Glauzon african body art by Marie-Alphonse Liwata

S T U D Y A B O U T S C A R I F I C A T I O N A N D T A T T O O : T W O R I T U A L S I N V O L V I N G M O D I F I C A T I O N S O N T H E H U M A N S K I N.

BY GABRIELLE LAUZON

L A V A L U N I V E R S I T Y, Q U E B E C, C A N A D A

AYS-1406: A FRICAN A R CHITECTURE AND U RBAN D ESIGN T AMPERE U NIVERSITY OF T ECHNOLOGY, F INLAND FALL 2011

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S C A R I F I C A T I O N A N D T A T T O O S T O D A Y______________________________________________________________________________ C O N C L U S I O N________________________________________________________________________________________________________ R E F E R E N C E S________________________________________________________________________________________________________

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INTRO Many practices involving modifications on the human body are judged by people. Some of them may qualify these barbarous or even useless while some others appreciate and give a lot of impotance to it. It is hard to determinate which opinion is more valuable since different beliefs bring an infinity of different perspectives about this topic. Probably as many different beliefs as significations linked to the body art exist. Nevertheless, these not well known activities have been seen in almost every culture on the five continents since thousands of years according to the last hypothesis. However, one continent catches attention with its tribal rituals. Africa, also known as the cradle of humanity, practiced for milleniums body art and still performs it nowadays. But what are the scarification and tattoo traditions and what meanings do Africans relate to them? What are the motives that conduct african tribes, clans, or societies to the desire of modifying their skin tone and/or texture in an irrevocable way? How do they proceed these particular forms of art. It is impossible to explain every african practices as there are an infinity of them. In fact it is possible to have many different ones in the same ethnic group which makes it hard to list and describe all of them. Also, some of them are not even documented. Other body art practices such as the piercings, the implants and the body painting are also done in Africa. However, this study will be focussed on scarification and tattoo not to pretend these are more important but to develop them deeper. Both topics, the scarification and tattoo are going to be generally described from the act to their possible significations throught examples in Africa that also are going to be explained and supported by images. A brief reflection about the scarification and tattoos today will follow the study, compararing the significations given to both african traditional practices and their meanings in nowadays contemporary culture.

SCARIFICATION

sc a r ifying : (ve r b ) to m a ke sc r a t c he s or small cuts in (as the skin)

A scarification ceremony among the Nuba in Sudan Picture Credit: Leni Riefenstahl ÂŠ

The practice consists of making small incisions, cuts and/or scratches into the skin. In ethymology, the word scarification comes from the latin scarifare which means to make an incision. During the scarification process, some endorphin hormones can be released by the subject and induce a euphoric state. Very similar to tattoos, the scarification creates patterns on the human skin but without using tattoo ink (except in the ink rubbing technique explained below). The scarification also creates textures and bumps unlike tattooing which usually provides a more sleek effect except in few cases where the ink is inser ted more deeply in the skin. This practice is not really precise. Every person reacts differently so there is no way to predict the exact result of the healing process. One method might work for someone and not for another. There are 3 methods of scarification: cutting, branding and abrasion.

Cutting

where lines are cut in the skin with blades or shar ps metallic tools.

1-Skin removal/skinning This technique is usually done to obtain larger scarified skin areas. An incision is made around the chosen area and the skin inside the area is peeled away. The resulting scars are usually more soft, delicate and supple. 2-Packing In this techinique, some iner t substance like ashes or clay are packed into the wound, created by a diagonal cut made with metallic blades. As the body attempts to push away the substance while healing the scar becomes hyper trophic. This cutting is mostly performed in West Africa. 3-Hatching In the hatching technique, a sterile scalpal is used to make an incision and remove flesh. As this take longer, it is usually performed to remove small areas of skin and produce designs with more detail. It apparently can be done with one hand. 4-Ink rubbing This technique can be both seen as tattoo and scarification and therefore is often called scar tattoos. In this case some coloring agent or tattoo ink is rubbed in a fresh incision. Par t of the ink stays inside the skin when it is healed if the subject doesnâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t take off the swabs during the healing process. This technique is used by most of Africans to perform tattoos (see Black Africa Tattoos tradition section p. )

04 Example of Skin removal / skinning technique Pitcture Source: http://foru m.santabanta.com/showthread.htm?t=134753

Branding

where the selected skin areas are bur ned to create the scarfication.

