Spaziergang im Englischen Garten Photos by Klaus Leidorf Source: http://www.leidorf.de
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SHRINKING CITIES IN THE NETHERLANDS Urban Development in terms of population decline Student: Maria Egorova 797117 M.ARCH Supervisor: Elisa Cristiana Cattaneo, Prof. in Landscape Architecture, Department of Architecture and Urban Studies Thesis submission for School of Architecture and Humanities. Polytechnic University of Milan, December 2014
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FOREWORD As a foreword to this thesis I want to recall my inspiration and my personal and professional background. I have got a positive belief that Contemporary Architecture does not only represent prosperity and wealth, but also can successfully deal with the problem of physical delapidation and poulation loss. For this reason I pursue my investigation on shrinking cities in order to understnd, how an architect can give a positv influence on the situation in terms of de-growth. Developing my academic projects during the Master of Science program in the Polytecnic University in Milan, Italy, I define a role of an architect as a mediator between a problem and society. Right strategy and design solution can comletely transform the environment and change people’s behaviour and attitude about the inhabited space. In sum, it makes me confident, that any architectural intervetion,small or big one, has to correspond to social needs and change a life quality to the better way. Before starting my reserch, I was inspired by the architectural philosophy of the Architecture for Humanity, this year Pritzker Prize Laureate Shigeru Ban. Their works and achievements prove, that Architecture, done by limited sources, can be extremely creative and unique. It means that beautiful Architecture can be social. Maria Egorova School of Architecture and Humanities, Polytechnic University of Milan
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‘‘I’m not criticising because they make wonderful monuments for cities and I like to make monuments too. But I want to use my experience and knowledge for the general public...’’ Shigeru Ban http://www.dezeen.com/2014/06/14/shigeru-ban-receives-pritzker-prize-award/
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TABLE OF CONTENTS ABSTRACT
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01 SHRINKING PHENOMENA IN EUROPE
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02 POPULATION DECREASE IN THE NETHRLANDS
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03 THE NETHERLANDS. PARADOXES
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04 THE NETHERLANDS. PROBLEMS
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05 CASE OF STUDY FRIESLAND.DOKKUM
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06 DOKKUM PROSPECTIVES
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07 QUESTIONNAIRE
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08 PROJECT
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INDEX OF FIGURES
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BIBLIOGRAPHY
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
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ABSTRACT This thesis is aimed at the understanding of the shrinking cities phenoma in differents scales. Research analysis is based on understanding the problem in a global scale, considering shrinking process in European Union, and subsequently, in the regional and city scales. Investigations show, that the situation in these different levels is contradictive and depends on multiple factors, such as political, economical situation, social factors, cultural context etc. Thus, the answer can not be unique and monosemantic. The project is one of the possible answers for the problem of population decrease and shrinking process in the city Dokkum, the Netherlands. The project of six new ‘stations’ along the water channel represents the idea, how the urban scale interventions can give a positive effect on the
problem of shrinkage and population decrease in the city. This proposal does not assumes an immediate result of increasing a number of inhabitants. However, the intervention is able to change the everyday life for the locals to the better way and subsequently cease population loss and attract more youngs. Design concept considers the value of a landscape and nature, which is very important for Dutch people. In this project landscape becomes something more than just an element of nature. It emphasises cultuar heritage, works as infrastructure and brings innovation as evergy production. Another very important aspect is the consideration of the locals’ opinion about the situation, which significantly helps for building design strategies.
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INTRODUCTION TO THE PROBLEM What is ‘shrinking cities’? The phenomenon of shrinking cities generally refers to a metropolitan area that experiences significant population loss in a short period of time.1 Before decline of cities is usually depicted as a catastrophic, exceptional event, for instance, in Troy, Pompei etc. For the last 50 years ‘shrinking cities’ are increasingly lasting phenomenon.2 What are the reasons of ‘shrinking cities’ phenomenon? Mostly it happened in Western industrial countries, particularly USA, Germany, Italy and Great Britain, where deindustrialization and metropolization processes lead to decreasing number of jobs, vacancies and concentration of main activities in large city regions. Political system transformation from socialism to a market economy led to great transition problems and the exodus of young people to the west. It concerns Eastern European countries, such as Poland, Check republic, Romania, Russia, Ukraine etc. Urban shrinkage can be understood as a local manifestation of several macro-processes, which go hand by hand with each other. Apart from global reasons there are social factors. For instance, low fertility rate and population aging, increase of income per capita also lead to the population decrease. Still, natural disasters, epidemics, social and military conflicts affect on population scarcity and emigration process. Nowadays about 57% of cities and 54% of urban regions are loosing population3. According to the prognosis by United Nations, shrinking and growth will be in equilibrium.
Next 50 years process of urban growth in developed countries will come to the end and urban population will start decreasing. What are the consequences of urban shrinking phenomena? The urban shrinkage is considered to be negative. Obviously, it brings deterioration of spatialeconomic structure, causes social duality and disjunction and , generally affects on the city image and cultural performance. Today the phenomena of ‘shrinking cities’ is understood rather as a neutral process of urban development, which needs other policies and strategies, mainly oriented to the life quality improving and preventing of subsequent population loss. 1. Pallagst, K. (2009). «Shrinking cities in the United States of America: Three cases, three planning stories». The Future of Shrinking Cities 1: 81–88. 2.http://www.shrinkingcities.com/globaler_ kontext.0.html?&L=1 3. Annegret Haase, Gert-Jan Hospers, Simone P ekelsma & Dieter Rink, Shrinking Areas Front-runners in Innovative Citizen Participation, EUKN ,November 2012
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EU 28
The European Union (EU) is an economic and political union of 28 member states that are primarily located in Europe. The EU has developed a single market through a standardised system of laws that apply in all member states. EU policies aim to ensure free movement of people, goods, services, and capital, enact legislation in justice and home affairs, and maintain common policies on trade, agriculture,fisheries, and regional development.
FIG.01
EU 28 Austria/Belgium/Bulgaria/Croatia/ Cyprus/Czech Republic/Denmark/Estonia/Finland/France/ Germany/Greece/Hungary/Ireland/Italy/Latvia/ Lithuania/Luxembourg/Netherlands/Poland/ Portugal/Romania/Slovakia/Slovenia/Spain/ Sweden/United Kingdom http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Union accessed 07.06.2014
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STATISTIC DATA 2008-2012 FOR EU27 COUNTRIES IN % OF LOSING POPULATION Source: Nordregio at www.nordregio.se Designer/Cartographer Johanna Roto Published 2013 See pp. 10 for the reasons of the population loss in each EU 28 country
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NETHERLANDS GEOGRAPHY The Netherlands is a constituent country of the Kingdom of the Netherlands in western Europe and three Caribbean islands. The European part of the Netherlands borders the North Sea to the north and west, Belgium to the south and Germany to the east. The Netherlands shares maritime borders with Belgium, Germany and the United Kingdom. The Netherlands is divided into twelve provinces, each is under a Commissioner of the King (Commissaris van de Koning), except for Limburg province where the position is named Governor (Gouverneur). All provinces are divided into municipalities (gemeenten), of which there are. The country is also subdivided into 24 water districts, governed by a water board, each having authority in matters, concerning water management. The administrative structure on the Caribbean Netherlands is different. They are not a part of province. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Netherlands
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POPULATION BALANCE According to the forecast of The Environmental Assessment Agency (PBL) and the Central Bureau of Statistics (CBS) next 30 years the population of the Netherlands will be growing. At the regional level, most of the municipalities are expected to grow, however, at the edges of the Netherlands population declines. The shrinkage is concentrated in East Groningen, Delfzijl and surroundings, large parts of Drenthe, the Achterhoek, Zeeland and Limburg. The population is high in the Randstad and within the major cities and the suburbs around it. In absolute quantity, the number of inhabitants of Amsterdam, Utrecht and Almere is the highest.
