The Role of Landscape Architecture in Developing Sustainable Human Habitats

This research aims to analyze how to design, and spatially organize a new settlement to meet the present and future needs of excombatants in Colombia. Conducted through an ongoing participatory process and mutual aid approach, this thesis discusses the role of development beyond Housing, as it pertains to the livelihood of the inhabitants of Tierra Grata. This work is an important and timely contribution for researchers, policy, and decision-makers, as well as those who aspire and are committed to combating climate change and protecting the environment.

The Role of Landscape Architecture in Developing Sustainable Human Habitats

The case of Tierra Grata, Cesar, Colombia

Marie Tina Asoh Ajesam masohajesam@student.ethz.ch

Marie Tina Asoh Ajesam

The Role of Landscape Architecture in Developing Sustainable Human Habitats

Marie Tina Asoh Ajesam masohajesam@student.ethz.ch

MAS ETH IN HOUSING 2021-2022

Thesis Nr. 137

Supervisors:

Dr. Jennifer Duyne Barenstein Daniela Sanjines

Co-supervisors:

Prof. Hubert Klumpner Prof. Dr Christian Schmid

Acknowledgments

This research would not be possible without the guidance of my academic advisors, Dr. Jennifer Duyne Barenstein and Daniela Sanjines. Thank you both for your patience, flexibility, availability, and mutual excitement over the evolution of this work and for helping guide my ideas to fruition. Thank you, Luna D. Rodriguez Lopez, for your vision and attitude, and especially for being a supportive partner, friend, and personal translator during my time in Colombia--thankyoufordaringtodreamwithme.

My profound gratitude and appreciation to my entire family, especially my father, Dr. Derek Asoh Ajesam, and sibling, Malik Asoh, for editing and proofreading this text. To my partner, Fabian Meier, thank you for supporting me through the ups and downs of this research--I am eternally grateful. Many thanks to my friends at Tierra Grata for welcoming me into your community and trusting me to tell your stories to the best of my capacity.

Finally, I give thanks to Zanahary for the presence of all the above-mentioned and the accomplishment of this work.

The case of Tierra Grata, Cesar, Colombia

Abstract

This thesis aims to examine the role of landscape architecture in sustainable human habitats, in particular within the context of Tierra Grata, in the region of Cesar in Colombia. Through an analysis of identified problems, this thesis attempts to deepen our understanding of the role of the environment and the complexity of incorporating appropriate landscape elements and other necessary spatial infrastructures as response instruments for food security, climate change and the economic and environmental vitality of a settlement. Additionally, this research highlights the need for food-centered cities through the prioritization and protection of the community’s connection to nature and how it relates to the identity, livelihood, and quality of life of the inhabitants. Furthermore, this work explores how spatial planning can shape the transitory spaces between homes while improving user experience through the implementation of tree planting as a means for climatic comfort. This thesis concludes with a proposal in the form of a conceptual landscape master plan with the potential to be implemented through the support of a mutual aid action plan. Although the solutions are not restricted to the architectural discipline, it is recommended that they should be approached with a mindset of spatial equality for successful reconciliation and implementation.

Keywords: Peace-building, Reconciliation, Urban Agriculture, Landscape Architecture, Sustainable Habitats, Food Urbanism i

Introduction

11.1 Research Questions

1.2 Research Methodology

1.3 Thesis Structure

2Beyond Housing: Landscape Architecture in Practice

2.1 The Origin and Evolution of Landscape Architecture 2.2 Trees, People and the Natural Environment 2.3 Cultural Landscapes and Environmental Movements 2.4 Conclusion

3 Urban Agriculture:A Review of Selected Case Studies

3.1 The Global Role of Urban Agriculture

The Politics of Food Justice in Colombia

The Food Urbanism Initiative 3.4 Conclusion

4The Case of Tierra Grata, Cesar, Colombia

4.1 Ciudadela de Paz: A New Settlement

The School of Architecture for Reconciliation

A Local Perspective: Conversations and Interviews

Challenges and Opportunities

Operación Cañahuate: The Eco-Productive Citadel

Conclusion and Reflections

5.1 Limitations

Strategies for the Future

Bibliography

Appendix

List of Figures

List of Tables

List of Appendix

List of Acronyms

Preface

Figure i. Cover page: Mango tree foliage in Valledupar, Colombia. Source: Marie Tina Asoh

Figure 1. Methodology outline and image of Marco Guevara next to his living commune. Source: Marie Tina Asoh

Figure 2. The thesis structure summarized. Source: Marie Tina Asoh

Figure 3. Image of five physical elements and components Source: Jojic, 2018

Figure 4. Aerial photo of Brønby Haveby, Denmark. © Henry Do.

Figure 5: Garden City Map by Ebenezer Howard. Via Wikimedia Commons, public domain, 1902

Figure 6. Victory Garden posters from World War II. Office of War Information, National Archives (left) and Morley, War Food Administration (right) / Public Domain

Figure 7. Permaculture principles according to Bill Mollison. Source: The Seedling at Sagada, Australia

Figures 8 and 9. Women and children planting trees in Kenya. Source: The Green Belt Movement, 2020.

Figure 10. WMI Landscape Master plan. Source: Wangari Maathai Institute for Peace & Environmental Studies (WMI).

Figure 11. An urban agricultural farmer in Niayes Valley, Senegal. Source: Madeleine Bair.

Figure 12. Micro-gardening training centres in Dakar, Senegal. Source: Ms. Ndeye Ndack Pouye Mbodj.

Figure 13. View from TransMi Cable Car facing the top of Ciudad Bolívar. Source: Marie Tina Asoh

Figure 14. Context of Tierra Grata Source: School of Architecture for Reconciliation Reader (2022).

Figure 15. One of the prototype model houses built in Tierra Grata, a conceptual diagram of the model house available in Appendix B . Source: Tierra Grata.

Figure 16. Map of Ciudadela de Paz, Spatial Analysis, and Intervention Strategies sample from publication in collaboration with ENSA-V. Source: Paz y cooperativas de vivienda (2021) (Above)

Figure 17. Map of Ciudadela de Paz, Spatial Opportunities, and Elements, a sample from publication in collaboration with ENSA-V. Source: Paz y cooperativas de vivienda (2021).

Figure 18. Vegetable gardens as a potential spatial element, including a variety of options in planting beds and typology. Sample from publication in collaboration with fellow students from ETH Zurich. Source: Paz y cooperativas de vivienda (2021).

Figure 19. Women and children from the community of Ciudadela de Paz, Tierra Grata, Source: Luna D. Rodriguez Lopez.

Figure 20. Orly and Luna walk towards the development plots. Source: Marie Tina Asoh

Figure 21. An example of how inhabitants mark their plot boundaries while waiting for the horses to be built. Source: Marie Tina Asoh

Figure 22. Antonio showed us the stock of quick stick trees, (Gliricidia sepium) often used for making fences due to their fast growth rate. Source: Marie Tina Asoh

Figure 23. (Above) Marco showing us a photo of his property, in 2016 when he first arrived, versus

Figure 24. (Below) him standing in the same spot today, illustrating his commitment to re-greening his new settlement. Source: Marie Tina Asoh

Figure 25-26. Luna discusses with local construction workers about future development on the new site, as they demolish trees to make way for a new settlement (below). Source: Marie Tina Asoh

Figure 27. A visual indication of opportunities and constraints of the new and current site (continued on the following page) Source: Marie Tina Asoh

Figure 28. ETCR Tierra Grata in context to the new settlement. Source: Tierra Grata Official

Figure 29. Google base map of settlement site and digitalized settlement master plan for Tierra Grata. Source: Tierra Grata Official Website

Figure 30. A conceptual master plan and coordinated action plan for Ciudadela de Paz, also referenced in Appendix F. Source: Marie Tina Asoh and Luna D. Rodriguez Lopez

Figure 31. An example of a mango tree in an urban setting, providing shade and influencing the microclimate in Valledupar. Source: Marie Tina Asoh

Figure 32. A conceptual cross-section through the site for Ciudadela de Paz which appears in better quality in Appendix G. Source: Marie Tina Asoh and Luna D. Rodriguez Lopez

Figure 33. Above: Luna identifying local plant specifies for the inventory list. Source: Marie Tina Asoh

Figure 34. Below: The current state of the nursery roof, which needs to be replaced as part of the action plan. Source: Marie Tina Asoh

Figure 35. Luna presented our Tree-planting initiative and master plan concept to the community. Source: Daniela Sanjines

Figure 36. The ETH and UNAV Group, including teachers and working guests from the School of Architecture for Reconciliation, posed in front of one of the prototype houses, which we utilized as our “working quarters” for the week. Source: Daniela Sanjines

Table 1. City Dimension and the Role of Landscape Architect Source: Yang, 2022

Table 2. The benefit of urban trees and corresponding SDGs. Source: Turner-Scoff, 2019

Table 3. Relationship among the principles of urban quality. Source: Verzone and Woods, 2021

Table 4. Criteria for evaluation within the FUI. Source: Verzone and Woods, 2021

Appendix A: The Benefit of urban trees and corresponding Sustainable Development Goals continued. Source: Turner-Scoff, 2019

Appendix B: Prototype of the model house designed for Tierra Grata’s new settlement. Source: Paz y cooperativas de Vivienda 2021.

Appendix C: Site photos of Tierra Grata. Source: Marie Tina Asoh

Appendix D: A cultural meeting point at the center of the commune. Source: Marie Tina Asoh

Appendix E: Housing typologies and cultural landscape elements at Tierra Grata. Source for the above photos: Marie Tina Asoh. Source for the photo below: Tierra Grata’s Official Website

APPENDIX F: Zoom in on the conceptual master plan. Source: Marie Tina Asoh

Appendix G: Conceptual cross sections of the chosen site. Source: Luna D. Rodrigues Lopez

Appendix H: Inventory of Plant Nursery, March 2022. Source: Marie Tina Asoh and Luna D. Rodrigues Lopez

BTC / CEB Compacted Earth Blocks

CIESIN Center for International Earth Science Network

CONFECOOP Confederation of Colombian Cooperatives

ENSAV National School of Architecture of Versailles École Nationale Supérieure d’Architecture de Versailles

EPRS European Parliament Research Services

ETCR Territorial Spaces for Capacity Building and Reincorporation

FAO Food and Agriculture Organization

FARC Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia (People’s Army) Fuerzas Armadas Revolucionarias de Colombia (Ejército Del Pueblo)

FUI Food Urbanism Initiative

IDRC International Development Research Canada

PSF Project without Borders Fundacion Proyectar Sin Fronteras

PUA Peri-Urban Agriculture

RTF Right to Food

SDG Sustainable Development Goal UA Urban Agriculture UN United Nations

UNAL The National University of Colombia Universidad Nacional de Colombia

UPUA Urban-/Peri Urban Agriculture

WMI Wangari Maathai Institute for Peace & Environmental Studies

Marie Tina Asoh Ajesam

PREFACE

According to the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) and the United Nations Human Settlements Programme (UN Habitat), habitat is defined as “the locality in which a plant or animal naturally grows or lives. It can be either the geographical area over which it extends, or the location in which a specimen is found” (UNEP, 202therefore the places where people live are called the human habitat, including environments in which they sleep, eat, and often work (SIEM, 2006).

As someone who grew up on the constant move, I have borne witnessed, experienced, and participated in a variety of human habitats. From being born in Cameroon to spending my early years in the United States, and even briefly living in Botswana before “settling” in Canada for my adolescent years, I am most familiar with the feeling of searching for a place to call home. When people ask me where I am from, I often hesitate to answer, because I have never felt like I am from one place in particular; rather an accumulation of the places I have had the opportunity to live in. Through my parents’ career opportunities, my family was constantly on the move which offered us an opportunity to experience and be part of various social, cultural, and of course, political environments. Through these experiences, what stuck with me the most was always the spatial qualities (and inequalities) of the environments I lived in. As a result of my parents, particularly my father, being offered the opportunity to teach as a professor at various universities, we often saw it as a good thing, an opportunity for growth, for change. As a child, however, you may struggle with change, especially when it is not your choice, and especially when there are added layers of political changes and other events beyond your comprehension (such as understanding the preoccupation of the inhabitants in the locality you find yourself within)

These were my exact sentiments as I began my journey traveling into the commune of Tierra Grata, Ciudadela de Paz, (the Citadel of Peace), in the region of Cesar, Colombia in March of this year (2022). I imagined how the children currently in this commune came to be where they are, how their parents had little to no say in where they would be, but rather settled there as a response to a necessity, to meet their livelihood and housing needs within their capacity. During the time I spent in Colombia, I visited the towns/cities/localities of Bogota, Valledupar, Tierra Grata, and Barranquilla, I was able to witness the disparity in access to not only well maintained public spaces and parks, but also the spatial development of neighbourhoods and community spaces, especially for those who could not choose where they settled, such as refugees, immigrants, low income families, and of course, ex combatants among other

vulnerable populations. Through these personal experiences, I came to realize that regardless of the country, access to housing, especially close to quality public spaces is a concept reserved for the “privileged” based on how different governments incorporate (or fail to incorporate) adequate and sustainable spatial planning for these vulnerable communities. In a physical sense, I could see how different cities or neighbourhoods were spatially designed to influence who has access to a place in terms of proximity and safety, in line with an analysis in a recent New York Times article:

“In poorer neighbourhoods, residents have access to 21 percent less park space than those who live in high income areas, the Trust for Public Land analysis found. The disparity is deeper along racial lines: Those in neighbourhoods that are home to people of color have access to 33 percent less park space than people in largely white areas.” (Closson, 2021)

This percentage applies to New York, but when we look at other cities, states, and even countries, it becomes clear how relevant the theme of disparity is prevalent. Spatial planners, landscape architects, and architects alike, therefore, have a role, or rather a responsibility in ensuring that the planning of new settlements is carried out with a balanced view alongside its inhabitants. This will further ensure that there is a more human inclusive and sustainable approach to development, especially within the sensitive context of peace building and reconciliation as is the case in Colombia. With the political and environmental climate of the world today, we can each only do our part to take care of the environment that takes care of us. The aim of this work is therefore to evoke a sense of urgency, and responsibility among all of us, including you, dear reader, so we can all do our part in forming the ideal community in which our habitats can be sustained and meet not only our needs but the needs of future generations.