1-Strike branding Historically this technique was used to identify slaves or punish criminals. In the very famous novel The Tree Musqueteers by Alexandre Dumas, one of the characters, Milady, has the french armory mark branded in her back as punishement for one of her crimes. This technique basically consists of heating a piece of metal such as livestock branding, and pressing it against the skin surface to burn it and create a mark. More than likely this technique is done with pieces rather than all at once to create the shape needed. For example if you want to do a ‘‘V’’ shape, two bars ‘‘\’’ ‘‘/’’ would be done one after the other instead of all at once. 2-Cautery branding This technique is very rarely practiced. It consists of using a thermal cutting tool provided with a hot wire tip to create burning patterns in the skin. 3-Electrocautery branding

Example of Strike Branding session Picture Source: http://merlin-tattoo.skyrock.com/2424701393-Branding.html

Also called the ‘‘laser’’ branding as the marketing term invented by Steve Hawor th who was from the first to perform this body ar t technique. The laser term is actually incorrect as the process uses an electrocautery/electrosurgical unit where electricity cuts and burns the skin. A held-hand electric pen sends electric sparks to the skin and voporizes it. This technique is way more precise and limits burning to selected areas. It is also easier to control the depth and the different types of skin damages. As the process is very quick and precise, the wounds do not spread outside the burned areas and do unnecesary damage. This result in a healing process that takes a lot less time. 4-Cold branding The cold branding technique is the same as strike branding but in this case the metallic device is extremely cooled by liquid nitrogen for example. The hair grows back white over the burned areas and the healing does not cause keloiding (raised scars). Like cautery branding, this technique is rarely practiced.

Abrasion friction.

where the skin layer s are removed superficially throught

The abrasion can either be done using abrasive object such as sand paper or an inkless tattooing device to remove first layers of epiderma with friction. Abrasive chemical products can also be used to perform this technique.

S CARIFICATION

AFRICA

Identity, Spirituality, Bravery, Sexuality According to Terri Toré, a miller from Natitingou inter viewed in Jean-Michel Clajot book Scarification: ‘‘Scarification can be read like books.’’ Toré himself got scarified when he was 15 years old. The principal signification of this practice is ethnical. When watching people that wears those scars, it gives you more information about them. Such as where they come from mainly but you have to first know the language of the patterns and marks that are used. When there were wars between tribes during the VXIII century, it helped to identify the warriors that were fighting with the tribe and to recognize the enemy. In fact, without any uniforms or helmets, the scarification marks were the only way to make the difference between the enemy and the brother. It is their way to avoid killing allies. That way the tribe could also ensure the warriors would have a respectful funeral if they died at the battlefield. Scarification also saved a lot of Africans from slavery since the slave-traders were not attracted by the commerce of men with wounded faces. The scarified people were seen as unhealty to the traders so it would help a lot of tribes avoid slavery. That makes it easy nowadays to recognize if somebody is a descendant of a slave, immigrant or fugitive if the person is not wearing any cutmarks in the face. The scarification for ethnic purposes is generally done before a child reaches adolescence. The children usually wear the father’s tribe marks. The face and the head of the individual is usually the body par t where most Africans get scarifications but they often also get those marks in the back and on the torso. For example in Noth-Western Benin, the Dassaba tribe’s scarifications run across each cheek, from the nostril to under the chin. Other tribes are denoted by more or fewer scarifications across the temples, the forehead or the nose. In the pictures above, children from Djougou wear scarification marks according to their father’s tribe traditions. The girl has one more incision to promise she is going to give bir th to children when she gets married. This practice can also be performed to show the ones who believe in cer tain gods or to express their love and adoration to gods. For example, in Southern Benin, followers of Ogou, the god of Iron, have many cross-shaped scars on several par ts of their bodies. Some Africans also perform scarification on their descendents to thank the gods for favors. For example, The ‘‘Abikou children’’ which means ‘‘child destined to die’’ in southern Benin again and in Nigeria. Let’s say a woman has a lot of miscarriages and problems with carrying a child to term. If she has other children without problem the history of their dead siblings will always remain with a cut in the middle of the siblings left cheek.