REGIONAL POPULATION BALANCE IN % IN THE NETHERLANDS, 2014 Source: http://www.pbl.nl
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economy_of_the_Netherlands, entered 14.06.2014 http://www.government.nl/issues/ ntrepreneurship-andinnovation, ntered 14.06.2014
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POPULATION LOSS IN % IN THE NETHERLANDS, 2014 Source: http://www.pbl.nl
FIG.09
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AGE CLASSIFICATION Classification of the population by age shows large differences between the age groups. The population aged 65 and older is expected to increase sharply, while the population aged 0 to 20 years gradually fades and the potential labor force is increasing slightly. The population of the Netherlands will be considerably aging. This increases the demand for care increases. Young population 0-20 years old Flevoland is the youngest region in terms of population in the Netherlands. Urk is the youngest municipality in the Netherlands. Women give birth to many children. In other Christian communities, such Staphorst, New Lekkerland, Zwartewaterland, Graafstroom and Barneveld, families also have got many children. Other municipalities such as Almere, Zeewolde, Lansingerland, Wood and Pijnacker-Nootdorp are former growth centers, where many single-family homes were built in the past. Now they concentrate a lot of young people. Potential labour group 20-65 years old It is expected, that this age group will continue to decrease in size over the next few years, but the risingof the pension age means, that the potential labor from 2016 is still increasing. However, this increase is temporary; from 2025 the potential labor will shrink. This decline stems from the age structure: the baby boom generation after World War II to 2025 is still in the economically active ages. The outflow from the potential labor force partly offset by the positive balance of foreign immigrants (most of which are less than 40 years) and by raising the retirement age, but this is not enough to return. Ultimate shrinkage is expected
by 2040. At the edges of the Netherlands, the proportion of the working class age significantly lower than the national average. Many young people from the Dutch regions, also from the middle of the Netherlands move to the places with job potentialities. In the major cities and towns with many top regional facilities such as Groningen, Leeuwarden, Zwolle, Arnhem and Nijmegen, the proportion of the potential labor force is relatively high. These municipalities provide training for popular work with young people. Also many foreign immigrants are attracted to these municipalities. Elderly population over 65 years old In the regions of the Netherlands there is a tendency of the strongest population aging, for instance, East Groningen, Delfzijl and surroundings, Southeast Drenthe, the Achterhoek, Zeeland and Limburg. These regions are also characterized by population decline. The Dutch population aged 80 years and older will approximately double in the next three decades. According to this, it is necessary to increase care services in the future. http://www.pbl.nl/themasites/regionale-bevolkingsprognose/ prognoses-in-beeld/bevolking-grote-leeftijdsgroepen, entered 17.06.2014
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GDP IN PPS PER CAPITA Gross domestic product (GDP) is the market value of all final goods and services from a nation in a given year. The volume index of GDP per capita in Purchasing Power Standards (PPS) is a vatue of cross-country comparisons. Expressed in relation to the European Union (EU28 = 100), a country with an index that is higher than 100 mean that this country’s level of GDP per head is higher than the EU average.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_GDP_ (nominal) entered 09.06.2014 2http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/statistics_explained/index. php/Glossary: GDP_per_capita_in_purchasing_power_standards entered 09.06.2014 h
AVERAGE GDP PER CAPITA IN EUROPE, 2010
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GROSS DOMESTIC PRODUCT GDP IN PURCHASING POWER STANDART PPS, 2010 Source: Nordregio at www.nordregio.se Designer/Cartographer: Linus Rispling Published 2014
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NETHERLANDS ECONOMY Netherlands is the 17th largest economy of the world, according to the List of countries by GDP (nominal) and in the top 10 of richest nations in the world (List of countries by GDP (PPP) per capita. Unemployment has been relatively low compared to other EU nations for decades. After the middle of 2012 unemployment increased. The Netherlands have a prosperous and open economy, which depends on foreign trade mostly. Netherlands has got stable industrial relations, low unemployment and inflation, a sizable current account surplus, and an important role as a European transportation hub. Industry: food processing chemicals, petroleum refining electrical machinery Mechanized agriculture sector provides large surpluses for the food-processing industry and for exports. Tourism is a relatively small sector of the Dutch economy. North Holland and South Holland were the most popular provinces for foreign tourists. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economy_of_the_Netherlands entered 09.06.2014
AVERAGE GDP PER CAPITA IN NETHERLANDS 2010
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NETHERLANDS GROSS DOMESTIC PRODUCT GDP IN PURCHASING POWER STANDART PPS, 2010 Source: Nordregio at www.nordregio.se Designer/Cartographer: Linus Rispling Published 2014
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EUROPEAN UNEMPLOYMENT RATE The European labor market remains stagnant. For the whole European Union of 28 nations, the unemployment rate was 10.5%. There have been signs that economic growth is accelerating in Europe, albeit from a very low base. Europe’s lowest unemployment rates remained those of Austria and Germany — both of which use work-sharing programs to hold down unemployment. Greece and Spain continued to experience depression-level unemployment. The euro zone continues to fight against the fragile labor market, including weak consumer demand. And very low inflation has raised fears of economically debilitating condition, in which prices and wages actually fall, removing many of the usual growth incentives. It also makes it more difficult for borrowers to repay their debts. EU28 has got the average 10.6% unemployment rate. Compared with January 2014, the number of
persons unemployed decreased by 65 000 in the EU28 and by 35 000 in the euro area. Compared with February 2013, unemployment decreased by 619 000 in the EU28, and by 166 000 in the euro area. In February 2014, 5.392 million young persons (under 25) were unemployed in the EU28. In February 2014, the youth unemployment rate was 22.9% in the EU28 and 23.5% in the euro area, compared with 23.6% and 24.0% respectively in February 2013. http://www.nytimes.com/2014/05/03/business/international/ european-unemployment-rate-holds-steady-in-march.html?_ r=0, entered 14.06.2014 http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/cache/ITY_PUBLIC/301042014-AP/EN/3-01042014-AP-EN.PDF, entered 14.06.2014 http://blog.thomsonreuters.com/index.php/europeanunemployment-rates-graphic-of-the-day/, entered 14.06.2014
EUROPEAN UNEMPLOYMENT RATE
Source: http://blog.thomsonreuters.com/index.php/european-unemployment-rates-graphic-of-the-day/ Date: August, 2013
FIG.17
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HOUSEHOLD APPLIANCE INDUSTRY Individual lines of electronic equipment production is allocated to the most suitable places, according to the process: research, development, marketing and the technically demanding production are performed primarily in developed countries. Development and production of technical components carried out in countries with rising technical now-how. Labor-intensive processes, mass production and assembly work are being outsourced to low laborcost countries. Netherlands is a responsible headquarter for the final assemblage and packaging of the final product. The biggest sector in industry is transportation, distribution and logistics. Hatje Cantz Publishers, Atlas of shrinking cities Bilingual edition, June 1, 2006, pp. 94-95