The Role of Landscape Architecture in Developing Sustainable Habitats

Marie Tina Asoh Ajesam

The Role of Landscape Architecture in Developing Sustainable Habitats

Marie Tina Asoh Ajesam

1. INTRODUCTION

On November 24th, 2016, a peace treaty was signed to signal an end to the armed conflict between the National Government of Colombia and the largest guerrilla group, FARC EP (Fuerzas Armadas Revolucionarias de Colombia Ejército Del Pueblo). The goal of this peace treaty was to build stable, long lasting peace and end the forced displacement of millions of Colombian men, women, and children victims of the armed conflict (Barenstein and Sanjines, 2022). Many communities were greatly affected by the conflict, from urban to rural communities, including Indigenous people, political parties, and economic associations. As a result, this peace treaty poses challenges for communities affected by the conflict as well as ex combatants in the process of reincorporation to access adequate housing and livelihood opportunities. For all those affected by the armed conflict, the right to protection is sacred to them, equally as the access to their Indigenous lands. However, even with the peace treaty signed, the aftermath of the crisis is far from being resolved.

As the Government of Colombia has been unable to provide long term viable solutions, housing continues to remain an issue for those affected. Re integrating approximately 10,000 ex combatants back into the system as war veterans is mandatory and is perhaps the greatest of the challenges; there is a dire need for an alternate approach to address basic housing needs for them and the others affected. As part of the peace negotiation process, the ex combatants received an opportunity to “reintegrate as a means to maintain their identity and social cohesion” (Barenstein and Sanjines, 2022) which led to the creation of 24 temporary camps as a means of housing. The relocation of the ex combatants into temporary camps, referred to as “Territorial Spaces for Capacity Building and Reincorporation” (ETCR), included a total of up to 3,000 ex combatants as inhabitants (Barenstein and Sanjines, 2022). These spaces were intended to be transitory; however, their legal status expired as of August 2020, highlighting once again the reality of post conflict realities: the lack of long term solutions for adequate housing and sustainable habitats. A long term solution to territorial peace is undoubtedly attainable through a combination of architectural, anthropological, and landscape architectural approaches applied in assessing the built environment and creating solutions that can be integrated as part of a community's rural/urban development plan.

The Role of Landscape Architecture in Developing Human Habitats

To date, the housing commune of Tierra Grata continues to work towards peace building and reconciliation by reimagining their ideal settlement. The community came together and pulled their resources to buy land adjacent to their ETCR to develop a housing cooperative project inspired by the Uruguayan Mutual aid Housing Cooperative Model. This approach, with fervently hope would meet not only their immediate needs but also the future needs of their families and off springs (Barenstein and Sanjines, 2022). Through receiving support from local and international academic and non academic institutions and organizations, they have succeeded in advancing the development of their vision, as they have begun constructing their homes. However, there remains a need to plan for and design communal spaces, for a community seeking to not only maintain but also reclaim their collective identity. To do so, it is imperative to address challenges that go beyond the four walls of a housing unit. Beyond housing, one of the main components that need to be urgently addressed is the development of a master plan that prioritizes forest and landscape conservation for sustainable development.

This component addresses three distinct needs:

• food security and urban agriculture as a source for individuals’ livelihood opportunities,

• an environmental protection plan in which a housing development project can be constructed while conserving the sensitive state of the immediate ecological context, and

• an urban forest and spatial plan to ensure qualitative public spaces that can provide immediate climatic comfort for the current and future residents of the commune.

Marie Tina Asoh Ajesam

1.1. Research Questions

Through the development of an action research project carried out over the last two years, this thesis aims to answer the following question: How can landscape architectural practices aid in improving the sustainability of human habitats, while fostering community cohesion and supporting peace and reconciliation?

The following sub questions are examined:

1. How can urban agriculture projects contribute to food security and enhance community development?

2. What are some examples of urban agriculture globally and in Latin America?

3. How can landscape architecture and urban agriculture support the collective reincorporation of ex combatants in Colombia?

1.2. Research Methodology

This research was conducted within the years 2021 2022 using a combination of qualitative and case study research methods, outlined in Figure 1 on page 5. The first phase of the qualitative research focused on secondary data collection and analysis. This was attainable through the revision of academic papers, policy documents, reports, presentations, and articles on landscape architecture, food security, urban agriculture, and community development. The secondary data collection process was enhanced by the review of reports of selected case studies around the world; the analysis of the qualitative data from the first phase provided pointers for the second phase. The second phase of the research project was a case study of the housing commune Tierra Grata, in Cesar, Colombia. The case study research was conducted within the framework of two seminar weeks of the “School of Architecture for Reconciliation: Knowledge Exchange and Production of Mutual Aid Housing Cooperatives for Peace” with the community of Tierra Grata. The accumulation of primary data was done through a week long field study where semi structured interviews were conducted with four prominent community leaders and residents within the community, as well through photographs, films observations in the field, and hands on collaboration with students of the Universidad Nacional de Colombia (UNAL).

The Role of Landscape Architecture in Developing Human Habitats

1.3. Thesis Structure

This thesis is organized into five chapters, including this introduction, as depicted in Figure 2 on the following page. Chapter two outlines the analytical framework used by defining the role of landscape architecture, and how it pertains to development, especially regarding spatial quality and sustainable human habitats. Chapter three reviews various precedents reported in the literature to better understand the current state of research on urban agriculture in the Global North and South. Multiple scales of urban agriculture (UA) and how the definition and implementation of UA manifest differently in different contexts are examined. Through the introduction of the Food Urbanism Initiative (FUI) as a planning initiative and analytical framework, this chapter concludes with a discourse on food centered community development. Chapter four focuses on the context of Tierra Grata highlighting the background and context for the case study research. This chapter further presents the School of Architecture for Reconciliation and my contribution to the program within the last two years; this includes a summary of the interviews and analyses conducted, which helped to inform the final project proposal which may be eventually implemented within the Ciudadela de Paz

Commune. Finally, Chapter five concludes with reflections on experiences within a participatory workshop model over the past two years, suggestions for future research, strategies, and recommendations that other ECTRs can learn from and apply to their development endeavors and social activities.

Marie Tina Asoh Ajesam

Figure 1. Methodology outline and image of Marco Guevara next to his living commune. Source: Marie Tina Asoh

Figure 2. The thesis structure summarized. Source: Marie Tina Asoh

The Role of Landscape Architecture in Developing Human Habitats

2. BEYOND HOUSING: LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTURE IN PRACTICE

This chapter reviews the role and evolution of landscape architecture as presented in various scholarly works. The objective is to contextualize the prevalent approaches to urban agriculture (UA) and landscape masterplans with emphasis on the context of trees as a necessary spatial element within any given landscape.

2.1. The Origin and Evolution of Landscape Architecture

In 1828, Gilbert Laing Reason first coined the term landscape architecture in his book on the Landscape Architecture of Great Painters in Italy (Murphy, 2016). The term ‘landscape architect’ was first used as a professional title by Frederick Law Olmsted and Calvert Vaux in the context of their work on New York’s Central Park in the mid nineteenth century (Murphy, 2016). Furthermore, the term became further popularized through the formation of the American Society of Landscape Architects in 1899, which reflects the extensive history in which the landscape architecture field developed (Murphy 2016). According to academic scholar Michael D. Murphy (2016),

“…The purpose of landscape design is twofold: to guide change in the form of the landscape to create and sustain useful, healthful, and engaging built and natural environments; and to protect and enhance the landscape’s intrinsic cultural, ecological, and experiential qualities. The primary role of landscape architecture is to organize the complexity of the landscape into comprehensible, productive, and beautiful places to improve the function, health, and experience of life. To do this effectively, design practitioners need to understand the landscape and the ways people interact with it, and to apply effective design process and implementation methods.”

Meanwhile according to Anne Whinston Spirn in her 2001 publication, “The Authority of Nature: Conflict and Confusion in Landscape Architecture” she states:

“…The roots of landscape architecture lie in several constellations of disciplines: agriculture (gardening, horticulture, forestry); engineering; architecture and fine arts; science (ecology)...(...) Ecology as a science (a way of describing the world), ecology as a cause (a mandate for moral action), and ecology as an aesthetic (a norm for beauty) are often confused and conflated.”

It is therefore evident that during the last two decades, scholars agree that the role of landscape architecture has remained constant in its need to solve problems while evolving beyond the design of simple aesthetically pleasing landscapes. The definition of landscape architecture has evolved to form a design discipline in which understanding the landscape and being able to shape it has become its primary goal. As a profession, the role of landscape architecture aims to offer site planning, design, as well as management advice to improve the character, quality, and user experiences of the landscape, especially within the context of human settlement and activities (Murphy, 2016). Through intentional design, we can change

Marie Tina Asoh Ajesam

our landscapes to improve our overall human and environmental conditions, which is a role that landscape architects have been able to assume and evolve within. As landscape architecture has always been generally rooted in garden design, its capacity encompasses places such as parks, neighborhoods, and spaces in between. In contrast to urban planners, landscape architects usually focus on a site specific scale rather than a larger urban context (although it is not a restriction), to realistically design, plan, manage and implement their work within the built environment (Yang, 2022). This discourse empowers and challenges landscape architects to not only act as designers but as environmental stewards since they use spatial typology and urban form to shape how we interact with our built environment. Of course, the role of landscape architects varies depending on the scale on which they are designing as visible in Table 1.

Landscape design and planning aim to tackle various challenges from an urban to the regional level, which encompasses the idea of “think globally, act locally” (Nickayin, 2022). This concept tackles the challenge of designing and planning for an urbanizing planet, through an ecological approach which is what landscape architecture offers as a solution. Additionally, understanding how to utilize landscape architecture should include incorporating infrastructure, (re ) greening, food production, water system management, and transportation planning (Nickayin, 2022).

The concept of designing an environmentally friendly city is not new, as it relates to how humans occupy space in their habitats and prioritize (or neglect) their environment, resulting in “a city that is (directly) friendly to the surrounding environment, in terms of pollution, land

Table 1. City Dimension and the Role of Landscape Architect. Source: Yang, 2022

The Role of Landscape Architecture in Developing Human Habitats

use and the alleviation of global warming, essentially an ecologically healthy city that seeks harmony with nature based on ecological principles” (Yang, 2011). The severe impacts of climate change on cities and human settlements call for a different approach to preserve, conserve and restore the environment to remain sustainable for future generations. Yang (2011) uses the Climate Friendly Park Program in the United States as one of the many approaches to “pollution free landscape architecture that helps decrease or eliminate greenhouse gas emissions, alleviate flooding associated with storms, and precipitation extremes by providing landscape infrastructure that can adapt to ecosystem changes resulting from climate change.” In summary, based on existing literature the role of landscape architects becomes one of environmental stewardship and should be urgently directed towards designing for and coping with the severe impacts of climate change on cities and human habitats.

2.2. Trees, People, and the Natural Environment

“Trees have a very deep and crucial meaning to human beings. The significance of old trees is archetypical; in our dreams, they often stand for the wholeness of personality. The trees people love, create special places; places to be in and places to pass through. Trees have the potential to create various kinds of social places (p. 798).”

Alexander et al. (1977)

Trees and nature are seen as a necessary and cultural aspect of any human habitat. For this reason, trees and other natural features continue to play an influential role in community and landscape development, as they evoke familiarity, a sense of place, feeling of cultural identification, as well as promote a sense of belonging which improves people’s livelihood and well being (Elmendorf, 2008). Additionally, Kaymar (2013) further affirms that “place identity is an important dimension of social and cultural life in urban areas,” as it plays a role in environmental psychology, especially within a conflict prone landscape. The immediate environment of any given community influences its cultural identity and sense of place. In particular, the role of trees in the landscape has always possessed a deeper symbol for Indigenous communities globally, especially those in more extreme climates such as Colombia where access to a healthy tree canopy system is seen as a n ecessity that can help not only humans, but fauna thrive in response to climatic comfort. Nevertheless, the natural environment holds a deeper role when there exists a complex relationship between the people and their environment such as the ex combatants having habituated the rainforests of Colombia as a form of temporary shelter, safety, and housing relief during the previously ongoing conflict. The linkage of Colombia’s rainforests to the survivors of the armed conflict

Marie Tina Asoh Ajesam

highlights the importance and necessity for the need to preserve their environmental connection and prioritize environmental protection, especially when it comes to expanding development projects (especially when doing so can foster a deeper connection to their community and strengthen their collective identity).

Various scholars support the promotion of trees, and tree planting initiatives to deepen a community’s relationship with its environment. For example, Greider and Garkovich (1994) argue that landscapes can be “the symbolic representation of a collective local history and the essence of a collective self definition.” In other words, the preservation of trees in ecologically sensitive areas can act as a means of revolution, as it pertains to cases of environmental opportunities or conflicts which can be especially critical when there is a lack of trees, as is often the case in areas that practice unregulated slash and burn agricultural techniques. Trees, parks, and other components of the natural environment are not perceived as stand alone concepts by those who depend on them but rather as social symbols that can define a social group, such as a neighbourhood, or even a courtyard. Considering the landscape in such a context is important because it essentially shapes the quality of space and extends into social functions such as family, home, love, health, and equality, just to name a few (Appleyard 1979).

Culturally, our relationship with the environment influences what we choose to protect and preserve, especially in response to our growing population in the world today.

According to scholar Turner Scoff (2019), trees, therefore, play a critical role for people, and the planet as studies demonstrate that the presence of trees in our immediate environment is proven to improve one’s mental and physical condition, as well as is essential for climatic comfort in urbanizing centers. Trees are therefore necessary for the sustainable development of growing communities. Health and social well being are often linked to the accessibility to green infrastructure and are deemed by scholars as one of the important benefits of having a healthy ecosystem habitat (Turner Scoff, 2019). Existing literature highlight other benefits of trees such as being linked to aiding patients' recovery in hospitals (Ulrich, 1984), and reducing blood pressure and stress in research participants (Hartig, et. al., 2003; Jiang, et. al. 2015).

