Vijayanagara in History and Memory

Chapter 1

vijayanagara in history and memory Anila Verghese

As the most extensive of all ruined sites in South India, Vijayanagara has always had an irresistible appeal to visitors and scholars. From the midfourteenth century to 1565, this site served as the capital of the Vijayanagara state that was founded in the wake of the Muslim invasions of peninsular India. As the seat of a military empire that incorporated all of South India except for the Kerala coast, Vijayanagara was built up by its rulers as a showpiece of imperial magnifi cence. It came to be celebrated throughout Asia and even Europe for its might and wealth.

“The City of Bidjanagar [Vijayanagara] is such that the pupil of the eye has never seen a place like it, and the ear of intelligence has never been informed that there existed anything to equal it in the world,” wrote Abdur Razzaq, the envoy from the Persian capital of Herat to the court of the Vijayanagara king Devaraya II in 1443. 1 Besides Abdur Razzaq, other foreign travellers have left glowing accounts of the splendours of Vijayanagara. These include the Italian Nicolo Conti in the early fi fteenth century as well as Portuguese visitors in the fi rst half of the sixteenth century.

11. EёњѢћё Dюѣіё LѦќћ, Hemakuta Hill Temples, Albumen Print, 1867–68.

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Foundation and Growth of the Capital

The Vijayanagara empire takes its name from its capital on the Tungabhadra River. The founders of the Vijayanagara state did not build their capital in uninhabited desert land. The discovery of neoliths and hand-made pottery at the site proves that the history of the Vijayanagara region dates back to the Neolithic times. Epigraphical evidence shows that this area was under the control of various successive dynasties that ruled this region prior to the establishment of the Vijayanagara empire.

Two local princes, Hukka and Bukka, sons of a chieftain named Sangama, founded the Vijayanagara state in the mid-fourteenth century. The earlier Hindu kingdoms of South India and the Deccan had been swept away by the irresistible might of the forces of the Delhi sultans in the early fourteenth century. However, their control over the peninsula lasted very briefl y. Successful revolts resulted in the emergence of the Vijayanagara empire around 1336 and of the Bahmani sultanate in the upper Deccan in 1347, with its capital fi rst at Gulbarga and later at Bidar. The Vijayanagara state established a new political and moral order based on traditional Hindu cultural values.

There are two confl icting viewpoints about the origins of the Vijayanagara empire: the Telugu origin theory and the Kannada origin theory. According to the former, Hukka and Bukka, who had served as treasury offi cers at the court of the Kakatiya ruler Prataparudra, fl ed to Kampili in 1323 after the fall of Warangal, the Kakatiya capital. They were taken as prisoners to Delhi and converted to Islam in 1327 when Muhammad Tughluq, the Delhi sultan, conquered Kampili. They were later sent back by the sultan to the lower Deccan to put down the rebellion of the Hoysala chief Ballala III, and appointed as governors of Karnataka. Soon they raised the standard of revolt. One day while the two brothers were out hunting in the area around Hampi, a tirtha or holy spot on the Tungabhadra, their hunting dogs, while in pursuit of a hare, were suddenly attacked and chased away by the hare. Hukka and Bukka were intrigued by the role reversal of the hare and the hounds; they asked for an interpretation of this strange phenomenon from the great sage Vidyaranya (Forest of Learning) who was seated in meditation at the spot. The saint informed them that this was a sign that the place was very auspicious, for here the weak would become strong; hence it was the ideal spot for a capital city. Vidyaranya then reconverted the two brothers to Hinduism, and with his help and blessing they established the Vijayanagara state, with the elder brother, Hukka, becoming its fi rst king under the new name of Harihara. On the south bank of the river Tungabhadra, he founded a new capital city, which were given the signifi cant names of Vijayanagara (City of Victory) and Vidyanagara (City of Learning), the second name commemorating the role of Vidyaranya in these momentous events.

According to the Kannada origin theory, Harihara and Bukka were feudatory chiefs of the Hoysala kings Ballala III and Ballala IV. Vidyaranya played no part in the foundation of the empire, and the story of the conversion to Islam has no basis.

