in and around the scheme. For example, in the past mentors have or-ganised curry nights in Rusholme, drop in sessions, campus tours and even bowling events. Most of all, the role of a peer mentor is to remind the new students that they always have someone to turn to if they have a problem, question or concern.

History Careers Welcome to Manchester or welcome back!

I hope you’ve all settled into life in Manchester and courses are all going well. It might only be the start of the year but whether you’re a fresher or a returner there is no better time than right now to get a head start on thinking about careers, internships, work experience and the wealth of opportunities Manchester has to offer. This is the beginning of you landing your dream job after graduation. Here at Manchester we have one of the best Careers Services in the country and it would be silly to not make the most of them. Always feel free to drop in to the Careers Service in University Place or arrange a one-on-one appointment with a consultant to discuss any queries you may have.

There are so many events to help boost your careers prospects. Here are a select few that are particularly relevant to historians: Work in PR and Social Media (TUESDAY 27TH OCTOBER, 5.15, UNI PLACE 5.206) - Katherine Mountain, a PR and social media consultant, will explain what her job involves, how she got started, and how to successfully apply for jobs in her sector. She is a Manchester graduate and is very excited to share her experience.

Journalism Workshop (THURSDAY 12TH NOVEMBER, 5.15, UNI PLACE 5.206) - The Media Club are running this event with News Association, a journalism training school, to offer insight to students that are considering working in the media. Join the Media Club on Facebook for more opportunities like this and to get a head start on a career in the media.

@TheMcrHistorian

Muneera Lula TeachFirst Smoothie Bar (FRIDAY 13TH NOVEMBER, SU) - TeachFirst are a charity and graduate recruiter aiming to get more inspiring teachers into the classroom. They’ll be around with their free smoothie bar answering any questions and letting people register their interest.

Meet the Media Professional (THURSDAY 3RD DECEMBER) - Come along to a Careers Service event to meet Manchester graduates working in broadcasting, journalism, publishing and communications. A great opportunity to network with alumni and gain some great tips for getting into a fairly competitive industry.

As well as all these great events there will be regular posts on the History Society Facebook group about careers so join and keep an eye out. Careers fairs are a great place to network, meet employers and maybe pick up some freebies so be sure to attend.

There’s also information on Careerslink on everything from law to publishing. Take a few moments to have a search of all your options and talk to people who might be able to help.

Good luck with another brilliant year at Manchester!

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The Manchester Historian The Historian is changing

read it, write it The Manchester Historian is a growing magazine seeking writers studying a single or joint honours History degree to write articles, interviews and reviews with an historical slant to chronicle our vibrant and fast-changing world.

In return, the Historian offers a great opportunity for budding journalists to gain experience as well as for students to develop writing and research skills to complement their degree and their employability.

View our previous issues at http://issuu.com/manchesterhistorian No experience is necessary; we are simply looking for an interested and enthusiastic team of writers and contributors. We welcome article suggestions too, so whether you’d like to write it or not, please contact us at any time during the year with your ideas.

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