LEVELS OF THE MAIN HEADQUARTRS IN HOUSEHOLD APPLIANCE INDUSTRY Source: Hatje Cantz Publishers, Atlas of shrinking cities Bilingual edition Published: (June 1, 2006)
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INNOVATIVENESS BrabantStad is an economically important partnership between the municipalities of Breda, Eindhoven, Helmond, ‘s-Hertogenbosch and Tilburg and the province of North Brabant. The region lies within the Eindhoven-Leuven-Aachen Triangle. There are 1.5 million people and it provides 20% of the industrial production in the Netherlands. The province of Noord-Brabant is one of the most innovative regions of the European Union. This is shown by the extensive amount of new research patents by Eurostat. In BrabantStad there are every year 2100 patent applications made at the European Patent Office (EPO), which is 900 per million active employees. Mainly due to the Dutch electronics giant ‘Philips’ scientific center, BrabantStad has grown more important than similar centres like Paris, Stockholm and Stuttgart. Together Amsterdam (airport), Rotterdam (seaport) and Eindhoven (Brainport) form the foundation of the Dutch economy. The Netherlands continues to be one of the leading European nations for attracting foreign direct investment and is one of the five largest investors in the United States. Water, food, horticulture, high-tech, life sciences, chemicals, energy, logistics, creative industry and head offices – these are the sectors in which the Netherlands excels. The Dutch government, entrepreneurs and researchers do investments for further growth. Government sets lower taxes in return for fewer subsidies and tax benefits for investors in innovative products. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economy_of_the_Netherlands entered 14.06.2014 http://www.government.nl/issues/entrepreneurship-andinnovation, entered 14.06.2014
REGIONAL INNOVATION SCOREBOARD IN THE NETHERLANDS, 2012 Source: Nordregio at www.nordregio.se Designer/Cartographer: Linus Rispling Published: 2014
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CLIMATE. GEOGRAPHY. TOPOGRAPHY Climate The Netherlands’ climate is temperate, with gentle winters, cool summers, and rainfall in every season. Southerly and westerly winds predominate, and the sea moderates the climate through onshore winds and the effect of the Gulf Stream. Landscape The Netherlands is limited by the North Sea to the north and west. If the Netherlands were to lose the protection of its dunes and dikes, the most densely populated part of the country would be inundated by the sea but also, partially, by the rivers. This highly developed part of the Netherlands, which generally does not lie higher than about one metre above sea level, covers more than half the total area of the country. About half of this area (more than one-fourth of the total area of the country) actually lies below sea level. The country is, indeed, low-lying and remarkably flat, with large expanses of lakes, rivers, and channels. Lakes and marshes were drained, especially alongside the many rivers. All this new land was turned into polders, usually surrounded by dikes. Some 6,500 km2 of the Netherlands consist of reclaimed land, the result of a process of careful National Park. The only part of the country where water management dating back to medieval times. Along the coasts, land was reclaimed from the sea. Initially, the land was drained by men but they were later replaced by windmills, such as the mill network at Kinderdijk-Elshout (UNESCO World Heritage site). The largest water-control schemes were carried out in the second half of the 19th century and in the 20th century, when steam pumps and, later, electric or diesel pumps came
into use. Forming elongated ridges that may reach a height of more than 100 metres and are the principal feature of the Hoge Park Veluwe. Elevations exceed 105 metres, it is the border zone of the Ardennes. The Netherlands’ highest point, the Vaalserberg, in the extreme southeastern corner, rises up to 321 metres. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economy_of_the_Netherlands, entered 14.06.2014 http://www.government.nl/issues/entrepreneurship-andinnovation, entered 14.06.2014
RISK OF THE SEA LEVEL RISE Source: http://redgeographics.com/portfolio-2/ som-nijmegen/
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TOPOGRAPHY EVOLUTION
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FIG.20
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SOIL EROSION The wave climate is dominated by sea waves with a mean annual significant offshore wave height of about 1.1m. Most of the winds along the Holland coast come from the North Sea. The Dutch coast consists mostly of sand, which serves as the foundation of the coast. The coastal foundation zone is dynamic and constantly changing in terms of location and shape Millions of m3 of sand are transferred annually from the North Sea to the Wadden Sea as a result of rising sea level and coastal erosion. The Hollandt coast consists of 120 kilometres of almost continuous shoreline, without the presents of tidal inlets, sea arms and islands.
The Holland coast consists of sandy, multi-barred beaches and can be characterised as a wave dominated coast. Approximately 290km of the coatst consists of dunes and 60km is protected by structures such as dikes and dams. The dunes, together with the beach and the shore face, offer a natural, sandy defence to the sea. About 30% of the Netherlands lies below the sea level. Over the last 30 years sand loss has occurred from the Holland coast on deep water. In most northern coastal sections erosion occurs on deep water and in the nearshore zone. In most southern sections sedimentation happens in the nearshore zone and erosion on deep water. Structural erosion is due to sea level rise and, in some spots, it occurs because of build harbour dams. The Holland coast as a single unit shows erosive behaviour. Paul Sistermans, Odelinde Nieuwenhuis, HOLLAND COAST (THE NETHERLANDS)
DUNE AREA OF THE HOLLAND COAST Source: Paul Sistermans, Odelinde Nieuwenhuis, HOLLAND COAST (THE NETHERLANDS)
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DEMOGRAPHY Friesland has got the lowest population density of any province and is only a fraction of the national average.
Source: Fryslân in figures, Department of Policy and Geographic information, 2012
Data Number of inhabitants is 647.282 3,8% in the Netherlands Population growth -0,1% Immigration balance is 2% (foreign immigrants) Green pressure* 41,2% Grey pressure** 28,8% *Green pressure - the number of 0 to 20-year-olds in relation to the number of 20 to 65-year-olds. **Grey pressure - the number of over-65s in relation to the number of 20 to 65-year-olds. Fryslân in figures, Department of Policy and Geographic information, 2012
FIG.22
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POPULATION OVER 65 YEARS OLD 2011 Source: Fryslân in figures, Department of Policy and Geographic information, 2012
FIG.23
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GEOLOGICAL FEATURES Soil typology in the Netherlands A large area in the north is covered by moraine. In the centre and south, the Rhine and Maas rivers unloaded thick layers of silt and gravel transported from the European mountain chains. Clay was deposited in the sheltered lagoons behind the coastal dunes, and peat soil often subsequently developed in these areas. If the peat soil was washed away by the sea or dug away by humans (for the production of fuel and salt), lakes were created. Many of these were reclaimed in later centuries, while others now form highly valued outdoor recreational areas.
