Urban Lightscape by Marie Lene Aalund Balle

URBAN LIGHTSCAPE

In search of the communicative performance of urban lighting

MASTER THESIS IN LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTURE Urban Lightscape - in search of the communicative performance of urban lighting AUTHORS: Marie Lene Aalund Balle (rlk772) Marie Baastrup Hansen (gwb557) SUPERVISOR Gertrud JĂ¸rgensen, Professor Landscape Architecture and Planning Science, University of Copenhagen PLACE & DATE: Science, University of Copenhagen July 2015 *Body text: 224352 characters / 93,5 standard pages

URBAN LIGHTSCAPE ABSTRACT

ABSTRACT

rban Lightscape er et metodeudviklende speciale som sætter fokus på, hvordan belysning af urbane rum kan være stærkt rumskabende samt performativ kommunikerende af både æstetiske og funktionelle kvaliteter for byens borgere. Der følger et teoriafsnit med udgangspunkt i en nordisk døgn- og årsrytme, som søger at afdække lysets grundlæggende begreber set i en menneskelig skala og en bymæssig kontekst. Teorien søger at redegøre for, hvordan det færdende menneske i byen navigerer, orienterer, oplever og sanser sig gennem den natlige by. En stor del af undersøgelsen har bestået af en Multiple Case Study bestående af 9 cases; 1 pilot case, 1 hoved case, 5 supplerende cases og 2 reference cases, som er blevet udvalgt på baggrund af deres nutidighed, landskabelige/urbane karakter samt grad af transit.

URBAN LIGHTSCAPE ABSTRACT

Baggrundsteorien og oplevede fænomener gennem registeringerne af case studierne har i en cirkulær fænomenologisk process bevirket til en Analysemodel af Belysning i Urbane Rum. Analysemodellen kan bruges til at analysere eksisterende urbane lightscapes gennem stedets kontekst, belysningens morfologi, syntaks og kommunikative egenskaber. Analysemodellen bliver følgende transformeret til parametre og principper, som den urbane designer kan bruge som en værktøjskasse til at designe lightscapes, der har den ønskede kommunikative performance. Parametrene og principperne kan bruges på kryds og tværs og det er kun designerens fantasi der sætter grænserne. Dette speciale skal derfor ikke forstås som en rettesnor eller en fundet sandhed. Det er blot et stykke arbejde, der kan inspirere og give forståelse af de forskellige fremsatte designparametre og -principper.

URBAN LIGHTSCAPE PREFACE

PREFACE

ur school has educated us to become landscape architects who design cities for people and amplified a holistic design approach. During studio courses students are told to make a lighting plan, but we have never really learned how or what to be aware of when designing with light. As such - in both our cases - the lighting plans are always created last minute and is mostly because we â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;had toâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; make it. We experienced that our designed lightscapes came off as a horizontal flatness as the light scheme was produced in plan, and left us with no clue on how the lightscape would appear in three dimensional space, which is what intrigued us to embark upon this topic. On the threshold to become urban designers we find it relevant to investigate how the dynamics of the urban space change in the transition from the natural daylight to artificial nocturnal lighting. Our curiosity is furthermore enhanced by the the long dark winter periods we experience in the North.

Marie Lene Aalund Balle

Marie Baastrup Hansen

URBAN LIGHTSCAPE

TABLE OF CONTENT INTRODUCTION 9 THESIS STATEMENT 15 DELIMITATION 17 Methodical Framework

METHODICAL PERSPECTIVES 19 METHOD 25 Theoretical Framework

THE BASICS OF LIGHT

LIGHT IN HUMAN SCALE

Illuminance, Luminance & Brightness Colour Temperature & Rendering Properties

Visual Perception Human Senses Human Mobility

31 37

45 49 52

Analytical Framework

THE ANALYTICAL MODEL OF URBAN LIGHTSCAPES

MULTIPLE CASE STUDY

Context Morphology Syntax Communication

Ishøj Station Square Dania Park Hyllie Plaza Israels Plads Nordvestparken Søndermarken

62 62 67 72

83 109 119 131 139 147

URBAN LIGHTSCAPE TABLE OF CONTENT

Amager Strandpark 159 Amager Fælled 161 Discussion

FROM ANALYSIS TO DESIGN GUIDELINES

163

IN THE CONTEXT OF AN URBAN LIGHTSCAPE

169

MORPHOLOGICAL DESIGN PARAMETERS

175

Type & Target 177 Height 189

Direction & Distribution 197 Brightness Contrast 207 Colour 215

SYNTAXIAL DESIGN PRINCIPLES 229 Spatiality Variation Organisation Rhythm Hierarchy

