December 2018 Project developed by Nguyen Mai Anh .
This book is a research and explaination of the installation artwork : “ MAN UP ? � Concept : The crisis of Male Identity The formation & standard of of masculinity and The consequences come with it.
This book includes: The Intro / The Thesis: The Cause, The Consequences, The Resolution/ The Artwork / The Working Process
In response to: MAN UP .
Dedicated to all men who are and who will be in my life. May they live in freedom ?
THE INTRO
How many times have you seen a man cry? How many times have you, as man, need to hide your vulnerabIlity? Since when, did a boy need to be a man? How long have a man had to be the man? Strong. Successfull. Rich. Powerful. Protective. Productive. No tears, no whining, no sissy stuff. No emotion. Just . No. Big boy don’t cry.
We teach boy how to wear the skin of the man, but we also teach them how to raise that skin like a flag and draw blood on it. - Guante, 2013 As if the only legitimate emotion a man could express was rage. - Kimmel, 2008 Is the “be a man” stereotype hurting boys? - Wallace, CNN, 2014
THE THESIS
A FAMILY’S PROBLEM - A WORLDWIDE ISSUE
For my whole life, there is only one time I have seen my dad cried. Even at that time, he still tried to hide his tear and sadness. It was when my grandma passed away, he stood in the corner of the house and shed his tears, then quickly walked away, nobody was there. Why does a man have to hide his vulnerability? Why can’t my dad show his sadness in front of the family? I’ve never really notice. My dad is the type of man that they called “the standard”. He is strong and funny. He is a respectful university professor. He takes care of his family, provides for them and protects them. He is the head of his department in university. He is the leader at home. But, he gets angry easily and gets imperious often; sometime, I see him as a dictator. Other times, we don’t talk much. My dad doesn’t show much love to his children (when we were kid: yes, but now, not reallty) and he doesn’t show his vulnerability ever. The more my brother and I grow up the more we learnt from him, unknowingly, to not show our vulnerable & emotional side in front of anyone.
This story might seem irrelevant to you now, but bear with me. it relates to most of all problems in the world.
Things get tough with my family when my brother went study aboard, 5 years oversea, he’s been through many hardships that clearly no one in our family can understand. All we know are he moved out of our family relative’s house; he failed his tests in college; he worked from 5am to 9pm in a butcher shop and when he couldn’t lengthen his visa anymore, he came home with nothing, wasting all of my parents’ money. In my dad’s eyes and many other people’, he is a failure, a disappointment. My dad became harsher with my brother, told him to “Pick yourself up” to “Man Up”, “Take care of your own life”. But my brother doesn’t talk much; he doesn’t listen to both mom and dad either. My mom asked him what he wanted, his feelings, why he was so upset, why every words coming out from his mouth were full with negativity, but he never spoke. Once she told him how miserable she and my dad felt at that time, he responded with “ Don’t talk about how miserable you are; you will never know how miserable I’ve gone through ”. Then we found out he had been using drug. Dad and mom, being the traditional Viet parents, were horrified. Things just went downhill very fast from there.
For the past 5 years until now, there were countless fights between my parents; countless times I have listened to my mom crying about my brother. She said dad hurt too, and I’m sure he did, but he never shows that outside. I wonder when will my family collapse, when will my dad reach his breaking point, when will my brother do something even stupider, when will mom has had enough? And I wonder where did things start to go wrong? There are so many reasons, and any of us can be the blame, but as far as I think of it, there is one thing that sure has created this disaster. Had my father and brother opened up about their feelings; had them shown more affection to their family; had them shared their worries and sadness, things might not get this far.
THE THESIS It’s all about the common standard of this world that men have to be strong; and showing weakness is considered not a real man. This standard has worked so well that everyone believes it and everyone acts upon it, including my father and brother. It’s all about this standard that people push themselves and push others to “Be a Man”, “Be strong” to “Man Up”. So you might ask me why I think my family’s problem is a worldwide issue. It is because the root of this problem is also the cause of many tragedies in this world. Because men are expected by the society to be masculine, to be strong, and in control that they are considered “not a true man” when they show vulnerability, when they are being sensitive or do things that are “girly”. Because men need to Man Up, they can’t share their sadness & depressions and end up with negative reactions to release these feelings – violence, crime, suicide, drugs, depression, etc.