SOIL TYPES IN THE NETHERLANDS Source: http://bijanlotfi1275313.wordpress.com/ over/
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SOIL TYPES IN FRIESLAND Source: http://www.urbangreenbluegrids.com/water/
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SOIL STRUCTUREIN DOKKUM Source: Erik Overdiep, Municipality Dongeradeel Ekwadraat , Landscape Design, October 2013
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WATER SYSTEM Rivers in the Netherlands A region with a very specific character has been formed by the great rivers—Rhine, Lek, Waal, and Maas (Meuse)—that flow from the east to the west through the central part of the country. The landscape in this area is characterized by high dikes along wide rivers, orchards along the levees formed by the rivers and numerous large bridges, over which the roads and railways pass. They connect the central Netherlands with the southern provinces. http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/409956/ Netherlands/35861/Climate, entered 21.06.2014 FIG.27
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WATER SYSTEM IN FRIESLAND
FIG.28
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FRIESLAND LANDUSE
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FRIESLAND LANDSCAPE Source: http://redgeographics.com/portfolio-2/som-nijmegen/
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AGRICULTURAL SECTOR IN FRIESLAND
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ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION
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Due to the rapid population and economic growth, the government has payed attention to the preservation of the natural environment. On one hand it concerns the countryside, which needs modernization of agriculture. Also growing urban population needs space for recreational areas and waste disposal. Air and water pollution are significant environmental problems in the Netherlands. The nation has got one of the world’s highest levels of industrial carbon dioxide emissions. Severe pollution of the country’s rivers results from industrial and agricultural pollution, including heavy metals, organic compounds, nitrates, and phosphates. 68% of renewable water resources are used for industrial purposes. Prevailing southwesterly
winds aggravate the situation, which carry the pollutants from coastal industries inland. The great rivers carry pollution into the Netherlands from originating countries farther inland. In 1971 it was established a countrywide system of air pollution monitoring of emissions for the most major air pollutants. Industrial use of fossil fuels have been substantially reduced. Progress has also been recorded in reducing automotive emissions. http://www.nationsencyclopedia.com/Europe/NetherlandsENVIRONMENT.html
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INFRASTRUCTURE IN FRIESLAND
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11 CITIES IN FRIESLAND
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Eleven cities tour The tour, almost 200 km long, follows a route along frozen channels, rivers and lakes visiting the eleven historic Frisian cities. Eleven City Cross - 240 km. The famous bicycle tour along the Frisian Eleven Cities has been organised since 1912. The route on foot and by boat starts and ends in the capital city of Friesland, Leeuwarden. Groups of steppers leave from Bolsward. In a gypsy
caravan, by car or motorcycle. 230 km on rollerskates from Bantega. The Eleven Cities Old-timer Rally. Since 1984 the Rally has become the biggest one-day old-timer event of Europe. More then 550 vehicles take part in this event. Participants come from Holland, Belgium, England, France and Germany. http://www.visitfryslan.nl/frisian-eleven-cities
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DOKKUM HISTORY Dokkum is a Dutch fortified town in the municipality of Dongeradeel. During the period between 1000 -1600 Dokkum experienced a time of development. Overseas trade became gradually more important and coin finds indicate that an active maritime trade in the North Sea and Baltic Sea regions was already in existence since the beginning of the 11th century. Trade and industry brought a period of flourishing prosperity to Dokkum. Dokkum owes its existence partly to its strategic location. Till about 1729 the Dokkumer Diep formed a direct connection from Dokkum to the Wadden Sea. Tidal movement penetrated as far as the centre of the town. In 1598 the Friesian-Groningen Admiralty (the coastal defence of Groningen and Friesland at that time) even set up its sea office in the seaport of Dokkum. However, at that time Dokkum already had to cope with its link to the sea becoming silted up. In 1645 most sea-going ships had trouble getting to Dokkum and the Admiralty was moved to the harbour of Harlingen. The open connection with the Lauwerszee was cut off by the construction of the «Dokkumer Nieuwe Zijlen» (locks) in 1729. For Dokkum this meant the end of sea trade and the prosperity it brought. The old lock to the former Lauwerszee near the «Dokkumer Nieuwe Zijlen» is still fully intact, but is no longer used for locking ships through. Nowadays it performs a drainage function. Today it is known as a place of pilgrimage. It is the most Nothern city in the province of Friesland. After Stavoren, Dokkum is the oldest of the eleven towns of Friesland. With over 1250 years of history. The impressive architecture of the city hall dates back from the 17th, 18th and 19th century. In the
19th century many old and distinctive buildings were demolished in the Netherlands. Fortunately in 1974 Dokkum became one of the first conservation areas in the Netherlands. Within its town walls Dokkum has retained much of its character. http://www.dongeradeel.nl/portal/engels_3505/item/culturalhistory_2047.html, entered 29.09.2014
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DOKKUM CULTURAL HERITAGE The most striking green spaces in Dokkum are the bulwarks, which surround the town centre. The old town centre of Dokkum, in the form of a hexagon, is enclosed by the walls of the bulwarks. Around 1582 these bulwarks were erected to protect the town and its inhabitants against enemies. Fortunately, Dokkum had never needed this bulwarks. The windmill De Hoop (1848), is situated on the left at the end of the Zuiderbolwerk. The Zuiderbolwerk joins the Baantjesbolwerk, where there is the Zeldenrust windmill from 1862. These two 19th century flour mills are still in operation. Both mills are open to the public. Every year there is the Art Market. Many contestants are showing their cultural, artistic and musical arts. A typical Frisian sport is wading through the mud flats. The pattern of the streets in the centre has not changed since 1650. The Town Hall is situated in the heart of Dokkum on the former sea lock. The old part of the present council office was used as a town hall from around 1610 and reflects several 17th, 18th and 19th century architectural styles. The bell tower of the town hall was built in 1717, renovated in 1834,
and provided with a new carillon in 1955. During the week this carillon plays a merry little tune every half hour. Exactly 1000 years after the murder of Boniface, the current Weighhouse arose in the Grote Breedstraat. The Waag became the centre of a lively trade in Dokkum. The inscription on the Waag indicates the two functions that the building served. Apart from being a weighhouse for goods it provided accommodation for the Civic Guard. The officers’ mess was on the top floor. The building is now in use as a small, intimate medieval restaurant. The granite spinning top in front of the Waag symbolizes the once bustling activity that came to a standstill. It is lying tilted. On the Vleesmarkt there is one of the many monumental houses of Dokkum. The fine neckgable bears the inscription ANNO 1743. A gilded raised hand, which is visible on the front wall, gave the house its name of ‘The golden hand’. In the 18th century this building was a brewery. http://www.dongeradeel.nl/portal/engels_3505/item/culturalhistory_2047.html, entered 29.09.2014
The Town Hall
Weighhouse
Golden Hand
Boniface Chapel
Zeldenrust
De Hoop
St. Boniface church
St. Boniface
FIG.37
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CULTURAL LANDSCAPE Source: Erik Overdiep, Municipality Dongeradeel Ekwadraat , Landscape Design, October 2013
FIG.38
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PROJECT#1 SÚD IE The integrated project Súd Ie is proposed for recreation of the boating class. It will be on the existing route via the Dokkumer Grutdjip. a new attractive sailing round between Dokkum and Lauwersmeer in order to improve the connection, also towards the city of Groningen. The design strategy is to make Dongeradeel, Dokkum more attractive for water sports enthusiasts and bring more tourists in this area. This project is an example how regions can deal with issues as shrinkage. Dongeradeel works to develop the west side of Dokkum, including the construction of the western bypass with aqueduct. Also Watersport City Dokkum is a part of Agenda Network Northeast. Nature and landscape are key elements, at the same time economy in the area grows, of life qualityin of villages, countryside and city improves.