COMMUNICATIVE PERFORMANCE OF URBAN LIGHTING

Safety Orientation Navigation Comfort Ambience Identity

231 241 249 259 269

281 283 287 291 295 299 303

CONCLUSION 307 REFERENCES 311 APPENDIX 315

URBAN LIGHTSCAPE INTRODUCTION

URBAN LIGHTSCAPE

INTRODUCTION

URBAN LIGHTSCAPE INTRODUCTION

â&#x20AC;&#x153;Light is both nothing and everything. Light is nothing: it is untouchable, it moves, it travels, it is but a fleeting stroke in the immaterial world. Light is everything: it alone brings space into reality, limited or unlimited, visible or simple intuited.â&#x20AC;? (Dubuisson 2011)

hus as the french architect and designer Sylvain Dubuisson (2011) explains, light is nothing because we can not touch it, it travels in time and it is constantly changeable. On the other hand light is everything due to its ability to generate space both limited and unlimited. Because of this ephemeral nature, light characterises both an immaterial and a material phenomenon. As Arnheim writes: Without light the eyes can observe no shape, no colour, no space and no movement (Arnheim 1954), though light is more than just the physical cause of what we see - light is a stimulus (Moyer 2013). In the theatre world light is used as a tool to set a mood or to provoke a specific feeling for a specific scene. By changing the light, the interpretation of the scene will change and along with it, a personâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s feelings and reaction to the scene (Moyer 2013). Light defines the space we see, but also provokes the way we interpret it. Light is thereby both physically and psychologically one of the most fundamental and powerful human experiences as it is a prerequisite for most activities. (Arnheim 1954) The artificial light together with the natural light from the moon and stars brings a new story to an the nocturnal city. Light is a communicative performer which governs the way in which we move about and stimulate us emotional. The famous danish architect Steen Eiler Rasmussen states that the city is like a theatre in which the urban spaces present the variety of sceneries where urban life unfolds. The performance of the urban theatre can be staged, but most often it consists of unexpected improvisations. (Rasmussen 1957) There are many

URBAN LIGHTSCAPE INTRODUCTION

directors of the urban theatre with social, cultural, economic or political interests (Samson 2010), but the stage-manager is usually the role of the architect or urban designer (Rasmussen 1957). Thus the responsibility of a safe, guiding and aesthetic communication of the city is in the hands of the urban designer - also when the sun has set. In today’s society there is no shadow of doubt that artificial light is necessary. In the past, cities were vibrant during daytime and went to sleep at night - today some cities never go to sleep. (Watanabe et al. 1998) Traditionally light schemes in the city were designed to accommodate safety and security measures but lightscapes in today’s society meet new standards such as energy efficiency, requirements to appeal and support the spatial ambience (Rambøll(a) n.d.) and residents of the city has demanded more quality of the urban spaces (Watanabe et al. 1998) which is also reflected in the visions of The lighting Masterplan from the Municipality of Copenhagen. The demands of the communicative performance of urban lighting has in the copenhagen vision for urban lighting a manifold range from functional safety lighting to something of a more aesthetic experiential character: “Københavns Kommune vil med en arkitektonisk lyssætning iscenesætte byen i natten. Lyset skal bruges med omtanke og med det mål at styrke bylivet og fremhæve byens særlige identitet, arkitektur og detaljer. Nat skal forblive nat og ikke efterligne dagen. Grundbelysningen skal skabe sikkerhed, tryghed og tilgængelighed i byen på et bæredygtigt grundlag med omtanke for miljø og ressourcer.” (Københavns Kommune 2007)

Thus the Municipality of Copenhagen states that urban lighting should besides providing regulatory functional aspects such as safety and accessibility, also

URBAN LIGHTSCAPE INTRODUCTION

stage the city with the aim of enhancing the urban life and the special identity, architecture and details of the city. All with respect for the nighttime, environment and resources. (KĂ¸benhavns Kommune 2007) In the Lighting Masterplan of Copenhagen from 2014 the vision is followed up with 6 concepts for what urban lighting could benefit to; a secure city, a safe city, a sustainable city, an active city, a vibrant city and a communicating city (cf. Appendix 6). For a secure and safe city the urban lighting should focus on initiatives that enhance the safety of the streets and the experience of feeling safe. For a sustainable city the choices of urban lighting should go hand in hand with reducing the environmental impact of light pollution and resource consumption. Urban lighting in Copenhagen should furthermore support the urban life and make it easier to be physically active to achieve an active and vibrant city. And lastly urban lighting should act as a communication tool to profile the city and the local characters. To achieve these aims the municipality have listed some recommendations. For instance to get a step closer to a vibrant nocturnal city the municipality wishes to create comfortable urban spaces by creating a special atmosphere separate from the functional lighting to generate experiences in the nocturnal city. (KĂ¸benhavns Kommune 2007) But the question is how can urban lighting be designed to reach these aims of creating comfortable urban spaces and special atmospheres? The Municipality of Copenhagen does not answer this and often turn to the fixture in itself to achieve the desired communicative performance of the lighting. When planning and designing artificial lighting there is generally a greater focus on the fixtures and light sources than on the illuminated object or space. (Corner 2011) The illuminated space is what the people we design for perceive and experience when darkness falls, not the fixture nor the source of light.

