Master Degree Dissertation - University of Edinburgh by Maria Kallika

The development of contemporary vernacular design in Cyprus: materials and technologies that can reinforce the seismic resistance of the existing vernacular dwellings in seismic areas of Cyprus. Word Count: 14,132

MARIA KALLIKA (s1678777)

Master of Science (Advanced Sustainable Design) Edinburgh School of Architecture and Landscape Architecture The University of Edinburgh

2017

Abstract Cyprusâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s seismic resistance lacks strength when compared to its

sustainability, thus deeming its current vernacular architecture as concerning. The existing seismic resistance design of traditional housing can be seen as alarming when taking into consideration the countryâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s earthquake record. Up to this day the existing vernacular architecture is environmentally friendly, with low carbon emissions, built with locally available sources. The maintenance of indigenous dwellings and the conservation of historical buildings is common practice in the island. It is worth taking into consideration that due to the island being politically divided, different building codes are introduced and implemented. Application of instructions and regulations from both current implemented building codes affect the viability of the settlements differently, however, not necessarily negatively. To aid in the understanding of vernacular architecture this thesis reviews case studies of countries with similar earthquake records and climatic conditions. The thesis also demonstrates the unsuitability of the building codes implemented in Cyprus and encourages the support of alternative building strategies that can positively benefit the island. In the final chapter of this study examples and suggestions are introduced proposing the improvement of individual constructional elements.

KEYWORDS: Cyprus, Seismic resistance design, Sustainability, Traditional, Dwellings, Building Code

Table of Contents

Page:

Abstract

ii.

List of Figures

1. Introduction

1.1.Aims and Objectives

1.2.Research Hypothesis

1.3.Structure of dissertation

1.4.Earthquake record of Cyprus and seismic areas of the island

1.5.Current housing conditions in rural and suburban Cyprus

1.5.1.

Coastal vernacular buildings

1.5.2.

Lowland vernacular buildings

1.5.3.

Mountainous vernacular buildings

2. Literature Review 2.1.Earthquake activity in Cyprus

15 15

2.1.1.

Tectonic setting of Cyprus

2.1.2.

Seismicity

2.2. Current anti-seismic design implemented in Cyprus

2.3. Existing constructional systems in Cyprus

2.3.1.

Coastal vernacular buildings

2.3.2.

Lowland vernacular buildings

2.3.3.

Mountainous vernacular buildings

3. Case Studies

3.1.Antiseismic systems in Jammu and Kashmir

3.2.Antiseismic systems in Turkey

3.3.Antiseismic systems in Pakistan

3.4.Antiseismic systems in Portugal

4. Exemplar Design/ Proposing components

4.1.Understanding the Sustainable Design potentials from Cypriot vernacular architecture

4.2.Understanding the Seismic Resistance Design from Case Studies

4.3.Masonry Systems

4.4.Roofing Systems

4.5.Openings Restrictions

4.6.Materials and Joining Systems

5. Conclusion

6. Bibliography

7. Appendixes

iii

ii.

List of Figures:

Page:

Figure 1 Seismic Zones in Cyprus.(Hurol, YĂźceer and Ĺ&#x17E;ahali, 2014)

Figure 2 Map of Cyprus indicating different geographical locations.

(Philokyprou et al., 2017) Figure 3 Climatic classification of Cyprus optimal case studies

settlements within three different climatic regions. (Philokyprou et al., 2017) Figure 4 Sketch representation of walled city of Famagusta by Basil Grigorovich Barskii, 1730.(Karageorghis, 1999)

Figure 5 Kerynia city (coastal region) in 1878, dwellings in semidisperse layout with flat roofs covered with lime plaster. (Ionas, 1988)

Figure 6 Representative vernacular dwellings in the coastal region of Cyprus.(Philokyprou et al., 2017)

Figure 7 Sketch representation of walled city of Nicosia by Basil Grigorovich Barskii, 1727. (Karageorghis, 1999)

Figure 8 Urban, double storeys vernacular dwellings, providing shading at pedestrian ways. (Chrysochou, 2014)

Figure 9 Diagram-section of high-ceiling dwelling with arseres placed to support cross ventilation. (Chronaki-Andreadaki, 1985)

Figure 10 Representative vernacular dwellings in the lowland region of Cyprus. (Philokyprou et al., 2017)

Figure 11 Representative vernacular dwellings in the mountainous region of Cyprus. (Philokyprou et al., 2017)

Figure 12 Veranda structure in mountainous region, at first storey by projecting timber beams of the first floor.

Figure 13 Map showing the principle tectonic elements of the Northern Mediterranean Region. (Cagnan and Tanircan, 2009)

Figure 14 Proposed plate boundary in the Eastern Mediterranean area by Papazachos and Papaioannou (1999). (Cagnan and Tanircan, 2009)

Figure 15 Distribution of shallow earthquake epicentres in the region surrounding Cyprus from 2150 B.C. through 2006 A.D.. (Cagnan and Tanircan, 2009)

Figure 16 Distribution of intermediate earthquake epicentres in the region surrounding Cyprus from 2150 B.C. through 2006 A.D.. (Cagnan and Tanircan, 2009)

Figure 17 Map of Cyprus and indicated sub-areas. (East, 2017)

Figure 18 Indicated roof timber structure of (A) sospito, (B) platimetopo makrinari, (C, D) dichoro. The application of timber elements before the layers of earth based are applied. (Ionas, 1988)

Figure 19 Different roof structures covered with brushwood, reed battens or matting. (Ionas, 1988)

Figure 20 Sketches of typical wall and roof joint structure in (A)coastal, (A,B,D) lowland and (C,D) mountainous dwellings. (Ionas, 1988)

Figure 21 Timber beams ‘wrapping’ the masonry stone construction together. (Chrysochou, 2014)

Figure 22 Timber beam that supports nefka piece of timber, securing nefka from dislocating from movements. (Chrysochou, 2014)

Figure 23 Flat roof projecting in both directions, protection from heavy rain. (Chrysochou, 2014)

Figure 24 Reginald Barrows Rudyerd: Platris (mountainous region), painting, private collection, flat roofs constructed with long branches and leaves and adobe masonry, 1888. (Karageorghis, 1999)

Figure 25 Reginald Barrows Rudyerd: Kikopetria (mountainous region), painting, private collection, 1888. (Karageorghis, 1999)

Figure 26 Indicated area of Jammu and Kashmir within the countries. (Langenbach, 2009)

Figure 27 Taq construction in Srinagar. (Langenbach, 2009)

Figure 28 Indication of taq timber structure within masonry construction. (Langenbach, 2009)

Figure 29 Building in Srinagar with first two storeys of taq construction and top storey of dhajji dewari. (Langenbach, 2009)

Figure 30 Dhajji dewari timber plane. (Langenbach, 2009)

Figure 31 After 2005 earthquake dwelling improved bhatar construction. (UN-HABITAT, 2008)

Figure 32 Configuration of bhatar bands and stone masonry. (UNHABITAT, 2008)

Figure 33 Example of cator and cribbage construction. (Langenbach, 2009)

Figure 34 Hatil system, timber placement. (Doğangün et al., 2006)

Figure 35 Himis construction with bracing elements and brick infill. (Öztank, 2010)

Figure 36 Dizeme construction system applied. (Öztank, 2010)

Figure 37 Bagdadi construction system applied. (Doğangün et al., 2006)

Figure 38 Axonometric sketch of timber elements in bhatar system.

(UN-HABITAT, 2008) Figure 39 Corner stones in bhatar construction system. (UN-HABITAT, 2008)

Figure 40 Gaiola timber pattern implemented within masonry. (Ortega et al., 2017)

Figure 41 Indicated ‘frontal’ wall within a gaiola dwelling. (Ortega et al., 2017)

Figure 42 Ideal positions for buttresses against the masonry. (Ortega et al., 2017)

Figure 43 Uneven masonry lower the centre of gravity. (Ortega et al., 2017)

Figure 44 Left: Timber braces placed vertically and diagonally. Right: Timber wedges secure diagonal timber beams. (Ortega et al., 2017)

Figure 45 Indicated placement of quoins ashlar stones onto the corners of walls. (Ortega et al., 2017)

Figure 46 Axonometric sketches of internal and external elements of (A) dichoro and (B) platimetopo makrinari. (Sinos, 1976)

Figure 47 The reconstruction of a rubble stone dwelling after Kashmir earthquake in 2005. (Langenbach, 2009)

Figure 48 The initial destroyed dwelling on the right hand.

(Langenbach, 2009) Figure 49 Innovative two storeys dwelling with cator and bhatar systems implemented. (Langenbach, 2009)

Figure 50 Three types of reinforced masonry. (Hurol, Yüceer and Şahali, 2014)

Figure 51 Recommended joint details with the vertical reinforcement at corner of brick masonry walls. (Langenbach, 2009)

Figure 52 Full size rubble tone with seismic timber bands. (Langenbach, 2009)

Figure 53 The walls are horizontally reinforced and the masonry structure begins with a stone foundation. Inclined supported wooden

structure roof. (Tanaçan, 2008) Figure 54 The walls are horizontally reinforced by embedded ring wood beams at approximately 1m. (Tanaçan, 2008)

Figure 55 The walls of the ground floor are built in stone masonry.

(Tanaçan, 2008) Figure 56 ‘Smart Shelter Research’ contemporary techniques on

traditional dwellings. (IFRC-Shelter Research Unit, 2016) Figure 57 Vertical steel reinforcement. (IFRC-Shelter Research Unit,

2016) Figure 58 Horizontal steel reinforcement into masonry. (IFRC-Shelter

Research Unit, 2016) Figure 59 ‘Smart Shelter Research’ dwelling. Indicated horizontal steel reinforcement within the masonry. (IFRC-Shelter Research Unit, 2016)

vii

1. Introduction

1.1.

Aim and Objectives:

The object of this dissertation is the study of techniques and the examination of several exemplar methodologies adopted in countries surrounding Cyprus. The aim is to compare similar building techniques between Cyprus and countries that are nobles regarding earthquakes to support the ideology of adoption of seismic resistant structures. To reach to the point of settlement on exemplar constructional systems equivalent to the needs of seismic conditions in Cyprus, an analysis in understanding the existing seismic resistant methodologies is required. Furthing the analysis, the terms of sustainable design ought to be examined too. Vernacular architecture has been proven to be sustainable and its capabilities could lead to innovative contemporary modern design. A dwelling itself needs to be capable of receiving both vertical static loads and horizontal dynamic loads. The concerning area of the dissertation is the capacity of horizontal loads as well as it will be the core of the exploration of alternative materials and methodologies. Currently, vernacular buildings design and construction is avoided due to the difficulty in understanding both static and dynamic loads of such local techniques, whereas the choice of reinforce concrete has made it possible to understand such loads. However, the unique ability of vernacular architecture when constructing a dwelling, it is usually reinforced with local materials and construction techniques to avoid out-of-plane failure during a seismic activity. This is a distinguished ability that reinforced concrete does not support because technicians have comprehended the static and dynamic loads a dwelling may receive. Unfortunately, the resistance of the structure to earthquake loads is often not understood in vernacular constructions. Vernacular architecture had allowed techniques to be elaborated through time at each area differently; however, it is important to distinguish the common ground of the techniques they are based on. It is

important for the development of the project to comprehend such matters to emphasize on key points in comparing concreteâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s abilities and promote the benefits of sustainable living by designing traditional buildings with contemporary and or international accepted design codes. The main concept and the key point of this dissertation, is the possibility of establishing a contemporary Cypriot traditional architecture method which could comprise construction methodologies applied in contemporary housing design promoting sustainable, cultural and vernacular style of living.

1.2.