Masterplan of Dokkum is adopted for the watersport transport. Dokkum is attractive for recreational vessels, what requires increasing number of bridges. Erik Overdiep, Municipality Dongeradeel Ekwadraat, Landscape Design, October 2013
FIG.39
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PROJECT#1 SÚD IE. INTERVENTIONS IN THE DOKKUM CITY CENTER
FIG.40
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PROJECT#2 LIFE & LIVING QUALITY The decrease in the number of inhabitants is an inevitable process. The constant growth and construction of housing no longer happens. Demolition is the way to deal with delapidation. Facilities in the villages come under pressure, also because the number of volunteers decreases. The focus is no longer on quantity but on quality of living and the environment. The municipality will have to avoid villages end up in a negative spiral of vacancy and deterioration. Together with residents and other parties Dongeradeel support strong social cohesion and a good self-organizing capability. Liveability and Housing Policy Proposals has been put into execution, but are also other developments in the area of quality of life, facilities, housing and the economy are happening. Municipality responds to cevents and
wishes of the resident and encourages liveability. Sustainable and Protected Villages The experimental project of protecting rural settlements aims to attain attractive sustainable living environments in and around the four protected villages. Initially this project started in the villages Holwerd, Ee, and Metslawier PaesensModdergat. An important issue is the availability of suitable and attractive housing for starters and young families. The idea is to refurbish and merging of old buildings in the village instead of new construction on the outskirts of the village. Moreover, squares, meeting places and playgrounds can also be designed, so that the village becomes a pleasant place to stay for youngs and old people. Erik Overdiep, Municipality Dongeradeel Ekwadraat, Landscape Design, October 2013
FIG.41
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PROJECT#3 BOARD FRIESLAND Board Friesland is the monumental pumping in Ezumazijl. The installation of the pumping station no longer meets the current technical requirements. The project includes adjustment of the electrical and the mechanical system, replacement of the internal parts of the pump and the actuator. The dam wall on the south side of the pumping station will also be replaced. A fish passage to and from the Lauwersmeer will be realized. By adjusting pumping station, the system gets more capacity. This pumping station is ready for the future and it can provide better control of the water during flood
emergencies. The pumping station complex has got monumental status. The work is also carried out in close consultation with the municipality Dongeradeel and the National Cultural Heritage (RCE). The renovation contributes to the protection and preservation of the pumping station. The project is expected to be fully completed in January 1, 2015. Erik Overdiep, Municipality Dongeradeel Ekwadraat, Landscape Design, October 2013
PROJECT#4 SINNEGREIDE DOKKUM Renewable energy sources such as wind, solar, biomass and geothermal energy must increase. The Netherlands ambition is to have a robust international energy network in 2040. It also form Frisian identity. Friesland has got architectural agenda for landscaping, spatial organization (Spatial program). It Nije Bolwurk is leading project. The idea is to be realized in suburb: beautiful, suitable to stay and relax and ecological. The location of the Solar park must provide space for a relatively large area. It is assumed to be approximately 10 ha. The idea is to supply energy needs of Dokkum and give contributions to environment (CO2 neutrality). Characteristics: close to Dokkum, takes into account the quality of the landscape, mobility, possibility of partially using The landscape around Dokkum is very open. The height differences are caused mainly by the mounds and dikes. There is a combination of
openness, channels, mounds, dikes. Spatial quality: Landscape patterns and structures, Hierarchy, Radiance, Visibility, Limits Prospectives: possibilities of multiple space, integration into the project Nije Bolwurk, connection to the city. Nije Bolwurk is considered to be a transitional part from the city to the countryside, a specific zone to the city and to the landscape-related activities. The project includes cycle/footpath around Dokkum, recreational area, water, also concerns ecological and sustainability problems. Strategies: sustainable business (Sinnegrun), educational, new urban-landscape element Erik Overdiep, Municipality Dongeradeel Ekwadraat , Landscape Design, October 2013
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‌ IRRADIATION AND SOLAR ELECTRICITY POTENTIAL Source: Erik Overdiep, Municipality Dongeradeel Ekwadraat , Landscape Design, October 2013
FIG.42
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PROJECT#4 SINNEGREIDE DOKKUM. SOLAR PANELS
FIG.43
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WORK AND LIFE IN FRIESLAND Source: NETNIX Dockinga College interview ‘Working in FRIESLAND’
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WORK AND LIFE IN FRIESLAND Source: NETNIX Dockinga College interview ‘Working in FRIESLAND’
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CO-OPERATION INTERVIEW
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ANKE
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WYTSE
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IRIS
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SUMMARY
Middle age and elderly population find the Dokkum city and the Dongeradeel region quite attractive for living there. The region is prominent for it’s amicable environment, sence of community, nature and safety. There are enough job positions, which are suitable to their skills, abilities and lifestyle. Also, young families with children consider this region as a ‘paradise’ for growing children, since there are enough green space, healthy ecological environment and beautiful landscapes. However, some elements of entertainment, such as concert hall, dance club, cinema, etc. are missing.
Young generation is quite patriotic and enthusiastic about the region and the city, in general. However, their common wish is to have more support for youngs. Still, the place for leisure, integration and socialization is missing. Another problem is the lack of jobs and promotion for young people there. Platform for communication and event organization is missing also.
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LANDSCAPE AND NATURE Nature as a complex maze of events from microinfolding of ordered structures to macro changes. 1 Pierre Lévy Landscape for Dutch culture has always been used and modified through the centuries according to the social needs. Particularly, digging the channels, building reinforcement and mounds against floods and enemies, these interventions became ‘spatial solutions for social problems’2. Channels, being a characteristic element of the dutch landscape, had been an important infrastructural element for transportation and communication between different settlements. Also, small ‘water branches’ served for irrigation on agriculture and drink water for cattle. Analysing masterplan modification of the city of Dokkum from the beginning of 16th century up to now, (see pp.71) system of water channels has been transformed according to the social needs during different periods of time. Nowadays, water channels share transport and communication functions together with motorways and railways. Channels, agricultural fields and modest vegetation create poetic environment, carefully maintained and treated nowadays. Nature is being considered as an attraction, as a magnet, which invites guests and visitors to come to Friesland. Also it makes local people feeling proud of their land and place , where they live. As one of the locals noticed, “here, there is the most beautiful landscape in the world”. Antoine Picon, in his article The return to nature: sustaining architecture in the face of sustainability pointed on the shift of understanding relationship
between nature and urban environment. Today, nature and landscape has to be supported by science and technological progress in order to preserve its ‘fragile entity’3. Nature, untouched or artificially modified, returns back to the city. Dokkum has got its abundant and picturesque channel system, which is unique in its own way. ‘Contemporary urban infrastructure often represents means for nature-wild nature’4. Water channels in Dokkum represent both, historical meaning of infrastructure and nature itself. Nature in the age of information is as information, but also nature as news. 4 Antoine Picon In this case, travelling along the channel becomes a unique trip, a route, which can have a starting point from the city’s downtown or from the city periphery. Channel, according to the water stream feature, is a dynamic element. Travelling by boat means observing surroundings and the city, while, being on the shore, means recreation, observation of nature and communication with nature. 1 Pierre Lévy in Nature, infrastructure, cities, The return of nature. Sustaining Architecture in the face of sustainability, Routledge, 2014 2, 3, 4 Antoine Picon in Nature, infrastructure, cities, The return of nature. Sustaining Architecture in the face of sustainability, Routledge, 2014
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FIG.44 Photo by Harry Cock Source: http://www.landezine.com/index.php/2010/11/belvederes-drentsche-aa-by-strootman/
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LANDSCAPE AS...