URBAN LIGHTSCAPE INTRODUCTION

â&#x20AC;&#x153;Unfortunately, many contemporary lighting schemes are all about the light, not the space or the place, and most fail to evoke any poetic or imaginative affect.â&#x20AC;? (Corner 2011)

Light is an ambiguous element of architecture and urban design. Light is materialized by its fixture and light source but in the same time light is an intangible and immaterial element as it is untouchable and dynamic. Lighting has the potential of modifying and staging the urban space. Furthermore light possesses communicative and aesthetic features that can both create comfort, orientation and accessibility, as well as induce discomfort, disorientation and disillusions, all of which affect human behavior and change performative communication of any given urban space. Besides creating visual guidance and comfort light can have an artistic approach to the nocturnal urban space and bring experiences to the people transitioning to it. Thus this thesis aims to explore how the Urban designer can analyse an existing lightscape to understand which elements or compositions of the lightscape governs the communicative performance as well as create a toolset which the urban designer can use in the creation of lightscapes that meet the desired requirements of the communicative performance.

URBAN LIGHTSCAPE INTRODUCTION

RESEARCH QUESTION: How to analyse and design urban lightscapes? How can urban lighting affect the communicative performance of the nocturnal urban spaces? Which design parameters and principles of urban lighting can be beneficial for the urban designer to know in creating aesthetic and functional urban lightscapes?

URBAN LIGHTSCAPE THESIS STATEMENT

THESIS STATEMENT

URBAN LIGHTSCAPE THESIS STATEMENT

ow do we as urban designers analyze and design urban lightscapes of the nocturnal urban spaces to ensure both clear navigation and orientation and at the same time promote a sensuous atmospheric character for the people living in the city? The aim of this thesis is to bring the spatial characteristics and abilities of urban lighting into focus and investigate some tools the urban designer can use to promote a communicative performance of the urban lighting which induces the functional and aesthetic values of the nocturnal urban space. Hence this thesis will produce an Analytical Model of Urban Lightscapes which acts as a method to analyse existing lightscapes and can be transformed into parameters and principles the urban designer can use as a toolset for designing urban lightscapes in the nocturnal urban spaces.

URBAN LIGHTSCAPE DELIMITATION

DELIMITATION

URBAN LIGHTSCAPE DELIMITATION

his thesis does not focus on the fixture concerning technical measurements like lux or lumen as this would have been an extra expense and does not affect the aim. Nor is the thesis concerned with the specific design of the fixture unless these affect the emitted light. This thesis acknowledge the importance of the environmental issues induced by urban lighting, but as the lighting technology constantly develops new and more sustainable lighting solutions, the emphasis will not be put on the economical or environmental impact concerning urban lighting. Instead the reflective discussion will emphasize the importance of the spatial qualities and communicative performance of urban lighting.

METHODICAL FRAMEWORK METHODICAL PERSPECTIVES

METHODICAL FRAMEWORK

METHODICAL PERSPECTIVES

METHODICAL FRAMEWORK METHODICAL PERSPECTIVES

he Methodical Framework explains how we have approached the topic of urban lightscapes. The Methodical Perspectives treats our academic approach towards answering the question of how to investigate urban lightscapes, how we reached the Analytical Model of Urban Lightscapes, how we approached the work of the cases and how these will be used. Lastly it summes up the method used throughout the whole thesis. The Method paragraph has a more practical basis as it regards the different steps in our working process; how we have gained knowledge, registered and chosen the cases as well as who we been in contact with in order to have a reasoned knowledge to produce an analytical model of urban lightscapes, which subsequently will be used as a basis for creating guidelines for the urban designer when working with light in the city. ______________________________ The observations and recordings of the case studies take an inspiration in the phenomenology to understand and experience the whole without losing the significance of a work to quantifiable measures and elements. Phenomenology is a holistic worldview and breaks the distinction between subject and object. It seeks to unravel the things as they immediately appear, not as singular objects, but as part of the experienced whole and thereby freeing the meanings and inter-

METHODICAL FRAMEWORK METHODICAL PERSPECTIVES

pretations of a work. (Norberg-Schulz 1996) Hence the thesis draws inspiration from a phenomenological approach to comprehend how light aesthetically and emotionally affects the human recipient. Thus the phenomenology is especially used as a theoretical inspiration when observing the different sites to help generate an analytical model of urban lightscapes in an holistically and objective manner. “I og med at fenomenologien gir oss forståelse for den kvalitative verden der dagliglivet faktisk skjer, frigjør den for meningsfylte valg og tolkninger. Forsåvidt er fenomenologien enhver teoridannelses forutsetning.” (Norberg-Schulz 1996)