Scarified children in Djougou, North-Western Benin Picture Credit: Jean-Michel Clajot ©

Scarification is also seen as an act of bravery. The reading of the body marks on people’s face does not stop at the genealogy of an individual. Marks can also be seen on the back, arms, belly and shoulders of Africans. However those scars give more personal information. Lets take the the Yon Wan (which mean fish bones) scarifications for example. These marks are usually practiced from around the age of 9 to the beginning of the twenties at the circumcision period which ends the Yon wan tradition. The men usually wear the marks on their belly or arms. The more the subject wears those marks, the more he is attesting the number of brave acts he did. Also, scarification marks the passage of young people to adults. Such as the images on the previous page showing Kaleri women of Nigeria. When ladies of this tribe have their first menstrual cycle, a pattern is scarified on their bellies. Marks are added when the woman gets pregnant. Beyond the aesthetic, identity and the spiritual reasons, scarifications seems to bring another benefit to people wearing it. This practice could also be seen as an erotic ar t rather than showing a personal identity or history to other tribes. It is the case of the Mursi or the Karo of Ethyopia where scarification spreads among both genders. For these tribes, scars are meant to attract the opposite sex and then to enhance tactile sensation during sexual play. The scar tissue is more or less sensible which stimulates erotic pleasure.

Traditional Scarification today The practice of trditional scarification is getting rarer nowadays. According to research anthropologist Saï Sotima Tchantipo, the urban areas almost completely banned it especially since the French colonists arrived because they said this practice is barbarous. A lot of campaigns are multiplying among the cities to inform people about infection risks such as HIV and tetanus. But unfor tunately, a lot of scarifiers are obstinetely sticking to the sacred traditions of this ar t and refuse to use disposable blades or sterilized materials to perform this practice safely. The impor tation of other religions also is a factor of the decreasing popularity of scarification. For instance, Islam banned it as the Koran defends the integrity of the body as a creation of god not to be modified. Some Africans do not want their children to be scarified anymore so that they do not stand out of the crowd in contemporary societies. However some still want to be recognized in few seconds by other tribes members wherever they are in the world. And since the infatuation for African slaves is gone now, the practice of scarification for protection matters against slavery does not stand anymore too.

Scarification enhancing the tactile sensation Karo, tribe of Ethiopia Picture Credit: Carol Beckwith & Angela Fisher ©

Mursi man of Ethiopia Picture Credit: Carol Beckwith & Angela Fisher ©

Scarified Kaleri women in Nigeria Pictures Credit: (top one and bottom)Charles and Josette Lenars ©

EXAMPLE OF

SCARIFICATION CEREMONY

pr actice d in t he C e nte r of Be nin, Af r ica

It is unfor tunately impossible to find and explain every process of scarification as there could be many different methods even in the same ethnic or regional group. A lot of them also remain undocumented. But lets take a look at an example of scarification ceremony that took place in Djougou in the Nor th Western Benin region. The scarifications are generally performed in the cool season (Harmattan) of this region which attempt to reduce the risk of infection and make them hur ting less. It is also when the workers are able to take time off so they can celebrate the rituals. The subject here: Hadirou, a little boy, is not told of what is going to happen to him probably not to scare him and stress him more than the ceremony will do itself. First of all, his head gets shaved and then very few men: the scarifier, his father and three other male relatives bring him behind a little wall of the scarifier house. The ritual attempts to take place in hidden places to avoid prying eyes and bad luck. The men hold the little boy whose laid naked on a sheet. Hadirou has no idea yet why he is there and why those people are doing this to him and he star ts panicing. His father encourages him by telling him that everything is going to be fine and par ticularily fast. The scarifier star ts making the incisions with a plate tool similar to a small flat spoon but the ends are extremely sharpened. Every cut has to be done three times to insure the scarifications are going to last a lifetime. Hadirou star ts to bleed a lot. When the ceremony ends, the child is really exhausted and does not cry anymore. The ceremony costs around 1,50 euros. The scarifier puts the blade in a washed metallic can filled with water and then back in his case for the next scarification. The boy gets showered with water and congraduated for his courage. His mother applies a root powder that has antibiotic vir tues on his wounds and palm oil. The tiny mark crossing the middle of his left cheek means that he is a descendant of the Djougou princes. The other three long scars crossing from the top of his head to close to his mouth are common to the Djougou inhabitants. Hadirou has a sister and she has a four th line to indicate that she is fer tile and going to bear children when she is married.