Research Hypothesis

The findings should give sufficient arguments supporting the design and retrofitting vernacular dwellings rather than of constructing buildings made of concrete. As seismic resistance is currently lacking from the traditional settlements, the analysis of constructional material from other case studies will provide sufficient background to â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;upgradeâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; the indigenous architecture. Applying suitable contemporary techniques can provide enough arguments to support retrofitting existing dwellings promote the cultural values Lastly, the outcome is utterly supporting the idea of development of vernacular architecture in Cyprus in terms of sustainable design and energy saving methodology.

1.3.

Structure of dissertation

The dissertation will start with the essential information on vernacular buildings in Cyprus, meaning to create the background that will answer the topic. Therefore, details on construction methodologies and materials are going to be introduced and any supplementary diagrams, tables and figures to support the existing techniques. Once the background is set, literature review will be based on earthquakes episodes that Cyprus has suffered from in the past as well as any record in terms of damage and existing buildings tolerance so far. This

is going to be followed with elaborated arguments for the sustainable state of the buildings and materials themselves. The aim of taking these two perspectives is to support the ideology of seismic resistance techniques on vernacular buildings. To support further, case studies from countries that are located in seismic hazard zones are going to be analysed to record their current state in construction methodologies and materials. The analysis of other methodologies is going to be a useful tool by comparing and justifying suitable techniques to be possibly adopted onto the next part of the dissertation. Lastly, the final part of the dissertation is willing to suggest the optimal construction form of the main features of the ideal vernacular dwelling in Cyprus. The analysis both of Cyprus existing vernacular architecture and other key countries are previous chapters, are the main sources to reference the final part of the dissertation.

1.4.

Earthquake record of Cyprus and seismic areas of the island

The island of Cyprus is within the North Mediterranean region, which is the second highest seismic hazard zone globally (Kyriakides et al., 2015). Historically, Attempt by North Cyprusâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; Faculty of Architecture to position margins of the seismic zones within Cyprus, have been analysed (Hurol, YĂźceer and Ĺ&#x17E;ahali, 2014). Formal low, medium and high seismic areas within Cyprus were drawn by Oznem Sahali in 2004. The low hazard one is aligned along the north coastal area of the island whereas the high hazard zone is along the south coastal area of the island and remaining land is classified as a medium hazard zone.

Figure 1 Seismic Zones in Cyprus.

1.5.

Current housing conditions in rural and suburban Cyprus

Vernacular

settlements

are

generally

inherently

sustainable,

incorporating many environmentally friendly features and bioclimatic elements that also act as an inspiration for new designs. The current state of vernacular buildings construction in Cyprus is rapidly developing due to its sustainability. Local material sources, affordability and aesthetic values constitute the authentic cultural background of the rural vernacular architecture of Cyprus. The built environment of the island can be developed, through the sustainability of vernacular architecture, benefiting the society as a whole. Recently there has been a recorded development of tourism combined with modern globalization resulting in a turn towards vernacular architecture with its value being recognized as an important part of the islandâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s culture (Philokyprou and Limbouri-Kozakou, 2014). The importance of vernacular dwellings is also linked to their ability to retrofit as contemporary and operational buildings which is beneficial for keeping the vernacular traditions alive. They are a living and irreplaceable testimony to the historical memory of culture and values. The establishment of independence of the island in 1960, led to changes towards the way government deals with vernacular architecture. The Department of Antiquities was launched and through the first 30 years, vernacular architecture had thoroughly examined which buildings were

capable to be retrofitted. They were usually symbolic buildings, such as churches and other buildings for social and cultural purposes. In the 1990s, restorations and reconstructions became more flexible and involved a greater range of buildings, since the yearning for reusing existing buildings by local people was stronger. Thus, the department has had supported the retrofitting of vernacular dwellings ever since. Conservative methodologies such as using traditional materials and techniques, imitating the original ones, underline the importance of the continuity of traditional building systems. It is expected from buildings to tolerate through an earthquake activity on a certain level where the damage can be considered reversible and the viability of the building is potentially restored. Most building codes in countries which are considered to be in high seismicity zone, such as India and Pakistan, are of minimum standards (Langenbach, 2009). Such buildings ought to prevent complete collapse and restore their viability after an earthquake activity, however their building codesâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; specifications regarding seismic resistance design, are inappropriate. Countries that suffer from earthquake activities require a well-designed, fully functioning seismic resistant structure system. Buildings technicians consult engineers to develop designs that provide flexibility at the outer shell of a building, rather than elasticity. Flexibility and elasticity can be similar but they also have quite a precise meaning in engineering. Flexibility in engineering means the ability of a structure as a whole or complete assembly to deform when loads are applied elasticity is a measure of how much a particular material will stretch or compress and whether or not the material will return to its original shape when the loads are removed. The concept of flexibility relies on the bonding of materials used as infills with strong enough joining techniques to prevent the overall structure from out-of-plane type of failure. In terms of elasticity, the building should have a minimum level of elasticity due to the need of good connections between joining materials and raw construction materials. Materials such as stone and brick, due to

their inability to â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;bounce backâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; and re-establish their initial form and their formal connection with joining materials, firm connection between them is essential, therefore flexibility through settlementâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s elements is mandatory. For instance, stones need to be tied, effectively jointed elastic materials to develop flexibility overall. Architects and engineers ought to understand and design traditional dwellings by operating contemporary technology and knowledge. Unfortunately, this does not always apply as in many cases there is a gap of knowledge. Nowadays, the experience and knowledge of craftsmanship and local technicians, has been disrupted, as it is improperly taught and passed on through academic environment (Langenbach, 2016). Traditional techniques were usually taught vocally and displayed between experienced local technicians. Thus, the experience required in understanding and constructing a vernacular dwelling by a contemporary architect as a technician,

absent.

The

contemporary

study

constructional

methodologies and material exigencies has formed the formal professional background of architecture studies. Its approach on vernacular features and structure components has been either set on a strictly theoretical level or based on such standard forms that architects are not properly qualified. Vernacular architecture has a lot to teach contemporary architects and engineers in terms of seismic resistant techniques. Analysis of manifold damages on vernacular dwellings would lead engineers to have a progressive perspective towards possible contemporary methods of design. Vernacular architecture in Cyprus is divided into three main groups according to the topographical, geological and climatic characteristics of each of these. The environmentally responsive design of vernacular rural dwellings is identified as costal, lowland and mountainous (Philokyprou et al., 2017). Most of the traditional environmental design concepts have nowadays been neglected and contemporary architecture based on concrete and steel does not effectively benefit from the environmentally vernacular architecture. Thus, it leads to design modern buildings with high environmental footprint and low resistance at earthquake activities.

Figure 2 Map of Cyprus indicating different geographical locations.

Figure 3 Climatic classification of Cyprus optimal case studies settlements within three different climatic regions.

1.5.1. Coastal vernacular buildings

Urban areas were distinguished with built frontier walls, during the Venetian Era in Cyprus (1489-1571 A.D) which has decreased the open land available for agriculture as well as the density of built area has increased (Fig.4) (Demi, 1997). Such configuration was applied to both coastal and lowland regions. The purpose of the Venetian basalt walls was to protect the cities from invaders as well as to distinguish the high social groups by living within the walls. Such groups have had the privilege to live a better standard of life within the protected area, whereas the rural area had to keep with the agricultural and under developed areas.

Figure 4 Sketch representation of walled city of Famagusta by Basil Grigorovich Barskii, 1730.

Settlementsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; configuration in coastal areas is semi-disperse with lowrise built fabric situated either on plain or hilly terrain (Philokyprou et al., 2017). Such pattern allows air penetration, which is an essential requirement due to the high humidity of the region. Dwellings are supplemented with a courtyard (See Appendix A) and they are frequently found in I-shaped and L-shaped forms.

Figure 5 Kerynia city (coastal region) in 1878, dwellings in semi-disperse layout with flat roofs covered with lime plaster.

Dwellings are in the shape of single â&#x20AC;&#x201C; banked, elongated unified room and they are locally called platimetopo makrinari (See Appendix A). The shape contributes to overload heat losses and enhance natural ventilation, for fast cooling of the building interiors and for removal of the excessive humidity during the summer period (Chrysochou, 2014). Dwellingsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; components follow either an introverted or extroverted design,

depending on the settlementâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s location and the social and political conditions. Settlements are surrounded by other building volumes and with either a low or high perimeter boundary wall where low boundary walls provide air and light penetration. Additionally, when they are located on a hilly topography, the ground floor level of coastal settlements comprises partially subterranean spaces, used for storage purposes and as shelter for the livestock. The building itself is used as a cooling mechanism successfully. The portico (See Appendix A), which is the internal courtyard of the dwelling, is the most distinguishing semi-open spatial configuration of vernacular dwellings in coastal regions (Philokyprou et al., 2017). It is constantly open on one side, while its other side which faces the street is usually configured by a double timber door.

1. 2. 3. 4.

Dichoro Platimetopo makrinari Portico Courtyard

Figure 6 Representative vernacular dwellings in the coastal region of Cyprus.

1.5.2. Lowland vernacular buildings

As previously said, regarding the frontier defensive walls in coastal regions, lowland regions were armed with basalt walls as well. They were raised within the most favourable areas topographically. The only urban lowland region was the walled city of Nicosia which is located nearby the local Pediaios river. Additionally, the area within the walled city had a higher density compared to the coastal urban areas due to better inter urban connections and dwellings organisation with their space-saving order (Demi, 1997). Dwellings had common walls that contributed moderating the internal temperature in them during the summer season.

Figure 7 Sketch representation of walled city of Nicosia by Basil Grigorovich Barskii, 1727.

Figure 8 Urban, double storeys vernacular dwellings, providing shading at pedestrian ways.

The compact configuration of the built fabric in the lowland regions allows the formation of narrow streets that shading is provided by building

facades (Fig.8). The dominant types as L-shaped and U-shaped dwellings configurations offer enhanced shading to their enclosed courtyard as well (Philokyprou et al., 2017). Such dwellings are configured in double spaced rooms, known as dichoro (See Appendix A), usually 6m wide, along with the single spaced platimetopo makrinari typology rooms. It is the prevalent building typology in lowland regions which cover the needs of both living spaces and of farming and agriculture. Sustainable features such as high-ceiling spaces reduce the effect of high solar gains. The different air temperatures stratification within the dwelling enables occupants to benefit from lower air temperatures during the summer period. Additionally, windows enable natural cooling ventilation through arseres (See Appendix A) during late afternoon and night-time hours to remove the heat stored inside the building mass.

Figure 9 Diagram-section of high-ceiling dwelling with arseres placed to support cross ventilation.

Usually, dichoro was attached to a sospito (See Appendix A) for any supplementary space the vernacular dwelling required. The most distinctive semi-open typology in this morphologic region is iliakos (See Appendix A). Due to the compact pattern of settlements in lowland regions, internal courtyard is mostly rectangular or irregular shape in plan. It is usually small and surrounded by one or two storey buildings and a high perimetric boundary wall which acts as a barrier of cold winds and in addition they offer security and privacy. It provides protection from intense insolation to both indoor and outdoor spaces.

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Dichoro Platimetopo makrinari Portico Courtyard Iliakos Sospito

Figure 10 Representative vernacular dwellings in the lowland region of Cyprus.

1.5.3. Mountainous vernacular buildings

The indigenous stone land conditions of the mountainous areas had let local people to build dwellings in small groups where the land was appropriate. They are built vertically, consisting of two or more storeys (Philokyprou et al., 2017). The predominant plan type of rooms, known as platimetopo makrinari, creates compact layouts which is beneficial under the topographical layout and the climatic conditions. It benefits the exterior environment and it reduces heat losses. The ground and top floor levels of vernacular dwellings create a thermal buffer for the intermediate floor level which houses the main living area of the family. In addition to the ground floor level spaces, they protect the main living area from ground dampness. This is a similar technique adapted at coastal regions to avoid excessive humidity levels at ground levels. The height of the rooms is reduced which minimizes the heat losses and energy requirements of the space. Ground floor function as subterranean rooms where animals were kept to increase indoor

temperatures directly to the main living spaces of upper floors during winter periods. Occasionally dwellings provided useful semi-open spaces, usually located on the upper floor level of buildings. Their purpose was to gain desirable solar gains during the winter period, providing a warm place for household activities.