The leading historians of South Indian history of the earlyand mid-twentieth century were divided in support of the two theories about the origins of the Vijayanagara state. However, some inscriptions recently discovered in Anegondi conclusively set to rest the controversy and prove the local origins of the founders of Vijayanagara. These epigraphs describe Harihara and Bukka as treasury offi cials of Kampiladeva, whose family ruled in the Anegondi-Hampi area in the early fourteenth century and whose territory, including his stronghold of Kummata-durga, was conquered in 1327 by the Delhi sultan. Gradually asserting their independence from the tenuous control of Delhi over the Deccan, Harihara, with the help of his brothers, asserted sovereignty over this area in the Deccan in the second quarter of the fourteenth century. The choice of Hampi as the capital by the early Sangamas is quite understandable if this theory is accepted.

No doubt the choice of Hampi as the seat of their power by the founders of this empire was not accidental. Military considerations and the strategic location of the site infl uenced their decision. The Tungabhadra afforded a

natural protection on the north and west, while the dramatic landscape of hillocks and rocky outcrops created a vast natural fortress. The rugged topography was brilliantly exploited by the rulers to defend the city and was soon woven into the system of fortifi cations that surrounded it. That it survived for more than two hundred years on the edge of territory heatedly disputed with the Bahmani sultanate and its successor states, is a measure of the city’s strength. Despite the fact that Vijayanagara was besieged a number of times, it was never captured. Indeed, the city was stormed and sacked only when it was left undefended by the ruling elite following the disastrous battle of 1565.

Under the enlightened leadership of its rulers, Vijayanagara was a rich, cosmopolitan blend of different peoples with a wide variety of linguistic, ethnic and religious backgrounds. The growth of Hampi from a small pilgrimage centre to the mighty metropolis of Vijayanagara, which according to European visitors was larger than Rome, Paris or Lisbon, was gradual.

Although popular tradition and some spurious inscriptions ascribe the foundation of the city to Harihara I and his preceptor Vidyaranya, in fact Vijayanagara became the capital only during the reign of Bukka I. Harihara I ruled from Anegondi on the north bank of the Tungabhadra, which Domingo Paes, the Portuguese visitor, refers to as the “old capital”. With the establishment of the Bahmani sultanate and the commencement of warfare between the two Deccan states, Bukka I thought it prudent to shift his seat south of the river. Records assert that Bukka was “on the throne of the new Vijayanagara,” 2 and that he “built a splendid city, called the city of victory.” 3 But Bukka’s city was rather small, comprising only the Royal Centre, around which fortifi cations were built at this time. Two inscriptions referring to gateways at the eastern end of the Royal Centre cite them as being “east of the city of Vijayanagara of Shri Vira Bukkaraya.” 4

The attention of Bukka and his successor was primarily directed towards the military threat of the Bahmanis, and Vijayanagara in History and Memory 25

focused on building up the fortifi cations of Vijayanagara rather than on temple construction. The earliest dated temples at the site are of the reign of Harihara II, but none of them are royal foundations. They are widely scattered over the site. Under Harihara II the capital was already a welldeveloped and large city extending from present-day Hampi to Kamalapura. Epigraphical references to two gateways of the walls around the Urban Core indicate that this line of fortifi cations was in existence during this reign.

Under the later Sangamas, new temples were built, of which the most important was the one in the Royal Centre dedicated to Ramachandra, now popularly known as Hazara Rama. New quarters were also developed in the city. That the Islamic quarter at the north-eastern end of the Urban Core was in existence during the reign of Devaraya II, who made it a conscious policy to welcome Muslims into his army, is revealed by a mosque built there by Ahmad Khan, one of his offi cers.

The Tuluva rulers added great suburbs to Vijayanagara. The greatest expander of the city and architectural innovator was Krishnadevaraya. He had the suburb of Krishnapura laid out around the Krishna temple, which he commissioned in 1515. Three suburbs were built south of Vijayanagara city proper, extending up to modern Hospet. His successor Achyutaraya added two more Suburban Centres: Achyutarayapura, that grew up around the great temple to the god Tiruvengalanatha built in 1534 by the ruler’s brother-inlaw; and another near the modern village of Kamalapura, of which only the Pattabhirama temple complex has survived.