The basis of the produced Analytical Model of Urban Lightscapes takes a stand in the experienced phenomenons during the registration of the different case studies combined with relevant theory within the fields of urban design and light terminology, cf. the following methodical process diagram on how to investigate light. The Analytical Model of Urban Lightscapes acts as a method to understand the choices urban designers make in the creation of an urban lightscape. The model answers the initial question of the thesis on how to investigate urban lightscapes and forms the basis for the analysis of the cases and the further investigation of how to design light in urban spaces in search of the communicative performance of light. The case studies act as catalysts to evaluate and discuss topical urban lightscapes for the purpose of inferring different design guidelines for managing the artificial urban light settings as the ‘results’ of the investigation. But the design guidelines are not definitive results or instructions. They are more a set of guiding tools consisting of different parameters and principles to be aware of, when designing urban lightscapes. These ‘results’ will undergo a testing through a

METHODICAL FRAMEWORK METHODICAL PERSPECTIVES

HOW TO INVESTIGATE LIGHT? THEORETICAL FRAME

Output

Input

EXPERIENCED PHENOMENA

ANALYTICAL MODEL OF LIGHT

Input

Output

ANALYSIS MULTIPLE CASE STUDY

DISCUSSION DISCUSSION REFLECTION

RESULTS PARAMETERS PRINCIPLES ASPECTS

TESTING OF RESULTS TESTING OF REFERENCEWORK

METHODICAL FRAMEWORK METHODICAL PERSPECTIVES

chosen project site in a continually juxtaposition with the topical discussions, cf. the methodical process diagram on how to investigate light. The consistent method throughout this thesis is Drawing and Reading formulated by the danish landscape architect Malene Hauxner (2003) as following: â&#x20AC;&#x153;Drawing is both an action and a result - creating a picture and a concept. Reading is to collect parts and put them together in a personally understood product, which builds on empirical conditions. The basis of the method is thus reading of the drawing.â&#x20AC;? (Hauxner 2003)

Drawing and Reading is a method to discover the significance of urban landscapes, and aspires to an objective point of view to assist the general clarification of architectural works, whereto an urban lightscape can be seen as an architectural work in itself. (Hauxner 2003)

METHODICAL FRAMEWORK METHODICAL PERSPECTIVES

METHODICAL FRAMEWORK METHOD

METHOD

METHODICAL FRAMEWORK METHOD

he starting point for this thesis is gaining knowledge by reading and researching the field of light in urban spaces. Subsequently gaining knowledge through site observations of experienced phenomena and empirical recordings gathered in a multiple case study. The multiple case study is inspired by the ‘normative case study’ as it combines empirical observations with normative assessment and argues that knowledge is the product of reflections as well as observations (Thacher 2006). The cases are selected on the basis of their topicality, substantial transit both in daylight and nocturnal light and finally the urban character of the site, which will be elaborated on later. The case observations and recordings are conducted by the authors of the thesis during February 2015 in the nocturnal time frame from 16.00 to 24.00. The collected empirical data consist of schematic recordings of different light principles (cf. Appendix 1) and photo documentation. The schematic recordings are inspired by an analysis schema (cf. Appendix 2) created by Hérve Descottes, principal and french lighting designer and Cecilia E. Ramos, the luxury retail director, at L’Observatoire International, New York. The experienced phenomena together with relevant theory on the subject have resulted in an analytical model of urban lightscapes which is used as a tool to analyse the chosen cases through the context, morphology, syntax and communication of the lighting schemes at each individual site. The content of the analytical model will be further elaborated in the chapter of the Analytical Framework as Urban Lightscape is an investigative and method developing thesis. Based on theory and recorded observations the cases will be compared and discussed, resulting in design parameters and principles for lighting in the nocturnal spaces aiming to create focus on the spatiality and communication of artificial light in the urban field. The design parameters and principles can be used as tools for the urban designer to get a holistic answer on what to be aware of

METHODICAL FRAMEWORK METHOD

when working with light in the nocturnal urban space. The different parameters and principles will be tested for the same site in order to underpin how light can alter the spatial perception and communicative performance of a site. Besides written theory and empirical case studies the thesis have drawn knowledge from a practical point of view by email correspondence with the Municipality of Copenhagen and Ishøj, an interview with Rambøll and attended an event on lighting. From the municipalities we have received informations of a more practical and technical character on the specific case-sites. Furthermore we have had an ongoing dialogue with the Municipality of Copenhagen concerning the documents of the Lighting Masterplan of Copenhagen, the analysis behind the masterplan as well as used them for inspiration for the choice of project-site for testing the outcome results of the urban lighting investigation. The interview with Vladan Paunovic, who is an architect & lighting designer at Rambøll took place May 12, 2015. It was a semi-structured interview concerning; the role and work of a lighting designer, collaborations between lighting designers and urban designers, their practical design approach and tendencies in urban lighting today, cf. the interview guide in Appendix 3. The interview with Vladan Paunovic contributed to the understanding of how lighting designers work and collaborate with urban designers and landscape architects, and thereby which issues urban designers should be aware of when designing urban spaces for the nocturnal time frame. In december 2014 we attended an event on lighting arranged by ‘Ungt Lys’, which affected our choices of case studies. At the event a representative of ÅF Lighting gave a presentation on different projects made by ÅF Lighting, which included the project of Ishøj Station square(one of the selected cases) and gave us an insight on the overall conceptual idea behind the lighting design of Ishøj Station square.

