Marie Braithwaite Pilot Thesis by Marie

Water Wars Marie Braithwaite

MPhil Architecture and Urban Design Pilot Thesis

Water Wars Marie Braithwaite Christâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s College 4973 Words

A design thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the M. Phil in Architectural and Urban Design 2017/18. With thanks to: Ingrid SchrĂśder, Aram Mooradian, Barbara Campbell-Lange and Mary Ann Steane This dissertation is the result of my own work and includes nothing which is the outcome of work done in collaboration except where specifically indicated in the text.

Water Wars

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1. Introduction

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2. Social Networks of Water in the Andes 2.1 Indigenous Culture 2.2 Global Water Policy 2.3 1941 – 2017 : The Role of Neoliberalist Authoritarianism – Globalisation, Dams and Disaster Mitigation

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3. Conflict Resilience

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4. Alternative Approaches 4.1 Strengthening knowledge 4.2 Reconnecting Glacier and Coast - Temporal Scales 4.3 New relations: Building, Site, Neighbourhood, Watershed - Spatial Scales i. Case Study: Building Scale – Solar Enclosures for Water Reuse (SEWR) ii. Case Study: Site Scale – Ashekelon and Victoria Desalination Plants iii. Case Study: Neighbourhood Scale – Israel’s unified water distribution system & BIG/Denmark 4.4 What is the Architect’s Role?

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5. Conclusion

0mm

21mm

Annual Rainfall

Flow Rate - 29m3/s

Of Limaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s water provided Rio Rimac

80%

CA. LAS ANCHOVETAS

ELESPUR R

LIMA AV. AV.MAYO

RIO

CHILLON

CA.

CORCEGA

Lima Aquifer - 260km2

Average water use per LimeĂąo

260 liters per day Current Population 10,247,000

9,897,000 2015

575,000 overall

10,247,000 2017

1 in 20 people without access to potable water or sanitation

10,756,000 2020

11,534,000 2025

12,221,000 2030

2500+ 1250 - 2500 750 - 1250 600 - 750 250 - 600 100 - 250 0 - 100

Glaciers Large Bodies of Water

Coastal Fog Cover

1. Introduction

Fig. 1. Pastouri Glacier retreat since 1986

Peru. Population 30 million. A third of whom live in the country’s capital, Lima. In addition to these 30 million residents, Peru is also home to 71% of the world’s tropical glaciers.1 These glaciers are the reason life has been able to flourish in such an extreme and harsh desert environment along the Pacific Coast of the Atacama Desert. Peru’s glaciers are natural water towers,2 storing water from winter snow and providing run-off into numerous river basins for life-sustaining agriculture, power generation, sanitation and consumption throughout the year, with increased flows during the summer and autumn seasons when demand is highest. Since 1975 a 48% reduction in glacial coverage has been observed,3 and it is predicted that at current rates of global warming, they could disappear altogether by mid-century.4 The challenges facing Peru over the coming decades are not merely related to water shortages due to reduced glacial run-off, indeed, in the immediate future, flooding, landslides and avalanches all pose greater threats than drought due to increased warming, and thus melting, of the glaciers. Longer term challenges however, all relate to water scarcity, including a reduction in power generation, since 70% of the country’s energy is produced by hydroelectricity.5 Messerli et al. describe the temporal effects that warming will have: “In a warmer world, less winter precipitation falls as snow, and the melting of winter snow occurs earlier in spring...Where storage capacities are not sufficient, much of the winter runoff will be lost to the oceans.”6

1 “Impact on Glacial Melt and Access to Water”, Peru Support Group, last accessed April 1, 2017, http://www.perusupportgroup.org.uk/peru-climate-change-water.html 2 Bruno Messerli, Daniel Vivroli and Rolf Weingartner, “Mountains of the World: Water Towers for the Twenty-First Century?” In Managing Water Resources in Time of Global Change: Mountains, Valleys and Flood Plains, ed. Alberto Garrido and Ariel Dinar (New York: Routledge, 2009), 12. 3 Chelsea Whyte, “Ancient Andes glaciers have lost half their ice in just 40 years.” New Scientist Magazine, October 10, 2016. last accessed: April 1, 2017, https://www. newscientist.com/article/2108455-ancient-andes-glaciers-have-lost-half-their-ice-in-just- 40-years/ 4 Krista Eleftheriou, “World’s highest glaciers, in Peruvian Andes, may dissapear within 40 years.” ABC News, updated November 5, 2015, last accessed April 1, 2017. http:// www.abc.net.au/news/2015-11-05/perus-highest-disappearing-glaciers-climate-change/6915668 5 “Impact on Glacial Melt and Access to Water” 6 Messerli, Viviroli and Weingartner, “Mountains of the World,” 21.