1. 2. 3. 4.

Dichoro Platimetopo makrinari Hayiati Iliakos

Figure 11 Representative vernacular dwellings in the mountainous region of Cyprus.

Additional construction features that support solar gains within a household are constantly implemented.

Hayiati (See Appendix A), a

covered timber balcony, is beneficial for the mountainous settlements as it is adjusted onto the main faรงade of the settlement. It functions as an additional passive heating system because of its projection. The shallow extension allows solar penetration at the main living rooms. Stegadi (See Appendix A) as a semi-open feature at the front door and vine pergola (environmental performance that allows solar penetration during winter and providing adequate shading and cooling via evapotranspiration of leafage during summer) are both configurations that act as open spaces for household activities and social gatherings. Where possible, dwellings adjust an alteration of hayiati, by projecting the floor of the first storey to take a great advantage of solar penetration.

Figure 12 Veranda structure in mountainous region, at first storey by projecting timber beams of the first floor.

2. Literature Review

2.1.

Earthquake activity in Cyprus

2.1.1. Tectonic setting of Cyprus

Due to the complexity of the physical placement of the tectonic setting and of the islandâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s location, there are different approaches linked to the configuration of them. Scientists have been studying the complex tectonics configurations of the island by identifying the orientation and velocity of movements of Anatolian Plate, African Plate, Arabian Plate and Eurasian Plate (Imprescia et al., 2011). Studies propose that the island is on or near the plate boundary between the Anatolian Sub plate and the African Plate. Two major strikeslip faults, the North Anatolian Fault and the East Anatolian Fault, enable this westward movement of the Anatolian Sub plate. The African Plate is moving northeast relatively to the Eurasian Plate. The Arabian Plate is also moving north in a faster rate (Fig. 14).

Figure 13 Map showing the principle tectonic elements of the Northern Mediterranean Region.

Relatively recent seismicity and Global Positioning System data indicate that the active strands pass south of Cyprus and therefore, Cyprus is moving along with the Anatolian Sub plate in a westerly direction

(Papazachos and Papaioannou, 1999). Cyprus trench is less active in terms of seismicity if compared to the Aegean one. It is a key transitional zone between the Eastern Mediterranean domain, where continental EurasianArabian collision is dominant. A study has concluded that a boundary is set at the intersection of three main active structures: at the south-western limit of the Eastern African Fault, the northern part of the Dead Sea Fault, and the Cyprus Arc (Imprescia et al., 2011). Therefore, the Cyprus Arc can be divided into three parts: western, central and eastern (Fig. 14). In the study of Papazachos and Papaioannou (1999), based on accurate earthquake locations the geographical map indicates the plate boundaries of Cyprus (Fig. 15). According to it, the boundary between the African and the Eurasian plate is formed from two curved structures, the eastern and western, which have their curve shaped along the south coastal region and are connected by a northeast fault just south west of Cyprus.

Figure 14 Proposed plate boundary in the Eastern Mediterranean area by Papazachos and Papaioannou (1999).

2.1.2. Seismicity

Cyprus, like most eastern Mediterranean countries, has a long historical record of damaging earthquakes starting as early as 1500 B.C(Cagnan and Tanircan, 2009). As the island has a manifold historical background and endured many unstable periods, the records of historical seismicity are incomplete. This is mainly since modern seismography operation has been implemented in Cyprus in 1997. Just 20 years of recorded seismic activities have been archived with the modern system, which is not compatible with previous information (pre-1900 earthquake history) to complement it. Data recorded on small magnitude earthquakes were available after 1997. Epicentre locations and focal depths are computed with higher accuracies. Due to the complexity of the eastern Mediterranean tectonic environment and the poor knowledge on the kinematic evolution of the principal onshore and offshore fault systems of Cyprus, the high uncertainty of pre-1997 events. The island has been mainly affected by the shallow earthquakes taking place along Cyprus Arc and Dead Sea fault zone as well as the intermediate depth earthquakes taking place beneath the central part of the island (Fig.16). The western parts of the Cyprus Arc are seismically the most active regions. It seems prone area of Cyprus is located at the onshore province of Paphos and it is extended towards the offshore overmentioned fault (Fig. 17). Earthquakes originating from these parts are felt throughout the whole island. Further on the recorded small magnitude earthquakes, topical seismic activities affect the rest of western coastal region too. Overall, the seismic activity of Cyprus Arc is relatively less than that of Hellenic Arc, Dead Sea, and East Anatolian Fault zones.

Figure 15 Distribution of shallow earthquake epicentres in the region surrounding Cyprus from 2150 B.C. through 2006 A.D..

Figure 16 Distribution of intermediate earthquake epicentres in the region surrounding Cyprus from 2150 B.C. through 2006 A.D..

The largest known earthquakes in history of the island mostly occurred at the southern part of the island, causing damage in Paphos, Limassol, and Famagusta. Such examples, in chronological order, are: in 342 A.D. with magnitude Mw 7.4, 1222 A.D. with Mw 6.8, 1577 A.D. with Mw 6.7, 1785 A.D. with Mw 7.1, 1940 A.D. with Mw 6.7 and 1996 A.D. with Mw 6.7 (Cagnan and Tanircan, 2009). Cyprus has suffered momentous damage due to earthquake. The strongest earthquakes of the post-1900 period were the double shocks of

10th September 1953 (Papadimitriou and Karakostas, 2006). Two shocks 50 km apart was, where the first one was just 9 km off Paphos city with magnitude of 6,2 and consider it to be a tsunami. Paphos district was tremendously affected by it causing 40 fatalities, 100 injuries and extensive damage in 158 villages as well as in the city of Paphos itself. The second shock was equally strong, estimated at magnitude 6.1. Paphos had experienced strong tremor, about 40 years later, that caused 2 fatalities, 5 injuries and extensive damage. The earthquake took place on the 23rd of February 1995 and took place also in Paphos area with magnitude 5.9 (Kyriakides et al., 2015). Casualties were three fatalities, approximately 50 injuries, severe structural damage and economic losses in total of â&#x201A;Ź15 million. Another earthquake, equally strong earthquake with the one dated back in 1953 happened on the 9th of October 1996 with magnitude 6.8. It caused 2 fatalities, 20 injuries and severe building damage (Pilidou et al., 2004).

2.2.

Current Anti-seismic design implemented in Cyprus

Cyprus is politically divided into two zones since 1974. Historically, on the 20th of July, Turkish forces invaded into the island and reserved the north part of Cyprus until today. While, two independent governmental bodies are established within Cyprus, North and South, two different building codes are implemented for their anti-seismic design (Hurol, YĂźceer and Ĺ&#x17E;ahali, 2014). Further on building codes, each of them have their own implications are limitations regarding the design of modern vernacular settlements and the conservation of the existing ones.

Figure 17 Map of Cyprus and indicated sub-areas.

Vernacular architecture of North Cyprus is mainly based on adobe load-bearing walls which are usually connected with timber tie-beams. Adobe settlements have mostly the same configuration as the dwellings at the south side of Cyprus. They generally comprise of adjacent spaces that are accessed through a semi-open generally south-facing space. The application of Turkish building code in the north of the island has created complications in respect of the use of adobe masonry. The building code demands that reinforced concrete vertical tie-beams are used together with adobe masonry (Hurol, YĂźceer and Ĺ&#x17E;ahali, 2014). Such alterations, are unchanged and implemented for the mainland of Turkey which is also prone to earthquakes. Despite the experience of local architects and engineers the building code is still falsely applied without any governmental improvements. It is very common to imitate traditional buildings elements with contemporary to achieve a symbolic value. The Turkish building code does not ask for mathematical analysis for adobe structures. The implementation of the building code relies on limitations in amount, frequency and sizes of basic constructional features. Such restrictions are the number of storeys. The height of floors, the wall thickness, the use of reinforced concrete bond beams/slabs and the layout of openings are specified. Wall length specifications are strongly applied not to exceed more than 4.5 m, demanding reinforced concrete vertical tiebeams every 4m. This configuration is almost always applied however, for

without any assuring indications it could prevent any out-of-plane collapses regardless dwellingsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; height and volume. Architects in north Cyprus either do not use adobe, or they ignore its qualities while applying the requirements of the building code. The use of reinforced concrete elements combined with adobe masonry causes problems in relation to the climatic response of the building as well as causing other technical and aesthetic problems. The design of adobe masonry does not correspond in such alternative techniques and in addition to this, various types of ethical problems also emerge. Due to fact that the building code on masonry wall is still on empirical design rules, it is naturally more conservative than the other international codes. On the contrary, Eurocode â&#x20AC;&#x201C; 8 is implemented in South Cyprus as a building code to design seismic resistant buildings since 2007 (Cagnan and Tanircan, 2009). It is formally implemented to calculate mathematically the margins of loads a building can tolerate without forcing the use of reinforced masonry. Flexible design of different masonry structures such as reinforced, confined or restressed are acceptable as long as they are numerically tested. For example, the building code of the Cyprus Republic asks for the statistical analysis of both reinforced and unreinforced masonry applications. Additionally, on the aesthetical and design capabilities, Cagnan and Tanicran (2009) on their report have analyzed the benefits from the implementation of EC8 in Cyprus Republic by comparing the limitations that occur from the Turkish Earthquake Code in North Cyprus. Their study was based on experimenting the peak ground acceleration by using them empirically as the historical macro seismic data held for Cyprus is very limited. PGA values were assigned to each seismic zone. Results have stated that Northern Cyprus is in a critical state since TEC is causing serious underestimation of spectral acceleration values in case of soft soils. Additionally, Cagnan and Tanicran highly recommend the implementation of EC8 in the northern part of the island as their results showed a strong basis for revision of the EC8 acceleration and possibly move towards the use of more than one parameter for the construction of

response spectrum. Such revision would possibly upgrade the current macro seismic intensity based seismic hazard zonation map being used in the National Annex of Cyprus (Cagnan and Tanircan, 2009).

2.3.

Existing constructional systems in Cyprus

Understanding the local construction techniques, there are two main categories where they are have elaborated through time: urban and rural. Cyprus as a colony has a great range of historical buildings originated from different past sovereignties. To this day, they are either neglected or restored and their initial construction methodology was definitely influenced by social, financial and political ethics. Through time techniques have been affected, adapted and modified multiple times according to local necessities and values. The most affected regions by manifold sovereignties are the lowland and coastal regions due to their accessibility. Different social, financial and cultural backgrounds have distinguished these categories into all three regions. Regardless the social and political impacts, each region has developed their construction techniques according to the availability of local material sources.

2.3.1. Coastal vernacular techniques

The masonry is usually made of stones and earth based mortar, without any additional reinforcement regarding its tolerance towards earthquake activities. Sedimentary stones used for the masonry is locally supplied and processed. A wall system is constructed with both interior and exterior faces are elevated simultaneously by placing large stones and the gap created between them is filled with rubble earth based mortar (See Appendix D), (Philokyprou et al., 2017).The width of external walls is 0.5 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; 0.7 m thick and it contributes massively to the dampening of the high summer temperatures, offering thermal stability. Once the masonry was completed the roof was put together by placing a separate timber structure placed within the dwelling. A timber

column is positioned in a central position within the household. In the case of platimetopo makrinari, two timber columns were placed, transmitting smaller amounts of loads better. Nefka (see appendix D) is placed horizontally, over the timber posts, intersecting half through the external masonry. To provide further support, techniques were developed to support joints between the timber posts and nefka and provide a secured system regarding the static loads. Timber posts joints were usually referred to either a metopin (See Appendix D) or misodotji. Additionally, the joint of metopin or misodotji with the timber post was strengthen by the use of souventza (See Appendix D). Shorter timber elements, volitjia (See Appendix D), were placed on one end over the masonry and on the other end against nefka (Fig. 19). The holes that occurred were filled with earth-based mortar. Alternatively, volitjia were positioned over an arch (See Appendix D), instead of nefka. The arch would separate an open plan dwelling and support the entire roof (Chrysochou, 2014). The timber structure of the roof has enabled the compact layout in lowland region, by joining side walls of dwelling without blocking the inclination of the roof. However, the compact layout decreases the overall tolerance of a dwelling, with additional loads along the long-unified facades of the dwellings.