EXAMPLE OF

Pictures Credit: Jean-Michel Clajot ©

SCARIFICATION CEREMONY

EXAMPLE OF

Pictures Credit: Jean-Michel Clajot ©

SCARIFICATION CEREMONY

TATTOOS

: (noun) a n ind elible m a r k or f igur e fix ed upon the body by inser tion of pigment und er the skin o r by p r o d uctio n o f scar s

This really widespread and old practice concists of inser ting ink or coloring agent to modify the pigmentation of the skin permanently. This body modification provides patterns and images Tattoo comes from the samoan word: tatau which derived in many forms such as tattaow and tattow. In Japan, it is called: irezumi which mean inser tion of ink. Sekele Bushman girl, Angola, 1960 Picture Credit: Maria Fisch ©

Tattoing has been discovered on mummies such as Ötzi the iceman from around the years 4000 or 5000 in the Ötz valley of the alps. The corpse has approximatively 57 carbon tattoos consisting in dots and marks on several par ts of his body such as along the spine and behind one of his knees and on the ankle. Hypothetic reason for those locations is probably for therapeutic reasons since they are very similar to acupuncture threatments. Other mummies has been found in Africa from the around the second millenium. For instance, the Amhunet mummy from ancient Egypt. According to researchs, exper ts say that tattooing has been a pratice since at least neolitique times. A passage from Charles Darwin’s work: The Descent of Man says the following: ‘‘Not a great country can be named, from the polar regions in the nor th to New Zealand in the south, in which the aborigines do not tattoo themselves. This practice was followed by the Jews of old, and by the ancient Britons. In Africa some of the natives tattoo themselves, but it is a much more common practice to raise protuberances by rubbing salt into incisions made in various par ts of the body; and these are considered by the inhabitants of Kordofan and Darfur to be great personnal attractions. In the Arab countries no beauty can be perfect until the cheeks ‘or temples have been gashed.’’ The tattoo practice is in fact very widespread in every population. But nowadays, very few cultures still perform it the same way as it has traditionaly been for hundreds of years. The regions where it is still traditionaly practiced include: Nor theast India, the Amazon, Indonesia, Southern Asia, southern China. The Bedoins, Berbers of the Middle East and the Fullani in Africa also perpetuate the tradition. Various meanings and pattern possibilities have been expressed throughout the different cultures. However, one signification seems to be common in most of the studied cultures : the desire to show identity and belonging to a group, a culture or an ethnicity. Other popular reasons to be tattooed are also the desire of standing out of the crowd and claim uniqueness. Tattoos are also done in rites of passage to symbolise that an individual in the tribe is ready for marriage or becoming an adult for instance. Those body marks are also often expressing religious and spiritual devotion. A lot of cultures share a belief that tattoos has therapeutic ‘‘magical’’ vir tues and wear them for protection against disease and misfor tune.

T ATTOOS

AFRICA

For a while many believed that tattooing was not very widespread in Africa for two reasons. The first one was because the koran forbides it. In fact, Nor th Africans have one of the oldest tattooing traditions in the world. The actual Berber belief about this practice is that : ‘‘A scorpion may sting a woman as many times as she has tattoos, but god will be merciful if she donates an amount of money equal to the cost of covering her tattoos to the poor.’ According to Susan Searight ressearchs, in cer tain regions and mostly in the Rif and Atlas mountains, more than half of the female tribes members are tattooed. And until recently Berbers women would be rejected for marriages if they were not tattooed. As said earlier, mummies were found in Egypt presenting tattooed marks which make believe that tattooing originated in the Arab world. The second reason for people not to believe that the tattoo practice was not popular in Africa was because the marks would not show on dark skin. This belief is completely silly, in fact many black African tribes have tattooing traditions. Unfor tunately since the arrival of modernization, the practice traditionaly done is getting rarer. As scarification, the tatooing practice was a body modification that protected Africans from becoming slaves since a marked body was not attractive to slave traders and was seen as unhealthy.