I believe that men are human being as well as women. They have the right to be who they are without the titles and expectation that the society put on them. They have the right to show their sadness & worries, to cry, to be vulnerable, to lean on someone else when needed, to do what they want without being judged. This project is made to shine a light on this issue, to understand where it comes from, the consequences and resolutions of it, and also to free man from all the constrains of the notion: “MAN UP!”
– WHERE DOES IT COME FROM? THE CAUSE
Why does man need to “Man Up”? As far as my research for this topic went, I can say that there are 3 factors working together and supporting each other to create the image of man; which are: the nature, the media representation and the social belief.
THE NATURE Since the beginning of humanity, men are built to be stronger, more competitive than women. Firstly, men have a greater amount of testosterone which creates a “greater desire to compete and take risks” (McKay, 2014). When winning in a contest, men are supplied with more testosterone that “makes him wants to keep on competing” (McKay, 2014). Secondly, the body structure of man is more masculine and stronger than woman; as a result, he acts as the protector & provider for women and child in primitive time (go hunting, guarding the tribe, etc.), and it carried on to modern time even when as society’s resources increase the request for masculinity shrinks (during the time of scare resources man is relied to provide additional resources: food, protection, money; but when there are enough resources, man roles are less important.) (McKay,2014).
In addition to that, since believing is seeing (Lorber, 1993), the physical attributes of man suggest that he has to be strong and in charge of jobs that require physical strength. Consequently, overtime, he is also expected to be mentally strong. Another natural attribute of men is the ability to reproduce. “He produces billion of sperm; she produces one gigantic ovum.” (Kimmel, 2008). This means in the time for a woman to get pregnant and give birth, a man can makes as many women pregnant as he can. Moreover, while women ability to get pregnant stops when she reaches 50-60 years old, a normal man can produce sperm as long as he lives. Hence, in term of reproduction, man is much more productive than woman; as a result, he is expected to be productive, not only in fertilizing eggs but also in all other works. On the contrary, since woman requires only one successful mating to get pregnant, she tends to be picky of her partner. Which explains why most women are always looking for the best man she could get. This certainly puts more pressure on men and forces them to reach perfection in the social eyes. Generally speaking, it is the nature that gives man the roles of the leader, the provider, the protector, the fighter; and it is considered natural for men to be aggressive and competitive based on all the scientific facts. However, the society takes a step further from this point to title man with all of these attributes and considered those without these attributes - “not a real man”, which leads us to another factor that decides a man’s image.
THE THESIS
– WHERE DOES IT COME FROM? THE CAUSE
THE SOCIAL BELIEF The social belief of man need to “Man Up” is built upon the nature biology of man. In this case, Man need to “Man Up” is the extension of the man’s nature based on social needs. When woman is extremely choosy with the male partner in reproduction, she doesn’t stop there. She not only wants a man that can get her pregnant but because of the great amount of time and hard labour during pregnancy, woman also wants a worthy investment on her partner. He has to be the best parent that has “political and economic resources, to ensure that her children (her genes) will be well provided for” (Kimmel cited Layng, 2008). In short, a woman is always looking for the alpha male who has “greater access to power, money and mates” which earns by “physical prowess, intimidation, and domination” (Kaufman, 2014). As a result, a “real man” has to always push himself to be wealthier and has higher position in the society. And yet, this is just a small portion of the whole social construction of man.
We are talking about social stereotypes that frame the live of a man since his birth, or even before that, once you can know a foetus’s gender inside the womb. “ It’s a boy ” or “ It’s a girl ” that is the first thing you know about a baby, not its name or characteristics but its gender (Kimmel, 2008). Since that point, parents start to pick name, clothes and toys based on the baby gender. Boy is expected to be masculine and grown to be a great and successful man. He is prepared for movement and construction (Buikema & Tuin cited Boomen, 2009). Girl is expected to be feminine, to be beautiful and to be a mother. The human’s mind can go that far from the beginning point of biology differences into the stage of gender inequality that makes both man and woman lose their freedom in expressing themselves. There is a list of basic rules for manhood that is concluded through the history of male sex roles:
No sissy stuff. Masculinity is the repudiation of the feminine Be a bug wheel. Masculinity is measured by wealth, power, and status
Be a sturdy oak. Masculinity requires emotional imperviousness
Give ‘em hell. Masculinity requires daring, aggression, and risk-taking in our society. - Brannon & David, 1976.