INFRASTRUCTURE
AN ATTRACTION AND ENTERTAINMENT
AGRICULTURE
THE ENERGY GENERATOR Photos by Klaus Leidorf Source: http://www.leidorf.de FIG.45
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1550
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CURRENT SITUATION 1864
1935 FIG.46
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LANDSCAPE AND PUBLIC SPACE Good public space has no limits, or the ones it has are undefined, multiple, oscillating. 1 Manuel de Solà-Morales Public space in the city has got its strategic assignment as a place for meeting and communication. The system of urban voids, such as streets, squares, parks create condition of social recognition, ‘bestowing him or her the right to be recognized’2. Dietmar Steiner defined public space as an important ‘public sculpture’3 where political negotiations take place. If house remains a place of intimate life, thus public space is a ‘dichotomy, which makes citizens of people’4. Dokkum combines both, built cultural heritage together with existence of nature. At the same time, as it was stated in Questionnaire (See pp.6164) there is a lack of public space for young people. Vegetation, channels and views of the old city create poetic and recognisable city portrait, which is valued by local citizens. However, there are plenty of ‘flat green pockets’ without any particular function. This space has got potentiality for creating another sense of environment and become collective space for sharing ideas and communication.
The choice of design for new public space arrives from the idea of unification of its original meaning a point for meeting and socialization together with the topic of nature. A system of new ‘public stations’ will become new emotional elements in the urban environment, which is developed according to the context. The basic element is a channel, which brings visitors from the historical center through the to nature and agricultural fields. Usually, agriculture is considered as economical activity and stays in the outskirt of main city attractions. In this project it becomes a significant part of the route. 1 Manuel de Solà-Morales The impossible project of public space in In favour of public space , Ten years of the European Prize for public space, Centre de Culture Contemporania de Barcelona, 2010 2 Axel Honneth in The city and the human condition, Ten years of the European Prize for public space, Centre de Culture Contemporania de Barcelona, 2010 3 Dietmar Steiner in Decade of awards, Ten years of the European Prize for public space, Centre de Culture Contemporania de Barcelona, 2010 4 Rafael Moneo in the Interview with Rafael Moneo, Ten years of the European Prize for public space, Centre de Culture Contemporania de Barcelona, 2010
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FIG.47
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GREEN PATTERNS
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GENERAL STRATEGY
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FIG.51
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NEW LANDSCAPE QUALITY
B C D
E
F
FIG.52
STATION A
STATION B
STATION C
STATION D
STATION E
STATION F
for the description see pp.70
STATION A
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STATION A_LOCATION
FIG.53
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STATION A_1 CURRENT CONDITION
FIG.55
FIG.56
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STATION A_2 CURRENT CONDITION
FIG.57
FIG.58
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STATION A_DESIGN STRATEGY
FIG.59
Landscape_Entertainment_ Infrastructure The first station A is chosen green space with a view on the Dokkum city center. Design strategy to is to change qualify of this area from an undefined spot into the alive public space. This station is an important point due to the proximity to the historical center, with the view on the important attractions, such as De Hoop and the Zeldenrust mills. A key aspect is to change a sense of space, to make it more attractive for any generation. New
design has to support leisure activities, promenade along the channel and observation of the city heritage from the shore. Skate park, mixed use pedestrian path and staircase-platforms for sitting and socialization, temporary events are the result of conversion of the flat landscape into more dynamic form. Volumetric and graphical solution is based on the and relation with a context and aspect of transition (pedestrian and boat fluxes)
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STATION A_MASTERPLAN
FIG.60
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STATION A_1 VIEW
FIG.61
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STATION A_2 VIEW
FIG.62
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STATION B
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STATION B_LOCATION
FIG.63
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STATION B_CURRENT CONDITION
FIG.64
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STATION B_DESIGN STRATEGY
FIG.66
Landscape_Entertainment The space between the residential houses is a flat green field, which is used for sheep pasture during the summer time and as a skate rink during the winter season. Design strategy is similar one to the Station B (see pp.94). However, in this case, a new public space, first of all, has to support communication between residential hoses. A ‘green gap’ obtains new quality of a playgroung, recreation spot, a venue, while keeping previous functions of a pasture field and a skate rink. The public space becomes more welcoming for locals to meet, socialize and spent time together. During the summer time it can be used for promenade, picnic on the grass, some sports activities etc. During the winter time slopes turn into skating hills, while the flat cetral path serves as a skate rink.
FIG.67
FIG.68
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STATION B_MASTERPLAN
FIG.69
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STATION B_VIEW
FIG.70
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STATION C
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FIG.71
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FIG.72
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FIG.73
FIG.74
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STATION C_DESIGN STRATEGY
medical complex FIG.75
Landscape_Entertainment_ Infrastructure Design for Station C is an intervention into the context of two big institutions (medical complex and Dockinga College). Since, there are lot of people work there and visit these institutions every day, new recreation space can change environmental perception. Nature is a persistent element, thus, communication
and unification with it is on the first place. The design supports active recreation for students and calm promenade for staff and hospital visitors. As in the previous stations, landscape takes a central position. It has to be observed from the shore, during the promenade etc. Also, it merges with the natural landscape, which turns into the new attraction, visible from the water.
visual gap Dokinga College
Dokinga College FIG.76
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FIG.77
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STATION C_VIEW
FIG.78
STATION D
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FIG.79
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FIG.80
FIG.81
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STATION D_CURRENT CONDITION
FIG.82
Landscape_Agriculture_ Energy generator Station D design expresses the idea of a the unification with the nature on the way outside of the city. Nature is a narrator, a story teller, showing, what it is able to give to a visitor. Architectural forms, as straw walls, symbolize the main activity of the region, agriculture. At the same time they prepare visitors to the last, culminating point, where similar biomass is used for energy
generation. Also, straw walls can be used as rest stops along the way. Another feature of the path is accumulation of the sun energy during the day. And during the dark time it issues soft light for bikers and pedestrians. Recently, this idea is accomplished by the Dutch designer Daan Roosegaarde for Brabant. In sum, it becomes an important design innovation, which characterises Dutch design in a whole.
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STATION D_MASTERPLAN
FIG.83
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STATION D_DAY AND NIGHT VIEWS
FIG.84
FIG.85
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STATION E
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FIG.86
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FIG.87
FIG.88
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FIG.89
Landscape_Entertainment Station E or ‘Place of memory’ is a small intervention, which has to memorise previous existence of the Geestmermeer mill. Mills are iconic and unique architectural elements of the Dutch landscape. However, the Geestmermeer mill got abandoned and was almost completely destroyed. Recently, it has been removed from the Geestmermeer Natural park for the restoration. Further, the mill well serve for the museum.
The strategy for the new design is to remind to the visitor a previous functon of the place by creating a new light structure for the landscape observation from the top. Entertainment and unification with untouched nature are characteristics of this new design. On the way along the channel, the visitor faces two paths. One of them is straight and clear and another is as an option. So, this place has to be discovered through the trees along the polders.
