Fundamentalism
Fundamentalism
Widelyusedasapejorativetermtodesignateone’sfanaticalopponents–usuallyreligious and/orpolitical–ratherthanoneself, fundamentalism beganinChristianProtestant circlesintheeC20.Originallyrestrictedtodebateswithinevangelical(‘‘gospel-based’’) Protestantism,itisnowemployedtorefertoanypersonorgroupthatischaracterizedas unbending,rigorous,intolerant,andmilitant.Thetermhastwousages,theprioronea positiveself-description,whichthendevelopedintothelaterderogatoryusagethatisnow widespread.Asaphenomenon,fundamentalismisaspecificcultural,religious/ideological, andpoliticalformationonlypossibleinlatercapitalism.
SincethebombingoftheWorldTradeCenteronSeptember11,2001,thetermhasgained amuchwidercurrency,mostlyderogatory.Thus,thosebelievedresponsibleare Islamic fundamentalists,whereastheUSAitselfhasbeendesignatedas politicallyfundamentalist (Ali,2002).Israel’ssuppressionofPalestiniansisdrivenby fundamentalistJews,while thePalestiniansthemselvesarealsofundamentalists.Often,fundamentalismissynonymous withterrorism,oratleasthasbecomeinpopularusagethebasisforterrorism.Another significantusageisinneo-liberaldismissalsofpositionsdeemednon-pragmatic: feminist fundamentalism and environmentalfundamentalism arethemostcommon.Inthese cases,fundamentalismisinterchangeablewith‘‘fascist.’’Theassumptionisthatanything thatthreatensliberal,Westerncultureandsocietyisbydefinitionfundamentalist.
Theassociationsofirrationalcommitment,fanaticism,militancy,andterrorismmake fundamentalismausefulterm.ItallowsadominantWesterncultureandsociety, aggressivelyledbytheUnitedStates,todemonizeitsopponentsasirretrievablyantagonistictothehegemonicvaluesof‘‘freedom’’and‘‘democracy.’’Thetermprovidesa justificationfortheviolentoppressionofthosewhoopposesuchvalues.However,the useof‘‘fundamentalism’’isitselfanimpositionofatermthatcomesfromwithinWestern Christianculture.Thus,thewayinwhichoppositionischaracterizedwithinChristianity becomesawayofdealingwithoppositioninothersituations,whetherreligious,political, orculturalconflict.Suchusageisbothanexampleofanefforttounderstandopposition andanattempttodenytheviabilityofthatopposition.
Thetermbeganasapositiveself-description,whosehistoryliesinAmericanProtestantism(Marsden,1980).Itwasfirstusedin1920byCurtisLeeLawsintheBaptist journal Watchman-Examiner:hespeaksofthosewho‘‘dobattleroyalfortheFundamentals,’’thosewhobelieveanddefendwhatwerenewlyidentifiedasthe fundamentalsof thefaith.Hewasreferringtoaseriesof12pamphlets,publishedbetween1915and 1920,thatisolatedparticularChristiandoctrines,defendingthemagainsttheinroadsof theologicalmodernismandliberalism:theinerrancyorliteraltruthoftheBible,thevirgin birthofChrist,thesubstitutionaryatonementofChrist,hisbodilyresurrection,thereality ofmiracles,Christ’sdeity,andthesecondcomingofthesaviorattheendofhistory.
Fundamentalism
Christianfundamentalism isuniquesinceitselectscertainpositionsandelevatesthem toabsolutes.ThisfundamentalismisasubgroupofevangelicalChristianity(Harris, 1998),oftencallingitself‘‘conservativeevangelical.’’Althoughrelatedtothevarious revivalsinEuropeandtheUnitedStates,itissuspiciousoftheenthusiasticandemotional natureofthesemovements,whichnowincludePentecostalismandtheCharismatics.
Christianfundamentalismisalsodefinedbywhatitopposes:Romanism,socialism, atheism,modernphilosophy,Spiritualism,Darwinandevolutionarytheory,liberal(Protestant)theology,andtheuseofcriticalmethodstointerprettheBible.Inresponse,the linchpinforfundamentalistsistheinerrancyoftheBible,thebeliefthat‘‘Scriptureis withouterrororfaultinallitsteaching’’(Boone,1989:26).Inerrancymarksthe dependenceonatext,inthiscasetheBible.Itisaneffortataseamlessideologyof power,ahegemonicdrivethatwillnotallowanydeviation.Christianfundamentalismalso includesdispensationalism(beliefinsevenstagesordispensationsfromcreationto Christ’sfinalreign),theKeswickholinessmovement(personalvictoryoversin,witnessing aboutChristandsupportofmissions),emphasisonpersonalconversion,dailyBible readingandprayer,thegrowthoflargechurches,andpublicbattlesoverevolutionvs. creationism,abortion,andcapitalpunishment.
Howisit,then,thatfundamentalism,withitsowndistincthistoryinAmericanProtestantism,hasbecomeablankettermthatisreadilyascribedtoMuslims,Hindus,Jews, feminists,environmentalists,andeven(inAustralia)economists?Thefeaturesofthe term’swiderusagebeganwithintheconflictsofChristianProtestantism,movingfrom self-descriptiontodescribingopponents.Thefirststageofthisshiftwastootherfanatical religiousforms,andthentonon-religiousformsofpoliticalopposition.