200 180 160

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Fig. 2. Average rainfall and humidity in Lima

2017 so far has seen an extreme El Niño event, resulting in ten times the usual rainfall across large parts of Peru.7 Flooding and landslides have caused damaged to infrastructure, claimed 97 lives and displaced 200,000 people.8 Lima’s water has been turned off, as the city’s only treatment plant fails to deal with the increased slurry and debris. A city of 10 million people without drinking water or sanitation. With heavy rains expected to continue throughout April, and extreme weather events predicted to become more frequent by climate scientists, it is clear that a decisive and radical adaption plan must be implemented. This thesis examines how the historical, cultural, economic and political situation in Peru has converged with a rapidly changing climate to arrive at the present day situation, and then poses the question of what the next century has in store for a country which finds itself at crux of development. Rather than approaching this question from a purely anthropological or economic standpoint however, it situates the architect and urban designer at the centre of the debate. Asking what is the architect’s role in development, how this role is affected by a host of complex interactions between state, politics, economy and society in an environment of globalisation, and how urban and infrastructural design can create an environment primed for a turbulent century of challenges posed by a warming climate. Chapter two gives a brief outline of the social perception of water in the Andes, followed by a historical account of global water policy and climate led development in Peru. Chapter three examines the role of global warming and resource scarcity in conflict situations. Finally, chapter four demonstrates the need for better understanding of hydrological systems in remote mountain regions, going on to provide examples of adaptive technologies at a range of scales that could be incorporated into urban design. It closes by questioning the architect’s role in development.

7 David Sim, “Images of flooding and landslides after El Niño dumps 10 times as much rain on Peru as normal.” International Business Times, updated March 20, 2017, last accessed April 1, 2017. http://www.ibtimes.co.uk/images-flooding-landslides-after-el-nino-dumps-10- times-much-rain-peru-normal-1612563 8 AAP, “Death toll in Peru rises to 97.” Yahoo News, March 31, 2017, last Accessed on April 1, 2017. https://au.news.yahoo.com/world/a/34868158/death-toll-in-peru-rises-to-97/#page1

Social Networks of Water in the Andes

Fig. 3. Communal Participation in constructing irrigation works.

Fig. 4. Agricultural terraces

Fig. 5. Andean irrigation

2. Social Networks of Water in the Andes 2.1 Indigenous Culture Water is strongly linked to identity in Andean culture, seen as a resource to be shared between all members of the community, yet owned by none. The social and infrastructural systems involved in equitable distribution of water have been refined over several centuries. Whilst methods have been developed to deal with intermittent drought, by dividing up land in a none-linear fashion and removing certain outlying plots (thereby spreading the burden across the community) during periods of reduced water supply, the climatological changes now facing the region require a rapid response beyond the capacity of these traditional means. The importance of these social structures on developing new hydrological models is two-fold, as Messerli et al. highlight, “Only an experienced mountain population has the competence to preserve and develop the natural and cultural treasures [including water resources] for the highland and the lowland people.”9 In addition to responsible environmental management, this experience has also allowed these communities to thrive in difficult terrain and master the mountainous land for agriculture. Going far beyond subsistence farming, this collective responsibility and structuring of water resources has allowed these communities to become the basis of national food security for the country. It is therefore essential to accommodate or restructure these systems when designing for a changing hydrological landscape. While it is necessary to understand the complex systems in play in Andean communities when proposing alternative infrastructures for the future, it is also necessary to be selective about which aspects of these systems should be retained and which should be remodelled. An in depth analysis of which mechanisms would continue to be proficient at larger scales is vital. It may be easy to accommodate structural aspects, such as terracing, into possible designs, but imagining how the social dynamics would scale up across more populous and mobile communities in the future raises further questions. The systematic watering of terraces in the Andes allows locals to self-govern water usage. The nature of the small community and open landscape combined with methodical irrigation allows each member to witness their neighbour’s actions, thus making it evident if one is taking more than their share. If certain community members are not deterred by these means, punishment for self-serving actions is to be shunned by the wider community, via social ostracism and informal sanctions.10 It is evident that such systems would perhaps be less effective on a wider scale, where there were larger geographical and social distances between user groups. Such procedures do however, open the floor for debate on the wider networks of water and society, and the perceptions people have towards resource use. Carey notes that, ”...the science that comprises the vast majority of climate research must be augmented by studying the cultures and societies where climate change occurs.”11 This presents a stage for considering how built form and infrastructural design informs the customs and practices of a population, and how it could be implemented in such a way as to augment these practices for a more sustainable future.