Th ree Dynasties of Rulers

From Vijayanagara city three dynasties ruled over a vast empire: Sangama (1336–1485), Saluva (1485–1505) and Tuluva (1505–65), the rulers of which assumed the title of raya or king. Harihara I (1336–56), the fi rst of the Sangama line, was succeeded by his brother Bukka I (1356–77), during whose reign the endemic Vijayanagara-Bahmani

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12.

EёњѢћё Dюѣіё LѦќћ, Krishna Temple, Tank, Albumen Print, 1867–68.

Vijayanagara in History and Memory 27

warfare began. Bukka and his son Kumara Kampana were involved with campaigns in the Tamil lands. The climax of these endeavours was the capture of Madurai, the last surviving centre of Muslim rule in the far south of the Tamil country. The reign of Bukka’s son and successor, Harihara II (1377–1404), marks a period of consolidation, during which this realm took on the dimensions of an empire. He imposed the authority of Vijayanagara over the commercially important Arabian Sea coast from Goa to Chaul, south of modern Mumbai. A struggle for the Vijayanagara throne ensued between the sons of Harihara II on his death. Ultimately Devaraya I succeeded to the throne in 1406. Despite wars with the Bahmanis and other neighbours, this emperor was able to turn his attention to public works and temple-building activities. Devaraya I’s death in 1422 was followed by another struggle for the throne, till fi nally Devaraya II (1424–46), the greatest of the Sangama rulers, assumed power. Meeting with reversals in wars against the Bahmanis, Devaraya II introduced reforms in his army and employed Muslims, especially in the archery and cavalry. He was also a patron of art and religion. After Devaraya II, the empire declined under the weak rule of Mallikarjuna (1446–65) and Virupaksha II (1465–85). The Bahmani sultans and the rulers of Orissa seized much territory from Vijayanagara, including valuable coastal lands and ports both on the west and east coast. The debility of these kings facilitated the rise to power of a provincial governor, Saluva Narasimha, who usurped the throne and established the second dynasty in 1485.

Saluva Narasimha tried to revive the prestige of the Vijayanagara state and to re-conquer lost territories. Unfortunately he was succeeded after a fairly short reign by minor sons, Timma (1490–91) and Immadi Narasimha (1491–1505), who had as their regent the Tuluva minister Narasa Nayaka and later his own son Vira Narasimha. The latter seized the throne in 1505 and founded the third dynasty. Vira Narasimha was succeeded by his half-brother Krishnadevaraya (1509–29), who proved to be the most illustrious of the Vijayanagara sovereigns. At the time of his accession, the threat to the Vijayanagara empire was great. To the north-west of the heartland of the empire was the new sultanate of Bijapur; on the north-eastern frontier were the expansionist Gajapati rulers of Orissa, and to the south were a set of chiefs who opposed the Tuluva usurpation and who, under the Ummattur family, were expanding across the peninsula, thus threatening to cut the rayas off from their Tamil territories. Krishnadevaraya’s solution to these threats was the old and reliable one of a brilliant series of military campaigns against all his enemies and the bold policy of reducing the powers of subordinate chiefs. He also maintained good relations with the newly established Portuguese authority on the Arabian Sea coast in order to secure much-needed horses for his army. Krishnadevaraya made extensive and repeated tours of his empire, especially of the southern Tamil lands, receiving homage from subordinates, forcing local chiefs into submission and making conspicuous donations to temples. Besides his proven capabilities as commander and statesman, Krishnadevaraya was cultured and literate. He was an author of works in Sanskrit and Telugu and was a great builder, as is obvious from the many temples both in the capital and elsewhere in the empire that bear his name.