Additionally, residents living in proximity to trees and parks, “felt healthier and were proven to have fewer cardio metabolic conditions, than their counterparts (Kardan et al., 2015) which speaks volumes about the privilege and levels of class systems that further influence the role of trees within any given community.

The Role of Landscape Architecture in Developing Human Habitats

Apart from health and social well being, trees play a huge role in mitigating climate change as the reduction of air pollution is one of the primary benefits of conserving our local trees (Turner Scoff, 2019). According to a 2016 report by the Center for International Earth Science Network (CIESIN) trees, when adequately incorporated into the built environment can reduce a city’s temperature by up to 9°C (CIESIN, 2016). This is especially relevant to major cities, which can ultimately determine the quality of human health and the increase in heat related health issues due to the Urban Heat Island Effect and its impact on heat waves (Ward et al., 2016). As a result, incorporating trees into the built environment can offer shade, and climatic comfort and even actively cool the air of cities to mitigate extreme temperature conditions (Turner Scoff, 2019). Not only do trees possess benefits for people in their natural habitat, but it also plays a keystone role in terrestrial ecosystems (Manning, et al., 2006) which provide food and habitat for all flora and fauna, both improving and maintaining the biodiversity necessary for a sustainable habitat (Turner Scoff, 2019). Furthermore, trees in this context can be seen as “decentralized green infrastructure”, and play an important role in managing water, especially in an urban ecosystem (Berland, et al., 2014).

In 2019, the Water Infrastructure Improvement Act was enacted by Congress. Green infrastructure was defined as “the range of measures that uses plant or soil systems, permeable pavement or other permeable surfaces, or substrates, such as stormwater harvest and reuse and reduce flowers to sewer systems or surface waters” (US EPA, 2019). Due to the variance in climates, there is an emphasis on the importance and quality of proper tree selections, and local trees are identified to aid in adapting to and being resilient in unfavorable conditions and climates (Turner Scoff, 2019). The role of green infrastructure becomes necessary in collecting and integrating stormwater drainage where trees are planted, which means water accessibility and availability must be considered to adequately incorporate trees as a means of green infrastructure (Turner Scoff, 2019). As a result, the inequality of tree distribution within and among cities can be highlighted, due to the lack of proximity and accessibility. According to Scholars, studies in the last decade illustrate that trees and green spaces are often “unequally distributed among communities with varying demographics such as income and race” (Turner Scoff, 2019). When analyzing various texts, authors Jennings, et al., 2012; Landry and Chakraborty, 2009; Pincetl, 2010; and Schwarz et al., 2015 found a strong relationship between the percentage of urban tree cover and income: “the lower the income, the fewer the trees” (Balding and Williams, 2016) further highlighting the disparity in access to quality spatial environments.

Marie Tina Asoh Ajesam

Environmental movements such as tree planting, and the collective protection of trees (among other efforts) play an important role in responding to this gap, by encouraging communities to meet the following United Nations (UN) Sustainable Development Goals (SDG): Goal 3: “Ensure healthy lives and promote well being for all at all ages; Goal 13: Take urgent action to combat climate change and its impacts; Goal 15: Protect, restore, and promote sustainable uses of terrestrial ecosystems, sustainably manage forests, combat desertification, and halt/reverse land degradation and habitat biodiversity loss, as further elaborated upon in Table 2 on the following page (Turner Scoff, 2019); additional data can be found in Appendix A. The following chapter explores the cultural significance in which trees play, and how including communities in the planting and preserving of trees can lead to a deeper connection between people and their natural environment.

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Table 2. The benefit of urban trees and corresponding SDGs. Source: Turner Scoff, 2019

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2.3. Cultural landscapes and Environmental Movements

Landscapes are dynamic, and constantly evolving with time as a direct result of natural and cultural forces, as well due to political and historical events. In addition, trees can unknowingly shape and influence our cultural experiences. As our physical and social environments evolve, certainly so do the transformations of rural areas into urban ones as the global population grows, resulting in the urbanization of smaller communes (Kaymar, 2013). According to Antrop (2005), “cultural landscapes are the result of the consecutive reorganization of the land to adapt its use and spatial structure better to change the societal demands”, which explains in simple terms the cause and effects of urbanization. Antrop (2005) further defines urbanization as “a complex process that transforms the rural or natural landscapes spatially, controlled by the physical conditions of the site and its accessibility by transportation routes” therefore encompassing terms such as urban sprawl, urban fringe, and suburbanization as effects of the urbanization process (Kaymar, 2013). In this context, importance and priority are made on society’s spatial planning needs, which manifest in different variations within the environment, and what society chooses to preserve or prioritize.

For example, in 1992 the Santa Fe Conference hosted by the World Heritage Committee was extended to ‘Cultural Landscapes of Outstanding Universal Value‘ (Antrop, 2005) which for the first time included parks, gardens, organically evolved landscapes such as relicts (traditional rural landscapes,) as well as associative landscapes, such as those with religious, artistic or spiritual values (Antrop, 2005); other examples of valued cultural landscapes include monuments, landmarks, and ecologically sound habitats. So how does a society choose what to preserve legally? Who gets a say in influencing these decisions, and how does politics influence whose cultural landscapes thrive, and whose are at risk to disappear? In other words, what we perceive as important, we value, therefore linking our perception of our environment to our cultural context (Antrop, 2005). These cultural landscapes help to define or contribute to shaping one’s identity concerning their environment, which acts as an emotional ‘landmark’ or genius loci that offer orientation in space, time, and historical context (Olwig, 2002). Understanding cultural landscapes in their immediate context can therefore lead to the preservation of and the implementation of certain environmental projects and infrastructures. This coherence leads to the transformation of cultural landscapes and identities, as a means for continuous adaptation for both the people and their environment (Antrop, 2005).

The Role of Landscape Architecture in Developing Human Habitats

Kevin Lynch (1918 1984), a leading environmental theorist and urban planner of his time stated in his 1960 publication ’Image of the City:

“…We have the opportunity of forming our new city world into an imageable landscape: visible, coherent, and clear. It will require a new attitude on the part of the city dweller, and a physical reshaping of his domain into forms that intrigue the eye, which organize themselves from level to level in time and space and can stand as symbols for urban life. The present study yields some clues in this respect “(Lynch, 1960).

In this context, Lynch refers to the development and evolution of city form, which encompasses fundamental functions such as circulation, major land uses, and key focal points that further deepen a society’s connection with its built environment. In his work, Lynch also discusses how the visual environment is equally as integral as the spatial quality, to a community’s inhabitants as it pertains to their “imageability” or “a quality in a physical object which gives it a high probability of evoking a strong image in any given observer” which can also be linked to the visibility of a city through its spatial infrastructures (Lynch, 1990). The context of Lynch’s work is relevant when the image of the city is influenced by elements such as paths, edges, districts, nodes, and landmarks as seen in figure 3, also known as transitionary or meeting points that shape the memories and cultural affiliation of a community. Lynch further discusses how orientation or disorientation plays a role in shaping our perception of our city, which is why we (as the public) must have a say in how our neighbourhoods evolve, change, and adapt with time. City perception as noted by Lynch is a key element in landscape architects continue to include in their standard practice.

Figure 3. Image of five physical elements and components Source: Jojic, 2018

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Conclusion

The role of landscape architects (as well as arborists, urban foresters, and the like) in this context, becomes necessary to ensure a sustainable and qualitative outcome in building community capacity projects; especially when working with participatory and educational programs and projects (Elmedorf 2008). Furthermore, according to Elmendorf (2008), the degree to which community members can identify with, and enjoy nature through proximity to the space depends on the planning, maintenance, and use of trees in public landscapes. This is especially relevant when it comes to public landscapes and parks that have the potential to meet local people’s needs when they are involved in the planning, decision making, and building process. Other scholars such as McDonough et al. (1991) affirm that:

“Highly participatory environmental projects can promote social structure and organization, even in the most deteriorated neighbourhoods by building interaction and capacity through block clubs, neighbourhood organizations, church groups, and public and private partnerships.”

The more people are educated and involved in participatory environmental projects such as tree plantings, environmental restoration, or other environmental volunteer and educational based works, the more the quality of relationships among those involved, both local people and external organizations can increase through trust building, knowledge sharing, mutual aid, and community development (Rudel 1989; Lipkis and Lipkis 1990; Maslin et al. 1999). Case

studies have shown that inner city projects in which landscape architects, arborists, and urban foresters are closely involved help not only build community but also support the sustainable growth of healthy neighbourhoods and communities. Activities such as tree planting, have proven to be successful and repeatedly used by organizations such as the Philadelphia Green, TreesAtlanta, Friends of San Francisco Urban Forest, Los Angeles TreePeople, and the New York Green Guerrillas in support of peace building and reconciliation, especially within communities that fall victim to the effects of drugs, crime, violence, and despair (Elmendorg, 2008).

Tree planting encourages and enables individuals of said community to have an “immediate, tangible, and positive effect on their environment, thereby fostering community pride and opening channels for individuals to meet their neighbours and tackle community problems as a collective (Kollin 1987). These initiatives offer an alternative approach to conflict resolution through environmental and ecologically sound principles, and an opportunity to reformulate new collective values as a basis for sustainable community development and capacity building.

Nevertheless, it is necessary that the local community is equally as involved in these projects

The Role of Landscape Architecture in Developing Human Habitats

as is the municipality, to ensure equitable involvement and representation from all relevant stakeholders.

Through such movements, and with the support of professionals such as landscape architects, arborists, and urban foresters, there is an opportunity for environmental restoration that no doubt has an impact on the economic, social, and environmental elements of any given community, including vulnerable populations such as the ex combatants in Colombia. Additionally, the role of trees in developing sustainable human habitats aids in the inclusivity of different stakeholders and ecological drivers but why stop at trees? Through participatory and collaborative approaches such as those listed in the above literature review, communities, such as that of Tierra Grata have an opportunity to further push for spatial elements such as bike paths, well maintained streetscapes, and improvement of public transportation, among other spatial interventions (Elmendorg, 2008) which are especially important in planning for new settlement or renovating disenfranchised communities. To conclude in the words of Shrieber and Vallery (1987):

“Planning and completing tree planting, urban gardening, and other types of green projects inspire neighbourhood and community groups to change the environment of their streets giving a new understanding of and character to their neighbourhood and the city as a whole.”

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3. URBAN AGRICULTURE: A REVIEW OF SELECTED CASE STUDIES

This chapter examines the emergence of urban agriculture (UA) in the Global North and Global South. The chapter identifies the role, potential, and challenges of UA, as well as its various typologies Through an analysis of the existing literature, the discourse of food justice politics and food urbanism, is discussed, to link the concepts of landscape architecture, urban agriculture, and food centered cities.

3.1. The Global Role of Urban Agriculture

“Urban agriculture is associated with urban land squatting and is viewed as a socio economic problem, not a solution. As a result, authorities are hesitant to be more proactive on urban agriculture because it is largely seen as resulting from a failure to address rural development needs adequately.”

Mayor Fisho P. Mwale, Lusaka, Zambia (Mougeot, 2006)

To most people, urban agriculture (UA) is swept under the rug and simplified as the concept of urban gardening in a developed city; but the role of UA goes beyond that. UA manifests itself in various forms and typologies, especially in developing peri urban towns and landscapes. But what exactly is UA? Urban agriculture can be defined as the growing of plants and livestock within a city (intra urban) or the areas surrounding the towns (peri urban agriculture) (Chatterjee et al., 2020). It can also be understood as the processing of raw materials into commercial activities such as city farming, edible urban landscape, and community vegetable and fruit gardens, among other examples. (Chatterjee et al., 2020). The official definition adopted by the International Development Research Centre (IDRC) refers to UA as “an activity located within or on the fringe of an urban area, which cultivates, processes, and distributes [food] products, and supplies resources mainly to urban areas (Lebedeva, 2008). Urban agriculture, by extension, encompasses the principles of landscape architecture, although it focuses on one theme in particular: food security.

Urban and peri urban agriculture (UPUA) becomes increasingly prevalent in the discourse of city planning as it overlaps with the topics of urbanization, sprawl, and food security. The correlation between the two is that as cities plan for growth, incorporating urban and peri urban agriculture becomes a necessity in urban planning and land development conversations. In this case, urban planners and landscape architects must work with the local community and governing municipality to shape the way policies are made. Cities are designed to ensure equitable opportunities such as access to land tenure while simultaneously offering food sovereignty to the communities involved. For example, it is estimated that by 2030, approximately two thirds of the world’s population will live in cities (Azunre et al., 2019). The

The Role of Landscape Architecture in Developing Human Habitats

implications of this will be reflected in the supply and demand of urban lands, which are often allocated through adequate land tenure and ownership, either bought or inherited (Azunre et al., 2019). Important questions arise, that we must answer, especially in the context of avoiding conflicts and ensuring peace in our communities. For example, what happens to those who find themselves on the peri urban scope of the city with no land to their name? What opportunities would they have to participate in securing their means for food security and overall livelihood?

When it comes to an understanding of how urban agriculture manifests in various contexts, some perceive it simply as gardens and farms within the inner city (Cohen et al. 2012), while others include agricultural activities such as those performed in peri urban landscapes (Opitz et al., 2016). Meanwhile, the Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO) defines it as “any products in the home or plots in an urban area” (FAO, 2003). There are numerous definitions of what is considered UA. Regardless, the role of urban agriculture remains a topic of discussion, especially within the context of global food security and urban food systems planning (Opitz et al., 2016). The differentiation between urban and peri urban landscapes can be defined based on how it is perceived by the Global North versus the Global South; “the core concept of both definitions being that UA involves food production in urban areas” (Opitz et al., 2016). The juxtaposition of the word “agriculture” in UA implies the general understanding of forms of farming and gardening, usually in rural areas. Therefore, the introduction of peri urban agriculture (PUA) offers a means of categorizing transitory spaces. Peri urban agriculture is traditionally understood as a “residual form of agriculture at the fringes of growing cities” (Opitz et al., 2016). Although scholars have not yet officially determined the spatial definition of such spaces, some authors indicate that “peri urban agricultural activities take place within a buffer of 10 to 20 km of the urban geographic boundary” (Thebo et al., 2014). These zones are mostly found within the transition of rural to urban zones, which means they benefit from lower population densities, yet lack adequate infrastructures compared to cities (Opitz et al., 2016).