Figure 18 Indicated roof timber structure of (A) sospito, (B) platimetopo makrinari, (C, D) dichoro. The application of timber elements before the layers of earth based are applied.

Once the structure of the form of the roof was completed, the surface layers were poured and dried over it. They were comprised of a thick layer of beaten earth which was laid on brushwood, reed battens (See Appendix D) or matting (See Appendix D) and then they were covered with a final layer of mud (Philokyprou et al., 2017).

Figure 19 Different roof structures covered with brushwood, reed battens or matting.

Marble slates (See Appendix D), projecting on top of the wall perimeter, protected wall surfaces from rain. The roofs in coastal regions were mainly flat and very slightly inclined for water drainage (Sinos, 1976). Contemporary architects have replaced most flat roofs into inclined roofs for better maintenance, providing long-lasting roofs. Inclined roofs are lightweight timber structures, comprised of timber rafters covered with reed battens or matting earth and a layer of clay tiles (Chrysochou, 2014).

Figure 20 Sketches of typical wall and roof joint structure in (A)coastal, (A,B,D) lowland and (C,D) mountainous dwellings.

2.3.2. Lowland vernacular techniques

Lowland regions material sources are based on abundant soil sediments and cobbles from riverbeds that are used for masonry construction. Their construction methodology for the external methodology has many similarities with coastal indigenous dwellings. The building method of the masonry is a mixed construction where rubble stone is used for the lower part of the wall and adobe bricks (See Appendix D) for the upper part of the wall (Philokyprou et al., 2017). The rubble stone construction at the bottom part of the masonry protects adobe bricks from ground moisture. Sedimentary stones and adobe bricks are simply put together with earth based mortar. Adobe bricks dimensions are of 0.45 x 0.30 x 0.05 m, produced from ground clay mixed with organic fibres such as straw. The thickness of the adobe bricks represents the total thickness of the masonry. Its high density successfully delays the heat transfer to the indoor spaces during hot summer, assuring moderated indoor temperatures. Additionally, due to their hygroscopic abilities, adobe bricks can regulate indoor humidity, maintaining it stable. The exterior of adobe walls is usually finished up with mud plaster (See Appendix D) and whitewashed, while the interior is usually with gypsum plaster. Iliakos is often defined by a horizontal timber beam resting on volitjia, or by an arch which increase the shading within the semi open space and the rest of the dwelling. Lowland roof construction very similar to the aforementioned coastal roof, due to the same sources available for construction materials and wood supply for timber beams and posts. The roof timber structure is completed with thick layers of beaten earth and then brushwood, reed battens or matting was laid over it. Additionally, argyle clay (See Appendix D) was the finishing layer and it was replaced about once every year for maintenance purposes (Sinos, 1976). Argyle clay was a required layer in lowland regions due to higher precipitation. High maintenance flat roofs

have been later replaced by tiled inclined roofs, unfortunately reducing the benefits of the thermal mass of the original traditional roof.

2.3.3. Mountainous vernacular techniques

Construction techniques and materials on mountainous regions were mainly provided by local igneous rocks for masonry construction and woods from the dense forests for roof structure (Philokyprou et al., 2017). Large rubble stones were used to construct the overall masonry. The wall space between interior and exterior sides of the masonry, was infilled with smaller stones and ceramic fragments. Adobe brick, produced from local clay soil, is also used specifically at windows and door perimeters and at the upper part of the wall below the roof. The thick stone-built masonry, which is between 0.5 and 0.7 m thick, of vernacular dwellings in mountainous regions, benefits from thermal mass. Additionally, the construction of masonry of the mountainous settlements, timber beams were usually placed within it at different levels to perform as wall ties (Chrysochou, 2014). The purpose of those timber beams within the masonry was to provide further stability to the dwelling (Fig. 21). They were placed at different levels were a dwelling was most likely to have an out-of-plane failure. Such positions were along the floor level, roof level and above openings. Heavy rain and seismic activities could deteriorate the state of masonry of a dwelling itself. Local craftsmen have considered timber beams to enforce the viability and by the addition of them, any damage was reversible. Long projected inclined roofs were implemented in mountainous regions to avoid the deterioration of the masonry from heavy rain and support the viability of the masonry.

Figure 21 Timber beams â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;wrappingâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; the masonry stone construction together.

Another feature that is noted to enforce the seismic resistance of dwellings in the mountainous region of Cyprus is the timber beam that has splinted ends (Fig. 22). They favour in receiving loads from different directions. In the case of an earthquake they would receive dynamics masses from quadruplet orientations. It was achieved successfully because the splinted end was placed upwards and its gap is big enough to hold both misodotji and nefka which are both roof construction primers.

Figure 22 Timber beam that supports nefka piece of timber, securing nefka from dislocating from movements.

The roofs of the buildings are constructed by single or double inclined roofs. Inclined roofs are multi-layered, made of timber rafters covered with reed battens or matting, earth and a layer of clay tiles (Philokyprou et al., 2017). Roof tiles, similar to fired bricks, were produced from clay soil at local brick kilns. Inclined roofs present large inclination and wide projected roof eaves (Fig. 23, 24, 25). In terms of roof construction,

archival photographs of the beginning of the 20th century document that thatched roof originally appeared in the region (Sinos, 1976). They provide excellent insulation to the building interiors allowing protection from extreme climatic conditions during winter. Due to high maintenance required, thatch has been recently replaced by tin sheet or clay tiles.

Figure 23 Flat roof projecting in both directions, protection from heavy rain.

Figure 24 Reginald Barrows Rudyerd: Platris (mountainous region), painting, private collection, flat roofs constructed with long branches and leaves and adobe masonry, 1888.

Figure 25 Reginald Barrows Rudyerd: Kikopetria (mountainous region), painting, private collection, 1888.

3. Case Studies

The aim is to compare different approaches to earthquake resistant systems by reflecting the relative regions affluence. In this way, there is variable access to resource and hence perhaps different reasons for using vernacular systems. It is possible that in wealthy countries economy more options exist whereas, in poorer economies they may be more reliant on vernacular techniques. The use of GDP indicates a way of comparing the relative economic strength of countries. Moreover, case studies are focused at different approaches countries have developed their vernacular techniques. The following country case studies have been selected to study their beneficial seismic resistance construction systems in relation to their global Gross Domestic Product (GDP) state. Its purpose is to consider their background in market values of goods and services produced annually. It is a useful comparative tool measuring the performance of a country or a region amongst others to reflect on differences such as cost of living (Coyle, 2014). The case countries chose for examining their techniques are Jammu and Kashmir, Pakistan, Turkey and Portugal. According to World Bank (2017) Pakistan is classified as LowerMiddle income economy class, Turkey as Upper-Middle and Portugal as High-income economy class. The area of Jammu and Kashmir is mostly covered by the Himalayan mountains and it geographically overlaps with the borders of China, Pakistan and India. Further on countries background, data about GDP was provided from World Bank to state a brief outline of their state. Firstly, Pakistan has a manifold problematic status. Financial implications occur by fiscal deficit, increasing foreign debt and low exchange rate. Political instability creates lack of human and physical capital which is crucial for a country with high inflation and unfavorable law and order conditions for investment. Lastly, Pakistan suffers from serious natural disasters (Syed and Shaikh, 2013).

Turkey is considered as a developed country and it is classified, by World Bank (2017), as newly industrialized. Furthermore, Turkey has an emerging market economy with an upper-middle income country in terms of the country's per capita GDP since 2007. Portugal's ranking had continuously fell from 2005 to 2013. Its ranking reached down to the 51st position in 2013, when after the drop it elevated up to the 36th in 2014 (World Bank, 2017).The economy growth has been accompanied by a continuous fall in the unemployment rate. The Financial Crisis of 2008 in the Portuguese Economy crisis has caused a wide range of domestic problems that are specifically related to the levels of public deficit, as well as the excessive debt levels (Silva and Ferreira-Lopes, 2013). According to World Bank (2017) Global GDP 2016 ranking list, Portugal is currently the 45th country. There are similarities between Cyprus and Portugal’s weather, economic background, political aspects and previous financial instabilities. According to World Bank (2017), South Cyprus, as a member of euro zone since 2008, was a high-income country between 1975-2008. The island is ‘unique’ due to its geostrategic position, its status of ‘tax haven’ state and its division in two parts since 1974 (Oehler-Sincai, 2013). In 2009, as a direct consequence of the global financial and economic crisis, the Cypriot economy slipped into its first recession in 35 years. The recession brought as a direct consequence a sharp increase of the unemployment rate in Cyprus, which surpassed in 2012 the level of 12% (higher than the euro zone and EU-27 averages). Portugal has similar country financial instabilities background from which it has recovered, whereas, Cyprus is still struggling. Thus, on the World Bank (2017) Global GDP ranking list, Cyprus is the 107th country from the total of 195 participated countries. In terms of climatic conditions, Cyprus has a subtropical climate rather than a Mediterranean environment. It usually experiences warm summer and mild winters. At mountainous areas, summers are mild rather than warm. Overall, the island experiences warm weather for about 7 months annually, from April to November. sunshine is abundant through

those months. The coastal regions, experience mild summers and cold winters whereas the lowland region have warm summer and mild winters. The higher mountain areas are cooler and moister than the rest of the island and they receive the heaviest annual rainfall from the rest of the island. Relative humidity of the air is on average between 60% and 80% in winter and between 40% and 60% in summer (Met Office, 2017). Cyprus’ climatic conditions are similar to Portugal’s. The weather is like most of Mediterranean countries even though it located within the Atlantic Ocean. It is hot in the summer and temperate in the winter. It is hotter at the coast during the summer rather than the inland, as it does not have the same cooling winds. During summer Portugal is warm and there is light precipitation from June to August. Cold winters are combined with high rainfall and strong winds.

3.1.

Antiseismic systems in Jammu and Kashmir

The Himalayan mountain chain that surrounds Kashmir separates the Indian subcontinent from the Tibetan Plateau. It extends across six nations:

Afghanistan,

Bhutan,

China,

India,

Nepal

and

Pakistan

(Langenbach, 2009). The morphology of a collaborating mountain chain continues to grow by the movement of the earth’s tectonic plates. World’s highest peaks, is the result of the plates’ movement and it is linked to earthquakes across a seismically active region.

Figure 26 Indicated area of Jammu and Kashmir within the countries.

The danger of earthquakes and the indigenous soft building ground have had a great influence on the way people traditionally built their houses. Such combination requires buildings with unbending joints that can undergo a certain amount of distortion energy without losing their vertical load- carrying capacity. Seismic resistant traditional construction systems found in Srinagar and the urban areas of Kashmir, are the results of Kashmir earthquake on the 8th of October 2005 (Langenbach, 2009). It was one of the most destructive earthquakes globally, with magnitude 7,6 that has cause 80 000 fatalities and left 3 million people homeless. After the fatal natural disaster, local peopleâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s attention and awareness was raised. Improved

vernacular

construction

engineering

was

enforced

craftsmanship with seismic resistance techniques. House construction techniques were adapted and developed to tolerate seismic activities. The initial response was to reinforce the element of masonry. Two dominant masonry systems are named as taq and dhajji dewari. The first system consists of load-bearing masonry walls with horizontal timbers implanted in them. They are tied together horizontally as ladders and they are placed into the walls. They are usually placed is at each floor level and at the window lintel level. They have been proven to be resistant to earthquake and are now being re-evaluated be engineers to inform new constructions. Taqâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s purpose is to hold the masonry walls together and tie them to the floors. Timber beams hold the masonry in place and it keeps it from spreading. The masonry piers are thick enough to carry the static vertical loads. The structural integrity of taq is due to fact that the full weight of the masonry can bear on the timbers. Taq was most likely invented to avoid diagonal tension cracks from differential settlement of the foundations on the soft soil that would otherwise disrupt the masonry. The roof is usually completed earlier than the masonry due to the fact it lies on the columns.