METHODICAL FRAMEWORK METHOD

Is the tool useable? To create a tool for working with light in the city Compare to understand the use of lighting To understand the TESTING OF RESULTS context, morphology, syntax & communication In need for an GUIDELINES analytical tool/ checklist of the language DISCUSSION

Gain knowledge

ANALYSIS OF CASES

Find a common standpoint

Based on relevant theory & analysis of cases

WHY

CASE RECORDINGS

Produced analytical model

SELECTION OF CASES

Observed phenomena & relevant theory

HOW

EMPIRICAL RESEARCH

PROCESS

Sum up learned reflections

ANALYTICAL MODEL

Gain knowledge

Photos & registration schema Topicality, transition, character

Reading relevant theory

Experimental projects

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK THE BASICS OF LIGHT

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

THE BASICS

OF LIGHT

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK THE BASICS OF LIGHT

he theoretical framework accounts for central theoretical terms regarding respectively The Basics of Light and Light in Human Scale. The Basics of Light concerns, as the title embodies, general terms of lighting, which should be known when working with light in the nocturnal urban field. Light in Human Scale seeks to unravel how people perceive, orientate and navigate in the city. The different terms are the background knowledge for the produced Analytical Model of Urban Lightscapes and will be included in the discussion part of the thesis. ___________________________ Overall light can be divided into two different categories: Natural light and artificial light. Natural light is sent from the sun through a dark universe and dispersed over a dark earth from a distance of approx. 150 million km. This explanation does however not agree much with how we perceive the sky. The eye perceives the sky as lit up by its own power and the sun is only its brightest object attached to it (Arnheim 1954). Natural light has many functional and aesthetic qualities which people have adapted to and internalised since ancient times. On the other hand artificial light is configured to illuminate in the darkness and can by man be controlled to alternate spaces and generate the wanted function or aesthetic. Light is what brings spaces, elements and materialities into a visual reality, or in other words, it is what brings the surroundings of our daily life into light.

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK THE BASICS OF LIGHT

The wording â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;dailyâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; can be misleading though, as the darker hours constitutes a significant part of the daily timeframe half of the year in a our nordic context, cf. the illustration of the annual and circadian rhythm of light hours. By day the sun determines the light setting of our surroundings and when the sun has set it is nonetheless evident that it is the artificial light that determines our visual reality inside our homes and outside in the city. In our homes we can adjust the light settings for our specific needs or moods; for instance we turn on the architect lamp for office work or light a candle for a romantic dinner. Thus the light setting differs when we are at work, come home and eat dinner and later sit down on the sofa to watch a movie. In these examples we have complete control over the illuminance by turning on a switch for a reading lamp, lighting a candle or dimming the lights. (Descottes & Ramos 2011) By controlling the illuminance we regulate the luminance hence the brightness of our home. For our office work we often need a bright white light to render our surroundings properly but when we are relaxing in the sofa a more dimmed and warm light from our floor lamp seem more suitable. Outside it is the choices made by the urban designers, planners, landscape architects solely or in cooperation with lighting designers that control the artificial light setting of the cities, the streets and urban spaces. Light is therefore an essential element of urban design and a strong communicator when comes to the work of designing cities and urban spaces for people. Hence understanding the basics and terminologies of light is a prerequisite in the search of the communicative performance of urban lightscapes. Illuminance, Luminance & Brightness Descottes & Ramos (2011) defines illuminance as the quantity of light emitted onto a given surface area and is measured in lux. Hence illuminance is the fea-

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK THE BASICS OF LIGHT

DAYLIGHT NOCTURNAL LIGHT

00:00

CIRCADIAN ACTIVITY

LIGHT IN A NORDIC CONTEXT

NIGHT TIME MORNING

06:00 09:00

WORK, SCHOOL, DAYCARE, ETC.

CIRCADIAN RHYTHM

03:00

12:00 15:00 18:00

LEISURE TIME

21:00 00:00

Jan.

Feb.

Mar.

Apr.

May

Jun.

Jul.

Aug.

Sep.

Oct.

Nov.

Dec.