2.2 Global Water Policy The need for effective management of head water areas has been recognised on a global scale since the late 1980’s, when a number of mountain associations were formed. The Andean Mountain Association was the last of these to be established in 1991. At the Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro in 1992, Agenda 21 featured a chapter entitled “Managing Fragile Ecosystems: Sustainable Mountain Development”.12 This recognition of the need for an established plan for these vulnerable areas marked the beginning of sustained dialogue on the matter. 9 Messerli, Viviroli and Weingartner, “Mountains of the World,” 28. 10 Paul B Trawick, The Struggle for Water in Peru: Comedy and Tragedy in the Andean Commons (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2002), 88, 11 Mark Carey, In the Shadow of Melting Glaciers: Climate Change and Andean Society (New York: Oxford University Press, 2010), 4. 12 Messerli, Viviroli and Weingartner, “Mountains of the World,” 11.

Fig. 6. Protests over Tambogrande mine development

Fig. 7. Protests over Tambogrande mine development

Agenda 21 highlighted the desire to promote highland areas for tourism in order to diversify economies, alongside promoting integrated watershed development and the involvement of both the private sector and local communities in infrastructural development, to mitigate the effects of natural disasters.13 Over the course of the following two decades, numerous publications from follow-up summits would emphasise the importance of promoting, “...sustainable livelihoods and small-scale production systems...”14 And the integration of “...indigenous knowledge...”15 Whilst such documents and their call for equitable development seemed admirable, they often lacked concrete advice on methods of implementation. As such, the course of actual development in poor mountainous regions can be seen to focus on the quick returns of capital gain with little regard for the environmental sustainability or cultural integrity of these regions.

2.3 1941 – 2017 : The Role of Neoliberalist Authoritarianism – Globalisation, Dams and Disaster Mitigation 1941 marked the beginning of a series of catastrophes that resulted from glacial retreat. Lake Palcacocha ruptured, “...burst[ing] through its natural moraine dam...”16 And swept through the city of Huaraz, claiming 5,000 lives. 1945 and 1950 saw additional outburst floods, claiming another 700 lives, followed by a glacial avalanche in 1962 which killed 4,000. The most catastrophic of these ever more frequent events however, happened in 1970, when an earthquake triggered a glacial avalanche from Mount Huascarán, which destroyed the city of Yungay and claimed 15,000 lives. Described as the most deadly glacier disaster in global history17 this series of events altered the traditional perceptions Andean communities had of their environment. Previously revered as the land of the gods, locals began to feel betrayed by the mountains and glaciers, calling them “sick” and “demented”, because they had betrayed fixed divisions between nature and culture.18 The awareness of the changing climate that resulted led to development that surpassed disaster mitigation alone. Termed “disaster economics” by Carey, he argues that 1941 was the beginning of a set of historical processes that led to the commodification of glaciers.19 The aims of Agenda 21 support this theory, with a heavy emphasis on income generation, diversified economies and the promotion of the tourist industry. Despite this awareness initiating economic development projects that were required to modernised the Andes, they also created a setting for the implementation of large scale socio-political reforms. This promotion of neoliberal policies in the aftermath of disaster has been widely documented in recent years, perhaps most notably in Naomi Klein’s “Shock Doctrine”.20 Advocating for the “...deregulation of the economy, privatisation [and] reduction of government expenditures on social services...”21 in the wake of natural disasters may have gained recognition alongside climate change, but according to Carey, using post disaster scenarios to promote reforms is not a new concept. He notes that, following the 1746 earthquake in Lima, “...governments and business capitalised on the catastrophe to implement new programs in urban planning [and] social control.”22 The divide between governments, businesses and rural populations was often difficult to navigate during these times, Andean communities resisted state intervention even when it was aimed at creating safer livelihoods. Numerous “hazard zones” on the banks of the Rio Santa were marked by the government, but locals refused to move due to mistrust of the state’s intentions. They instead insisted upon the draining of glacial lakes, but their steadfast belief in technological mitigation of danger lead to them being even more dependent on the state.23 Carey explains how, “Their rejection of zoning...allowed them to shape the historical evolution of science, technology, urban planning and disaster 13 United Nations Sustainable Development, “Agenda 21” (paper presented to United Nations Conference on Environment and Development, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, June 3-14, 1992). 14 United Nations, “Report of the World Summit on Sustainable Development” (paper presented to United Nations Earth Summit, Johannesburg, South Africa, 26 August - 4 September, 2002), 34. 15 United Nations, “World Summit on Sustainable Development,” 34. 16 Carey, Melting Glaciers, 7. 17 Carey, Melting Glaciers, 7. 18 Carey, Melting Glaciers, 8. 19 Carey, Melting Glaciers, 8-11. 20 Naomi Klein, The Shock Doctrine: The Rise of Disaster Capitalism (Canada: Random House of Canada, 2007) 21 Carey, Melting Glaciers, 11 22 Carey, Melting Glaciers, 11 23 Carey, Melting Glaciers, 14

mitigation.”24 During this time, scientists sent to document the effects of climate change in the region frequently became the mediators between state and society. Although employed by the state, and thus having an economic incentive support the agenda of the current political party, they regularly became entangled in class and race relations. As Carey describes, “They...acted as intermediaries among various social groups and interests, as well as between humans and the physical environment.”25 Their technological approach to the situation influenced the development of Peru, and recognising specialists as stakeholders in development could help inform more resilient climate change adaption plans.26 Meanwhile, water developers monopolised on the climate change narrative, using it to promote their control over “diminishing natural resource[s]”27 by building infrastructures that were vulnerable to environmental disasters. This encouraged state intervention in disaster mitigation programs, because, as Carey notes, energy production was often a more compelling reason for governments to part with economic resources than loss of life.28