Figure 27 Taq construction in Srinagar.

Figure 28 Indication of taq timber structure within masonry construction.

The second system consists of a braced timber frame with masonry infill and it is called dhajji dewari. It usually has a cross section of 10cm to 15cm and the walls are commonly one and a half brick thick, so that the timber and the masonry are even on both sides. They are characteristically called as â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;platformâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; frames, as each storey has separate frames from the one below. The floor joists are compelled between plates. During a seismic activity, frames are stronger when they are reasonably consistent and spaced to tolerate additional weight (Kaplan et al., 2008). They provide ductility to the building and constrains the masonry, while the masonry

helps to dissipate the energy of the earthquake. Similar traditional construction to dhajji dewari is himis, originated in Turkey.

Figure 29 Building in Srinagar with first two storeys of taq construction and top storey of dhajji dewari.

Figure 30 Dhajji dewari timber plane.

Remote mountain areas in north of Kashmir, a version of taq, called bhatar, is used within the mountainous area of Pakistan (Langenbach, 2009). The word bhatar refers to the horizontal beams in the walls that are used in taq. Masonry infill of bhatar is usually stone, and often small broken stones are laid into the walls without mortar, which makes timber reinforcements mandatory. Even though it shares the same method of timber reinforcing with taq, the masonry is not configured into the initial system of thick piers and thinner unbounded panels.

Figure 31 After 2005 earthquake dwelling improved bhatar construction.

Figure 32 Configuration of bhatar bands and stone masonry.

Remote areas in Srinagar, have developed the system of â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;cribbageâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;. The term occurred by the increased use of timber within the masonry, both in horizontally and vertically. Its dominant characteristic is timber network that results an impressive appearance both on the exterior and interior of the masonry. It is specifically found in the Himalayan Mountains of northern India, northern Pakistan near the Chinese border and parts of Afghanistan. It is a heavier, more timber-intensive version of timber-laced masonry than taq. The corners consist of cribbage of timber filler with masonry. They are linked with timber belts (cators) that extend across the walls just as they do in taq and bhatar construction (Varum, Correia and LourencĚŚo, 2015).

Figure 33 Example of cator and cribbage construction.

Such construction techniques have proven to be particularly tough in earthquake-prone regions. Sites on or near bedrock, such as in the mountain areas of Kashimr, transmit short-period waves, which are more devastating to short and stiff buildings. Optimally, structures should not be in areas with poor site conditions but in this case, human need for water, water-borne transportation and the fertile ground have led to the existing settlement patterns, which for both economic and cultural reasons have been maintained.

3.2.

Antiseismic systems in Turkey

Turkey is frequently exposed to destructive earthquakes and approximately every year one occurs (Ural et al., 2011), (Yılmaz and Avşar, 2013). Besides, it is one of the few countries with the shortest return period in earthquakes causing loss of lives. Earthquakes in Turkey are generally of in-land type and shallow focus earthquakes which are more destructive than offshore earthquakes even their magnitude could be smaller. This is caused by the settlement of Turkey over the Anatolian tectonic plate and its westward movement (Yılmaz and Avşar, 2013). The wooden buildings of turkey are the products of the thousands of years of cultural heritage of people who live in this region. Thus, there are many very distinctive styles of traditional rural domestic architecture in

Turkey, resulting from such attributes, related to material availability and climate. They are mainly classified depending on the structural elements in the walls. They are named as hatil, himis, dizeme and bagdadi. The first one is classified as a timber â&#x20AC;&#x201C; laced masonry system, the latter two are timberframed (wood frame) systems and himis system is categorised for both (DoÄ&#x;angĂźn et al., 2006). The hatil construction, refers to horizontal timbers that are embedded into bearing wall masonry. Many buildings with hatil construction system are infilled with stone and mud mortar. A small earthquake on the 25th of March 2004, had craftsmen questioned the role of timber hatils in buildings in terms of moderating the earthquake damage and considered to improve it. Factors to be considered in resisting a complete construction failure, are the state and the age of the building. Its physical weakness is the inadequate wall junction connection which is a very common reason for joining corner wedge failure. In the case where the connection is well established, hatil construction system can dismiss or transmit a crack propagation. Elements such as a long doorway and window lintels can redirect crack propagation. Their position could be beneficial for the masonry in terms of loads transmission. Small narrow openings can enforce the vertical flow of the loads and in cooperation with the embedded horizontal timbers the loads are throughout the entire masonry equally.

Figure 34 Hatil system, timber placement.

The himis construction represents a timber frame with masonry infill such as bricks, adobes or stones. In Turkey, it is divided into two

categories: contained bracing elements and no bracing elements (DoÄ&#x;angĂźn et al., 2006). At the latter one studs trend to be tied with other horizontal timbers exclusively. Vertical timber elements are usually subjected to suppression direction as timber has high shear strength levels. Thus, it is not expected to resist lateral forces without damage during an earthquake due to low lateral stiffness of the frame system.

Figure 35 Himis construction with bracing elements and brick infill.

In the himis construction, the timber elements constitute important elements by providing the foundation for the masonry infill. Vertical framing elements such as studs and pillars are sufficient for vertical loads, however they may be insufficient during strong magnitude activity. Resistance is improved by horizontal forces caused to use bracing elements in traditional timber frame. Bracing elements ought to be designed correctly, to work successfully. Diagonal bracing within the timber framing enforce the tolerance in strong earthquakes. The wider the base of the triangle in relation to its height, the stronger it is. Diagonal bracing timbers are usually place at corners since they are the most vulnerable to damage in lateral movement. Dizeme were the short rough timber elements which were used as infill and they were lightly nailed studs or horizontal framing elements in the same construction (Ă&#x2013;ztank, 2010). The purpose of wood infill usage to

avoid their common shear failure and failing out of the frame masonry system. Thus, wood infill called as dizeme provides continuous additional support to the building. The masonry function as a fragmentation that prevents the loss of integrity. Seismic performance of dizeme construction is superior of the other traditional construction systems, due to its infill in which small timber infill element nailed with ends to the main timber elements.

Figure 36 Dizeme construction system applied.

Laths help lateral loads and help tie framing members and dizeme together. As ductility and energy dissipation, which can be accomplished through hysteretic in connections and friction between the various constructional parts, sconstruction has more advantage than the other traditional timber framed construction types. The other construction is bagdadi where the voids between timber framing members is filled lighter materials or with timber thick shavings that are transformed into a filling material by sand and lime mortar. The interior surfaces of walls are covered by lath and plaster work or wood, whereas the outer surfaces are either plastered or non-plastered with wooden boards. Wall materials such as stone, brick and mud brick usually cause damage to the buildings during earthquakes, as they add extra load to the structure or in some cases, because they have weak binding mortars. However, in the bagdadi technique, the timber laths increase the resistance of the building against lateral forces.

Figure 37 Bagdadi construction system applied.

3.3.

Antiseismic systems in Pakistan

Pakistanâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s earthquake activities have made it clear to the government and affected citizens alike that there is a need for more structurally sound and earthquake resistant construction, even in rural areas. Then the government has offered university â&#x20AC;&#x201C; educated architects and engineers to get into contact with the culture and indigenous building crafts characteristics of the rural regions. Bhatar structures have a proven capacity to resist the lateral loads generated during an earthquake (Langenbach, 2017). Bhatar houses as culturally acceptable, they are locally preferred because the solid, thick walls provide security and thermal comfort. Typical flat earth roof provides a practical space which is used for agricultural purposes and social gatherings. Bhatar is a traditional construction system consisting of stone masonry walls reinforced with horizontal timber ladder-beams, which combine to resist and dissipate the energy and stresses induced during an earthquake (UN-HABITAT, 2008). The bhatar technique is an environmentally sound form of construction. Timber source is locally plentiful and has minimal environmental impact. The stone masonry walls are generally 45 centimetres wide, built with dry stacked stone masonry. Walls are constructed using two rows (wythes) of stones which are slightly inclined towards the centre of the wall. This configuration can sustain very high compressive loads, due to

the orientation of the stones which interlock when subjected to vertical loads. The bhatar bands are continuous timber ladders which are laid in the stone

masonry wall at 60 centimetres vertical

spacing. Vertical

reinforcement is commonly provided in structures to resist out of plane bending and overturning, and in-plane and out-of-plane shear forces. In the case of bhatar structures, vertical reinforcement is not necessary because these forces are resisted by the combination of wide, heavy walls, and horizontal timber elements.

Figure 38 Axonometric sketch of timber elements in bhatar system.

Through section, stones interconnect the wythes, and reduce out-ofplane delamination of the wythes. Corner stones provide stronger links at the corners and avoid continuous vertical joints. The ladders are crossed and connected at the corners.

Figure 39 Corner stones in bhatar construction system.

In some cases, the use of cement-based mortar is not advocated because it results in a stiff connection which diminishes the capacity of the structure to dissipate energy through friction generated between the stones.

3.4.

Antiseismic systems in Portugal

The Portuguese gaiola is a well-braced variation of dhajji dewari construction. In Portugal, it is known as ‘Pombalino’, which can be highlighted as the most representative example of a Portuguese seismic culture (Ortega et al., 2017). It is a complex reconstruction technique introducing urban, architectural and structural concepts was devised by the government. Gaiola methodology was forced to be implemented after the 1755 Lisbon destructive earthquake. The Lisbon earthquake of 1 November 1755 was felt over the whole Iberian Peninsula causing heavy damage by the shaking and subsequent tsunami, specially, in the nearby Spanish cities of Huelva, Cadiz and Seville (Chester, 2001). As well as destroying much of Lisbon, devastating southern Portugal, causing damage throughout Iberia and northwest Africa, the effects of its associated tsunami were recorded as far away as the Caribbean and the British Isles. Affecting an area of ca. 800 000 km2 and killing up to 100 000 people, the Lisbon earthquake of 1755 is probably the greatest seismic disaster to have struck western Europe.

Figure 40 Gaiola timber pattern implemented within masonry.

The seismic resistance of gaiola is achieved after widely studied, and it came down to three-dimensional braced timber structure named ‘gaiola pombalina’. It was firstly introduced as the internal structure of the building and then to reinforced the external masonry of the dwellings (Ortega et al., 2017).

The ‘gaiola’ is a well resistant and flexible cage, whose walls are composed by horizontal, vertical and diagonal timber elements. Its constructional concept is very similar to ‘cribbage’ implemented in Himalayan remoted areas described in the previous chapter. The infill is usually rubble or brick masonry and plastered. The external walls are made of stone masonry and the walls composing the ‘gaiola’ and act as the shear walls of the building.

Figure 41 Indicated ‘frontal’ wall within a gaiola dwelling.

They resist horizontal loads by providing a bracing fragmentation, avoiding an out-of-plane collapse of the exterior masonry walls while dissipating substantial amounts of energy. Usually, an additional timber skeleton is occasionally placed in the inner side of the exterior masonry walls, providing connection with the floors and the inner shear walls. Other common traditional strengthening technique used for resisting and counterbalancing seismic horizontal forces refers to the construction of buttresses or counterforts. They provide a counteracting outcome against a wall.

Figure 42 Ideal positions for buttresses against the masonry.