ANNUAL RHYTHM In Copenhagen there is approx. 4490 light hours in a year and approx 4270 dark hours in a year - hence 50-50 % light and dark hours (DMI 2008). As seen on the graph (DMI 2012) the natural light varies widely depending on the annual season. Due to the geographical location the nordic context are characterised by long dark periods during winter and long light summer periods. In the winter period the light hours of the day occurs when most people are at work, and for approximately three months of the year people do their daily actions such as grocery shopping, transport to and from work, picking up children from the daycare etc. takes place in the dark artificial illuminated city.

*The graphical information is based upon a graph from DMI (2012)

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK THE BASICS OF LIGHT

LUMINOUS INTENSITY

Candela

BRIGHTNESS

Perceived luminance

LUMINOUS FLUX

LUMINANCE

Candela/sqm

ILLUMINANCE

Lux (Lumen/sqm)

*The graphical informations are based upon illustrations from Kattler (n.d.)

Lumen

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK THE BASICS OF LIGHT

ILLUMINANCE, LUMINANCE & BRIGHTNESS ILLUMINANCE

Outdoor, sunshine Indoor, office Street lighting Fullmoon LUMINANCE

The sun Flourescent tube Illuminated street The moon

Lux (Lumen/sqm) 100.000 lux 400 lux 10 lux 0,25 lux Candela/sqm 1.160.000.000 cd/sqm 8.000 cd/sqm 1 cd/sqm 2.500 cd/sqm

The graphic to the left shows the relationship between the different lighting terms. Luminous intensity and luminous flux are often used for calculating the efficiency of a light source and are less relevant in the investigation of urban lightscapes, but they can add to the relational understanding of the other terms. Luminous Flux is the total amount of light emitted from the a light source measured in lumen. Luminous intensity is the amount of light emitted from a light source in a specific direction measured in candela. Illuminance is a measure of how much light hits a surface, thus luminous flux (lumen) per. surface area (sqm). Luminance is a measure for how bright a surface is (candela/sqm), where brightness is the term for the perceived luminance. (Dansk Center for Lys (1) (2) n.d., Kattler n.d., Moyer 2013, Descottes & Ramos 2011)

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK THE BASICS OF LIGHT

BRIGHTNESS: COLOUR, TEXTURE & FINISH 80 %

50 %

30 %

75 %

40 %

25 %

White paint

Concrete

Vegetation

10 %

Grass

*The graphical information is based upon illustrations from Descottes & Ramos (2011) and Moyer (2013)

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK THE BASICS OF LIGHT

ture which lights up a space. By controlling the illuminance one can determine what should be showcased in an intricate space and thereby govern the spatial composition. As such Illuminance has a great phenomenological importance because it allows people to navigate and perform their daily tasks in a given space. Furthermore it has a substantial impact on our emotional perception: The inherent instinct of fearing the dark can be counteracted by the right illumination - providing comfort instead. Additionally Illuminating edges and other hazards in the city increases safety. (Descottes & Ramos 2011) Another term concerning light is luminance. The eye perceives objects by the amount of light reflecting off their surfaces and can be measured in the unit candela cd/sqm (Moyer 2013). It is a quantifiable objective matter (Descottes and Ramos 2011). The light reflecting from the surface is perceived by the human as bright (Watanabe et al. 1998) and is governed by the physical properties of the illuminated object. The physical properties are controlled by three factors: 1. The colour of the object - light colours reflect more than dark colours, 2. The texture of the object - smooth textures reflect more than rough surfaces. 3. The finish of the object - shiny surfaces reflect more than matte surfaces. (Moyer 2013) Both illuminance and luminance are quantifiable measures which describes the emitted light from the source. We can measure exactly how many lux a light source emits and how many cd/sqm the light reflects from a given surface. But when we walk around in the nocturnal city it is not the number of lux emitted from a light source nor is it the measurement of luminance we perceive - it is light as a phenomenon which can evoke aesthetic reactions. (Arnheim 1954) Steen Eiler Rasmussen (2012), a danish architect, elaborates that if we can not see an object and we create a more intensely illumination thereof the larger quantity of emitted light can however turn out not to be beneficial. Hence the

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK THE BASICS OF LIGHT

quantity of the emitted light will not alone engage the viewer in an improved nocturnal experience. (Rasmussen 2012) Another danish architect Sophus Frandsen follows up on Rasmussens point of view: “Defining a light setting in Lux is like describing a meal by its content of calories.” (Rambøll (b) n.d.)