Krishnadevaraya was succeeded by his half-brother Achyutaraya (1529–42). In the power struggle following the latter’s death, Ramaraya, the son-in-law of Krishnadevaraya, triumphed and became the regent of Sadashiva, nephew of the previous monarch, and the de facto ruler. In order to establish his authority at the capital, Ramaraya expelled many of the old nobles and invited a new set of offi cers to the Vijayanagara court, particularly his own kinsmen of the Aravidu family.

Much of Vijayanagara’s wealth derived from tribute paid by provincial governors of the empire as well as the booty seized from successful military campaigns. Throughout their history the Vijayanagara emperors were pitted against their northern neighbours, namely, the sultans of the Bahmani kingdom and, on its disintegration by the end of the fi fteenth/early sixteenth century, of its successor states. The struggle between the rayas and the sultans was for control over the richly irrigated lands between the Krishna and Tungabhadra Rivers and for political hegemony in the region.

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Religious Traditions

The tirtha of Hampi has an unbroken tradition of sanctity from pre-Vijayanagara times. It is a place of pilgrimage hallowed by the goddess Pampa and later her consort Virupaksha. The eponymous goddess Pampa is the local devi and the most ancient deity of the area. The worship of this goddess appears to be anterior to the seventh century.

This local folk goddess came to be absorbed into the panIndian Hindu tradition in the pre-Vijayanagara period by marriage to Virupaksha, a form of Shiva. As a result the goddess lost her importance to the male deity. Literary and epigraphical evidence indicates that by the twelfth century Virupaksha had already emerged as the principal divinity of Hampi, and that the temple of this deity was an important cult centre. The Virupaksha cult gained greatly in importance with the founding of the Vijayanagara kingdom, with its capital built in the proximity of this temple.

Besides being the seat of Pampa and Virupaksha, Hampi and its surroundings have also been closely associated with the Ramayana, for this is believed to be Kishkindha of the epic, the mythical kingdom of the monkey kings Vali and Sugriva. The events of the Ramayana related to this site focus on the meeting of Rama with Hanuman and Sugriva and the alliance entered into with them to search for Sita, Rama’s wife, who had been abducted by the demon king Ravana. Various spots in and around Vijayanagara are identified with incidents relating to the Ramayana tradition.

Besides the natural advantages of the site, the founders were also influenced in their choice by its mythic associations. The sons of Sangama, staunch Shaivas, were evidently devotees of god Virupaksha and they decided to situate their political centre under his protection. Virupaksha was adopted as the patron deity of the kings, their capital and kingdom as long as Vijayanagara remained the capital, not only by the Shaiva Sangamas but also by the later dynasties, which were Vaishnava in affiliation. The name of the guardian deity was adopted by these rulers as their insignia, and royal epigraphs often end with “Shri Virupaksha”, which took the place of the signature of the king.

While invoking the protection of the local god Virupaksha, the rulers were also aware of the Ramayana association of the site, which added to its auspiciousness. From the early fifteenth century onwards, when the Hazara Rama (Ramachandra) temple was built in the heart of the Royal Centre, the Ramayana tradition at the site began to be greatly developed. In Indian culture, Rama is considered to be the ideal king; and at Vijayanagara a deliberate homology came to be drawn between Rama, the ideal universal monarch, and his earthly counterpart, the king reigning from Vijayanagara. This was achieved by highlighting Rama’s movements through the sacred landscape in and around Hampi, and through architecture and sculpture. That this was believed to be a site of powerful divine or cosmic protection is hinted at in the foundation myths of the city.

The Vijayanagara rulers were great patrons of religion. In the capital, the cult of Virupaksha received a great boost, as did the worship of other Shaiva deities, such as the fierce Bhairava and Virabhadra and the benign Ganesha. Besides the Vaishnava cult of Rama that was given great encouragement from the fifteenth century onwards, other Vaishnava deities, such as Krishna, Vitthala of Pandharpur, Tiruvengalanatha or Venkateshvara of Tirumalai-Tirupati and Ranganatha of Srirangam, were also incorporated into the city in the late fifteenth and early sixteenth centuries. The Saluvas and Tuluvas, who were staunch Vaishnavas, were particularly devoted to the deity of TirumalaiTirupati. In the first half of the sixteenth century the Vitthala temple at Vijayanagara gained greatly in wealth and popularity, finally eclipsing the Virupaksha temple in importance. Popular religious cults in the city included those of Hanuman, the monkey hero of Ramayana fame, the veneration of heroes, whose valorous deeds were immortalised in stone sculptures, as well as of satis, the wives who immolated themselves on the funeral pyres of

Vijayanagara in History and Memory 29

13.