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STATION E_MASTERPLAN
FIG.90
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FIG.91
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STATION F
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FIG.92
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STATION F_LOCATION
FIG.93
FIG.94
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STATION F_CRITERIA FOR THE PLANT LOCATION
FIG.95
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STATION F_SECOND-GENERATION BIOFUEL PLANT
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FIG.96
residues as feedstock is expected to have only little negative impact on the environment, since these residues are usually disposed at the processing site and not returned to the field. Feedstock plantations for second-generation biofuels are usually perennial tree or grass species. Potential social impact Job creation and regional growth would probably be the most important drivers for the implementation of second-generation biofuel projects in major economies. The biofuel conversion requires highly skilled engineers. The use of residues could provide an additional source of income in the agricultural and forestry sector with positive impact on local economies and rural development.
Conclusions Future sustainable production of secondgeneration biofuels looks promising. However, significant differences exist between regions and countries regarding biomass availability and necessary framework conditions for participation in this future industry. Agricultural and forestry residues, on the other hand, could offer the solid potential for biofuel production, with some constraints regarding competition with current uses (e.g. as fodder, organic fertiliser). Sustainable Production of SECOND-Generation Biofuels, International Energy Agency, February, 2010 Second generation biofuels: Cellulosic ethanol, Raphael Slade, http://www.cleantechinvestor.com/, entered 17.11.2014
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STATION F_SECOND-GENERATION BIOFUEL PLANT SCHEME OF THE TECHNOLOGICAL PROCESS
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Landscape_Enternainment, Agriculture, Infrastructure _ Energy generation Station F or Second-Generation Biofuel Plant is a culmination of the cultural route from the Dokkum city center along the channel. At the same time, it is a starting point toward the city historical core. Current context is agricultural fields and pastures. Landscape is plain and modest. The idea of the design is to create a new sign, unexpectable landscape form, which has to assemble all features of contemporary landscape , such as Entertainment, Agriculture, Infrastructure and Energy generation (see pp.82). The path along the channel represents a cultural route, intentionally shaped as a zigzag, in order to maximise observation of the production process. Land graphics of the agricultural fields form volumes, growing from the land. Thus, the path loses its limits, gradually merging with the fields of biomass cultivation. This is another interpretation of visitors unification with the artificial nature. In this case, nature has to be observed and show it’s power of energy production, which is so valuable nowadays. Thanks to the last innovations and technological progress for the pollution and noise reduction, energy production is foreseen as a safe, high-tech process. The plant of the second-generation biofuel production represents the idea, that a factory, usually being an engineering structure, create a new ID, attraction and a place of recreation for the locals and the city’s guests. FIG.98
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STATION F_LANDSCAPE DESIGN COMPONENTS
WATER LEVEL_CHANNELS
GROUND LEVEL_BIOMASS FIELDS
ELEVATED LEVEL_PATH AND GREEN ROOFS
FIG.99
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FIG.100
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STATION F_GROUND LEVEL
FIG.101
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FIG.102
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STATION F_VIEWS
FIG.103
FIG.104
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FIG.105
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INDEX OF FIGURES FIG.01 _CHAPTER 01_by author_pp.14 FIG.02_CHAPTER 01_by author_source www. nordregio.se_pp.15 FIG.03_CHAPTER 01_by author_source www. nordregio.se_pp.16 FIG.04 _CHAPTER 02_by author_pp.18 FIG.05_fig.06_CHAPTER 02_source www. statline.cbs.nl_pp.19 FIG.06_FIG.07_CHAPTER 02_source www.pbl. nl/by author_pp.20 FIG.08_CHAPTER 02_source www.pbl.nl_pp.21 FIG.09_FIG.10_FIG.11_FIG.12_CHAPTER 02_source www.pbl.nl_pp.23 FIG.13_CHAPTER 03_by author_pp.25 FIG.14_CHAPTER 03_by author_source www. nordregio.se_pp.26 FIG.15 _CHAPTER 03_by author_source www. nordregio.se_pp.28 FIG.16_CHAPTER 03_ http://blog. thomsonreuters.com_pp.29 FIG.17_CHAPTER 03_source www.nordregio. se_pp.31 FIG.18_CHAPTER 04_http://redgeographics. com_pp.33 FIG.19_CHAPTER 05_by author_pp.34-35
FIG.20_CHAPTER 04_HOLLAND COAST (THE NETHERLANDS)_pp.36 FIG.21_CHAPTER 05_source Fryslân in figures_ pp.39 FIG.22_ CHAPTER 05_by author_source Fryslân in figures _pp.40 FIG.23_CHAPTER 05_source http:// bijanlotfi1275313.wordpress.com _pp.41 FIG.24_CHAPTER 05_http://www. urbangreenbluegrids.com_pp.42 FIG.25_CHAPTER 05_source Municipality Dongeradeel Ekwadraat , Landscape Design_pp.43 FIG.26_CHAPTER 05_by author_pp.44 FIG.27_CHAPTER 05_source Fryslân in figures_ pp.45 FIG.27_CHAPTER 05_by author_pp.46 FIG.29_CHAPTER 05_sources http:// redgeographics.com_pp.47 FIG.30_CHAPTER 05_source Fryslân in figures_ pp.48 FIG.31_CHAPTER 05_by author_pp.49 FIG.32_CHAPTER 05_by author_pp.50 FIG.33_CHAPTER 05_by author_pp.51
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INDEX OF FIGURES FIG.34_CHAPTER 05_source Google Earth_ pp.52 FIG.35_CHAPTER 05_by author_pp.53 FIG.36_CHAPTER 05_by author_pp.54 FIG.37_CHAPTER 05_source Municipality Dongeradeel Ekwadraat, Landscape Design_ pp.55 FIG.38_CHAPTER 06_source Municipality Dongeradeel Ekwadraat, Landscape Design_ pp.57 FIG.39_CHAPTER 06_by author_pp.58 FIG.40_CHAPTER 06_by author_pp.59 FIG.41_CHAPTER 06_source Municipality Dongeradeel Ekwadraat, Landscape Design_ pp.61 FIG.42_CHAPTER 06_source Municipality Dongeradeel Ekwadraat, Landscape Design_ pp.62
FIG.47_CHAPTER 08_by author_pp.77 FIG.48_CHAPTER 08_by author_pp.79 FIG.49_CHAPTER 08_source Google Earth_ pp.80-81 FIG.50_CHAPTER 08_by author_pp.82-83 FIG.51_CHAPTER 08_source Google Earth_ pp.84 FIG.52_CHAPTER 08_by author_pp.86-87 FIG.53_CHAPTER 08_by author_pp.88 FIG.54_CHAPTER 08_by author_pp.91 FIG.55_FIG.56_CHAPTER 08_source Google Earth_pp.92 FIG.57_FIG.58_CHAPTER 08_source Google Earth_pp.93 FIG.59_CHAPTER 08_by author_pp.94 FIG.60_CHAPTER 08_by author_pp.95