Thus Rasmussen and Frandsen states that the level of illuminance becomes more or less irrelevant in the search of how people experience light. Luminance does not either speak of how we experience the light as it like illuminance is a quantifiable term. Brightness on the other hand is often referred to as the perceived luminance and can not be calculated and is therefore a subjective matter (Descottes and Ramos 2011). The experienced brightness depends on three factors: The total distribution of light within the space, the optical and psychological processes in the recipient and the physical properties (colour, texture & finish) of the surroundings. (Arnheim 1954, Moyer 2013) To gain knowledge on how people experience light the term brightness will be used as it is what people perceive. Colour temperature & rendering properties The 180 degree circular movement of the sun presents earth in a large variation of different colours and different shades. We have internalised the patterns and the fluctuation of colours so we are able to tell the time of day, month and year. As for instance the colours of a sunset. Almost everyone has a memory of seeing a sunset or a sunrise. Whether it is remembering the people we were with, the smell of the air or how the colours of the surroundings was alternated in warm tones, the experience is memorable and often stands out as a sensuous experience. The terms of warm and cool colours play a major part in our day to day life as

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK THE BASICS OF LIGHT

VISIBLE SPECTRUM

780 700 650 600 550 500 450 380 nm

400

500

600

FLOURESCENT TUBE

Cool white

700 nm

400

500

600

700 nm

INCANDESCENT BULB

Warm white

400

500

600

700 nm

DAYLIGHT

White

*The graphical informations are based upon graphs and illustrations from Dansk Center for Lys (3) (n.d.)

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK THE BASICS OF LIGHT

COLOUR TEMPERATURE KELVIN

NATURAL LIGHT SOURCE

ARTIFICIAL LIGHT SOURCE

COPENHAGEN STREET LIGHT

8500 K 8000 K

Clear blue sky

7500 K 7000 K 6500 K 6000 K

Average daylight Cool-tone LED

5500 K 5000 K

Midday sunlight

4500 K 4000 K

Sunlight 60 minutes after sunrise

3500 K 3000 K

Sunlight 40 minutes after sunrise

2500 K 2000 K

Cool-tone flourescent tube Clear metal halide

Regional streets Paths in green areas

Mid-tone flourescent tube MID-tone LED

City district streets Sidewalks & bikelanes

Warm-tone flourescent tube

Local streets

Very warm-tone LED Incandescent

Candle light

*The graphical informations are based upon illustrations from Descottes & Ramos (2011), Watanabe (1998) and Citelum (2014)

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK THE BASICS OF LIGHT

we daily experience them in our circadian rhythm; from the cool mornings to warm sunsets (Rasmussen 2012). They express different moods and feelings (Rasmussen 2012) and as the wording articulates; we can (almost) feel them. Colour temperature is a term used to describe the colour of a particular light. Within the low range of colour temperature we find the warm colours and within the high range we find the cool colours (Watanabe et al. 1998). How we perceive colour is based upon the physical properties of light and the recipients psychological and physiological response to the light that enters the eye. Descottes and Ramos (2011) explains that the physiological light, defined as a type of electromagnetic radiation, is emitted when charged particles or protons moves. The energy created is characterised by wavelengths and is a part of the electromagnetic spectrum. (Descottes and Ramos 2011) The electromagnetic spectrum is a continuum of radiation but much of this radiation is not seen by the eye. The portion that we can see is called the visible spectrum. (Moyer 2013) From natural light we know that the colour of light can create an emotional stimuli (Rasmussen 2012). Likewise the choice of colour in artificial light has a psychological effect on how the space of the city is perceived, thus creating a subjective experience. According to Rasmussen (2012) certain colours even have inherent psychological associations such as red refers to something fiery and exciting where green is calm and serene. (Rasmussen 2012) So by adjusting the colour temperature the colour of the light can be used for orientational cues. Warm colours often evoke a comfortable atmosphere and can be used for public parks where people get together. The cool colours generate a perky and vibrant atmosphere and might be a better suit for active traffical nodes. (Watanabe et al. 1998) The colour of light contributes heavily to a strong identity for a space. (Descottes and Ramos 2011)

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK THE BASICS OF LIGHT

Light colours can change the perception of our surroundings and thereby transform the familiar into new and exciting sceneries. An object reflects and absorbs the light illuminating it and can appear different depending on the colour of the light source. (Descottes and Ramos 2011) Colour rendering is a property of a light source and determines how a particular colour appears to the eye. It is a quantifiable term, which speaks of the quality of emitted light and is measured in the Ra unit which ranges from 1-100. The higher rendering properties a particular colour has the more close to reality the lit object will be presented. (Watanabe et al. 1998) Though the quality of colour in the emitted light is not alone concerned with the source but also with the surroundings ability to reflect it. Thus there is an interplay between the emitted light and the qualities of the surroundings. (Descottes and Ramos 2011) Artificial light makes it possible for us to transform the cycle of colours and create new timeframes (Descottes and Ramos 2011). As Fillipo Cannata explains the daily story of light. â&#x20AC;&#x153;It is as if whatever you light comes alive. It gives off energy, as if it were telling a story during the day together with sunlight and during the night by means of the moonlight supported by artificial light.â&#x20AC;? (Cannata 2006)

Though we can seek inspiration in the behavior and peculiarities of natural light, the differences in natural light and artificial light at a point becomes too significant, as one is governed by nature, the other by man. The artificial light together with the natural light from the moon and stars brings a new story to an urban space and thereby a new experience. There are several compositional terms used to describe the ordering rules of an artificial light setting, but as this thesis aims to explore this matter the terms will be further investigated later on.