Mummy of a Theban dancer with tattooed patterns on the chest Picture Source: Royal Tropical Institute of Amsterdam

NORTH AFRICAN T ATTOO T RADITIONS The Maghreb The Nor th African countries that practice the tattoo body ar t are Morrocco, Algeria and Tunisia. These countries are included in the Maghreb and both of the largest ethies there: the Arabs and Berbers, wear tattoos. The most visibly tattooed of the two groups is the Berbers although both cultures influenced each others tattoo culture throughout the times. Leo the African wrote in a repor t commission by the Pope Leo X, that Maghrebian Arab women were painted and some men had black crosses tattooed on the cheeks and palms. He asser ted that the use of the cross was a probable trace of the Vandal invasion of Marocco in the Fifth century. He proposed that theory because the Berbers that were recruited in the army of the king of the Vandals had to wear a cross tattooed on their forehead to distinguish them from his own troops. The cross symbol could also come from the christian invasions. Many Berbers had to conver t themselves to Christianism to avoid paying taxes. To avoid the tax evasion, Christians were tattooing their hands with crosses. The cross is still a popular symbol nowadays although it is not done often on the cheeks or the palms anymore. The cultures of Berbers and Arabs mixed throught the years after the Arab invasion and most Berbers conver ted to Islam. Nomadic descendants of Berbers and Arabs were called the Moors inhabited the Nor th of Africa. The term ‘‘Moors’’ was used by the Europeans to refer to dark-skinned people that were living in the South Mediterranean region. Another term was also used to qualify the ‘‘Moors’’ from Mosambic wich was ‘‘kaffir’’ (heathen). A Dutch explorer named Théodore de bry, recorded that their bodies and faces were pricked with hot blades and then painted. The culture seemed to spread across the ocean since some missionnary repor ted having seen Latin Americans tattooing themselves the same way as the Moors of Nor th Africa. The tattoo tradition has almost ceased in the Berber culture today, but some tribes still practice it. The Shawiya of the Algerian Aurès Plains and the Zemmour of Marocco still pursue the body ar t tradition. 50 years ago, most of Berbers women and men were still tattooed. A sexual connotation is also linked with the practice. In fact, Boys of the Aith Sàdden tattooed their arms and shoulders in order to impress women. Tattooed women of the same tribe would be well paid for sexual favours or fetched a high bride price when married according to a song. Those marks are usually done a little bit before puber ty and marriage. Another example of Berber tattoo with sexual signification would be the Sayala, a pattern that usually worn by woman on the mouth and chin, representing palm trees. It symbolises fer tility and the highest level of beauty among the Tunisian women.

Morroccan family from the Middle Atlas, 1960 Picture Source: Spaarnestad photo archive

Not only are the tattoos done to enhance beauty or sexual attraction but they somehow have magical ver tues attributed to their wearing too. Apparently the practice is known to protect the Berbers against the evil’s eye or to prevent diseases. Those marks are called the therapeutic tattoos and are usually done at an early age. The Berber believed that the children could endure the better pain than adults. A specialist woman of the tribe would be given the task to perform the tattoo using needles projected from a piece of wood to inser t ink on selected skin area. When the blood would star t to flow out of the wound, some charcoal and green grains sap would be rubbed over it to enhance the colours. An example of spiritual tattoo would be the Car thaginians wear palm trees symbols that derived from the symbol of a goddess named Ta-Neit (Tanit). The wearing of Tanit tattoos is believed to bring life and lucky charms to its wearer.

Moroccan Berber girls Picture Source: Spaarnestad photo archive

NORTH AFRICAN T ATTOO T RADITIONS

‘‘Kaffirs’’ from Mozambique 1600 Picture Source: HESSELT VAN DINTER, Maarten.The World of Tattoo An Illustrated History, Thames and Hudson, Amsterdam, 2005, 300p.