24 Carey, 25 Carey, 26 Carey, 27 Carey, 28 Carey,

Melting Melting Melting Melting Melting

Glaciers, Glaciers, Glaciers, Glaciers, Glaciers,

15 14 195 16 16

3 Conflict Resilience

3. Conflict Resilience “If there is a political will for peace, water will not be a hindrance. If you want reasons to fight, water will give you ample opportunities.” - Steve Lonergan29 Conflict caused by global warming influenced resource scarcities is now a major topic of research in the field of human development. Although an extremely complex area to extrapolate trends from due to the intricacies of social networks that are now global in scale, there is general agreement that there has been an increase in violent struggles related to resource shortages since the turn of the century. In a timeline documenting the world’s history of conflicts over water resources, the Pacific Institute found that there had been a four-fold increase in water disputes between 2004 and 2014.30 A study by Hsiang et al. found that for each degree increase of a location’s temperature, there was a 4 percent increase in the rate of interpersonal conflict and a 14 percent increase in the rate of group conflict.31 Given that projections from climate change models predict increasing drought in arid and semi-arid regions of the world, many of which are already politically unstable,32 these increases indicate a difficult future. In an Issues Brief by the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, these conflicts are outlined as occurring on four linked levels: local, national, international and global.33 Numerous violent conflicts over water in have occurred in Peru in recent years, primarily relating to development disputes in agricultural areas. These included and two conflicts in 2012 over the Minas Conga gold mine and the Xstrata Tintaya copper mine, and another in 2015 over Agrícola La Venta’s intentions to start pumping from three wells in an already water stressed region around the town of Ocucaje.34 While these disputes were contained and quickly dispersed, it is possible to examine the effects of widespread water scarcity on conflict by using case studies from other regions. In Syria, “Dwindling water resources and chronic mismanagement forced 1.5 million people, primarily farmers and herders, to lose their livelihoods and leave their land.”35. While this was not the sole contributor to the resultant conflict and Arab Spring, it certainly fuelled tensions and perhaps brought war to the region sooner than it may have otherwise occurred. Van der Heijden et al. refer to water stress as an “underlying conflict multiplier”.36 Indeed, if there is a correlation between rural displacement and conflict, then many regions across the world are vulnerable. With such a high incidence of urban migration across the globe, it is evident that over-burdened urban centres may also become sites of conflict in the near future. Conflict may also arise due to disaster events caused by climate change. In reference to specific events in Peru, Carey contends that, “1940’s outburst floors caused both social disasters and physical destruction because they obliterated culturally constructed markers of social distinction [and left the] population vulnerable to downward class mobility.”37 The detrimental effects of development and disaster on social networks puts increased pressure on vulnerable societies, and the resilience of a people to adapt to challenging circumstances is thus weakened. Arrojo-Agudo comments that “The greatest affliction borne by the mountain regions as a result of the impact of large dams is...the loss of social networks, both in the flooded valleys [and in] areas connected to and dependent on the flooded regions.”38 This demonstrates the impact that development programmes in response 29 Steve Lonergan, as quoted by Bruno Messerli, Daniel Viviroli and Rolf Weingertner in,“Mountains of the world” 28. 30 Suzanne Goldenberg, “Why global water shortages pose threat of terror and war.” The Guardian, February 9, 2014, last accessed April 1, 2017, https://www.theguardian.com/ environment/2014/feb/09/global-water-shortages-threat-terror-war 31 Solomon M. Hsiang, Marshall Burke and Edward Miguel, “Quantifying the Influence of Climate on Human Conflict.” Science Magazine, Vol. 341, Issue 6151, 1235367, September 13, 2013, last accessed April 1, 2017, doi: 10.1126/science.1235367 32 Goldenburg, “Global water shortages.” 33 United States Agency for International Development, “Mainstreaming Conflict Prevention: Water and Violent Conflict.” (Issues brief for Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, 2005). 34 “Water Conflict Chronology List,” Pacific Institute, last accessed April 1, 2017, http://www2.worldwater.org/conflict/list/ 35 Kitty van der Heijden, Betsy Otta and Andrew Maddocks, “Beyond Conflict, Water Stress Contributed to Europe’s Migration Crisis.” World Resources Institute, November 3, 2015, last accessed April 1, 2017, http://www.wri.org/blog/2015/11/beyond-conflict- water-stress-contributed-europe%E2%80%99s-migration-crisis 36 Van de Heijden, Otta and Maddocks, “Beyond Conflict” 37 Carey, Melting Glaciers, 17 38 Pedro Arrojo-Agudo, “Water management in mountain regions: The Impact of Large Dams,” in Managing Water Resources in Time of Global Change: Mountains, Valleys and Flood Plains, ed.