They can be either built at the same time as the building, as a deliberated feature, or they can be added as a reinforcement measure. They are gigantic local additions of masonry; whose ability is to counter the rotation of the faรงade. Buttresses are placed at critical locations, such as the mid-span of long walls, which are the most vulnerable elements to the effects of out-of-plane earthquake vibrations, and at the corners, to avoid separation of the walls. Sometimes, other urban structures, such as external stairs, can also achieve a similar role of counteracting the rotation of the walls, since they do not disrupt the construction of floors with unnecessary gaps for their placement. Another traditional strengthening technique aims at lowering the centre of gravity of the building. It is achieved be thickening the walls, meaning of adding mass to the ground floor walls. This is a common practise in Turkey and Portugal. This technique can maximize the resistance area of the walls and reduces their height-to-thickness ratio, which improves their out-of-plane resistance.

Figure 43 Uneven masonry lower the centre of gravity.

Traditional timber braces are frequently implemented in Portugal and they are placed in corners within the masonry. They are stiffening elements placed usually diagonally at the corners that help to reinforce the wall-towall connections of the building. They are not always necessarily attached to horizontal beams as they are also used independently, particularly in earth buildings. If they are applied independently, timber wedges are usually used to attach the diagonal struts to the walls to limit their movement. This technique keeps the walls working together even when the joint between

perpendicular walls crack during an earthquake. It is beneficial for a postelastic performance.

Figure 44 Left: Timber braces placed vertically and diagonally. Right: Timber wedges secure diagonal timber beams.

Another common and efficient traditional technique of reinforcing wall-to-wall connections, is the construction of quoins. This technique consists of using the best quality large squared stone blocks at the corners. They are carefully bonded to the corners of the walls by creating an efficient overlapping of the ashlar stones with the rest of the wall. However, the efficacy of quoins is limited when interacted with poor fabric or internally unconnected masonry which tends to become loose. Quoins can be made of other materials, such as brick masonry, when used together with earthen walls. Additional metallic anchoring devices, such as metal brackets, steel straps and ties are typically implemented as strengthening solutions.

Figure 45 Indicated placement of quoins ashlar stones onto the corners of walls.

Overall, the basic elements of masonry and timber are shared, using timber to provide stability and to contain the masonry whilst masonry helps to dissipate the energy of the earthquake through friction. The

importance of locally available traditional materials should be noted as well as the negative benefits of strong cement mortars producing too rigid a construction. from the point of view of mathematical analysis of structural behaviour these traditional structures are much more complex to analyse using contemporary engineering techniques and hence engineers feel more comfortable using reinforced concrete or steel.

4. Exemplar Design/ Proposing components

4.1.

Understanding Sustainable Design potentials from Cypriot vernacular dwellings

The Cypriot vernacular architecture has great sustainable potentials; however, its seismic resistance is lacking. As specified earlier, islandâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s background on earthquakes record is clarified with shallow to intermediate magnitude earthquakes, marking the southwest coastline as the most affected area. Thus, lowland and coastal settlements ought to implement seismic tolerant construction techniques where damage can be repairable. The overall construction methodology and materials that vernacular settlements use are based on plain masonry construction; with its earth based mud as joining material and it has sufficient attachment with the prime construction of the roof (Fig. 46). Two separate systems conduct the structure of the local settlements, the stone masonry system and the timber roof structure which relies on the masonry. Further on the sustainable great potentials, abundant local material sources have made it possible to offer well insulated dwellings a moderate temperature within them using the density and thickness of masonry and by cross ventilation through openings and arseres. Roof construction is environmentally beneficial and it emits less carbon emissions than a reinforced concrete slab because it consists of earth based layers that are overall applied onto a timber structure. As the area of the roof of the dwelling increases, the bigger capacity for sunlight absorbance it has. It is beneficial throughout the year due to its complexity of multiple earth based layers. Locally found materials that are classified with rather low embodied energy, are applied in multiple layers which moderates the internal temperature during summertime and it maintains the internal temperature during winter time. The contemporary modification of settlementâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s roofs regarding the regional criteria and the climatic background has given them additional overall resistance to chronic deficiencies such as material deterioration.

Figure 46 Axonometric sketches of internal and external elements of (A) dichoro and (B) platimetopo makrinari.

4.2.

Understanding Seismic resistance design from case studies

The overall seismic resistance structure of a dwelling requires strong wall-to-wall, wall-to-roof and wall-to-floor connections. Strong joints provide resistance to earthquake activities and the damage is reversible. Masonry itself is the vulnerable component of the dwelling as its form and density suffer through the seismic activity. Its overall vertical arrangement is not compatible to the horizontal seismic waves, therefore the key development to strengthen the wall-to-wall system. The reinforcement of masonry lays critically on its corners. Firmly interlocked can support the orthogonal arrangement of walls and will have an increased attachment. As far as it concerns the structure of seismic resistant dwellings, the masonry is supplemented by a well evaluated timber structure. Regulations, such as distance from one timber element to another and additional secondary supporting elements, has resulted manifold seismic resistant timber systems. Through case studies, multiple alterations are implemented by local engineers and craftmanship to successfully support the masonry. Such technique has managed to use the abundant material sources and develop ergonomic systems with simple modifications at each region and then at each country. Significant frequent alteration found was the additional implementation of diagonal timber elements that split and spread the loads to a further extension of the wall. Overall, supportive

timber structure in addition with raw stone masonry or bricks as the infill of the masonry has resulted the potential seismic resistance system for masonry. An exceptional example regarding the relationship of frames and infill is the great 1906 San Francisco earthquake and fire (Langenbach, 2016). Engineers of that time were designing buildings with unreinforced bricks. Masonry of plain brick layered with clay mortar were inadequate for earthquake and incapable to tolerate such activities in San Francisco. All the unreinforced structures suffered from devastating consequences of the earthquake where their state was not reversible. As described next, engineers had to tackle the unfortunate state of the buildings by simply calculating static loads and detail internal framing elements. The result was to invent skyscrapers with skeleton frame to replace the exterior bearing walls with an extra bay of posts and beams. The flexibility of such system has led to the elimination of heavy masonry facades and interior walls and the led to open floor plans. As skyscrapers have been subjected to strong earthquake shocks, have proved engineers’ attempt for modern practice to be correct and successful. The well – designed steel frame offers the best solution of the question of an earthquake – proof building where the masonry is simply a load on the frame, which in partnership with the frame can resist the lateral forces and dampen the destructive vibrations of the earthquake. Historically, frame structures were limited to non-rigid frames of timber, but with the advent of structural steel, the limitations of size were eliminated, resulting modern skeletal frame skyscrapers where both the vertical and lateral loads are carried by a unbending frame. Cyprus current implemented political situation has resulted the function of two different building codes. This has resulted in the controversial application of methodologies regarding the conservation of the traditional architecture. The tremendous difference relies on the conservative aspect of view of North Cyprus in terms of subjective mandatory changes of the construction system of vernacular dwellings. The

building code aims for a rather straightforward methodology, following step-to-step instructions, without any innovative feasible alterations to suggest. On the other hand, South Cyprus has implemented the European building code which has allowed contemporary alterations to be done by imitating the vernacular existing architecture and without disrupting the tolerance of the existing structure. Buildings considered to be part of the heritage of Cyprus is handled by the governmental department of Antiquities, located in South Cyprus. Unfortunately, there is a great number of neglected buildings as well as whole villages that need to consider their construction as to maintain the local heritage. However, many rural vernacular buildings have proceeded to restoration and reuse through the legal system by owners filling the certain application. The legal system seems to be responding to application rather slowly, as the execution of conservation orders are not checked through a complete system (Philokyprou and Limbouri-Kozakou, 2014). It is very discouraging for owners to consider the conservation of older buildings as the department of Antiquities can force owners to reconstruct buildings using traditional or contemporary materials. In the case where buildings are demolished or let to a state of collapse, due to lack of maintenance, the department can compel doe reconstruction. Overall, the department of Antiquities strongly support the buildings conservation with incorporated materials and interventions within the original fabric. Thus, the ultimate goal is to preserve the integrity of the originality of the building with reversible and retrievable interventions within the structure of a building. 4.3.

Masonry Systems

The general outcome captured from the case studies, is to design a building that can resist complete collapse from earthquake vibrations. Earthquake resistant systems are designed to resist horizontal ground motion mainly. It is necessary for the walls of a building to tolerate earthquake waves both within the direction of walls posture and outside.

Their resistance will prevent the in-plane and out-of-plane failures; thus, the damage will be feasibly restored. The out-of-plane failures are critical as they can affect the overall building masonry as the walls that are in perpendicular direction of the earthquake shocks and they are directly linked with the in-plane walls. Probable failures are of masonry folding in the middle and collapsing or of crossed cracks, known as diagonal tension cracks, can be created and again collapse in place (Langenbach, 2009). Optimal masonry of a building ought to be designed to respond on forces of both in-plane and out-of-plane walls. Ideally a settlement ought to have a stable load path, flexibility and ductility. The load path refers to the structural system of a building that is primarily designed to resist static gravity forces. Both roof and floor systems carry the static vertical forces to the supporting beams, which then transfer them to the columns and bearing walls and thus to the foundation and the supporting soil. This order of transfer of inertial forces is known as the load path. Flexibility is the propertyâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s strength which resists force while its stiffness resists displacement. Architects and engineers use reinforced concrete as the modern earthquake resistant system. It is designed accordingly to minimise the amount of relative lateral movement and consequential damage, by stiffening and strengthening the structure. However, reinforced concreteâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s stiffness derives the resistance from the strength rather than its ability to be flexible and give with the earthquake vibrations. The stiffer the structure is, the larger the earthquake forces are that act on it and thus the stronger it must be to resist on those forces. Therefore, the heavier the structure is, the greater the force is applied on the structure. Ideally, stiff concrete could be an earthquake resistant construction system once it is combined with more flexible steel or wood elements, where the concrete would take most of the total force. A flexible structure would reduce the earthquake shocks and it resists from disrupting and it allows further lateral movement in the case of aftershocks.

Ductility provides the opportunity to a building to return at its initial shape and form once the force is removed from it. It refers to the state of material that allows it to sustain inelastic deformation without breaking. In other words, the material can undergo inelastic deflection repeatedly while maintaining a substantial portion of its initial maximum load-carrying capacity. The greater the ductility without significant loss of strength, the better it is for the core of the masonry to tolerate the earthquake waves. Ideally, the confinement and reinforcement of the masonry using timber within it, works to maintain the strength and stability of the building. In order to achieve a stable load path, flexibility and ductility through the masonry of the ideal seismic resistant vernacular Cypriot dwelling, properties such as, materials combination and strong joints need to be implemented. Cross walls as secondary walls can structurally create a â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;diaphragmâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; within a dwelling. They are expected to yield in an earthquake, forming cracks and further levels of reversible damage, but not collapse. They help the building resist collapse by dissipating energy while maintaining substantial residual strength. Strong building connections allow forces to be transferred between vertical and horizontal building elements. They increase overall structural strength and stiffness by allowing all the building elements to act together as a unit. They strongly support a steady load path. A building can tolerate earthquake shakes better in square or rectangular shapes with symmetrical floor plans. Such configuration enables a resisting system on lateral forces better. The optimal masonry systems for Cyprus ought to be familiarised with the prime techniques of bhatar, dhajji dewari and gaiola. Those techniques do meet the properties for great tolerance against strong earthquake waves. Great examples of imitation are explained by Langenbach (2009) in his book. A project in an attempt to modernise constructional techniques in Kashmir, Pakistan after the earthquake in 2005, was undertaken. The outcome was a very useful report finalised the great potentials of bhatar in Pakistan (UN-HABITAT, 2008). It has

successfully pursued a construction manual for the local people as well as for the surrounding regions and countries. Engineers in collaboration with the indigenous residents have tested what it would be innovative by applying the bhatar, dhajji dewari and gaiola techniques (Fig. 47, 48, 49). Such terrific examples would be suitable for the case of Cyprus in terms of seismic resistant design and promote aesthetic values. Adobe and earth based mortar could support the timber reinforcement similar to dhajji dewari and gaiola. In the case of stones, bhatar technique could be modified and adjusted along with cator connections on wall corners (Fig. 49).