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3.1.1. The Global North

As the current trends in rural to urban migration continue, countries around the world have debated the role of urban agriculture as a response to feeding the growing population. Although the concept of UA has recently become a ‘buzzword’ and topic of debate among researchers and farmers, it holds weight in history. It has been informally recognized since the Byzantine Empire incorporated its framework to address food security, particularly against sudden interruptions in food supply lines (Koscica, 2014). Land and food supply shortages have always generated a more intensive means of production. Due to urbanization, cities have begun searching for a self sufficient way to feed themselves, such as the case in Figure 4, illustrating an aerial photo of a circular “community of communities” designed by landscape architect Erik Mygind in 1964. In this community known as Brøndby Haveby the design mimics “the traditional patterns of the 18th century Danish villages, where people would use the middle as a focal point for hanging out, mingling, and social interchange between neighbours” says photographer Henry Do (Marshall, 2020). Settlement patterns are directly affected by urbanization, especially within the urban realm, which is why it is no surprise that organized agriculture is becoming more prevalent once again. In the following pages, urban agricultural trends in some major countries of the Global North are highlighted.

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I. England

The origin of organized agriculture within the public realm led to the ‘Garden City Movement,’ a 20th Century urban planning movement that emerged in the UK and was first introduced by Ebenezer Howard in his book Garden Cities of Tomorrow in 1902 (see Figure 5) (EPRS 2017).

This movement offered an alternative to living in densely populated urban areas, depicting what a “garden city” could offer: a combination of country and city living surrounded by greenbelts. In other words: the answer to feeding a growing population. Howard organized the Garden City Association in 1899, where two garden cities were built: Letchworth Garden City and Welwyn Garden City, both in Hertfordshire, England, UK (EPRS 2017). Soon enough, the garden city idea became influential in other countries, such as France, Germany, Finland, Ireland, Poland, Canada, and the US (EPRS 2017).

Figure 5: Garden City Map by Ebenezer Howard. Via Wikimedia Commons, public domain, 1902

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II. United States and Canada

In the past century, cities in North America have been able to recognize the phenomena of urban agriculture and initially promoted “household and community gardening for food security in times of economic crisis, such as the British Allotment Act of 1925 and the War Gardens of Canada, 1924 1947” (Koscica, 2014). During this time, North Americans depended on gardening as a livelihood, primarily through the Great Depression of the 1930s (Mok et al., 2013). During this time, the National Victory Garden Program, supported by the War Food Administration, ran propaganda (as seen in Figure 6) to promote the means of gardening as a form of patriotism and civic responsibility (Mok et al., 2013). This illustrates the early appearance of land and food sovereignty. As a result of these gardens, the demand for commercial food supplies decreased, aiding food security, especially during severe shortages (Mok et al., 2013).

Figure 6. Victory Garden posters from World War II. Office of War Information, National Archives (left) and Morley, War Food Administration (right) / Public Domain

The Role of Landscape Architecture in Developing Human Habitats

III. Australia

Other countries, such as Australia, adopted urban agriculture in a similar trend to that of the US and the UK, as wartime and post wartime practice. During the 1930s, as Australia was also amid a deep economic recession, the introduction of backyard “home gardens” and small scale poultry farms became popular, with up to 70% of people growing their food (Mok et al., 2013). Informal campaigns began to appear around 1941 to encourage wartime food growth, and in 1943 an official Grow Your Food campaign was launched by the Commonwealth Department of Commerce and Agriculture of Australia (Mok et al., 2013). A study by the University of Melbourne found that 48% of the sampled households produced food. However, home food production was neither a practical nor accessible option for the poor. This highlights an essential disparity in the topic of urban agriculture and accessibility (Mok et al., 2013). In any case, Australia’s first community garden was established in Melbourne in 1977, before the permaculture movement surged only a year later. The book, Permaculture: A Perennial Agricultural System for Human Settlements by Bill Mollison and David Holmgren was published in 1978, promoting an “alternative agricultural system in which plants, animals, and humans were integrated into the ecosystem and supported each other’s functionality.” (Mollison and Holmgren, 1978). As a result, permaculture became an instrumental step in the movement of contemporary urban agriculture, and its principles became the foundation for a campaign in social and environmental philosophy about sustainable human habitats, as seen in Figure 7 on the following page. (Mok et al., 2013) The above is a summary of the emergence and trends of the urban agriculture movement as it manifested in various forms in the Global North. To date, spaces such as rooftops, balconies, vacant lots, and communal areas have become the most suitable option for agricultural purposes within cities in the Global North. In contrast, undeveloped lands, marginal lands, and community plots have been used for food for household consumption in the Global South, as their relationship and dependency on food production systems vary (Azunre et al., 2019).

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Figure 7. Permaculture principles according to Bill Mollison. Source: The Seedling at Sagada, Australia

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3.1.2. The Global South

Research indicates that approximately “800 million people around the world actively engage in the practice of urban agriculture”, which accounts for an average of 15 to 20 percent of the world’s food production (Koscica, 2014). It is evident how urban agriculture can play an essential role in the livelihoods of households, particularly those with low income. In this way, it is not only a commercial tool for the casual growing of food but has started to become quite an essential and renewable resource in the quest to find autonomous food systems. For example, a 2011 World Bank and Resource Centers on Urban Agriculture and Food Security (RUAF) Foundation, and a comparative study in Accra, Lima, Bangalore, and Nairobi, concluded that 30% of urban producers consider urban agriculture an essential source of income (Koscica, 2014). Research also shows that “households that engage in [urban] agriculture may have access to comparatively cheaper food and a wider variety of particularly nutritious foods” (Koscica, 2014).

However, the concept of urban agriculture was not always seen positively by local authorities. In the peri urban areas of Nairobi in Kenya and many other African cities, agriculture was discouraged and, for a long time, even forbidden to prevent criminality and “disorder” (Ayaga et al., 2005). On the opposite side, there are many countries where governments promote the development of urban agricultural production. Latin America, Argentina, Brazil, and Cuba have developed national policies and programs promoting urban horticulture (Veenhuizen, 2006). In the Global South, the practice of urban agriculture has manifested itself as a means of survival and livelihood. Therefore, the demand in practice also becomes a cause for concern when the needs of the most vulnerable cannot be met. Trends in major cities of some select countries in the Global South are reviewed in the following sections.

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I. Nairobi, Kenya

Kenyan activist, and Nobel Peace Prize winner, Professor Wangari Maathai, eloquently pieces together the link between decolonization, the importance of Indigenous land sovereignty, and thriving urban agriculture in her 2006 memoir, “Unbowed.” She explores how urban agriculturalists and academics tend to overlook the needs and opinions of the locals while attempting to develop the land. The chapter “Foresters Without Diplomas” mainly details the genesis of Kenya’s Green Belt Movement founded by Professor Maathai. In essence, this Movement is a tree planting initiative whose aim is to provide Kenyan women with a source of food and employment (Maathai, 2006). Simultaneously, the Green Belt Movement “would offer shade for humans and animals, protect watersheds, bind the soil, heal the land by bringing back birds and small animals and regenerate the earth's vitality” (Maathai, 2006). Maathai believes that “the movement has shown that sustainable development can be linked to democratic values such as promoting human rights, social justice and equity, including the balance of power between men and women” (Maathai, 1985). This belief is also evident in various examples of landscape architecture and urban agriculture practices in the Global South. Through this movement, she was able to assist women as seen in Figures 8 and 9 in planting over 20 million trees on schools, farms, and other private compounds, starting in Kenya and spreading further into East Africa (Maathai, 1985). This illustrates how women and children can be empowered to create their source of livelihood and eventually, financial independence.

Nevertheless, food insecurity is a significant problem throughout Kenya, like in many other African countries. According to the Kenya National Bureau of Statistics report and the University of Nairobi African Women’s Studies Center, “14.5% of Nairobians suffer from low food security; meanwhile, 11.7% are chronically food insecure” (University of Nairobi, 2014).

Since 2015, the Government of Kenya has initiated the Urban Agricultural Promotion and Regulation Act, which establishes a regulatory framework under which urban agriculture in Nairobi may be practiced and overseen in compliance with the law (New York Food Policy, 2018); meaning that legally, urban agriculture now has the potential to provide healthy food to the city’s most vulnerable populations. According to this act, “urban agriculture” involves the cultivation of crops, breeding and keeping livestock, and using land for gardens, nurseries, and agroforestry (New York Food Policy, 2018).

The Role of Landscape Architecture in Developing Human Habitats

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Additionally, the government has pledged to undertake various programs which promote urban agriculture, such as the training and capacity building of farmers in sustainable crop cultivation, the promotion of aquaculture, and ensuring the collaboration between relevant stakeholders to manage organic waste among other initiatives (New York Food Policy, 2018) This demonstrates the room for evolution and support from local authorities to ensure the success of such urban agriculture. Figure 10 illustrates the Wangari Maathai Institute Master plan, a 50 acre green campus on the University of Nairobi Kabete campus. The WMI is envisaged as a functional and inspiring hub of activities in natural resource management and education for sustainable development, showing the potential a community has when the government offers support (WMI Institute, 2022).

Figure 10. WMI Landscape Master plan. Source: Wangari Maathai Institute for Peace & Environmental Studies (WMI)

II. Dakar, Senegal

Figure 11. An urban agricultural farmer in Niayes Valley, Senegal. Source: Madeleine Bair

Like many other places worldwide, Dakar, Senegal is not immune to food insecurity and limited public access to growing spaces (Halliday et al., 2019). Fortunately, certain solutions to solve this issue have been explored. Dakar’s micro garden program is an example of such a solution, as illustrated in Figure 11. Introduced in 1999 by the Senegalese Government and the FAO, this program provides an opportunity for locals to learn the skills needed to grow their soil less gardens. In turn, families and individuals reap the benefit of having direct access to fresh, nutritious fruits and vegetables (Cather, 2016). The FAO (2018) defines micro gardening as the intensive cultivation of a wide range of vegetables, roots, and tubers, and herbs in small spaces, such as balconies, patios, and rooftops”; and in the case of Dakar, this simple yet complex idea has improved the food supply and security of vulnerable populations located in urban and peri urban areas (Cather, 2016).

This program initiated in Dakar, Senegal can ultimately be considered an eco feminist initiative for two main reasons. Firstly, locally sourced materials such as peanut shells, rice straw, coconut fiber, and sand, are repurposed and used as growing substrates (Halliday et al., 2019). Old wooden pallets and car tires are also repurposed as planters (Cather, 2016).

The Role of Landscape Architecture in Developing Human Habitats

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These are items that would otherwise be considered garbage. The program also “integrates horticulture production techniques with environmentally friendly technologies suited to cities, such as rainwater harvesting and household waste management” (Cather, 2016) “Secondly, the program “[improves] food security without stigmatization” (Cather, 2016), because micro gardening was adopted by all demographics including but not limited to: those living in poverty, the upper class, all gender identities, disabled individuals, incarcerated people, youth and elders (Cather, 2016; Halliday, 2019). Through micro gardening, the citizens of Dakar are empowered to continue having agency and autonomy regarding food security. For example, matriarchs, divorcees, and widowed women can diversify their income and remain independent by cultivating their micro gardens (Cather, 2016). The act of being able to grow their food and sell the surplus also assists in poverty reduction (Cather, 2016). Overall, Dakar’s micro garden program has been incredibly successful; over 4000 families have participated in this program, and each participating family “consumed between 5 and 9 kg of vegetables per month, on average more than double that consumed by families not participating in the program” (Sarr, 2019. As seen in Figure 12, this has become a widely practiced initiative.

Figure 12. Micro gardening training centres in Dakar, Senegal. Source: Ms. Ndeye Ndack Pouye Mbodj.

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III. Bogota, Colombia

In Colombia, informal settlements make up essential parts of the cities, as these areas possess strong links to agricultural practices, especially among rural migrants (Hernández García and Caquimbo Salazar, 2017). The presence of urban agriculture in Bogota has been recognized both from the residents’ and governments’ points of view: for the residents, it is seen as a rural tradition, and for the government “as a way to contribute nutrition to low income populations located in these [rural] areas” (Hernández García and Caquimbo Salazar, 2017). Since the 1960s, there has been a shift in migration from rural to urban areas which has increased the densification of settlement patterns (as seen in Figure 13 on page 33). As a result, the government has an opportunity and a responsibility to respond to this growth through the process of local food production and urban farming (Hernández García and Caquimbo Salazar, 2017).

According to Bogota’s development plan (2015), urban and peri urban agriculture (UPUA) is defined as “a model of food production which allows neighbourhood communities to organize and implement agricultural systems, through practices that optimize resources, waste management, and do not interfere with the ecosystems, while using a range of technologies” (Bogota, 2015). Additionally, in Bogota, the open spaces in informal settlements play a role in shaping both the physical environment and social dynamic of the inhabitants, primarily because the spaces are occupied by the locals, which often indicates their struggle and successes (Hernández García and Caquimbo Salazar, 2017). For example, open spaces can become social places known as barrio, meaning they are “places for cultural exchange and building values” (Hernández García and Caquimbo Salazar, 2017) which also include food growing initiatives, as well as entertainment facilities such as playgrounds and green spaces. In the city, these spaces are also where urban agriculture eventually manifests as a means for household horticulture among low income people, especially women. (Hernández García and Caquimbo Salazar, 2017). To them, cultivation isn’t simply about agricultural activity but a way to incorporate the landscape as a symbolic value and occupy territory, especially for displaced people (Hernández García and Caquimbo Salazar, 2017). In addition, access to these spaces allows them to utilize their knowledge and re establish a bond with their new habitat to familiarize them with their new land. However, the challenge with these spaces can often mean a lack of space, poor soil quality, and poor water access. (FAO, 2014).