to climate change can be equally as destructive as climate events themselves. There is much literature that discusses the need for implementing water governance programmes which will reduce the risks of conflict. As Messerli et al. remark in reference to the Food and Agriculture Organisation’s initiative, “Preparing the next generation of watershed management programs and projects for sustainable mountain development.”, “These must have a high priority for capacity building and for cooperation in transboundary water problems and conflicts.”39 Frequently, official documents from global organisations focus primarily on socio-political organisation, highlighting the importance of including rural populations in the decision making process. Yet they fail to include practical considerations for how the built environment can be used as a tool to potentially alleviate disputes through considered design.

Alberto Garrido and Ariel Dinar (New York: Routledge, 2009), 238. Messerli, Viviroli and Weingartner, “Mountains of the World,” 24.

4 Alternative Architectures

Secondary Water Way

Glacier

Large Water Body

Relative Output (MWe)

Gas Power Plant

Hydrroelectric Power Plant

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Areas Vulnerable to Sea Level Rise (+5m shown)

Extent of Lima Aquifer

4. Alternative Architectures 4.1 Strengthening knowledge Although there is a lack of discussion over the role of built infrastructure to mitigate effects in drought prone regions, this could largely relate to an overall shortage of information in the most vulnerable areas. Garrido and Dinar demonstrate how uncertainties still plague heavily developed and well-studied alpine regions such as the Alps, and question how accurate predictions can be made for ranges with far less data.40 Whilst Messerli et al question the significance, given the importance of the Alps in the water cycles of humid-temperate climate regions, of ranges, “...in the most critical and vulnerable arid and semi-arid regions...”41 They also note that although there is a lack of data for these regions, when data does exist, it can sometimes be difficult to access, as, “...in water-scarce regions discharge data have high strategic value and are frequently kept confidential.”42 Messerli et al, describe “...today’s state of knowledge about mountain hydrology...” as “...insufficient and makes sustainable water management quite impossible.”43 However, they offer a model, based on mechanisms employed in better studied areas, for improving this knowledge. They propose a network of “high mountain observatories” to monitor freshwater resources in mountain regions which could also be used as “...an early warning system and to observe continuously the water supply in regions with an uncertain precipitation regime.” 44 Whilst the knowledge from such observatories is inherently required to develop adaptive infrastructure, it does pose a design consideration as to how such observatories may become part of this network.

4.2 Reconnecting Glacier and Coast - Temporal Scales “The world’s most valuable water resources originate in mountainous areas. However, the most valuable water uses are in the flood plains, deltas, and transition zones in the coastal areas.” - Alberto Garrido and Ariel Dinar45 With the proliferation of large dams in the 20th Century, and gains to hydropower production and irrigated agriculture, came a complex set of problems. By storing water in large reservoirs, and diverting water from rivers and streams for agricultural purposes, riparian landscapes suffered ecological damage. Although this water was used to produce essential resources for downstream urban centres, it placed pressure on the water supplies for these populations. Up until 2014, the Colorado river had not reached the sea in sixteen years.46 This disruption to natural cycles not only damages ecosystems, but also the hydrology of the river basin. If a river does not flow, aquifers cannot be replenished. Even where rivers do flow with a much reduced capacity, growing populations’ extraction of ground water often outstrips the refill rate, leaving these populations vulnerable in times of drought. The Rio Rímac in Lima is a parched river basin for much of the year, and many poor families have made their home on its banks. They not only face water shortages due to a lack of sound infrastructure, but are vulnerable to flooding during the winter season and El Niño events, as seen in recent weeks. Storm water is then lost to the ocean in vast quantities, leaving a trail of destruction in its wake. Although extreme climatic events are at play, the disconnection between headwater areas and coastal basins due to human intervention exacerbates the problem. Recalibrating these cycles, and accommodating their temporal 40 Alberto Garrido and Ariel Dinar, “Overcoming the constraints for a more integrated and adaptive water management: A new agenda for upland waters,” in Managing Water Resources in a Time of Global Change: Mountains, Valleys and Flood Plains, ed. Alberto Garrido and Ariel Dinar (New York: Routledge, 2009), 255. 41 Messerli, Viviroli and Weingartner, “Mountains of the World,” 16. 42 Messerli, Viviroli and Weingartner, “Mountains of the World,” 15. 43 Messerli, Viviroli and Weingartner, “Mountains of the World,” 19. 44 Messerli, Viviroli and Weingartner, “Mountains of the World,” 21-22. 45 Alberto Garrido and Ariel Dinar, “Overcoming the constraints.” 254. 46 Sandra Postel, “A Sacred Reunion: The Colorado River Returns to the Sea.” National Geographic, May 19, 2014, last accessed April 1, 2017, http://voices.nationalgeographic. com/2014/05/19/a-sacred-reunion-the-colorado-river-returns-to-the-sea/