FIG.43_CHAPTER 08_source http://www. landezine.com_pp.75
FIG.61_CHAPTER 08_by author_pp.96
FIG.44_CHAPTER 08_source http://www. landezine.com_pp.75
FIG.63_CHAPTER 08_by author_pp.99
FIG.62_CHAPTER 08_by author_pp.97
FIG.45_CHAPTER 08_source http://www.leidorf. de_pp.75
FIG.64_FIG.65_CHAPTER 08_source Google Earth_pp.100
FIG.46_CHAPTER 08_source http://www.leidorf. de_pp.76
FIG.66_FIG.67_FIG.68_CHAPTER 08_by author_pp.101
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INDEX OF FIGURES FIG.69 _CHAPTER 08_by author_pp.102 FIG.70_CHAPTER 08_by author_pp.103
FIG.93_FIG.94_CHAPTER 08_source Google Earth_pp.126
FIG.71_CHAPTER 08_by author_pp.105
FIG.95_CHAPTER 08_source Google Earth_ pp.127
FIG.72_CHAPTER 08_source Google Earth_ pp.106
FIG.96_CHAPTER 08_by author_pp.129
FIG.73_FIG.74_CHAPTER 08_source Google Earth_pp.107
FIG.97_CHAPTER 08_by author_pp.130 FIG.98_CHAPTER 08_by author_pp.131
FIG.75_FIG.76_CHAPTER 08_by author_pp.108
FIG.99_CHAPTER 08_by author_pp.132
FIG.77_CHAPTER 08_by author_pp.109
FIG.100_CHAPTER 08_by author_pp.133
FIG.78_CHAPTER 08_by author_pp.110
FIG.101_CHAPTER 08_by author_pp.134
FIG.79_CHAPTER 08_by author_pp.113
FIG.102_CHAPTER 08_by author_pp.135
FIG.80_FIG.81_CHAPTER 08_source Google Earth_pp.114
FIG.103_FIG.104_CHAPTER 08_by author_ pp.134
FIG.82_CHAPTER 08_by author_pp.115
FIG.105_CHAPTER 08_by author_pp. 138-139
FIG.83_CHAPTER 08_by author_pp.116 FIG.84_FIG.85_CHAPTER 08_by author_pp.117 FIG.86_CHAPTER 08_by author_pp.119 FIG.87_FIG.88_CHAPTER 08_source Google Earth_pp.120 FIG.89_CHAPTER 08_by author_pp.121 FIG.90_CHAPTER 08_by author_pp.122 FIG.91_CHAPTER 08_by author_pp.123 FIG.92_CHAPTER 08_by author_pp.125
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BIBLIOGRAPHY BOOKS (HARDCOPIES): • • • • • • • •
Elke Beyer, Anke Hagemann, Tim Rieniets, Philipp Oswalt, Atlas of Shrinking Cities, Hatje Cantz Publishers, June 1,2006 Tim Rieniets, Global Shrinkage in Shrinking Cities - Volume 1: International Research, Hatje Cantz Publishers, February 1, 2006 Bernard Tschumi, Event-Cities 2, January, 2001 Preston Scott Cohen, Erika Naginski, The return of nature. Sustaining Architecture in the Face of Sustainability, Routledge, 2014 Daniel Czechowski, Thomas Hauck, Georg Hausladen, REVISING GREEN INFRASTRUCTURE. Concepts Between Nature and Design, CRC Press, November, 2014 Tim Campbell, Beyond Smart Cities: How Cities Network, Learn and Innovate, Earthscan, March 4, 2012 Jan Gehl, Lars Gemzøe, Lord Richard Rogers, New City Spaces, Danish Architectural Press, June 1, 2008 Stan Allen, Marc McQuade,Landform Building: Architecture’s New Terrain, Lars Muller, May 25, 2011
PDF PUBLICATIONS: • • • • • • • •
Karina Pallagst and others, The Future of Shrinking Cities: Problems, Patterns and Strategies of Urban Transformation in a Global Context, University of California, May, 2009 Terry Schwarz, Senior Planner, Lite Urbanism.Improvisational Approaches to Shrinking Cities, 1 October 2009 Tim Rieniets, Global Shrinkage in Shrinking Cities - Volume 1: International Research, Hatje Cantz Publishers (February 1, 2006) Brent D. Ryan, Rightsizing Shrinking Cities: The urban design dimension, Department of Urban Studies and Planning, MIT Thorsten Wiechmann, Conversion Strategies under Uncertainty in Post-Socialist Shrinking Cities Justin B. Hollander, Karina Pallagst, Terry Schwarz, Frank J. Popper and others, Planning Shrinking Cities Ronald Woudstra, Master of Science in City and Regional planning, Shrinking cities in the Netherlands John Hoornbeek, Terry Schwarz, Sustainable Infrastructure in Shrinking Cities Options for the Future, KENT STATE University, July, 2009
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Dr Hans Schlappa and Professor William J V Neill, From crisis to choice: re-imagining the future in shrinking cities, URBACT, May 2013 Afdeling Beleids- en Geo-informatie (Department of Policy and Geographic information), Fryslân yn sifers Fryslân in figures 2011, 2012 Megacities on the Move, November ,2010
ON-LINE SOURCES: • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
The Governance of Shrinkage within a European Context_http://www.shrinksmart.eu/ International InvestigationGlobal Context_Culture of Shrinkage_LocationsContributions_ http:// www.shrinkingcities.com/ Maps and graphic data_ http://www.nordregio.se/ Demography data and statistics in the Netherlands_ http://www.pbl.nl/ Statistics and data and maps about EU28_ http://www.espon.eu/ Dokkun cuty and the Dongeradeel region data_ http://www.dongeradeel.nl/ Tourism service and entertainment in Friesland_ http://www.visitfryslan.nl/ Statistics data about the Netherlands _ http://statline.cbs.nl/ GDP per capita in PPS_ http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/ European unemplyment rate_ http://blog.thomsonreuters.com/ EU 28 countries_http://publications.europa.eu/ Economic development and unemployment rate in EU 28_ http://thenextrecession.wordpress.com/ Smart Cities_ http://connectedsmartcities.eu/ Climate in the Netherlands_ http://www.britannica.com/ Future of the cities, sustainable urban mobility_ www.forumforthefuture.org Future urbanism_Urban Analysis and Modeling_Incentives and Governance_ Mobility Networks_ Places of Living and Work_ Electronic and Social Networks_Energy Networks_ http://cities.media. mit.edu/ Biofuel production_ http://www.biofuels.co.uk/ Second generation biofuels: Cellulosic ethanol_ http://www.cleantechinvestor.com/ Land Art Generator Initiative_ http://landartgenerator.org/ Case of study for the second-generation biofuel production_ http://ethanolproducer.com/ Optimizing the Location of Biofuel Production Plants_ http://cee.illinois.edu/ design cases of study_ http://www.designboom.com/_ http://www.landezine.com/ Photo illustrations_ http://www.leidorf.de/
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This book could not have existed without the general support of: Prof. Elisa Cristiana Cattaneo, thesis supervisor, who gave contributions and directions to the reserch and design process; Prof. Marc Alewijn Visser, the visiting professor from the Netherlands, who helped to define the thesis topic, provided materials and information related to the Frisian region and Dutch Architectural laws; My family, Saltanovskaya Lyudmila Vitalievna, Saltanonskiy Nickolai Alexandrovich, Egorova Ksenia Ivanovna, Egorov Ivan Ruslanovich and Kozlova Galina Gennadievna, who gave me constant support and inspiration; Anke Brouwers, Wytse de Boer, Iris Boontje, the Dokkum inabitants, who collaborated with the questionnaire and gave recommendations regarding the topic; Virginia Roldan,Mariela Mezalira, who gave me inspiration during the working process; Damien L. Moustik, who gave technical and software support and working inspiration.
Maria Egorova
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