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The discourse about urban agriculture in Bogota is rooted in its grassroots organizations, especially those of different social clusters, i.e., Red de Agricultura Urbana de Bogota (UA network of Bogota) (Hernández García and Caquimbo Salazar, 2017). The main goal of this organization is to establish a platform to exchange and discuss ideas (knowledge sharing) related to urban agriculture to improve and promote the collaborative practice. Another example is the Arte Productivo (Productive Art) initiative, a community garden strategically designed within an informally developed area known as Rafael Uribe Uribe (Hernández García and Caquimbo Salazar, 2017). Through a training agreement with the city and Uniminuto University, the participants were educated on growing plants for elevated, colder climates. As a result of this process, over 700 people of working age were trained within the first four years (Hernández García and Caquimbo Salazar, 2017). This is a prime example of what can occur when urban agriculture is legitimized with the help of the local government by investing knowledge within a vulnerable community. Valuable skills are offered to improve the population’s livelihood and enrich their physical environment, not only aesthetically but also by including indigenous plants. In addition, locals cultivated medicinal and ornamental plants within these gardens, offering a means of self consumption rather than a means to survive financially.

Another example of urban agriculture, or in this case, agroecology in Bogota is known as Sembrando Confianza, which is a program of Fundacion Proyectar Sin Fronteras (PSF), a non profit organization founded in 2007 (Sembrando Confianza, 2021). Since 2012, the goal of Sembrando Confianza has been to promote agro ecological practices and environmental education in vulnerable territories in urban, peri urban, and rural areas in Colombia. This is an excellent example to illustrate the overlap in environmental sectors; agroecology seeks to promote “the sustainability and justice of food systems, as it boosts the ecological processes of nature to improve productivity and avoid future agricultural problems” (Sembrando Confianza, 2021). PSF utilizes the principles of agroecology to consider not only the technical aspects, but also to encompass the socio economic, political, and environmental aspects of the practice, which can sometimes be unintentionally neglected or left unaddressed (Sembrando Confianza, 2021). It is based on the concept of social economy, which according to the organization “promotes cooperative work and sustainable development, placing special emphasis on the person and the social object over the capital.” (Sembrando Confianza, 2021).

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A final case of urban agriculture in practice can be found in the informal settlement of Bosa, in partnership with the Indigenous association of San Bernardino (Hernández García and Caquimbo Salazar, 2017). This Indigenous community started developing urban agriculture in empty plots initially set out for future social housing projects; however since not everyone had access to this land, they began to use their roofs and balconies for cultivation (Hernández García and Caquimbo Salazar, 2017). These examples and initiatives reflect the range of urban agriculture in various scales and contexts, especially as an activity for marginalized groups to be empowered and independent with or without external support. After urban agriculture was officially recognized in 2004, Mayor Luis Eduardo Garzon implemented the policy ‘Bogota sin Hambra (Bogota Hunger Free) (Hernández García and Caquimbo Salazar, 2017). The goal of this policy was to implement the project Urban Agriculture: Environmental Sustainability without indifference for Bogota (Hernández García and Caquimbo Salazar, 2017) which was and continues to be led by Bogota’s Botanical Garden. Additionally, a master plan for Bogota's food supply and security was implemented through law in 2006, using the plan as a basis for urban design and food supply regulation, highlighting the potential of food production through urban farming. Today, the Bogota Botanical Garden continues to promote urban agricultural initiatives in response to climate change adaptation, access to healthy food, implementation of agro ecological practices, and incorporation of urban and rural sustainable farming (Hernández García and Caquimbo Salazar, 2017).

The challenge and criticism for Bogota, despite all these initiatives, is that a class divide still exists, meaning the demographic that truly has access to these opportunities is, in fact, limited. Therefore, a public policy still needs to challenge the city’s urban design to meet the ideal social and environmental conditions necessary for urban agriculture for all classes (Hernández García and Caquimbo Salazar, 2017). The trends in the usage of urban agriculture highlight it as a tool for addressing food insecurity and improving the overall livelihood of its users as an adaptive strategy. Although the practice of growing food in developing cities differs, there exist certain principles and similarities in implementation that remain the same. Regardless, city governments are often faced with two certainties: first, people will continue moving to cities and search for self sustainable ways to grow and access food; secondly, with adequate support and policies from city governments that encourage UA, the population of urban farmers will not only increase but thrive (Mougeot, 2006).

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Figure 13. View from TransMi Cable Car facing the top of Ciudad Bolívar. Source: Marie Tina Asoh

The Role of Landscape Architecture in Developing Human Habitats

3.2. The Politics of Food Justice in Colombia

“Food justice seeks to empower socially marginal communities to feed themselves in a manner that is fair, healthy, safe, environmentally sensitive, and culturally sympathetic.” (Blake, 2018) The various examples of urban agriculture illustrate how agriculture has emerged out of a need for communities and settlements to feed themselves sustainably; especially to highlight the importance of the relationship that humans have with their landscape because of social, political, and cultural backgrounds. Access to food becomes equally as important as access to the land that the food grows upon. Once again, the big question is: Who controls this access, and how is it determined?

Blake (2018) breaks down the various food political movements that exist within this context as food sovereignty, right to food, food democracy, and food justice. According to Blake’s publication (p.486), these movements are defined and summarized as:

• Food sovereignty: the reconfiguration of how food is grown and produced; the aim being the handling of power over land and vice versa, i.e., seed accessibility and distribution

• Right to food (RTF): a basic human right and not a commodity, in particular gaining power through legal frameworks that enable the (inhabitants’) rights and a form of holding governments accountable.

• Food democracy: an advocate for addressing conflicts that arise out of clashes of values, through democratic participation, negotiation, and compromise

• Food justice: the recognition that everyone is part of a food system, therefore accessibility and affordability must be possible in ways that recognize one’s cultural practices and preferences through community based activism and interventions

Through highlighting these concepts, a link can be made between social justice and food justice, as accessibility (to food landscapes) vary depending on gender, class, and cultural background. Food justice advocates for local food production, especially within an appropriate context of what is systematically possible. For example, within US activism “food justice is concerned with providing alternative ways [to access foods] in a system that is institutionally racist (Blake, 2018); therefore, in the context of Colombia, food justice means taking into consideration governance, human rights and the rule of law. In Colombia, family farmers, peasants, landless rural workers, indigenous people, rural youth, and rural women alike are those most affected by food injustice (Morena, 2010). Due to the decades of armed conflict, these people have and continue to suffer due to the political, social, and economical effects of war, which has a direct impact on their right to food. According to the 2010 report titled

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“Hunger and Violations of the Fight to Food in Colombia”, author Maria Morena highlights the importance of ensuring that Food Sovereignty, Autonomy, and Security are fully realized through the Right to Food in Colombia. To date, the Right to Food is one of the most violated mandates in Colombia, as Morena (2010) notes:

“…The State of Colombia ratified the International Covenant on Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights in 1968 and has also signed several conventions, agreements, and declarations on food issues and the RTF. (...). However, very little progress has been made in terms of bringing about the structural, economic, and policy changes necessary so that society and the State can guarantee both the full realization of the RTF and access to justice to ensure the justiciability of this right for its holders.” (p.2.)

Additionally, according to this report, one of the State’s obligations under the RTF is to ensure that “food producers have adequate access to the resources necessary to carry out their economic activities, including but not limited to land, water, financing, health and infrastructure” (Morena, 2010). However, research shows that there is a lack of support for Indigenous, Afro Colombian, ethnic, and displaced communities, especially as they are most affected by the impacts of the armed conflict and therefore are most neglected (Morena, 2010). This further creates a divide concerning access to, the use of, and control of land and its resources, which directly influences food and cultural identities. It is therefore the responsibility of the State of Colombia to protect and promote the rights of these vulnerable communities through policy and land reform. Morena (2010) also highlights that “aside from the governing parties which are directly in charge of designing food, rural and agricultural production policies, other relevant stakeholders include urban populations, rural populations, social organizations, national and international social organizations, NGOs dedicated to defending human rights, academic circles, and other State and municipal institutions.” However, it should be noted that the power dynamics as they appear to downplay a role in further dividing the stakeholders based on class and background. This reveals the divide between the oppressor and the oppressed in Colombia’s ongoing battle for reconciliation for its land defenders.

The Role of Landscape Architecture in Developing Human Habitats

3.3. The Food Urbanism Initiative

“The Food Urbanism Initiative (FUI) addresses three contemporary urban problems: space in growing cities, the wellbeing of the local population, and the food with which it is supplied. “

Verzone Woods Architects

To conclude the discourse of spatial quality, and access to food landscapes, the concept of Food Urbanism links both the concept of landscape architecture and agriculture practically and pragmatically. The concept of Food Urbanism was first introduced in 2012 by Swiss landscape architecture firm Verzone Woods Architectes in addition to the expertise of Agroscope, ETH Zurich’s Agri food and Environmental Economics group, and EPF Lausanne’s Media Lab. (Verzone and Woods, 2021). According to their recently published book, Food Urbanism: Typologies, Case Studies, and Strategies, Verzone and Woods describe Food Urbanism as:

“...The complex relationship between food and the city, investigating how the thoughtful integration of food production into urban design and planning can achieve a form of new urban quality, measured by spatial character, community vitality, and ecological performance, all within a densifying city.” (Verzone and Woods p9, 2021)

This concept is often recognized in landscape architecture, as we aim to design spaces that are not only known for their visual aesthetics but can also be productive and improve the spatial character and ecological performance of a given site. By utilizing the Food Urbanism Initiative (FUI) as an alternative framework, this research aims to promote various planning methods in urban and rural settings while empowering the space users and simultaneously offering a means of production, such as the goal of our proposal “Operación Cañahuate”

outlined in the following chapter. As cities grow in population and density, it becomes more challenging to constrain urban sprawl within the perimeters of a town, often risking a loss of quality of life and space. However, when growth is anticipated for a new settlement, “urban and landscape design, as well as architecture, can come together to create a desirable and coherent urban environment that includes places for all people, while conserving biodiversity and growing food” (Verzone and Woods, 2021) which is beautifully illustrated in the case in Tierra Grata. Although this Citadel of Peace is relatively young and still in the process of settling and expanding, it is crucial to incorporate an overall master plan concept that leaves room for growth and flexibility at this stage Like urban agriculture, the Food Urbanism Initiative emerged out of the need for fresh fruits and vegetables to be available in proximity to [their] home and work (Verzone and Woods, 2021), and now Tierra Grata has a chance to attain this

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3.4. Conclusion

Through years of developing projects and strategies with urban agriculture as a programmatic component of design, Verzone and Woods Architects proudly encourage other designers and researchers to utilize a pragmatic approach to specify how cities can integrate [food] cultivation into the same conversation as urban renovation and growth; (Verzone and Woods, 2021) the result being an intersection between urban food accessibility and landscape systems. Additionally, the role of landscape architecture goes further to advocate not only for the preservation of Indigenous lands and territories as well as also to combat climate change and deforestation through activities such as tree planting, or the creation of micro gardens. However, experts still concede that it is not enough to simply create productive landscapes and urban agricultural gardens without the active and consistent involvement of relevant stakeholders in a governing position with access to necessary resources to invest in the community (Verzone and Woods, 2021). This is possible through efforts such as knowledge sharing and access to community gardening workshops about gardening, or democratizing the politics behind land reform and tenure, including how to participate in these processes legally.

In summary, the Food Urbanism Initiative is being promoted as “a framework and tool for groups interested in advancing the concept of [the] environmentally balanced, equitable, and ethically designed city” (Verzone and Woods, 2021). Such cities have the potential to promote reconciliation and re introduce informal settlers to their Indigenous land. The importance of nature based systems is a core principle of landscape architecture, which naturally encompasses spatial typologies, cultural identities, and accessible infrastructure that encourages food and land sovereignty. Meanwhile, the importance of urban agriculture as a pragmatic approach allows for community members to take the lead through a collective effort, but of course, with the support of their local municipality in turn reconciles the relationship with one another Using the FUI as a prototype model, the planning, designing, implementing, and (re)settlement through a mutual aid and participatory approach can serve as a solution for planning and encompassing future growth, particularly among displaced and informal settlers.

The Role of Landscape Architecture in Developing Human Habitats

4. THE CASE OF TIERRA GRATA, CESAR, COLOMBIA

This chapter will contextual the situation of the new housing cooperative which emerged from the existing ETCR Tierra Grata, in addition to summarizing the background and history of the community. Following this, the School of Architecture for Reconciliation Parts I and II will be discussed while referencing how the idea for landscape architecture and urban agricultural master plan was developed. It will conclude with a summary of the fieldwork performed, as well as the identified challenges and opportunities.

4.1. Cuidadela de Paz: A New Settlement

2016 marked the year in which Colombia’s government and one of the largest guerrilla groups in the country The Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia (FARC), signed a peace agreement that launched the initiation of reintegrating thousands of ex combatants back into civil society (Barenstein and Sanjines, 2022). According to the 2016 National Congress of Colombian Cooperatives, cooperatives continue to play a role in the peace building process, as they are encouraging Colombians to work together to promote “socioeconomic development, reconciliation and reconstruction of the social fabric of the country” and “to continue cultivating a culture of solidarity and cooperation” (Cooperatives Europe, 2019). Additionally, this report stated that the Confederation of Colombian Cooperatives (Confecoop) highlighted the “need to strengthen the role of cooperatives in rural areas as a mechanism to reach territorial peace” (Barenstein, 2022 Cooperatives Europe, 2019). Through the peace and reconciliation process, some ex combatants who were once part of FARC opted for a collective reintegration process, which formed what is known as ECOMUN cooperative acting as an overseeing organization that provides support for agricultural cooperatives for them to attain sustainable livelihood (Barenstein and Sanjines, 2022). To date, the cooperative ECOMUN has successfully led to the formation of up to 260 productive cooperatives that are engaged in activities such as agriculture, fish farming, and the production of eco friendly building materials (Barenstein and Sanjines, 2022).