changes on a daily, seasonal and annual basis, is essential to effective water management.

Adapting to these temporal scales by creating a comprehensive water calendar will allow storage and effective utilisation of excess storm water in times when there is a shortage.47

4.3 New relations: Building, Site, Neighbourhood, Watershed - Spatial Scales “There is no water deficit, but a deficit in high water quality.” - Eilon Adar48 To regain control of the world’s water resources we must reassess the way we view water. It must become a considered aspect in the masterplan of our ever growing cities. For this to be achieved, considerations of spatial scale are of paramount importance. Closedloop cycles across vast distances of huge watersheds may be lacking required knowledge currently, but creating these cycles at a domestic scale is within our capabilities, and would contribute to a larger network when combined. There are countless systems being studied for water collection, filtration and reuse from builing to city wide scales, a selection of which are discussed below.

Building Scale Collecting water in humid environments that experience little rainfall has been attempted in several locations, including Peru, with notable success in producing water for smallscale agricultural purposes. These fog catchers are often made from simple materials, making them accessible to poor and rural communities. However, in order to optimise these systems for widespread use, such as in densely populated areas, integration into the built form is required. The Centre for Architecture Science and Ecology has been developing a functional façade system called Solar Enclosures for Water Reuse (SEWR).49 SEWR captures both water droplets from humid air and solar radiation to treat the collected greywater for immediate reuse. Margot and Chaouni explain, “ultraviolet light initiates photocatalytic activity to decontaminate and heat greywater for reuse within the building. End uses range from drinking and bathing to toilet flushing, irrigation, cooling, and heating.”50 Systems such as these reduce the net drain a from a city’s water resources, and could even be used to replenish them in times of excess production. Lima experiences over 80 percent humidity year round, and so has excellent potential for the implementation for such systems.

Site Scale To mediate shortages caused by intermittent drought, desalination can be used as a means to secure freshwater supplies for large conurbations. Such methods can also be used to increase water independence where transboundary disputes may arise. Although economic costs have fallen in recent years due to technological advances, specifically in relation to the reverse osmosis method, required energy inputs are still extremely high, raising question about suitability for countries that still predominantly depend on fossil fuels. Tal describes the belief in science and technology to mitigate climate change as a Promethean outlook,51 whilst Lawlon Isler argues that a reduction in consumption should be the priority, only viewing technology as a back-up plan, “Desalination reinforces the institutional tendency to rely on supply-side solutions, which in turn encourages wasteful 47 48 49 50 51

Margolis and Chaouni, Out of Water, 18. Eilon Adar, as quoted by Liat Margolis and Aziza Chaouni in, Out of Water, 17. Liat Margolis and Aziza Chaouni, Out of Water (Germany: Birkhauser Verlag AG, 2015), 44. Margolis and Chaouni, Out of Water, 44. Alon Tal, “Technical Optimism as an Antidote to Water Scarcity: Desalination Systems in Israel, Australia, and Spain” in Out of Water, ed. Liat Marglolis and Aziza Chaouni (Germany: Birkhauser Verlag AG, 2015), 47.

Fig. 8. (Above) Solar enclosure for water reuse Fig. 9. (Right) SEWR faรงade system Fig. 10. (Below) Victoria desalination plant

consumption habits, and reduces incentives to adapt water-use behaviours.”52 The environmental impacts of a plethora of desalination plants is still not fully understood and as such new plants must be carefully monitored. The disposal of concentrated brine may have far reaching effects on the marine environment. However, desalination could mitigate decimation of riparian environments upstream, due to a reduction in river diversion projects and dams.53 Examples of energy neutral desalination plants include the Ashekelon plant in Israel, which collects pressurised brine from each plant’s reverse osmosis banks and reclaims the energy.54 Maintaining aesthetic qualities of the coastline is also an important consideration when proposing large infrastructures. Victoria desalination plant in Australia was designed with this in mind. “The projects ambition was to seamlessly integrate...into the landscape.”55 As such, it incorporated a huge 225 hectare ecological restoration project.