Figure 47 The reconstruction of a rubble stone dwelling after Kashmir earthquake in 2005.

Figure 48 The initial destroyed dwelling on the right hand.

Figure 49 Innovative two storeys dwelling with cator and bhatar systems implemented

Further on implemented traditional construction systems through innovative construction alterations in masonry, North Cyprus has applied several masonry techniques to contemporary housing. The weak adobe masonry structures of North Cyprus were affected by earthquakes and moisture. Architects have attempted to improve building technique and material quality through the use of buttresses, cross-walls and timber reinforcement and improving building technique by using steel to reinforce the adobe (Hurol, Yüceer and Şahali, 2014). Innovative building techniques are implemented such as buttresses on the corners, timber trusses over openings, vertical and horizontal reinforcement with bamboo, cane etc., the application of plastering, having reinforced concrete foundation, controlling the size and layout of openings, increasing wall thickness proportional to wall height and length, having only one floor, using light roof system and not having large rooms increases the earthquake resistance of adobe buildings (Dowling, Samali and Li, 2015). Improving material quality is mainly aiming to pair adobe with other materials. The addition of lime and gypsum to earth, has improved the strength of adobe against compression by three times. Additionally, durability and workability has also improved. Moisture is reduced due to the increased waiter resistance of the additional materials, that is beneficial for the human health (Hurol, Yüceer and Şahali, 2014).

Reinforcing adobe with steel has provided a bond between the materials prior the application of mortar which it should contain both cement and earth simultaneously. The reinforcement is analogous with reinforced concrete frames, were frame structures are built before the partition walls. There are three types of constructions in such reinforcing formula (Fig. 50). The first is where the cavity between two adobe walls is filled with grout containing steel reinforcement. The second wall system is intersected with organised concrete tie-beams in the vertical direction and the required reinforcement is calculated according to the loads affecting the system. Lastly, steel bars are placed within the mortar in vertical and horizontal directions and the required reinforcement is calculated according to the loads affecting the system.

Figure 50 Three types of reinforced masonry.

Similar approach for masonry reinforcement was made by Arya S. Arya whose work is published in Indian Standard Building Codes and other documents (Langenbach, 2009). The illustrated figure represents the reinforcement aiming to reinforce taq building as they are considered to be low-strength masonry. Steel reinforcing adobe masonry vertically is suggested and demonstrated as shown in figure 51. Aiming great improvement, steel placement would improve the traditional method of

reinforcing only with horizontal timbers. Such small detailed addition to the overall structure represents the supplementation with vertical resistance to earthquake vibrations. Cement is incompatible with the mud mortars or weak lime mortars that are allowed in this same code. Unfortunately, moisture is introduced into the soluble salts of cement, where it migrates out and crystallize, causing efflorescence that will gradually destroy the masonry and break down the surrounding mortar. Normally, moisture penetrates low strength masonry, but when steel is introduced, the steel can rapidly become corroded in areas where the concrete sheath is cracked or inadequately filled when poured.

Figure 51 Recommended joint details with the vertical reinforcement at corner of brick masonry walls.

4.4.

Roofing system

A strong roofing system ought to tolerate the lateral forces as well as have strong joints with masonry. It is utterly important for the roof to be well connected with masonry to the point where it can prevent crosseddiagonal cracks and folding of the walls. A strong timber structure will offer great stability to the roof as well as it is considered as a light material. Timber is able to create a multiple connection at one place, thus a wallsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; corner joint could be directlyconnected to the roof. The ability of timber to be installed within the masonry is equally beneficial for the roof.

Flat roofs are preferred, as they constitute a solid prime structure for the supporting layers of the roof providing a diaphragm for the masonry of the settlement. On the other hand, inclined roofs are equally recommended as the can split their own weight onto the masonry with their shape and by the repetition of the horizontal elements against the masonry can secure the solidity of the masonry. Additional timber elements within masonry, along the inclined sides of the roof, as tested on the earthquake simulation shock table, are reinforcing the masonry and the stability of the roof components.

Figure 52 Full size rubble tone with seismic timber bands.

Inclined roofs are, in sustainability terms, useful due to fact of providing additional space for air temperature stratification within the settlement. Cypriot vernacular dwellings are commonly build with high ceiling rooms to provide cool air temperature during warm summer. Applying the same technique, dwellings will not require annual roof maintenance as they used to. Overall, there is a preference for inclined roofs in mountainous regions, whereas the flat roof is mostly used in lowland and coastal areas. Thus, the weather conditions set the preference for construction of the roof in traditional dwellings. Along with the roof structure, strong timber joints can fortify the roof with the masonry, therefore providing a diaphragm. More on inclined roofs, Tanacan (2008) has proposed an inclined roof structure onto adobe masonry. The project has taken place in 35 km away from the centre of Istanbul, Turkey, where the main function of the building is a country club. The building complex is mostly consisting of

adobe masonry and reinforced concrete, where the adobe bricks were produced on site. As a contemporary building refurbishment, the materials complexity serves the local construction standards and the properties of other common building materials. According to Tanacan adobe masonry has two major factors that need to be considered. Adobe masonry must be protected from water or rain and its construction needs to be done according rules. The recommended roof of such adobe masonry with timber reinforcement, is a fully wooden structure and the width of the eaves is 1.5 m. supportive timber beams are stabilised against the timber beams of the masonry and the eaves on each side. Adobe bricks are incorporated with a stone foundation and timber masonry reinforcement every 1 meter, as shown at figure 53. It could be considered as a seismic resistance roof system as roof is a light structure, well put together that is partly connected to the masonry. Such technique provides additional support to both the roof and masonry to earthquake vibrations through the diagonal elements and reduce the possibilities of out-of-plane failure.

Figure 53 The walls are horizontally reinforced and the masonry structure begins with a stone foundation. Inclined supported wooden structure roof.

Figure 54 The walls are horizontally reinforced by embedded ring wood beams at approximately 1m.

Figure 55 The walls of the ground floor are built in stone masonry.

4.5.

Openings restrictions

The presence of openings in loads bearing walls always indicates a potential seismic vulnerability of the building. A bad positioning, such as openings near the edges, causes stress concentration and cracks to arise, while too many openings or openings oversized dimensions can greatly reduce the shear capacity of the walls. To reduce the seismic vulnerability, vernacular constructions usually present a reduced number of openings

and symmetry in their layout (Ortega et al., 2017). Openings near to one another can be commonly identified in seismic prone areas, showing the inhabitants awareness of vulnerability of these elements. Seismic events may also cause in-plane shear failure, which is mainly characterized by diagonal or X-cracking in the direction of the wall length. In-plane failures also highly depend on the geometry of the walls, such as the length to height ratio and the wall thickness. The presence of openings facilitates in-plane cracking, which typically arises from the opening edges, where a greater concentration of stress is present. In the case of slender piers, ricking may occur, which consists of the rotation of the piers and results in the crushing of the pier end zones. Vernacular

architecture

has

previously

been

through

poor

construction practice. Openings that were too large or badly positioned, for example very close to each other or near the edges of the building, has led to excessively slender piers in the wall, enabling in-plane damage. Additionally, an irregular distribution of openings leads to an uneven distribution of stiffness and shear capacity among the piers so that some might be more vulnerable than others. Light roof structures reinforce the structure of the building as well as it avoids the non-structural elements prone to out-of-plane collapse and other seismic deficiencies to occur. Nevertheless, several traditional ways of reinforcing openings exist, such as the insertion of relieving or discharging arches within the walls, over the openings lintels. They are intended to lighten the load on the lintels and better distribute the load path. Windows and door frames are also traditionally reinforced with big stones or timber lintels, aimed at promoting enough resistance to bending stresses. Double timber window frames used at both sides of the thick walls and adequately linked with the help of cross ties can contribute to a safer dissipation of energy. Brackets are useful reducing the free span of the lintel, and jambs are necessary because of the strong compression forces that concentrate on the bearing area of the lintel.

4.6.

Materials and Joining systems

Bhatar, dhajji dewari and gaiola techniques are environmentally sustainable forms of construction. Timber is one of the most sustainable building materials available, and the other materials required (stone and soil) are plentiful in the regions of interest, and have minimal environmental impact. However, system relies on structural stability and energy dissipation rather than strength characteristics. Standard calculation techniques appropriate for dynamic analysis of engineered structures, have limited validity when applied to such constructions (UN-HABITAT, 2008). The concept of ductility to a system composed of a brittle material (masonry) is difficult for many modern engineers to comprehend. It can be readily observed that a steel coat hanger is ductile, as demonstrated when it is bent beyond its elastic limit, but by contrast, a ceramic dinner plate is brittle (Varum, Correia and LourencĚŚo, 2015). A conference regarding guiding engineers composing hybrid shelters has taken place in Berlin on the 3rd and 4th of May 2016 (IFRC-Shelter Research Unit, 2016). The IFRCSRU conference aimed for presenting innovative ways concerning the materials and technical improvement on traditional techniques as well as referring to modifications on national guidelines and use of financing for better preparedness. Martijn Schildkamp, an independent researcher has spoken at the conference about his project called â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;Smart Shelter Researchâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;. The project was emphasized on innovative shelters built with local available sources, by imitating the traditional trends of vernacular architecture and reinforcing the indigenous structure simply with steel (fig. 57). Steel reinforcement is implemented both horizontally and vertically within the masonry (fig. 57, 58). Therefore, timber beams are additionally supports by steel reinforcement to provide ductility. The importance of his project was to transmit the achievement of the establishment of earthquake engineer through understanding the building

structure. Contemporary techniques can be implemented and adjusted onto traditional techniques in order to support culture and heritage.

Figure 56 â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;Smart Shelter Researchâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; contemporary techniques on traditional dwellings.

Figure 57 Vertical steel reinforcement.

Figure 58 Horizontal steel reinforcement into masonry.

Materials in bhatar, dhajji dewari and gaiola are not ductile and do not manifest plastic behaviour. However, what makes timber laced masonry work well in earthquakes is its ductile-like behaviour system. This

behaviour results from the energy dissipation because of the friction between the masonry and the timbers and the masonry units themselves. This friction is only possible when the mortar used in the masonry is of low-strength mud or lime, rather than the high-strength cement-based mortar that tis now considered by most engineers to be mandatory for construction in earthquake areas. Strong cement-based mortars force the cracks to pass through the bricks themselves, resulting in substantially less frictional damping and rapidly leading to the collapse of the masonry. While earthquakes may have contributed to its continued use in earthquake areas, timber and masonry infill frame construction probably evolved primarily because of its economic and efficient use of materials. of locally available materials, skills and resources but, more importantly, they are culturally sensitive to the local building tradition and effective in resisting earthquakes. Diaphragmatic behaviour through strong connections allows inertial forces to be transferred between the structural elements. Thus, in-plane resisting mechanisms can develop in the masonry walls, which are typically the main structural elements in masonry buildings. This is one of the main earthquake resistant construction concepts applied, since the inplane stiffness of the masonry is significantly higher than its out of-plane stiffness (Ortega et al., 2017). Additionally, if the link between horizontal diaphragms (floors and roofs) and walls is not adequate, walls are free to vibrate independently and are more vulnerable to collapse. Inadequate wall-to-roof and wall-tofloor connections also lead to the separation of roofs and floors from walls. By improving the connections between the structural elements and enhancing the behaviour of the structure by forming closed contours in vertical and horizontal planes so that stress concentrations are avoided and forces are transmitted from one component to another even through large deformations

(fig.

59).

Reinforced

floor-to-wall

and

roof-to-wall

connections ought to be achieved by using wooden wedges to ensure a

tight connection between the walls and the floor or roof joists. The use of ties creates effective links to hold together the different structural elements of the building.