Nevertheless, there is still a need to improve the cooperative model in use to respond adequately to the needs of the community members, while incorporating efficient and sustainable building materials and techniques (Barenstein and Sanjines, 2022). In 2017, a study conducted by the National University of Colombia revealed that “up to 77 percent of ex combatants still residing in the ETCRs (as seen in Figure 14) to date admitted to not having access to adequate housing, which was considered their most urgent necessity in starting a new life” (UNAL 2017). In particular, the demographic of young couples who wish to start a

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family has been marginalized, since in previous years they were discouraged from having children while in combat (Duyne Barenstein and Sanjines, 2022). Most recently, the community is experiencing a baby boom as a direct result of the 2016 peace treaty (Mojica 2017; Arango Salgado 2019), so the desire for the ex combatants, especially the women, to have secure housing tenure, as well as communal infrastructures such as access to qualitative public spaces, childcare centres, parks, playgrounds, among other spatial infrastructures is at an all time high (Ospina Parra 2020). Prototypes of the proposed housing (see Figure 15 on the following page) have begun being constructed to test architectural techniques and materials, learn from the process, and apply acquired findings to the construction of the new settlement.

Through the support of ECOMUN, emerged the housing cooperative pilot project “Ciudadela de Paz” (Citadel of Peace), which offers an opportunity for ex combatants not only to reintegrate and transition from the temporary ETCR, but to have access to alternative and affordable forms of housing within a safe and exclusive dwelling with a promise for a potential future for their children. The housing cooperative was founded by 150 ex combatants and their families, setting a precedent for other marginalized communities in other ETCRs (Duyne, 2022). The community of Tierra Grata has been at a transitionary point in its development and in the process of resettling on new land near their existing commune. Since the camp's founding in 2016, progress has developed primarily through self initiated built construction, gardens, and other DIY (Do It Yourself) projects led by the community members with the additional support from the United Nations, including other local and international organizations such as the UNDP, and European Union. This goes to show how there is international support for the peace process in Colombia, offering a unique opportunity for the community to reintegrate on their terms, take control of their housing situation, and have a chance to influence their built environment to meet their needs. This project bears inspiration from the Uruguayan housing cooperative model which promotes a self help mutual aid approach, supported by the European Fund for Peace. This cooperative was able to develop four production cooperatives which consisted of the following: “stabilized earth block production, carpentry metal welding and transportation machinery made possible through capacity building workshops using sustainable building techniques” (Ospina Parra, 2020). The community of Tierra Grata is therefore coming together to pool their resources to mutually benefit from the investment in employment generation, construction of the settlement, and the desire for peaceful reincorporation. Through this, the School of Architecture for Reconciliation emerged in support of this cause. When the project proves to be successful, it can easily become replicable

The Role of Landscape Architecture in Developing Human Habitats in other communities of ex combatants or as a general precedent for housing cooperatives in post conflict settings (Duyne Barenstein and Sanjines, 2022).

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4.2. The School of Architecture for Reconciliation

The School of Architecture for Reconciliation: “Knowledge Exchange and Production of Mutual Aid Housing Cooperatives for Peace” emerged as a joint design studio between the universities of Universidad Nacional de Colombia (UNAL), with the National Superieure d’Architecture de Versailles (ENSA V) as a seminar week within the department of ETH Wohnforum during Spring 2021 Spring 2022. This project was possible due to support from Urbamonde Suisse and funding from Swiss based housing cooperative ABZ. (Barenstein and Sanjines, 2022). The group of participants involved was made up of professors, researchers, students, and survivors of the armed conflict, as well as ex combatants. The School of Architecture for Reconciliation represents our collective belief in efforts toward peace in Colombia, and the desire to explore cooperative construction processes through various experiments that offer potential solutions to aid with the reconciliation of the inhabitants of Tierra Grata. The school also aims to reflect and experiment on the role of architecture and landscape architecture in the spatial reintegration of ex combatants in the context of promoting positive dialogue between different actors and stakeholders (Barenstein and Sanjines, 2022)

4.2.1. The School of Architecture Part I:

The first phase of the School of Architecture for Reconciliation took place between January and May 2021. Since this seminar week took place during the pandemic, it offered an opportunity for an online international school to emerge consisting of international scholars, policymakers, architecture, and landscape architecture students, all while ensuring the inclusion of survivors of the armed conflict and the current inhabitants of Tierra Grata (Barenstein and Sanjines, 2022). Through the combination of design studio elements, online lectures, and discussions, we came together as an international group to analyze the current practices and available tools in terms of social, spatial, legal, and technical aspects of the development of housing cooperatives. Using WhatsApp as a platform for collaborative working groups, students in Zurich, Bogota, and Paris were able to exchange texts, ideas, photos, and design concepts to further explore opportunities for sustainable techniques and materials and more specifically, regarding the building pieces of a house, including the spaces which transcend the four walls of a home. The next phase of the seminar week divided the students into smaller groups to deepen the design process and possibilities. The various themes being explored ranged from carpentry to BTC/CEB (compacted earth blocks), and details and designs that could be easily created as a prototype in a lab such as potential rooftop material, and roof drainage possibilities. Due to the nature of the workshop being online, students in

The Role of Landscape Architecture in Developing Human Habitats

Switzerland were socially distanced at home; students in Colombia attended their universities material workshop to build a 1:1 prototype and give feedback to improve our ideas, while students in France met at their campus studio to discuss various spatial possibilities in the urban planning of the new settlement of Ciudadela de Paz.

All communication was done through the online collaborative platform Miro and presentations were made through the video conferencing software, Zoom. As a result, I developed various concepts for a DIY (Do It Yourself) garden proposal and received the opportunity closely with the students in Versailles to reimagine not only what an overall masterplan could look like, but also on a site specific scale to assess what areas could be taken advantage of such as the public spaces between each house. It was an excellent and generative opportunity, allowing us to assess the spatial potential of Tierra Grata on varying scales. The conclusion led to a compilation of details, schemes, and proposals as seen in the following pages (samples in Figures 16 17) in the format of a handbook handed over to the community to be implemented as part of mutual knowledge and skill sharing initiative to enhance the sustainability of the cooperatives’ preliminary house designs model. It was then presented to the community of Tierra Grata on the 16 of September 2021. The handbook was welcomed and praised not only as a valuable technical assistance contribution but also as a tool for policy advocacy (Barenstein and Sanjines, 2022).

These analyses presented helped document our collaborative ideas, which highlight the role of landscape architecture in theory and, when contextualized, can offer potential solutions which link back to Lynch’s work on the five physical elements: paths, nodes, landmarks, edges, and districts. As a result, we were able to highlight potential centers for both transitionary and meeting points, using spatial planning to delegate the location of spaces based on the community’s members' shared aspirations. This development of ideas was crucial in the subsequent part of the School of Architecture for Reconciliation workshop.

Figure 16. Map of Ciudadela de Paz, Spatial Analysis, and Intervention Strategies sample from publication in collaboration with ENSA V. Source: Paz y cooperativas de vivienda (2021) (Above)

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The Role of Landscape Architecture in Developing Human Habitats

Figure 17. Map of Ciudadela de Paz, Spatial Opportunities, and Elements, a sample from publication in collaboration with ENSA V. Source: Paz y cooperativas de vivienda (2021)

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4.2.2. The School of Architecture Part II:

The second phase of the School of Architecture for Reconciliation took place in March 2022, which enabled students from Switzerland and Colombia to visit the ex combatants, live, eat, and spend time working alongside them. We stayed in Tierra Grata for one week, intending to support the development of various livelihood projects chosen and prioritized by the community. Through this workshop, we were able to develop an action plan based on six strategic community based initiatives, previously identified by the community based on the results from the 2021 workshop to develop for the new land that was acquired adjacent to the ECTR. According to the Brochure developed by Barenstein and Sanjines (2022), these six main projects were identified as priorities:

• a childcare center,

• an urban agriculture and landscape masterplan,

• an ecotourism project,

• a cultural,

• the relocation of the cooperative construction and carpentry units, and

• a school for a neighbouring indigenous community. These projects were distributed to pairs of participants, each pair consisting of one student from ETH Zurich, and one student from UNAL. My project focused on the urban agricultural master plan, with my partner being Luna Dana Rodriguez Lopez, an architect from Colombia. Through an analysis of the challenges in Tierra Grata, the community members communicated their desire to develop crops within their housing plots, especially due to their rural background. Our task as a group through this one week long workshop was to develop possible agricultural projects that could take place within a given plot (not the new settlement site), as well as assess the greater context to come up with a general proposal for a master plan for their new settlement. The project began with a general concept of the need to design “productive yards or gardens” as per the previous year, (sample from the publication in Figure 18) which later translated into developing agricultural and landscape designated spaces that the community could use to improve their livelihood and potentially offer a means of economic vitality. In this context, productive gardens refer to gardens centered on yielding food produce to be sold or consumed; with this in mind, Luna and I coined the term “eco productive” gardening.

Figure 18. Vegetable gardens as a potential spatial element, including a variety of options in planting beds and typology. Sample from publication in collaboration with fellow students from ETH Zurich. Source: Paz y cooperativas de vivienda (2021)

The Role of Landscape Architecture in Developing Human Habitats

A LOCAL PERSPECTIVE: CONVERSATIONS AND INTERVIEWS

Since 2020, the women (seen in Figure 19) of Tierra Grata began leading the planting and environmental protection process from a gender sensitive, communitarian and ecological perspective. Through their collective work and with the support of Tierra Grata’s Gender Board, these empowered created an initiative that would prioritize both social and environmental development through their ‘eco productive units’ such as organic vegetable gardens, the introduction of a plant nursery, compost processing units, and the desire to develop a way to naturally transform natural recycled materials. Among these contributions, they also initiated several reforestation and garbage collection campaigns, and successfully planted up to 500 fruit trees (Lopez, 2022).

As we reflected on the results from last year’s workshop, we could identify a list of challenges and opportunities that would serve as a basis for our fieldwork investigation. Some challenges included: limited access to land, lack of legal framework or adequate infrastructures to do further development, in addition to water shortage; similarly, the lack of knowledge and experience in working with various agricultural chemicals also posed a challenge to the development of the eco productive units, among other collective goals. On the other hand,

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Figure 19. Women and children from the community of Ciudadela de Paz, Tierra Grata, Source: Luna D. Rodriguez Lopez

The Role of Landscape Architecture in Developing Human Habitats

several opportunities presented themselves, for example, the opportunity to further develop food security through the provision of existing ecosystem services, as well as having an opportunity for social and cultural enrichment through the potential proposal. The Gender Board also shared their desire to see a master plan that offers a fluid transition between urban and rural life, while simultaneously encompassing their communal spaces, including preserving nature as potential meeting zones through the development of parks.

With the support of Luna leading the interviews in Spanish, I followed along to the best of my ability; although she did an excellent job translating on the go. The following conversations are translated versions of audio recordings. Due to the nature of the trip being only one week long, we decided to target community leaders from the Gender Board and others who were simply interested in the idea of further developing a landscape and urban agricultural masterplan that encompasses both the needs of the individual and the community. We spoke with the following community leaders: Orly Masco, Antonio Calderon, Marcos Guevara, and Mario Charris.

I. Orly Masco

First, we spoke with Orly Masco. Orly is a sociologist, community teacher, and the President of the Gender Board. She kindly took the opportunity to share with us (Luna and I), her story and how she arrived in Tierra Grata. Additionally, she was able to give us a tour of her plot, which she was preparing to develop (documented in Figure 20). She informed us that she had arrived in 2017, with a local university and academic forum that was interested in doing development projects within the community, and she immediately fell in love with the location. She also informed us of the importance for the Gender Board to make a profit from the sale of trees, as this represents a significant income for them. However, they currently struggle with knowing how to make it profitable. During the tour, she showed us what she planted: an avocado, guava, a lemon, and a lime tree at the four corners of her property to mark her land parcel. This is a common practice when people are getting ready to build in Tierra Grata (as seen in Figure 21). On the following page is an excerpt from the discussion with Orly Masco, as she explained the role of the Gender Board in Tierra Grata and their priorities, which helped shape the overall vision for our proposal.

This is only a sample of the entire discussion we had with Orly, which highlights the challenges and needs of the Gender board and a potential livelihood opportunity that the women and children of Tierra Grata can benefit from when appropriately implemented.

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ORLY: We have management at the nursery that is part of the gender roundtable. When we talk about a group, it is not about everyone, but when we talk about a specific group, I mean that there is a group that is dedicated and understands, that gets up early, that cleans the orchard, but sometimes there are many of us who are involved in other activities and that sometimes we don't have the time.

Question: What was the vision of the orchard? What was the goal?

ORLY: The dream of the garden was eventually to be able, for example, to sell plants to the community. I think that at the beginning it was created with the objective of the nursery as it is a productive unit that will generate certain income so that the women will have economic autonomy from the nursery.

Question: Who is represented on the gender board?

ORLY: There are no men on the board at the moment, but there are those who volunteer with us. Otherwise, it would not be a gender roundtable. Moreover, we also have a colleague who belongs to the LGTBI community. And in fact, I also believe that without that component we would not be a gender roundtable. So, it is a necessity to be as inclusive as possible. We try not to restrict the role of gender here.

Question: How is your relationship with the native vegetation? What do you perceive as most important?

ORLY: The trees, maybe it will be necessary just to let you know where we are going, but the idea that this guy is doing [tree planting] is to think a little bit about the sites, the whole vegetation part of the citadel as if we must think about the plan to enjoy it. The first thing to think about when you are creating a new settlement is the trees, it takes a little time for the trees to grow. Shade is also a target, as well as the whole environmental part to be managed there. It is a thing that I prefer to think about already. And the idea is that we work together this week and imagine we pass the ideas on to them and then tell them a proposal or work with you to develop a proposal that can be all this part of the harmonization of landscaping, as it also connects with the system systems that is existing, then we will be looking within the properties that they already have in the Citadel, for example, which could be developed there in those ‘productive courtyards’? This implies that it has them concerning the location of the house, for example, where the house is placed, and what the type of enclosures can be done. To see what kind of trees, works well here, that provide shade and protection, and that also provide thermal comfort to the house. That is what we are working on.