Neighbourhood Scale In order to fully utilise the systems mentioned above, they need to be incorporated into a larger urban scheme. At this scale it is necessary to consider water quality and required uses. Greywater is often wasted in areas where there are water shortages, Lima currently recycles 17.5m2/s of its waste water from 85.4 percent of the population. By utilising a “gradient of water qualities”56 for a variety of operations, it is possible to move towards a closed-loop system for major urban areas. The process of pairing specific demands with distinct water types is often seen in agricultural projects, from small scale aquaponics systems to huge national programmes, such as Israel’s unified water distribution system.57 These demonstrate the possibilities to apply such a mechanism to urban agriculture to increase localised food security. Utilising a dual water supply system with parallel potable and non-potable pipe networks58 would allow collection and use of both storm and waste water for urban agriculture and incorporation into public space. Bjarke Ingels Group are taking the closed loop approached into the energy sector, with proposals for energy exchanges between programmes that produce excess heat, such as supermarket refrigerators, with those require constant heating, such as swimming pools. Margolis and Chaouni consider ideas for efficient urban programmes using this, “The new urban architectural typology could produce a scenario in which a parent is grocery shopping while their child enjoys a swim lesson at the pool. This level of synergy and opportunism can be extrapolated for water cycling in the city and the ways in which new programs and experiences could develop.”59

4.4 What is the architect’s role? What has been demonstrated through this research is the need for a multi-disciplinary approach to urban planning and water management. A diverse knowledge of many interrelated topics is necessary. It is the architect’s role to bring together the fields of scientific analysis, engineering and socio-political relations to form an understanding of the aspects at play in a particular location, and to then formulate informed design solutions capable of adapting to an uncertain future. Often this will involve convincing policy makers of the best route to achieving social cohesion and environmental conservation through urban design. The application of technical knowledge in the field of design will allow interventions at various scales to be considered. The nature of design also allows for the possibility of “...new and unconventional pairings of urban land uses [to] emerge, which in turn could generate new architectural typologies...”60 52 Phoenix Lawlon Isler as quoted by Alon Tal in “Technical Optimism”, 56. 53 Tal, “Technical Optimism”, 57. 54 Ashkelon, Israel, last accessed April 1, 2017, http://www.water-technology.net/projects/ israel/ 55 Margolis and Chaouni, Out of Water, 43. 56 Margolis and Chaouni, Out of Water, 17. 57 Eilon M. Adar, “Bridging The Gap Between Available Water and Water Demand: Water Technologies for Agricultural Production in Israel” in Out of Water, ed. Liat Margolis and Aziza Chaouni (Germany: Birkhauser Verlag AG, 2015), 97. 58 Margolis and Chaouni, Out of Water, 18. 59 Margolis and Chaouni, Out of Water, 19. 60 Margolis and Chaouni, Out of Water, 19.

Fig. 11. Sketch reimagining a closed loop water cycle by Jimenez Lai A new role for architects working in the field of development could be to act as a â&#x20AC;&#x153;... two-way bridge between universities and research labs on one hand and with local NGOs and community leaders on the other.â&#x20AC;?1 This would allow a feedback cycle between design solutions and real world applications with theoretical considerations in universities. A model for this is The Centre for Affordable Water and Sanitation Technology, which takes a similar approach.

Margolis and Chaouni, Out of Water, 42.

5 Conclusion

Fig. 12 & 13. Integrated coastal defences and desalination plant proposal, Gradients of water qualities flow through channels heading for different uses, creating public spaces and restocking the cityâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s aquifer.

5. Conclusion This research has shown that creating a resilient hydrological landscape for the future is dependent on cross-disciplinary action involving science, technology, policy, culture and design. As explained in Out of Water, “Waterlessness is not only defined according to its climatic context, but also by its socio-technological milieu. In fact, water should be reframed as a factor of natural-social-technological dynamics.”61 Architects are at the centre of this collaboration due to their unique capabilities to combine these aspects into informed proposals for the urban environment. Key themes that have emerged are outlined below.

Adaption before mitigation Perhaps the most essential factor in designing for the future is understanding the importance of adaption. A resilient society is one that can adapt to a changing environment. This can be manifested in both the built form and social perception. An adjustment in the way we view and use water resources is essential to conserving them for the future. Equally, remodelling the urban environment for better conservation, storage and distribution is also necessary. Relying too heavily on technology to provide alternate sources of freshwater, such as desalination, leaves a population vulnerable to unexpected developments in climatological systems. However, utilising these technologies to replenish and support the existing hydrological landscape strengthens a community’s ability to adapt. For example, using desalination to replenish existing aquifers, thus reducing the salinity of overused resources, not only allows storage for times of need, but also supports ecological restoration, which lends itself to conserving natural water resources.