Thesocial,cultural,andeconomiccontextofChristianfundamentalismwasthecrisis followingWorldWarI.Theeraofswingjazz,theRussianRevolution,thesocialist radicalismofinter-warUSA,therevolutionaryexperimentalisminart,architecture,and music,andtherapidlychangingsexualmoresallplayedarole.Christianfundamentalism isonewayofdealingwithsuchchanges,especiallyforlowermiddleandworkingclasses, oftenrural,outsidethemainstreamChristianchurcheswhosememberswereeconomically secureandcouldfeelsomemeasureofcontrol.Forthosewithlesssenseofcontrol,the combinationofeconomicinsecurity–themonetarycrisesofthe1920s,1930s,andlater, theabandonmentoftheBrettonWoodsaccordin1973–withruralisolationproduceda situationinwhichthecertaintiesoffundamentalismprovidedanideologicalresource againstcapitalism’sperpetualchange,disruption,and,toparaphrase TheCommunist Manifesto,themeltingofallthatissolidintoair.
Similarly,fundamentalismwasascribedtoShiitesectionsofIslamandthefollowersof RamawithinHinduism.Bothgroupsexhibitedcomparabletendencies:theresponseofthe ruralandurbanworkingclassesandpetitbourgeoisietotheincreasingpresenceofglobal capitalismanditsassociatedcultures.Thisresponseisexplicitlyanti-AmericanandantiWesternandcastinreligiousterms,butitwouldnothavetakenplacewithoutthepresence
Fundamentalism
ofcapitalism.AccustomedtotheusageofthetermintheWest,commentatorsdescribed thesemovementsasfundamentalist.
LikeChristianfundamentalism,thesemovementsarepoliticallymilitant.Ontheone hand,fundamentalistsexpecttheendoftheworld,theimmediatetransportto‘‘heaven,’’ tobewithChrist,orAllah,orevenRama;ontheother,theyintervenedirectlyinpolitics. TheTalibaninPakistanandAfghanistan,thenowdefunctMoralMajorityofJerryFalwell orPatBuchanan’srunforpresidentialoffice,andthevastHindupoliticalmovementofthe BJP(BharatiyaJanataParty)inIndia,allarepartofthepoliticalmobilizationthat fundamentalismprovides.TheparadoxisthatwhereaswithintheUnitedStatespoliticians mustensurethefundamentalistvote(presidentialcandidatesoftendeclarethemselvesto be‘‘bornagain’’Christians),whenthefundamentalistsareexternaltheybecomeathreat toWesternsociety.Thus,terrorismagainsttheUnitedStates,England,andAustraliais theactofso-calledfundamentalists,butinternalterrorismisnot.
Thecentralplaceoftheprivateindividual,workingitselfoutinpersonalpietyand salvation,isalsoalegacyoftheEnlightenmentandliberalculture.However,suchintense devotionataprivatelevelworksitselfoutincollectiveaction,beingseenasafanaticismat oddswiththepresumedurbanetoleranceofcapitalistculture.
Althoughfundamentalismhasassociationsofirrationalismitisadistinctlyrationalistic development,heirtotheEnlightenmentasmuchasthespiritualbeliefsandpractices describedasNewAge.InChristianitythisinvolvesmatchinguptheBiblewithscientific positionsongeologicalagesandevolution,andintheunderlyingassumptionsthatGod’s truthsarepropositional.MuslimandHindufundamentalismsarealsorationalist,forthey toooperatewithpropositionaltruth,clearstatementsintheirrespectiveScripturesthat cannotbegainsaid.
Notonlyrationalistic,butalsotextual,eachformofreligiousfundamentalismcannot existwithoutasacredtext.Thistextisunderstoodinanewway,astheinerrantwordsof Muhammad,andthereforeAllah,ofGod,orofRama.Indoingso,thevariousleaderscan obscuretheirownclaimstoauthorityintermsoftheauthorityofthetextsinquestion.
Thenthereispseudo-traditionalism,claimingamythical,pristine,andorganiccommunitythatfundamentalistsseektorestorebeforethemoralandpoliticaldepredationsof modernsociety.Thedeepcontradictionhereisthatfundamentalismhappilyuseswhatever technologyisavailabletospreaditspseudo-traditionalism:cableTV,video,Internet,and communicationsmedia.Yetsuchnotions–thecommunityoftheNewTestament,orof Muhammad’sMedina,orofHindusocietybeforeIslamicandBritishinvasions–aremyths thatexpressanoppositionalideology,althoughtheimaginedcommunitiesaredistinctly dystopianandrepressiveintermsofgender,race,sexuality,andmorality.
Thefocusonandexacerbationoffeaturesofreligiousfundamentalism–oppositionto someelementsofcapitalism,militancy,irrationalism,andfanaticism–enabledthe applicationofthetermtopoliticalandculturalmovementsthatarenotnecessarily religious.Otherfeatureswereleftbehind,suchasthebasisonasacredtextandpseudo-
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Fundamentalism
traditionalism,andthetermhasbecomeoneofdismissal.Inthisway,feminism, environmentalism,anarchism,andgayandlesbianmovementscouldbecharacterizedas fundamentalist.Ineachcase,theuseofthetermmarksrecognitionofoppositiontothe dominantformsofcapitalismandliberalculture,whetherpatriarchies,environmental degradation,capitalismitself,oradominantheterosexualculture.
RolandBoerSee: GLOBALIZATION,HOLOCAUST,WEST.