NіѐѕќљюѠ ӕ Cќ., Virupaksha Temple, Albumen Print, 1880s.

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their husbands. While fostering and promoting different Hindu sects and religious cults, the kings also permitted and even patronised the practice of other religions, such as Jainism and Islam, in the capital. This is evident from the presence of the remains of at least six Jain temples and two mosques in the city.

Inscriptions reveal that the Vijayanagara monarchs and their subordinates gave lavish gifts to religious fi gures as well as to temples. Hundreds of new shrines were built in the capital and throughout the empire, and many old ones were repaired or had extensive additions made to them. Such religious establishments were richly endowed with lands, money, taxes due to the state, jewels for the daily worship, and even the institution of new festivals.

Life at Court

Besides being great patrons of religion, the Vijayanagara rulers fostered the development of intellectual pursuits and the arts, such as music and dance, literature, architecture, sculpture and painting. They introduced new techniques in warfare, building, waterworks and agriculture.

The celebration of public rituals was an important royal function, for it was believed that flourishing festivals would strengthen dharma, establish the presence of divine powers in the kingdom and stimulate the cosmic fl ow of gifts and fertility. During this period the most important of these rituals preserving cosmic order was, undoubtedly, the annual nine-day Mahanavami festival. Domingo Paes, who visited Vijayanagara in the early sixteenth century, has left a vivid account of this festival. A careful perusal of this makes it clear that the festival, although basically religious in character, had political, economic, social and military signifi cance. The focus of the ceremonies was upon the reigning monarch and the revitalisation of his realm. The various rites of this festival reveal that the king and the deity being worshipped were at least homologous, if not equal. The patronage of religion, especially the royal celebration of public rituals such as Mahanavami, in the capital highlights the fact that in the Vijayanagara system the relationship between the kings and the gods was one of partnership. The transactions between kings, temple deities, priests and sectarian leaders point to a relationship of mutual interdependence. The priests made offerings to and performed services for the gods; the deities preserved the king, his kingdom and his subjects; and the monarch protected and awarded material benefi ts to the temples, priests and sectarian leaders. Thus, while the temples and sectarian leaders bestowed honours and blessings on the sovereign, the ruler in turn conferred on them protection and riches. Even though the kings were not considered to be gods, they manifested divinity and maintained divine order in the world. Prosperity, fertility, success in war and the right relationship between the castes all resulted, ultimately, from royal activity.

Th e Catastrophe of 1565

Ramaraya attempted to set the rulers of the Bahmani successor states, especially Bidar, Bijapur and Golconda, against one another in order to achieve hegemony for Vijayanagara. Ramaraya’s intervention in Deccan politics differed from that of his predecessors, in being more successful and in being carried out by diplomacy as well as military force. Although temporarily very successful, in the long run not only did this policy fail, but it also led inexorably to the fatal alliance of these kingdoms, together with that of Ahmadnagar, against Ramaraya, with disastrous consequences to the Vijayanagara empire. The great battle was fought at Talikota in January 1565. Ramaraya was killed in battle. His brother Tirumala, who survived the carnage, escaped from the battlefi eld and retreated to the capital, where he gathered up the puppet sovereign and the imperial treasury and fl ed to Penukonda, leaving Vijayanagara totally undefended.

The destruction of this rich and splendid city was sudden and dramatic. Following the catastrophe at Talikota,

Vijayanagara in History and Memory 31

14.

NіѐѕќљюѠ ӕ Cќ., Hazara Rama Temple, Royal Processions, Albumen Print, 1880s.

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15.

EёњѢћё Dюѣіё LѦќћ, Talarighat Gateway, Albumen Print, 1867–68.