THE THESIS
Are man and woman still human being when we have to live within a list of what we should do, live in the society stereotypes, when we are manipulated and brain washed? It might seem at first that it’s the society fault. However, men and women are the creators of the society, and when gender is socially constructed, it means our identities are made of “the meanings and behaviours that we construct from the values, images, and prescriptions we find in the world around us” (Kimmel, 2008). As a result, man can choose his identity both voluntarily and submissively to social rules. We might ask “Why didn’t man rebel against the whole system?” (McKay, 2014). It is because it’s good for the society, everybody has their roles. Man does man’s works, woman does woman’s work. It might sounds sexist (which explains the rise of feminism) but we can’t deny the fact that such stereotypes keep the society from chaos. If everyone can freely do what they want, then the society may collapse. Furthermore, since it is man’s nature to be competitive and man are more sensitive to status than woman, the title of real man has become a goal for every man to achieve, and “the desire for honour was so great that most shunned the sheltered life and heartily chose The Way Of Men” (McKay, 2014).
It has already been hard for boy to become man when he is raised by his mother. He has to detach himself from mother’s arms and learns from his father, who is often less affectionate and more imperious (Kimmel, 2008). When feminism grows stronger through time; homosexual emerges, and society’s resources increase, masculinity faces with great threats that emasculate man, which they called as “masculinity in crisis” (Mckay, 2014). During which time, man gets even more pressure to retain the true identity of masculinity. Hence, “Man Up” is used more and more under many equivalent terms to remind man of being the true man. According to Pimenta and Natividade (2013) in their research on semiotic construction of masculinity, they stated that: “It became clear that masculinity is culturally and socially constructed and related to political, economical and physical strength.” Until now, their conclusion remains true.
– WHERE DOES IT COME FROM? THE CAUSE
Additionally, Society & Culture are greatly affected by the media; consequently, it is also thanks to the media representation that man need to “Man Up!” THE MEDIA In The Celluloid Closet (1995), Richard Dyer said that
“Your ideas about who you are don’t just come from inside you, they come from the culture, and culture comes from movies. We learn from movies what it’s meant to be a man, a woman, what it’s meant to have sexuality”.
THE THESIS
In other words, the media (include movies and other forms) has a great power in constructing culture and social perception. Through time, this has been proven to be true. When homosexual emerges in the media, it is portrayed as a bad thing. They are gay, queer, faggot, and in films they are the victim or the victimized, the bad guy or the pitiful -disrespected one. Gradually, the society truly believes so, and they act upon this belief – teaching little boy to “don’t be a faggot”; forcing man to “Man Up” because otherwise they will look like a homosexual, and homosexual is bad.