Figure 59 â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;Smart Shelter Researchâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; dwelling. Indicated horizontal steel reinforcement within the masonry.

5. Conclusion The dichotomy observed in the vernacular architecture of Cyprus with sustainable yet not seismically resistance techniques has encouraged the study of potential exemplar techniques which aim to combine the two. The comparison of other countries’ financial, political and cultural background has supported this research further. Multiple foreign implemented seismic resistant techniques have paid an immerse contribution for setting the possible seismic resistance design for Cyprus’ local traditional vernacular architecture. Advantages and disadvantages are identified, such as developed seismic techniques by governmental building codes, has resulted the false implementation of building regulations in several countries. Therefore, flexible building codes towards different approaches to masonry are encouraged, rather than imposing restrictive certain solution that would affect the solidarity of the building structure. In the case of Cyprus, two completely different building codes are implemented due to different governmental backgrounds. Through the building codes analysis, major ethical problems seem to intrude the design of vernacular architecture. Whereas, some building codes globally developed flexibility towards the use of different approaches to indigenous materials, others are rather restrictive by imposing the use of a certain solution. The building code used in North Cyprus is a restrictive one because it recommends the use of reinforced concrete vertical tie-beams together with adobe masonry walls and accepts no other solutions (Hurol, Yüceer and Şahali, 2014). Such adjustment has a negative impact on the sustainable overall shell of a dwelling. On the other hand, EC8 is established in South Cyprus which is a suitable building code when using reinforced concrete, however it is incompatible for alterations or modifications in vernacular dwellings. This is not necessarily the most suitable building code to be implemented on vernacular buildings, as it is controversial against the use

of local available materials, barely supporting any load bearing calculation methodologies and it is unrelated to vernacular construction elements. As conservation of vernacular housing is currently carried out by the department

Antiquities,

techniques

present

disadvantages

‘incompatible’ indigenous technology. Engineers are lacking empirical knowledge to proceed with building conservation. Architects are confident using reinforced concrete when it is possible to calculate the strength and loadbearing of a structure. The ability of such materials has set vernacular architecture as ‘weak’ for design purposes. The construction quality of reinforced concrete and its manifold shaping abilities has neglected the development of traditional architecture. Understanding the traditional construction system would strongly enable architects and designers to elaborate such design concepts. Projects, where engineers are involved with understanding vernacular architecture in foreign countries, allows them to introduce innovative alterations that would improve the state of the existing dwellings and the composition of improved structure where seismic resistance is considered. The knowledge is greatly transmitted through conferences that are hosted in cities-poles where architects and engineers have the immense opportunity to attend activities where cultural ethics affect the architectural design. Therefore, building codes are being reconsidered, modified accordingly and cultural heritage has great capabilities to be restored. The ideal building code for the case of Cyprus ought to boost the seismic resistance design with manifold options and traditional features. Enabling the establishment of such building code should support the implementation of the traditional construction elements along with additional required reinforcement. As traditional architecture supports and allows the continuation of the local heritage, any supplementary reinforcement is strongly recommended. Techniques such as horizontal and vertical steel reinforcement and additional timber frames, previously analysed, can prove to be advantageous. Specifically in regards to

renovation Tanacanâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s restoration of the country club in Istanbul represents a successful implementation of innovative solutions. It sets an exemplar profile for implementing alterations and contemporary installations without disrupting the existing building form. Such projects could upgrade the state of viability of vernacular buildings and offer great ideas for design collaboration between existing and contemporary components. Thus, the optimal building guide should allow constructional and design capabilities for vernacular elements to be incorporated with the existing dwellings on the island. Apart from conservation, the expansion of the building volume will increase their viability with supplemented utilities. The establishment of such building code could be achieved through workshops between engineers and architects where multiple trials on sites could take place for testing and approving. Trials could be divided into phases where constructive criticism and feedback would aid in improving the state of the combined constructional element. Regarding the process

assembling

construction

materials

together,

manifold

combinations could be put together for testing. Through testing, constructional elements could be approved or discharged with additional feedback for further development. Written reflection and observation on trials would be retrieving for their viability and further improvement. Funding would be also mandatory for material sources and other supplementary costs. Cyprusâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; great amount of vernacular buildings ought to be preserved for the continuation of the local heritage and it would be significantly accomplished through related knowledge of proficiency in relevant innovative solutions. The critical point for dwellingsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; integrity is to provide flexibility and ductility through the constructional elements. Materials reinforcement of the components and stiff joints between components offer longer structure viability through strong earthquake vibrations. Modern design can be benefited by the imitation of local heritage and its merge with contemporary design and techniques. The renovation of the

constructional shell of traditional architecture may allow its upgrade towards the contemporary techniques currently used on the field. The use of

these

modern

techniques

alongside

the

upgraded

traditional

architectural elements will eventually lead to a result that is innovative while respecting the local heritage.

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Appendix A: Explanatory of local terms of features that constitute a vernacular dwelling and supporting diagrams/ figures

Term

Description

Figure/ Diagram

Courtyard

Courtyard is more frequently found in Ishaped and L-shaped forms. They provide sufficient daylight for various outdoor household activities, such as cooking and laundry. At the same time, they constitute a significant source of daylight and natural ventilation to the building interiors. Large size of courtyards provides air movement (beneficial for coastal regions). Small size are beneficial in hot climate. Openings facing the internal courtyard, offer security and privacy. The bioclimatic advantage of this configuration is that openings face the more

favourable microclimate of

the

courtyard. Platimetopo

Most common layout is the combination of

Makrinari

single spaced, elongated room typologies with wide facade and shallow in plan, usually 2.5 to 3 m wide. The longer axis of the palimetopo makrinari is usually twice, or more, the length of its shorter axis.

Portico

Portico is a transitional space which connects the public street with private property. It is usually a rectangular or square-shaped

pass-through

space

constitutes a key environmental feature of vernacular

dwellings.

allocated

regarding the rest of the other rooms as it provides

shading

and

ventilation.

Additionally, it enables cross-ventilation and air movement to the indoor spaces of the dwelling. When the door is closed, it minimizes its exposure to the outdoor climatic

conditions

providing

relative

thermal stability and protection from cold winds.

Dichoro

It facilitates as the main living space of the family and is often joined with platimetopo makrinari. It is usually configured by a stone arch or a central timber beam which supports the secondary beams of the roof structure and it is characterized by a large floor-to-ceiling height.

Arseres

Small windows (usually 0.10 m â&#x20AC;&#x201C; 0.20 m wide and 0.40 high) located at the upper level of the wall. The small height windows and larger low windows create cooling ventilation and cooling of the indoor spaces. Additionally, top windows offer privacy and at the same time contribute to deeper penetration of natural daylight to the buildingâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s interior.

Sospito

Sospito is the supplementary space used as a storage room for the food products, at the back of the dichoro. It is usually attached to neighbouring structures and it thus, a windowless room or has few small openings. Thus, it is completely protected from outdoor climatic conditions and presents properties,

advantageous such

thermal

constant

and

moderated temperatures. Iliakos

Iliakos is usually extended along the main living area of the dwelling. It constitutes a circulation space, as well as a multipurpose space for household, (agricultural activities and for social gatherings). It is open

one

side

and

appears

completely in the internal elevations of dwellings, facing the protected internal courtyard. The bioclimatic function of the iliakos involves the protection against intense insolation through shading during hot summer period. Then, the solar altitude angle is high and it allows solar penetration to the building interiors during the cold winter period due to the low solar

altitude.

Occasional,

predominant

orientation of iliakos is either towards the south or towards the east. Stegadi

It is a covered space attached to the main entrance which forms another distinctive semi-open mountainous

feature

(usually

regions).

provides

protection to the front door against rain and snow. The traditional oven is usually placed in this semi-open space. Hayiati

semi-open

space

mountainous

climatic region. It is a long-covered timber balcony on the first floor along the main facade of the building. This space offers protection from rain and allows solar penetration to the rooms during winters because of its limited width.

Appendix B: Construction techniques and materials of vernacular exemplar roofs in the coastal, lowland and mountainous regions of Cyprus

Roof Section

Roof Construction Materials Flat mud roof: 1. Wall 2. Timber beam 3. Reed battens or planks or matting 4. Rushes or matting etc. 5. Earth 6. Mud 7. Argyle clay or lime plaster Inclined timber roof 1. Wall 2. Timber beam 3. Reed battens or matting 4. Mud 5. Terracotta tiles

Region Typology Costal, Lowland

Inclined thatch roof 1. Wall 2. Timber Beam 3. Reed battens or matting 4. Thatch

Mountainous

Coastal, Lowland, Mountainous

Appendix C: Construction techniques and materials of vernacular exemplar walls in the coastal, lowland and mountainous regions of Cyprus

Wall section

Construction Materials 1. Lime or gypsum plaster 2. Sedimentary stone 3. Rubble, earthbased mortar

1. Lime or gypsum plaster 2. Igneous stone, ceramic fragments 3. Rubble, earthbased mortar

1. Earth or lime or gypsum plaster 2. Adobe bricks Base: 3. Cobbles, pebbles 4. Rubble, earthbased mortar

Region Typology Coastal

Mountainous

Lowland

Appendix D: Tables of constructional elements explained and supplementary diagrams/figures

Term Earth based mud mortar

Nefka

Description The mortar used to lay the bricks is the same mud mixture as is used to make the brick itself (3). The water ratio is increased to achieve a better workability of the mud mixture for spreading between the courses which also improves the bonding together of the bricks. Nefka is the dominant timber beam within the settlement that received the loads from volitjia and transferred them to the timber post (2). Usually there are up to two main timber posts within a dwelling that support a nefka.

Metopin

Metopin has the same purpose with misodotji. It is responsible for carrying the static loads of the roof element and transmitting those loads through the timber post successfully.

Misodotji

Is a narrow piece of timber around 1 m long which is placed along the nefka and timber post is stabilised onto it. Souventza is also placed onto it. The purpose is to receive the loads of the roof on a longer range of distance and by the help of souventza the timber post, the loads are transmitted towards to ground. Souventza is a methodology that secures the roof loads that are concentrated within nefka are transmitted through the timber posts down to the floor successfully. It is achieved by the placement of two short pieces of wood diagonally, one side onto the timber post and the other side on the misodotji.

Souventza

Diagram/ Figure

Volitji (plural: volitjia)

Volitjia are timber beams that are supported on both the external masonry and on nefka. They are place frequently, about 40-70 cm from one another, to support the layers of mud mortar and argyle clay.

Arch

The arch within a dwelling was supporting the loads of the roof as well as separating the internal space into two. It was built with local stone or adobe bricks and loads of roof were transferred and diverged through both it sides. Local reed battens is used when cut in thin layers to be ‘knitted’ and constitute the layer between volitjia and argyle clay. Such material was considered to be practical when pouring the argyle clay onto it.

Reed battens

Matting

Marble slates

Adobe bricks

Mat made from straw and thin branches is the alternative methodology for ‘knitted’ reed battens, depending on the local material sources of a region. Their purpose is to prevent the mud mortar and the argyle clay layer over it to disperse within the household. Plates are originally picked from sub ground layer in flattened shapes to be used as prime projection of roof. They usually extend about 15-20 cm off the wall.

Mud bricks. Regular size is 43 cm x 33 cm x 7 cm, which shrink by almost one cm after drying (2). Long hot-arid summers and thus shorter moderately cold winters offer perfect conditions for the adobe laying-drying process in lowland and coastland regions. The length of the brick represents the thickness of the wall (42-44 cm).

Finishing mud plaster (gypsum)

The adobe walls are finished with a thin layer of gypsum from interior and earth mortar from exterior surfaces (1).

Argyle clay

When clay is mixed with argyle has the chemical ability to expand when it comes into contact with water (7). In the case of rain, it obtains a plastic condensed texture, which does not allow the water to penetrate into the interior of the roof.