Tanit Design Picture Source: Royal Tropical Institute, Amsterdam

Berber girl with chest tattoo, 1920 Picture Source: HESSELT VAN DINTER, Maarten.The World of Tattoo An Illustrated History, Thames and Hudson, Amsterdam, 2005, 300p.

Sayala chin Patterns Picture Source: Royal Tropical Institute, Amsterdam

Moroccan tattoo motifs Picture Source: HESSELT VAN DINTER, Maarten.The World of Tattoo An Illustrated History, Thames and Hudson, Amsterdam, 2005, 300p.

Therapeutic tattoo on a man’s forehead, Algers, 1930 Picture Source: Royal Tropical Institute, Amsterdam Tunisian woman wearing sayala on forehead Picture Source: Royal Tropical Institute, Amsterdam

B LACK AFRICA T ATTOO T RADITIONS Black Africa (Sub-Saharan Africa) As previously said, it was assumed for a long time that Africans did not tattoo themselve since the ink would not contrast their skin tone. This belief did not prove to be true in stopping Africans from practicing this ar t. The ink inser tion might end out having a more subtler effect sometimes but this does not slow the equatorial Pygmies, the Bushmen, the Bantu and many more ethnies of West, Central and East Africa to perform the tattoo body ar t. This practice is intimately linked to the scarification in those cultures. The principal tattoo method used consists in rubbing ink made of an iner t element or coloring agent into a wound to create patterns while modifying the pigmentation and the skin relief (It is actually the same technique as the scarification technique called Ink rubbing as previously said in the scarification chapter) Almost every African tribe uses this technique to perform tattooing. Similar to the scarification practice, the tattoos have comparable meanings in the black African culture. In both cases the marks are used to identify relatives, friends and strangers. They also indicate that an adult is ready for marriage or marking their courage and symbolising fer tility increasing the wearer’s attractiveness. Some tattoos can also be done for their protective magical vir tues as well as the Nor thern Africans do so. A good example of sub-saharan tattoo would be the nyora in Zymbabwe. Until recently, every woman in Zimbabwe would be wearing the mark made from up to 100 incisions. The cuts were previously done by razor blades or glass pieces and then ash or charcoal is rubbed in the wound. The nyoras tattoos are done on several body par ts and when close to intimate areas, only the sexual par tner would be allowed to touch them. Usually the incisions are made by a close woman relative. The nyoras tattoos are known to have magical and therapeutic vir tues but then the tribe’s witchdoctor would be in charge of it and know which cases to do tattoo magical nyoras. For instance, nyoras in magical rituals with lion’s fat would increase strength and attractiveness with chiken fat. In Madagascar, the Malagasy do not use the scar tattooing technique but attempt to do true tattoos which distinguish them from the rest of black Africa. They use simple geometric patterns and inser t ink made of a mixture of grain ash and nightshade plants sap using cactus needles. The principal tribes of this region that practice this ar t are the Antandroy, Sakalava, Mahafaly, Antanosy, Bara and Tanala. Men usually wear facial tattoos of single or double lines on their foreheads. Women tried to wear more complex designs on their chests and around their wrist like bracelets. The Madagascan style is well known for its asymetry for example, men wears different designs on each cheek. The greatest signification linked to the marking practice in this African region is sexual. Arms of Antandroy and Mahafaly people are decorated with inscriptions of lover’s name. For the Sakalava women, they were tattooing a sun whell tattoo between their breasts wich was known to apparently increase their love skills. Later the practice of tattoo was rejected in Madagascar. All the fraudulent witchdoctors and murderers were wearing the same tattoos. The latest generations rejected the practice claiming it was uncivilized to have them.

Women wearing nyora tattoos Picture Source: HESSELT VAN DINTER, Maarten.The World of Tattoo An Illustrated History, Thames and Hudson, Amsterdam, 2005, 300p.

B LACK AFRICA T ATTOO T RADITIONS

Antandroy patterns, Madagascar Picture Source: HESSELT VAN DINTER, Maarten.The World of Tattoo An Illustrated History, Thames and Hudson, Amsterdam, 2005, 300p.

Sakalava men Picture Source: HESSELT VAN DINTER, Maarten.The World of Tattoo An Illustrated History, Thames and Hudson, Amsterdam, 2005, 300p.