In the media, “representations do not merely “express” masculinity, rather, they play a central role in forming conceptions of masculinity” (Schroeder & Zwick, 2014). Until today, because the society has gone too far to define a man base on their nature biology, somehow, the media has continued this road with misrepresentations of man rather than representation. From novels to movies, real men are portrayed in one way: successful, in control, physically and mentally strong, rich, competitive and aggressive. In fact, in a research identifies the most popular stereotypes of leading male characters in the media (Mediasmart.ca cited Children Now, 2014), they found 5 types of real men that fit with the attributes listed above, none of which define a man with slightly a hint of vulnerability. It is because of this depiction in the media, that in real live, man is always expected to “Man Up”. Some example of male characters that create stereotype masculinity can be found in novels, stories and movies:
In Homer’s The Iliad, Odysseus has all the qualities of today’s real man. His vulnerability is portrayed in which considered as acceptable to be vulnerable about for a man, which is “weeping for home, love ones, and fallen comrades” (Lutz,2001). Odysseus has never cried for his condition of loneliness or frustration, which is considered by ancient Greeks as “not acceptable reasons for men to cry” (Lutz,2001). In The Old Man And The Sea, Hemingway wrote “A man can be destroyed but not defeated.” which meant he can be killed with pain but not collapse by it. The Old Man – Santiago is definitely the real man who “takes his suffering as it comes. He is comfortable but suffering, although he does not admit the suffering at all.” (Schatz cited Hemingway, 2011). Moving forward to movies, we can still see plenty of male characters that are the perfect representations of male stereotypes. There are George Baily in It’s a Wonderful life (1946) who saves many lives, Twelve Angry Men (1957) which the main character intelligently leads the jury, Tyler Durden in Fight Club (1999) who is an imagination of the perfect men that the main character wants to be, and there are James Bond, Bat Man, Superman, Edward Lewis in Pretty Women (1990), King Leonidas in 300 (2007) – the hero types, strong, intelligent, has influence, rich and charming, etc.
Because of these characters being perfectly manly that people always looking for the perfect man in real life, who present all of these characters’ attributes. The society perceives them as the standard of real man – the hegemonic masculinity. However, these attributes in fact are really hard to achieve, but it is “dominant in the sense of being socially valued and culturally powerful” (Gill, 2007). Hence, it became a great problem & pressure for real men because it is wanted but difficult to attain (O’shaughnessy & Stadler, 2008). -----------------------------------------------
In conclusion,
the reason for man need
to “Man Up” has its root from the nature biology of men, and then gradually it is perceived and extended by the society needs under the vital influence of media misrepresentation .
Why does it is media misrepresentation but not representation? Because men, above all, are human being, underneath the mask of cultural hegemonic masculinity, men are vulnerable. The media only stresses on the surface of a man’s great attributes but not their inner vulnerability, this is misrepresentation. And because of this, men and the society have to bear disastrous consequences.
THE THESIS THE CONSEQUENCES Les Miserables (2012), It’s a wonderful life (1946), American Beauty (1999), Fight Club (1999), and many other films in the media can be understand as celebrations of masculinity, but they are also the criticism of masculinity that has shown how “futile and destructive – to self and others – such masculinity is” (O’shaughnessy & Stadler, 2008). In Les Miserables, we see men doing all the brave and honourable gestures, protecting their family, fighting for their belief, but we also see Jean Valjean hiding away from his family in moment of weakness, intended to die alone. In It’s a wonderful life, George Baily is depressed and tries to suicide without seeking help in his family. In American Beauty and Fight Club, we see men kill themselves or kill others because of their crisis in reaching masculinity. These consequences are not only found in films, but in real life every day. For instance, Men and alcohol abuse because of the media advertising that link masculinity with alcohol; man is abusing alcohol every day to present themselves as a real man. Therefore, came the consequences: 84% of those who are jailed for fatal accidents resulting from drunk driving are male , and 86% of arson crimes are committed by men (Kimmel cited California Highway Patrol, 2008).
To a more destructive scale, men suicide rate is 4 times higher than women. 81% of completed suicides of people from 10 to 24 are by boys (Wallace, 2014). Researches show that boys/ men mostly suicide by hanging themselves or using gun. The reason why they chose these ways to suicide is because “they have to do something that looks strong “I’m hurt but I’m still strong” and the way they die is their “final test of masculinity” (Wallace cited Thompson, 2014). To explain for this suicide phenomenon, psychologist Michael Thompson said that the notion that men need to be strong has cause boys and young men difficult time dealing with negative emotions. They don’t seek for help from others because it is the sign of vulnerability. Consequently, they chose other ways to release themselves from sadness, which are: suffering in depression, using drugs, taking their own life.