Question: What role does the nursery play in the future of Ciudadela de Paz?

ORLY: We have thought about what vegetation could work here, and what kind of lifestyle we wish to have. Food can be planted or simply beautiful vegetation; it will be in the form of trial and error because there is some training needed to measure the success of our projects.”

The Role of Landscape Architecture in Developing Human Habitats

Figure 20. Orly and Luna walk towards the development plots. Source: Marie Tina Asoh

Figure 21. An example of how inhabitants mark their plot boundaries while waiting for the horses to be built. Source: Marie Tina Asoh

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II. Antonio Calderon

We then spoke with Antonio Calderon, who arrived as Orly was leaving. Antonio is also a member of the Gender Board, the leader of the plant nursery project, and an avid agriculturist. He gave us a tour of the nursery and showed us the various plants they currently have in stock, such as them having up to 5,000 cocoa plants at one point. He informed us that at times, the community in Tierra Grata gets gifted seeds, such as coffee and moringa, to add to their nursery. Meanwhile, plants such as the quick stick tree (Gliricidia sepium) can be propagated simply by their branches, making it easy for them to produce a high quantity of yield in the nursery (Figure 22). Now, the nursery tried to focus on growing medicinal plants like leek, ginger, clover, and cilantro which they can grind up and create traditional medicine. However, he also informed us that there had been damage to the nursery due to weather conditions over time and this was having a huge impact on the quality of space they can use, as well as damage to certain infrastructures such as water circulation pipes or flawed electrical switches which posed a safety concern. Therefore, for the tree planting initiative to be implemented, it would be a priority that there is an investment in the nursery to upgrade the facility, to enable them to receive more seeds, and yield more produce.

Figure 22. Antonio showed us the stock of quick stick trees, (Gliricidia sepium) often used for making fences due to their fast growth rate. Source: Marie Tina Asoh

The Role of Landscape Architecture in Developing Human Habitats

III. Marco Guevera

The next day, we spoke with Marco Guevara, the community’s lead photographer, interested in developing the community’s first cinema. His role was a bit different, as he was rather one of the youth leaders, so it was normal to see the young people of Tierra Grata often hanging with him, filming with him, or just enjoying their free time together. This is a brief transcript of his introduction and background:

“Hello, my name is Marco. I have been here since the signing of the peace agreement. The subject of gardening came into my life when I was a very young child and my grandmother would cultivate very beautiful plants, with lots of flowers that would add a little freshness to our patio and decorate it. But then, that was in my childhood. At a time, when that was over, I had to move to another place because of the way, and in that other place, there was no more space. I never sowed again, until I found out there was nothing to sow. When I was with the guerrillas, we laid down our arms. When we arrived at this place, we started to appropriate the spaces, each one from the piece of land in front of where he lives. And so, I built this garden, and this planter, and this nice space. I call it not gardening, but rather this pleasant living space; as a micro ecosystem, where some reptiles live, some rivers where many reptiles arrive, birds, like that one, sing there. Sometimes I feed the birds, and sometimes I leave water for them, and they come. Sometimes in the summer, when they don’t have any that’s the nice thing about the garden, I don’t know how but we all contribute a little bit to the lifecycle in one way or another. Plants are also part of the life cycle. We have ecosystem benefits, for those who live next to nature, or the trees. Here I am provided with a lot of freshness in my house. So, thank you, very much.”

Marco informed us that he was one of the first people to arrive, and when he arrived there were no trees around his plot so he took the initiative to plant them himself. Now, six years later, his house has a cooler micro climate compared to his neighbours’ who did not plant as many trees (see Figures 23 and 24). The only regret he said, is that he cannot take the larger trees with him when they move into a new cooperative settlement as it is simply not feasible He also gave us a tour of his home, including informing us about all the plants he planted, both local and non local species. He was one of the people who were especially passionate about the idea of expanding the nursery, and his future garden, with an interest in the theme of community gardens and the development of local parks, or courtyards where he and his friends could spend time after work, having a beer or just filming.

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Figure 23. (Above) Marco showing us a photo of his property, in 2016 when he first arrived, versus Figure 24. (Below) him standing in the same spot today, illustrating his commitment to re greening his new settlement.

Source: Marie Tina Asoh

The Role of Landscape Architecture in Developing Human Habitats

IV. Mario Charris

The last person we interviewed was Mario Charris. Mario is also involved in leading ecological expeditions and research within the larger context of Tierra Grata. On the first few days upon our arrival at the site, Mario was happy to give us a brief tour of the village and help us identify the local flora and fauna so we could get a better understanding of the ecological environment He also guided us through the new settlement area, and we had the opportunity to speak with the construction workers on site; they then informed us that they usually demolish the square meter necessary for the house to be built, but still try to preserve what can be saved from the existing vegetation (as seen in figure 25 26 on the following page). He also informed us that there was a potential connection to a nearby river, with an existing creek that was said to be on the community property. However, upon conducting our fieldwork and tour, we discovered that the creek possessed very little water; therefore, if there should be a future potential to connect the creek to the river, it would require water management and a sensitive approach to doing so to minimize damage to the existing flora and fauna in the environment. Upon interviewing him, Mario shared with us how he came to the commune of Tierra Grata:

“…Hello, my name is Mario Charris Solano, and I am a biologist by profession. I am here in this space that is called Tierra Grata, which is a place founded by former FARC combatants. And well, I’m here essentially because I was part of a movement that was making part of the influence and work of FARC, and especially in the work of the political party that was part of the Clandestine Communist Party of Colombia. And well, now we are here doing the work, as I have always done because I work to achieve peace in Colombia.

For a long time, I was an activist, social activist, and peace activist, and that’s why I was a militant in the Clandestine Communist Party of Colombia. What I was looking for, was that there would be peace in Colombia, or by pressuring it through a late insurrectional movement. Or through an agreement with the government and the State. I remember what we achieved in 2016, and well, we are going through difficult times; because the government we have now today, in March 2022, is not a very peace friendly government, but anyway. I am currently working here as a Biologist. Here there is a tropical forest conservation project in this area that is the Serranía del Perijá in northeastern Colombia. And well, the idea is to conserve the tropical forest, 100 hectares of the tropical forest here on a farm called La Borraja. In this area, which is very diverse, it should be remembered that Colombia is one of the most diverse mega diverse countries in the world and it is number one in birds.

And I am here supporting the community, in the conservation of the dry forest, and this work of training ex combatants in plant management, animal husbandry, and environmental management, in general. And well, that’s what I have been advancing so far. Before I was also here in the community, supporting the whole process that they call here, reincorporation into civilian life and doing a variety of tasks, from sweeping, picking up garbage to helping to serve in anything else, and cleaning up. And well, that is what I am doing here. This is a very beautiful place; you have surely seen the scenery. Very beautiful, tropical mountain scenery…and well, I have also met some very nice, wonderful people, people who come to contribute their grain of sand, which they may think is tiny, but it is a great contribution to peace here in Colombia. I don’t know what else I can say, but here I am, still fighting for Colombia to change, because, in Colombia, it can be peaceful. So, thank you.”

Marie Tina Asoh Ajesam

The reason I share these transcripts is that I believe it is important for the voices of these community leaders to be heard, as they are, and not only as I perceive them (especially with the added factor of translation from Spanish to English). Using the feedback we obtained in our first few days from these four involved community members, we were then able to directly inform ourselves on potential landscape architecture and urban agricultural interventions

Figure 25 26. Luna discusses with local construction workers about future development on the new site, as they demolish trees to make way for a new settlement (below). Source: Marie Tina Asoh

The Role of Landscape Architecture in Developing Human Habitats

4.4. Challenges and Opportunities

Following our fieldwork, we could finally create a site analysis to address the opportunities and challenges that were brought to our attention. Some strengths included the existing presence of native vegetation on the new lots, evidence of organization around production/utility gardens, and individual gardening initiatives in private and collective spaces. One constraint, however, was the poor sense of streetscape and property lines, which make it difficult to identify where one’s property begins and ends based on the lack of visible hierarchy Some opportunities, however, came with the presence of potential preservation areas, and as well the presence of water micro ecosystems, even though they are currently unable to be linked to the larger water systems in the area at the moment. In contrast, some existing weaknesses of the current site which can create issues for the future are the deterioration of the nursery structure and the loss of soil connectivity due to erosion and unregulated

The Role of Landscape Architecture in Developing Human Habitats

Figure 28. ETCR Tierra Grata in context to the new settlement Source: Tierra Grata Official

Marie Tina Asoh Ajesam

Figure 29. Google base map of settlement site and digitalized settlement master plan for Tierra Grata. Source: Tierra Grata Official Website

The Role of Landscape Architecture in Developing Human Habitats

4.5 OPERACIÓN CAÑAHUATE: THE Eco-Productive Citadel

Our thorough fieldwork and analysis of the site resulted in a landscape based master plan in combination with an action plan that addresses the needs as identified by the community, while intentionally leaving room for future development. Our conceptual masterplan is titled: ‘Operación Cañahuate: The Eco Productivee Citadel’ as seen in Figure 30 on the following page and referenced in Appendix F. Cañahuate, also known as Guayacán (Handroanthus guayacan) is one of Colombia’s most well known trees due to its vibrant yellow leaves. The goal of Operación Cañahuate is to create an integral project of an urban tree planting initiative in the new settlement of Ciudadela de Paz, with the following objectives:

1. To promote the revival and economic sustainability of the plant nursery and the collective orchard managed by the gender board

2. To increase the ecological potential of the Citadel by generating landscape connectivity and supporting the preservation of native flora and fauna of the Tropical Dry Forest context.

3. To shape the spatial quality of the Citadel with memorable and healthy, public spaces through landscape design and vegetative cover, promoting sustainability, quality of life, and dignity in housing. In this context, trees are being recognized as an essential part of the urban infrastructure, especially with the choice of using Cañahuate and Mangoes as a statement to highlight the streets of the new settlement while representing the cultural landscape to which it is local. Similarly, the trees will help shape the micro climate of the spaces, such as aiding in providing climatic comfort such as shade on an extremely hot day or fresh fruit ready for consumption by the public. Through a well planned and executed action plan, there is potential to mitigate some of the challenges and weaknesses that were identified such as poor sense of streetscape, or the opportunity to upgrade the quality of the plant nursery through the tree planting initiative. Our proposal looks to tackle the streetscape, and further develop the informal spaces between buildings such as courtyards and hallways to provide an opportunity for both formal and informal communal spaces. Through the usage of landscape architecture and urban agricultural principles, this master plan aims to offer a framework for planning the growth of Ciudadela de Paz. In addition, we proposed an action plan outlining the next steps that can be implemented through a mutual aid approach in different phases to ensure everyone has an opportunity to develop their neighbourhood or communal space.

Marie Tina Asoh Ajesam

Appendix F. Source: Marie Tina Asoh and Luna D. Rodriguez Lopez

The Role of Landscape Architecture in Developing Human Habitats

4.5.1. A Streetscape Concept

During our stay in Tierra Grata, we noticed the disparity in trees around the property, in which the density of trees mostly existed in or surrounding one communal area i.e., the main kitchen and around the toilets and showers, but weren’t as distributed on the general surrounding property as evenly, i.e., near the new developments, such as prototype buildings versus existing buildings as seen in Appendix E. We noticed this was the case due to the development plans, in which trees had to be cut down for roads or buildings as there was no standard or existing policy with a guideline for tree conservation in this context. Nevertheless, with the support of an existing movement referred to as TICCA, there has been a push for the conservation and preservation of the local ecology. TICCA is a recently coined term to refer to a “real and long standing movement of territories and areas being conserved by indigenous peoples and local communities (Charris, 2022) Mario Charris, the Biologist, is an active member and participant of this community and conducted a presentation for the community during our stay. We were able to participate and learn about what the community found important in terms of the local ecology, and together we came up with the idea of a streetscape concept that encompasses the community, mapping and walking the territory, and sharing traditional knowledge through community activities, such as tree planting. Our decision to choose the Guayacan tree (Handroanthus guayacan) also known as Cañahuate to the locals and the Mango tree as our main street tree was based on our overall study of the larger ecological context of Tierra Grata and understanding of the need for climatic comfort in the new settlement. In a description of the Cañahuate tree, Photographer Jorge J. Restrepo, states:

“This tree, native to Colombia and Ecuador, is used extensively as an urban tree in Medellín. During this time of the year, most of these trees are completely covered by yellow flowers, as if to coincide with the Festival of Flowers, celebrated in Medellín during the first week of August. This year all of the trees flowered at the same time, probably due to the irregular weather due to "La Niña". It has rained for most of the year, but this week it has been dry and sunny. The flowers fall rapidly to the ground forming a carpet of flowers. This is also the National Tree of Venezuela.” (Restrepo, 2008)

This is an excellent description of why we chose the Cañahuate tree, as our goal was to replicate this phenomenon on the new and developing streets of Citadel, bringing the urban element of a commonly recognized street tree, into a developing rural commune; this offers the potential for spatial infrastructures such as adequate sidewalks and corresponding streets, as well as adequate drainage to minimize flooding and soil degradation over time.

Furthermore, according to Canopy Family (2018), a wildlife and tree database office based in Panama, the tree’s wood is also described as: “Very hard, heavy and dark; it is valued and used

Marie Tina Asoh Ajesam

for making railway ties, flooring, and boats, in addition, this tree has medicinal properties, so a tea made from the leaves can provide relief for urinary tract and kidney problems.”