Historical and cultural placement An appreciation of the cultural and historical context of a given location is fundamental in being able to create relevant proposals. Local populations often have a an indepth knowledge of their environments in a way that science struggles to demonstrate fully. Incorporating this knowledge into modern mechanisms is essential to cultural and environmental integrity and can improve efficiency. In this sense, vernacular water models can provide technical and spatial models for modern proposals.62

Availability and allocation Rethinking how we use water, and for what purposes, establishes new considerations for a dual supply system. Conserving limited freshwater supplies for human consumption by repurposing wastewater for agricultural purposes implicates the possibility of closed loops systems, further strengthening the resilience of water networks to adapt to changing climate conditions. Assigning value to waste water will incentivise populations to carefully consider their usage patterns. As Margoli and Chaouni explain, “By reframing the questions—what is water used for, what is the required quality state, and when is it needed?—water can be perceived in a much more nuanced way, a valuable resource in all of its quality states.”63

61 62 63

Bakker, as quoted by Liat Margolis and Aziza Chaouni in Out of Water, 15 Margolis and Chaouni, Out of Water, 94. Margolis and Chaouni, Out of Water, 17.

Fig. 14 & 15. Terraced dam proposal, storm and meltwater flow into the reservoir from nearby mountains, when the reservoir is at capacity overflow can be stored in the various pools for agricultural irrigation and groundwater replenishment. Incorporating agricultural terraces into the dam structure prevents the need for river diversion and maintains the cultural language of the Andes.

Temporal and spatial scales Of equal importance is increasing our understanding of scales of water. By considering entire watersheds, the value of water at the domestic scale is often lost. Designing new models for individual buildings with water collection and reuse in mind will strengthen the overall model. Additionally, accommodating changes to flow and precipitation rates on a temporal scale within urban masterplans will further mitigate the effects of unexpected or extended periods of droughts.

Effective management Ultimately the most important element to emphasise however, is the need for effective management. Without adequate oversight, the aforementioned disciplines will carry on working in parallel, producing valuable contributions, but never forming a strong solution to the forthcoming challenges. As attested by Ayadi in Managing Water Resources in a Time of Global Change, “No engineering dream, however sophisticated and detailed, can provide benefits in the absence of a governance model.”64 This demonstrates the need for pragmatic design solutions that are accessible to all. In order to convince policy makers and public alike, proposals must be clear and viable in a range of political and economic situations. The understandings outlined above were manifested in the design work in the following ways: the repurposing of agricultural terraces for hydrological infrastructure allows better flow control from headwater areas, while providing arable land without the need for diverting river flow and preserving the cultural landscape of Andean communities. Equally, maintaining this language for the coastal intervention allows ecological restoration and aesthetic improvements, creating public amenity while allowing desalinated water to percolate into the existing aquifer. Perhaps lacking from the design considerations were smaller scale interventions to increase resilience. A revisit to the impact that interventions at a domestic scale can have on the wider environment is necessary in developing a stronger proposal.

Garrido and Dinar, “Overcoming the constraints”, 261.

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Image References: Fig. 1. Pastouri Glacier retreat since 1986, by National Water Authority, Peru/ Guardian, found at https://www.theguardian.com/global-development-professionalsnetwork/2015/apr/15/peru-glacier-melt-metals-farmers-adaptation-pastoruri [accessed Jan 10, 2017] Fig. 2. Average rainfall and humidity in Lima, author’s own. Fig. 3. Communal Participation in constructing irrigation works, by Engineers Without Borders, found at: http://www.ewb.umd.edu/projects/compone-peru-irrigation [accessed Jan 4, 2017] Fig. 4. Agricultural terraces, found at: http://emmamyers903.weebly.com/primary-andsecondary-sources1.html [accessed Jan 10, 2017] Fig. 5. Andean irrigation, found at: http://misapuntesvadillo.blogspot.ac.uk/2012/05/ parque-arqueologico-de-tipon.html [ accessed Jan 8, 2017] Fig. 6 & 7. Protests over Tambogrande mine development, found at: http://elmontonero. pe/politica/el-radicalismo-en-campaa/ [accessed Jan 9, 2017] Fig. 8 & 9. Solar enclosure for water reuse and SEWR façade system, found at http:// www.architectmagazine.com/photos/solar-enclosure-for-water-reuse [accessed April 3, 2017] Fig. 10. Victoria desalination plant, found at http://desalination.edu.au/2014/10/whywe-need-seawater-desalination-plants/#.WOH4ahLyuRs [accessed April 2, 2017] Fig. 11. Sketch reimagining a closed loop water cycle by Jimenez Lai, found at http:// www.grahamfoundation.org/grantees/3942-citizens-of-no-place-an-architectural-graphicnovel [accessed April 3, 2017] Fig. 12 & 13. Integrated coastal defences and desalination plant proposal, author’s own. Fig. 14 & 15. Terraced dam proposal, author’s own. All other images author’s own.