Furthermore, the inability to deal with negative feelings along with the stereotype expectation of boys to be in control and aggressive has led many young men to express themselves through violence, to the point that they actually believe “male violence is a way to show successful masculinity” (Kimmel, 2008). For example: harassment and bullying, boys who receive such behaviours also response back with violence, as a result the circle of violence continue from boys to boys and boys to men (Kimmel, 2008). In addition to that, men also use violence to maintain “their political and economic advantage over women and lower status men” (Kimmel & Aronson cited Sabo, 2008). Which, all together, lead to domestic violence, rape, sexual & verbal harassment, murder, public school shooting, gay –bashing, etc. In fact, the ratio of criminals between male and female always show overwhelming numbers of men committing crime, they are in: 88% of arrested murderers, 92% of arrested robbers, 87% of aggravated assault, 83% of family violence, etc. As can be seen in these charts – taken from The Gendered Society – Chapter 12: The Gender of Violence (Kimmel, 2008):
THE THESIS THE CONSEQUENCES Yet, people don’t really pay much attention on those overwhelming number. If in case those numbers belong to women then they might question the reason behind that. It is because violence in men are expected and considered as a normal thing. Nowadays, it is this gender inequality perception of men that they become more violence to prove their masculinity in the time of masculinity crisis. Above all, the greatest consequence of the notion man need to “Man Up”, as I consider is: the loss of freedom for man to be themselves. Men since childhood had already been brainwashed and manipulated to live their live in masculinity stereotype, they have no freedom in deciding what they should or shouldn’t do. Boys, who were taught to hide their feeling, when growing up, have to repress feelings in many ways. As a result, they submissively hide a part of themselves and loss the ability to create close relationship. On the contrary to that, it is considered OK for boys to be angry and aggressive; somehow, it confirms masculinity (O’shaughnessy & Stadler, 2008). This cultural masculinity perception has caused emotionally destruction in boys and men. “As if the only legitimate emotion a man could express was rage” (Kimmel, 2008).
As a result, men have hard time dealing with feelings and expressing feelings, which, over time, might escalated to destructive consequences, not only to themselves but to others as well. Even though woman has figured this consequence for their side in gender inequality decades ago, man seems to be unable to raise their voice about it, because “Big boys don’t cry”. “Most of them will be embarrassed to talk about it, because they’re too afraid of saying something that will disqualify them from successfully being a man” (Can, 2014). Yet, boys learnt from fathers and from peers. Since no one has yet raised awareness of the destruction of the notion “Man Up”, the stereotype of masculinity continues to pass on in an endless journey, so does its consequences. As far as it get,
“We teach boy how to wear the skin of the man, but we also teach them how to raise that skin like a flag and draw blood on it” (Guante, 2013).
THE RESOLUTION It is undeniable that the notion Man need to be “Man Up” is generally accepted as a good thing. And indeed, it is. It helps inspire men to strive for virtue and excellence, to be their better self, to improve every day and be a good & useful human being to the society. On other hand, the destruction of “Man Up” still exists, yet people seem to not pay much attention to it or realize the negative consequences that “Man Up” can bring to the society. The resolution for this is to raise awareness and to redefine masculinity. However, at the moment, raising awareness is a more possible and effective resolution. Since the feminist has gone through decades to raise their voice and get their right, in just a couple of months or years, redefining masculinity is impossible to achieve. It is a long term journey of reconstruction, recreation and adjustment. Yet, redefining masculinity can still be achieved in a long and enduring process. History has proven that, through time, masculinity is subject to change; it can change as an individual grow and vary within any particular culture at any particular time (Kimmel & Aronson, 2008). For the moment, raising awareness of the negative effect of “Man Up” could be the first step to achieve redefining masculinity.
THE ARTWORK
Title : MAN UP? Type
Typography poster Installation Interactive conceptual piece Material
Glass & Wood
Presented with
Hammer & Light matches Handwritten note: “In case of fire, break glass� How to use
Read the words on each poster, understand their relationship. Burn the wood poster with light match . Break the glass with hammer.
THE ARTWORK
DESCRIPTION: The artwork consists 2 typhographic posters. The first one is carved on clear glass panel, contains all the quotes of the victims of the “Man Up” notion (victims such as: school shooter, murderer, suicide victims, my brother, so on) as well as famous quotes talking about man’s right. The second one is carved on wood panel, contains all the terms/ phrases that people used to tell other boys/ men to “Man Up” such as: “Be a Man”, “Stop Crying”, “Pick Yourself Up”, etc.