Meanwhile, mango (Mangifera indica) is a highly appreciated and sought food in Colombia (Ramirez and Davenport, 2012). Due to its unique climate of warm dry, and humid conditions, coupled with the variable of precipitation and dry seasons, the mango has an ideal climate for propagation and production, especially in Tierra Grata. Colombia has the privilege of being one of the few countries in which Mangoes are produced and cultivated all months of the year which means the flowering and harvest seasons can occur multiple times depending on the region and cultivar, making it, therefore, one of the most important fruit crops and the third highest in consumption after citrus and bananas making it one of the most important fruit crops (Cartagena, 2001; Ramirez and Davenport, 2012). Economically speaking, mango trees can offer a high income for growers, making it not only a livelihood opportunity through the creation of jobs in different sectors, but also which can alleviate poverty and hunger as a long term result (Ramirez and Davenport, 2012). Therefore, the investment in an adequate streetscape would entail not only offering a higher spatial quality for users of the street but can also provide inhabitants an opportunity to plant trees for their personal uses such as in their backyard for shade, privacy, or simply for aesthetic reasons (as seen in Figure 31). Having a common streetscape in which everyone benefits, would offer an opportunity for the community to connect with their environment and neighbours, as they share a common appreciation of the trees, making the streetscapes a cultural element for the new settlement of Ciudadela de Paz Considering the baby boom, and the increase of population in the settlement, if the trees are planted now there exists an opportunity for the children of the Citadel to grow up with the trees, truly reflecting the cultural connection and reconnection of the same trees that once provided their ex combatant parents with shade, shelter, and safety. This initiative offers tree planting as a peace building movement.

The Role of Landscape Architecture in Developing Human Habitats

Figure 31 An example of a mango tree in an urban setting, providing shade and influencing the micro climate in Valledupar Source: Marie Tina Asoh

Marie Tina Asoh Ajesam

Outcome

Our process consisted of mapping out existing native plants and documenting proof of existing spatial interventions done by the inhabitants of Tierra Grata. Furthermore, upon speaking with the four community leaders, our S.W.O.T. analysis (strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and constraints outlined in section 4.4.) influenced our priority list for the master plan. We also spoke with the other action teams such as the childcare and eco tourism group, who were working on alternative concepts to get a better understanding of the children and family, as well as touristic needs for the community (as they had an opportunity to work with and talk to other community members, we did not have the chance to interview). In addition to the conceptual master plan provided (and referenced in Appendix F), Luna created conceptual cross sections to illustrate the potential spatial interventions as seen in Figure 32, and available in Appendix G. We were successful in our documentation of plants in the nursery and created an inventory list to aid the community in jump starting the process of revitalizing the nursery (available in Appendix H). Our overall goal was to set a starting point in organizing the needs of the gender board and the plant nursery, whether be it financial vitality or food security. Understanding the local flora and fauna, as well as spatial territories allows us to better understand the needs of the inhabitants of Tierra Grata (Figures 33 and 34 on page 66). The workshop ended with us presenting our proposal to the community (as seen in Figure 35 on page 67), for them to choose one to further be developed by the UNAL students, as an urban architectural project up to the built construction.

Through the School of Architecture for Reconciliation’s contribution, we were able to begin the long term plan development within the built environment in Tierra Grata, planning for collective housing and knowledge sharing, among other activities. The goal of the school was to contribute to the understanding of the peace building and reconciliation process, in the context of housing cooperatives and landscape development, and through the workshops, we were able to do so. Utilizing a voting process, the community opted for the relocation of the cooperative construction and carpentry units project, which the community in collaboration with UNAL will have an opportunity in Fall 2022 to further develop. With available resources donated by the Swiss housing cooperative ABZ, “…We want to build or implement the first phase of this transition, which may consist of improvements to the existing, implementation of programs, or technical training.” (Barenstein and Sanjines 2022). The community liked all the ideas we proposed, but as funding is limited, they could only choose one to follow through with at this time. They prioritized the carpentry unit project to build more bricks for the construction of their model house, which means the participatory process of voting worked exactly as it

should have. However, there is still potential for the Tree planting initiative to be pursued in the following year.

The Role of Landscape Architecture in Developing Human Habitats

Figure 32. A conceptual cross section through the site for Ciudadela de Paz which appears in better quality in Appendix G. Source: Marie Tina Asoh and Luna D. Rodriguez Lopez

Marie Tina Asoh Ajesam

Figure 33 Above: Luna identifying local plant specifies for the inventory list. Source: Marie Tina Asoh

Figure 34 Below: The current state of the nursery roof, which needs to be replaced as part of the action plan. Source: Marie Tina Asoh

The Role of Landscape Architecture in Developing Human Habitats

Figure 35 Luna presented our Tree planting initiative and master plan concept to the community. Source: Daniela Sanjines

Marie Tina Asoh Ajesam

5. CONCLUSION AND REFLECTIONS

I went into this research with the following question: How can landscape architectural practices aid in improving the sustainability of human habitat while fostering community cohesion and supporting peace and reconciliation?

Based on the research executed, it is conclusive that the role of landscape architecture in developing sustainable habitats is based on a complex level of multiple layers, which bear weight differently based on cultural and political backgrounds. In summary, the role of landscape architecture can be used to guide and plan for design principles, which when contextualized, can offer a set of policies or a standard of best practices that communities, especially those such as the inhabitants of Tierra Grata, can equally participate and be represented by legally. Therefore, landscape architecture in practice can indeed improve the sustainability of human habitats by creating a high quality standard, while remaining environmentally aware of the ecological sensitivity of any given area through initiatives such as tree planting, community gardening, and practicing urban agriculture, among other environmental movements. Through an accumulative literature review, it is evident that through the utilization of various participatory and collaborative approaches, the community (as a group, and as an entity) also has an opportunity to push for spatial elements such as bike paths, well maintained streetscapes, improvement in public transportation, among other spatial interventions in the future (Elmendorg, 2008) which are especially important in planning for new settlement or renovating disenfranchised communities. An ecologically sensitive landscape is also one that utilizes the principles of permaculture in which we are called to care for our community and our land and contribute our fair share of labor to invest back into the community that takes care of us. The community of Tierra Grata embodies this approach wholeheartedly through their attitudes and way of life. Additionally, urban agriculture is widely recognized around the globe by scholars and Indigenous folks alike, therefore I predict a shift towards more food centered cities, or agro forest farms, essentially self sustaining communes that can meet their food and housing needs in the future. The existing literature on this discourse supports these concepts and initiatives and confirms that a high quality and place oriented environment can help increase the overall quality of a place’s interaction and its community’s capacity (Elmendorg, 2008).

The Role of Landscape Architecture in Developing Human Habitats

As I reflect on my overall experience in being part of the School of Architecture for Reconciliation for the past two years, I feel extremely grateful to have participated in this hands on workshop both online and in person. Through the various workshops, presentations, and lectures, we experienced the roles of the student and the teacher in various situations. I felt moved by the passion and energy of the inhabitants of Tierra Grata, especially regarding how they continue to pull together their resources and collective effort to reinvest in themselves and commit to finding their own cultural identity once again. I found it mutually enriching to be able to have an open dialogue and collaboration with UNAL and ENSAV while tackling spatial and architectural challenges, especially in a post conflict setting. However, I also had to reflect on the challenge of the participatory process.

5.1. Limitations

I recognize that with the limited time I had, my participatory process was limited in terms of scope and flexibility, especially as I only focused on interviewing the community leaders. I consider the fact that some of the information I receive could be unintentionally biased, as it could be that not everyone in the community shares the same views as the community leaders. Therefore, in the future I would be interested in proposing an anonymous survey, in which everyone in the community can have their voice heard, resulting in more quantitative results and less bias. Furthermore, I would be interested in exploring the replicability of this project on other ECTRs as I ask myself: how do we qualify the user experience? This goes hand in hand with understanding the community’s “true” needs. At times, during such types of participatory work, community members may try to tell you what you want to hear (especially when a language barrier exists), so we as researchers must keep in mind this existing level of bias in our work especially when it is only possible to do fieldwork in one week. Therefore, it is most important that such works are not just a one time effort, but rather an ongoing, lifelong collaboration to ensure a consistent progression of the project, and of course, to simply get to know the community better, to fully comprehend their perspective and be able to better support them in fulfilling their needs.

In my case, I went into a community in which I didn’t speak the local language, yet we were able to find means to communicate whether it be through an informal translator or using Google translate to speak which shows the adaptability and resilience of the inhabitants of Tierra Grata. In the future, it would be beneficial to take at least an introductory Spanish class to afford more independence and deepen my connection with the inhabitants I am working alongside. However, with the time we spent together not just working, but eating and drinking

Marie Tina Asoh Ajesam

with the community, I felt like our social connection could transcend the boundaries of language by the end of our week together. This was most visible on our last night in Tierra Grata, after we presented our ideas to the community, we could join in the main kitchen and enjoy a drink and dance together For this reason, I am even more hopeful for the next phase of the project, I will have a better opportunity to talk with other members of the community and offe

planting initiative in Tierra Grata

The group from UNAV ( (2022 brick construction factory

The Role of Landscape Architecture in Developing Human Habitats

5.2. Strategies for the Future

The relevance of introducing the Food Urbanism Initiative in Chapter 2, considering it is a Swiss based framework within a project based in Colombia is not to set a precedent but rather to highlight the importance of the different stakeholders within one’s community, which can play a role in the success and failures of the implementation of urban and peri urban agriculture in practice. In essence, there needs to be a replicable framework that can be created and applied by Colombians for Colombians, with the support from relevant stakeholders, which is the first step in decolonizing design.

So how can we as designers measure the success or failures of these implementations? In landscape architecture, best practices exist to hold us accountable for the work we create; therefore, the recognition of urban agriculture from the government and community members also calls for assessment and reflection in policy and master planning; landscape architecture incorporating UA practices can therefore aid in legitimizing the movement. Particularly within the context of Europe, we must be conscious of the role and power we possess when contributing to and participating in design within an international context, as it requires utmost

sensitivity and ethical knowledge of land reform and Colombian urban planning laws This acknowledgment is critical, considering the sensitive history and political past that is still very present and affecting the inhabitants of Colombia today.

According to Verzone and Woods (2021), there are three main principles of urban quality that can measure or assess the quality of a given habitat: i) governance and management, ii) sustainable development, and iii) urban performance. (Verzone and Woods, 2021) The main goal of establishing these principles in practice is to be able to offer stakeholders equitable grounds in participating in the sustainable development of their habitat based on the themes of environmental visibility, social cohesion, and economic vitality as illustrated in Table 3 in the following page (Verzone and Woods, 2021). Similarly, Table 4 on the same page highlights the necessary criteria for adequate participatory processes. Introducing and acknowledging such a framework is essential to offer a way for researchers, designers, scholars, and policy analysts to collaborate with the inhabitants to fully understand and encompass their needs, beyond our perception. Essentially, the FUI looks at the overall impact of urban agriculture on urban design and planning, and landscape architects play an essential role in ensuring this process is well received equitably by all stakeholders involved in any given workshop.

Marie Tina Asoh Ajesam

Table 4. Criteria for evaluation within the FUI. Source: Verzone and Woods, 2021

The Role of Landscape Architecture in Developing Human Habitats

Through assessing the advantages, disadvantages, costs, risks, and potential outcomes of various initiatives, the proposed cultivation benefits the urban community and the rural as well, as it can be easily replicable in multiple scales and contexts. (Verzone, 2012) When incorporated appropriately, it will enhance user experience and the urban quality of one’s life, offering better livelihood opportunities. “Good” and “efficient” design belongs to everyone and thus should be accessible by everyone, not just those of a higher class. However, the FUI aims to target groups such as politicians, urban developers, and agricultural professionals at the same rate as it leaves room for participation from local inhabitants looking to contribute or give back to their community, as is the case for the community of Tierra Grata. The opportunity for (landscape) architects, researchers, and international policy analysts to come together and create such a plan can only be improved in the future by incorporating the Food Urbanism Initiative and its general principles (adapted based on contextual needs) The concept of growing food, individually or collectively, in the city or within (peri )urban spaces is linked by an overlaying landscape design in the form of corridors, paths, and tree canopies. Additionally, when such a space is open and susceptible to change, it allows for a “larger productive core” (Verzone, 2012) and thereby increasing the socio economic, financial, and environmental output that comes with it.

As a young landscape architect, myself, I continue to see the value of access and proximity to quality landscape and spatial elements in my everyday life. I also understand that it is a privilege to be able to possess such a variety of options for communal and recreational spaces. During my time in Colombia, I could identify unique qualities of certain landscapes and spatial elements; however, I noticed some were more exclusive than others, or in contrast, not exclusive enough, making it unsafe for children, tourists, and the public to enjoy these existing communal spaces. Through a landscape architectural lens, these spaces can easily be reclaimed through simple actions and proposed initiatives that have proven to foster community cohesion. Although these initiatives alone will not overcome the complex problems and struggles that emerge with post conflict resolutions, there is much potential surrounding us in our built environment, offering inspiration and challenging us to grow and adapt like our resilient habitats This work is intended to inspire other researchers, designers, professionals, students, and the like, to follow the steps of the inhabitants of Tierra Grata, and continue to encourage peace building and reconciliation around the world.

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The Role of Landscape Architecture in Developing Human Habitats

Appendix A: The Benefit of urban trees and corresponding Sustainable Development Goals continued. Source: Turner-Scoff, 2019

Marie Tina Asoh Ajesam

Appendix B: Prototype of the model house designed for Tierra Grata’s new settlement. Source: Paz y cooperativas de Vivienda 2021.

The Role of Landscape Architecture in Developing Human Habitats

Appendix C: Site photos of Tierra Grata. Source: Marie Tina Asoh

Marie Tina Asoh Ajesam

Appendix D: A cultural meeting point at the center of the commune. Source: Marie Tina Asoh

The Role of Landscape Architecture in Developing Human Habitats

Appendix E: Housing typologies and cultural landscape elements at Tierra Grata. Source for the above photos: Marie Tina Asoh Source for the photo below: Tierra Grata’s Official Website

The Role of Landscape Architecture in Developing Human Habitats

Appendix G: Conceptual cross sections of the chosen site. Source: Luna D. Rodrigues Lopez

Marie Tina Asoh Ajesam

Appendix G: Conceptual cross sections of the chosen site. Source: Luna D. Rodrigues Lopez

The Role of Landscape Architecture in Developing Human Habitats

Appendix H: Inventory of Plant Nursery, March 2022. Source: Marie Tina Asoh and Luna D. Rodrigues Lopez