Antandroy woman, Madagascar Picture source: HESSELT VAN DINTER, Maarten.The World of Tattoo An Illustrated History, Thames and Hudson, Amsterdam, 2005, 300p.

Antandroy patterns, Madagascar Picture Source: HESSELT VAN DINTER, Maarten.The World of Tattoo An Illustrated History, Thames and Hudson, Amsterdam, 2005, 300p.

Antandroy woman, Madagascar, 1930 wearing cross motifs on left arm, chest and back. The name of her husband is tattooed on her right arm Picture source: HESSELT VAN DINTER, Maarten.The World of Tattoo An Illustrated History, Thames and Hudson, Amsterdam, 2005, 300p.

SCARIFICATION

AND TATTOOS TODAY

When looking at the different scarification and tattoo traditions of Africa it it is hard to find a link between the significations that Africans relate to them and the meanings of those evolved practices nowadays. Throughout this study, a lot of meanings were given by Africans to justify the different marks that they choose to wear. The desire of indicating their ethnical identities, to enhance beauty and attractiveness, to protect against slavery, to increase tactile sensations, and for their magical and spiritual virtues are all reasons that push Africans to perform those two skin art practices. All of these significations, somehow appear to be related with one common idea: to get scarifications and tattoo to show belonging to a group and collectivity. Nowadays, there are so many different meanings people from every countries around the world given to the marks people get tattooed or scarified on their skins. Sometimes it is in order to remember something important, to vallue an image, to increase the beauty of a body part, even sometimes for no reason at all, but for the sake of trying it. Even if some people do it to demonstrate their admiration for a music tendance, a religion or to show their belonging to a criminal gang, more often the meanings accorded to these particular body art practices are more individual and personnal in contemporary culture. Of course some symbols are being marked often on human bodies, but usually, people tempt to try to stand out of the crowd when they modify the apperance of their skin unlike the African traditions.

Deena Metzger who got a mastectomy scar covered by a tattoo design of a living branch Picture Credit: Hella Hammid ÂŠ

CONCLUSION As started in the previous reflection, a lot of meanings are attributed by Africans to the traditional practices of scarification and tattoos. To indicate their ethnical origins, to increase beauty, attractiveness, sexual tactile sensations, to be unattractive for slave-traders, to honor magical and spiritual vIrtues and probably many more are all significations that African tribes give to both practices. After studying few cases of these body art marks, it is still hard to qualify it either barbarous or beautiful. The artistic result itself is often amazing but it somehow hides really unevolved techniques due to the refusal of most of the tribes to improve the hygene and ancient methods while performing the traditional sacred practices. The pictures showing the child getting scarified at such a young age with no power of decision about it, are also harsh to look at from my own cultural perspective. But in the other hand, if we think about the past, when parents had to mark their children to protect them against slavery, it puts the topic on a completely different point of view which becomes a little bit more acceptable to me. These thaughts have bring new questions to my mind : should the scarification and tattoos still be performed in the actual Africa? And if so, what would be the conditions and price to do so?

REFERENCES Litterature 1. CLAJOT, Jean-Michel. Scarification. Husson, Gand, 2008, 96 p. 2. HESSELT VAN DINTER, Maarten.The World of Tattoo An Illustrated History, Thames and Hudson, Amsterdam, 2005, 300 p. 3. CAMPHAUSEN, Rufus C. Return of the Tribal: A Celebration of Body Adornment : Piercing, Tattooing, Scarification, Body Painting. Inner Tradition Bear and Company, Rochester, 1997, 128 p.

Websites 4. Merriam-Webster dictionnary online: http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionnary 5. Wikipedia enceclopedia http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scarification_(incision) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tattoo

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6 5 COVER PAGE: 1. http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scarification_(incision) PICTURES SOURCES

2. http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tattoo 3. http://www.newscientist.com/gallery/dn16141-living-africa/2 4. http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scarification_(incision) 5. http://weburbanist.com/2009/11/16/piercing-images-10-shockingly-extreme-body-modifications/?ref=search 6. http://photohome.bloguez.com/photohome/1663564/lip-plug