When putting the glass poster in front of the wood poster, we can see together they create the word “Man Up” in the middle of these 2 posters. The posters are held up with a stand so as the viewer can see both posters merge with each other and somehow, they can figure out the relationship between these posters.
THE ARTWORK
WOOD
is firm, stable and has a long time of existing, it represents for the “standard masculinity” that everybody believes since the beginning of humanity.
The quotes in this wood poster are common sayings that are usually used to form men & boys to be the “perfect masculine type” of men.
“Kill me please” - School shooters “I’m fighting feminism” - School shooters aimed at women “Thank you for making me feel like man” - Rapist “Give me liberty or giev me death” - Deppressed husband-suicide victim “I’ll kill the first man that bothers me!” - Serial Killer “It breaks me .... It actually does” - School shooter “Society has kill men” - War machine - prisoner - suicide victim “You will never know how miserable I’ve gone through” - Drug addict
GLASS
is firm but fragile, easy to break which represents the state of men who are victimized by the notion “Man Up”. They seem to be strong but vulnerable, they can break and collapse anytime. Looking deep into them we will see the expectation and stereotype of the society (the wood poster) that have created who they are today.
All quotes in this poster are actual quotes from men living among us. Who were lost and made vulnerable by the pressure of “standard masculinity”. Eventually, they response with killing themselves or killing/ hurting others. The long line of dots in the end of this poster indicates that there are still many more men that are victimized by the “Man Up” notion. In both posters, the quotes should not be perceived as individual cases. They act as the representatives of what really happen to all men in their society, worldwide - trapped and driven crazy in the stereotype of being a man.
“When a man is denied the right to live the life he believes in, he has no choice but to become an outlaw” - said by Nelson Mandela, his words perfectly sum up the cause - effect relationship of “Man Up” notion and men. Hence, this quotes in the poster is a crucial hint for the viewer to understand the artwork.
THE ARTWORK
The posters will be presented alongside a hammer, a light match box and a stencils printed note “In case of fire, break glass”.
“In case of fire, break glass” suggests to burn the wood panel, which is itself a “burning” situation, to stop the disastrous effect caused by “Man Up” notion. Only then that we can break the glass, give men freedom, stop the suffering and prevent the emerging of more victims that about to be written in the glass poster. The 2 tools that are closely related to men: Hammer and light match are used to implied that only men can save themselves. They need to raise their voice to be listened first and then gradually can set them free.
Additionally, these items are meant to resembles the familiar fire extinguisher emergency box. “In case of fire”, “Break glass” to extinguish the dangerous situation and save many other lives. Hence this correlation will help the audience to quickly understand the mechanic of “Man Up?” art work. Burning the notion “Man Up” doesn’t mean refusing the positive affect of it but rather to destroy the negative terms/ phrases – stereotypes that create disastrous consequences. Breaking the glass doesn’t mean killing of the victims, it means to stop the victim from suffering and prevent the emerging of more victims that about to be written in the glass poster if we don’t do anything to stop this.
THE ARTWORK
MEN IN RESPONSE TO “MAN UP?”
They are asked to act how they feel about the content in each poster. They questioned and acknowledged the downside of Man Up. Will they act differently ? Only they can know. Man Up . I put a question mark next to it. MAN UP ?
THE WORKING PROCESS
Designing. Chosing fonts. Making digital prototype. Making the posters and the stand. The carving is done by machine. However, it is hypothesized to imply hand carving to best represent the concept of : male identity /man-made
December 2018 Project developed by Nguyen Mai Anh .
REFERENCES
12 Angry Men, 1957, [film] Hollywood: Sidney Lumet. 300, 2007, [film] Hollywood: Zack Snyder. American Beauty, 1999, [film] Hollywood: Sam Mendes. Brannon, R. and David, D, 1976, The Male Sex Role: Our Culture’s Blueprint of Manhood and What It’s Done for Us Lately,The Forty-nine percent Majority: The Male Sex Role, pp.1-14. Buikema, R. and Tuin, I, 2009, Doing gender in media, art and culture, London: Routledge. Can, D, 2014, Dear young men: The old stereotypes of what it is to be a ‘man’ are a load of rubbish. [online] The Independent. Available at: http://www.independent.co.uk/life-style/healthand- families/features/dear-young-men-the-old-stereotypes-of-what-it-is-to-be-a-man-are-a-loadof- rubbish-9775874.html [Accessed 17 Dec. 2014]. Fight Club, 1999, [film] Hollywood: David Fincher. Gill, R, 2007, Gender and the media, Cambridge, UK: Polity, pp.30-31. 146-147. Guante, 2013, Guante - “Ten Responses to the Phrase ‘Man Up’ “. [online] YouTube. Available at: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QFoBaTkPgco&feature=youtu.be [Accessed 7 Dec. 2014]. It’s a Wonderful Life, 1946, [film] Hollywood: Frank Capra. Kaufman, S, 2014, The Myth of the Alpha Male. [online] The Art of Manliness. Available at: http://www.artofmanliness.com/2014/07/07/the-myth-of-the-alpha-male/ [Accessed 9 Dec. 2014]. Kimmel, M, 2008, The Gendered Society, 3rd ed, New York: Oxford University Press, pp.23-24, 79, 92, 100, 140, 260, 269, 287, 314-320. Kimmel, M. and Aronson, A, 2008, The Gendered Society Reader, 3rd ed, New York: Oxford University Press, pp.2, 3, 5, 258, 451, 460 - 461. Les Miserable, 2012, [film] Hollywood: Tom Hooper. Lorber, J, 1993, BELIEVING IS SEEING:: Biology as Ideology, Gender & Society, 7(4), pp.568581. Lutz, T, 2001, Crying: A Natural and Cultural History of Tears, New York [u.a.]: Norton. McKay, B, 2014, The Dead End Roads to Manhood. [online] The Art of Manliness. Available at: http://www.artofmanliness.com/2014/05/30/the-dead-end-roads-to-manhood/ [Accessed 9 Dec. 2014]. McKay, B, 2014, What Is the Core of Masculinity?. [online] The Art of Manliness. Available at: http://www.artofmanliness.com/2014/04/07/what-is-the-core-of-masculinity/ [Accessed 9 Dec. 2014]. McKay, B, 2014, Where Does Manhood Come From?. [online] The Art of Manliness. Available at: http://www.artofmanliness.com/2014/04/21/where-does-manhood-come-from/ [Accessed 12 Dec. 2014].
Mediasmarts.ca, 2014, Common Stereotypes of Men in Media | MediaSmarts. [online] Available at: http://mediasmarts.ca/gender-representation/men-and-masculinity/common-stereotypes-men- media [Accessed 10 Dec. 2014]. O’shaughnessy, M and Stadler, J, 2008, Media & Society, 4th ed, Sout Melbourne: Oxford University Press, pp.378-389. Pimenta, S and Natividade, C, 2013, The semiotic construction of masculinity and affect: A multimodal analysis of media texts. Ilha do Desterro A Journal of English Language, Literatures in English and Cultural Studies, 0(64). Pretty Woman, 1990, [film] Hollywood: Garry Marshall. Schatz, B, 2011, Lessons in Manliness from The Old Man and the Sea. [online] The Art of Manliness. Available at: http://www.artofmanliness.com/2011/07/12/lessons-in-manliness-from-the-oldman- and-the-sea/ [Accessed 13 Dec. 2014]. Schroeder, J and Zwick, D, 2004, Mirrors of Masculinity: Representation and Identity in Advertising Images, Consumption Markets & Culture, 7(1), pp.21-52. The Celluloid Closet, 1995, [film] Hollywood: Rob Epstein & Jeffrey Friedman. Wallace, K, 2014, Is the ‘be a man’ stereotype hurting boys? [online] CNN. Available at: http:// edition.cnn.com/2014/10/30/living/washington-school-shooting-boys-emotions/ [Accessed 16 Dec. 2014].
December 2018. Project developed by Nguyen Mai Anh .