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK THE BASICS OF LIGHT

COLOUR RENDERING INDEX (CRI)

100 75 50 25

COLOUR APPEARANCE

White illumination of a red object

Red illumination of a red object

Green illumination of a red object

*The graphical informations are based upon illustrations from Descottes & Ramos (2011)

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK LIGHT IN HUMAN SCALE

LIGHT IN

HUMAN SCALE

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK LIGHT IN HUMAN SCALE

e design cities for people and their urban activities - also when the sun has set. Urban lighting has traditionally been focused on street lighting (RambĂ¸ll (a) n.d.). But urban lighting is not only for the streets it is also for the people who walk the streets and urban spaces of the city. The city is a work of architecture and the peculiarity of architecture is, as Rasmussen (2012) states; shaped for people, shaped to live in and not just to see from the outside. In other words the city is a construction of space, where its moveable elements such as people and their activities are just as important as the stationary elements (Lynch 1960). By stressing the importance of people and their urban activities we must consider not just the city and its urban spaces as things in themselves, but as spaces being perceived by its inhabitants (Lynch 1960). This goes as well for the city perceived in a nocturnal light as artificial light is a strong communicator and modifier of the spatial perception. Hence in the search of the communicative performance of light in urban spaces, the question of understanding how people visually perceive intrudes, in order to understand the recipient of who we design for. According to the danish architect and promoter for a human scale in urban design Jan Gehl (2010) there are two natural starting points in order to understand who we design for. First of all there are the human senses from which we gain information of our surroundings. The sensory information is sent to the brain and processed into meaningful experiences of our surroundings, which is why our experiences also reflect our knowledge and prejudices. (Gyldendal 2014) Secondly there is the human mobility. Human beings are designed to walk and move around in their surroundings. Together these provide the fundamental basis for understanding the activities, behaviour and communication of the city. (Gehl 2010) A design in human scale takes the limitations and potentials of the human body into account (Gehl 2010) - and in this thesis we will focus on the limitations and potentials of the human body set in a nocturnal light.

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK LIGHT IN HUMAN SCALE

Visual perception The word perception originates from latin meaning; collection, realisation and understanding. By the sensory apparatus of the human being we collect, in this case, visual data to come to the realisation and understanding of how the world appear to us. (Gyldendal 2014) Visual perception is described by Rasmussen (2012) as the act of reproduction. Meaning we reproduce the observed (the collected visual data) into something recognisable and understandable, where we naturally perceive something best if we know it beforehand. Rasmussen (2012) further elaborates that the process of reproduction is not like a painter recreating the observed on a canvas, it is more like an actor identifying with his role on the stage. Hence people seek to identify with ones surroundings and (some more than others) can get emotional affected by what they see. For instance it can be difficult to hide a smile, when we see a picture of a laughing child. (Rasmussen 2012) The act to visually perceive helps us understand and unravel the communicative meanings and qualities of urban lightscapes. By merging collection and realisation we get something familiar to what Norberg-Schulz (1996) refers to as recollection or memorisation (orig. erindring). (Norberg-Schulz 1996) “Vi må kjenne og genkjenne de primære elementer som er stedets figurale kjennetegn og landemerker. Det er disse som sammen forteller oss hva stedet ‘er’. Et landskap erindres således fordi det omfatter ‘ting’ som trer frem som distinkte identiteter.” (Norberg-Schulz 1996)

A memorable urban space thus includes elements, figures or landmarks with distinct character and identity. The characteristic elements, figures and landmarks are what together communicates what the place ‘is’. Recollection in the terms of knowing and recognising is thus the prerequisite for the identification

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK LIGHT IN HUMAN SCALE

*Photography: Nicolai 2008

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK LIGHT IN HUMAN SCALE

VISUAL PERCEPTION Light source

Reflected light

Psychological Physiological area area

Physical world

*The graphical informations are based upon an illustration from Dansk Center for Lys (n.d.)

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK LIGHT IN HUMAN SCALE

of a place and orientation within a space. The latter will be elaborated in the paragraph on human mobility. (Norberg-Schulz 1996) The identification with our surroundings is according to Norberg-Schulz (1996) the immediate experience of an enclosing ambience; the atmosphere and mood of our surroundings. But by taking a closer look it is the identification of the specific form of the surroundings consolidated by distinctive features and sceneries. Thus the act of recollection is a prerequisite to identifying our surroundings. (Norberg-Schulz 1996) Recollection and identification together with orientation is what characterises the identity of the place - the genius loci - and to get one step closer to unravel the communicative meanings and qualities of urban lightscapes. (Norberg-Schulz 1996) As indicated in the beginning there is an objective matter at stake, as the perceptual process and outcome reflects our knowledge and prejudices. Every human being experience the world differently in their own subjective manner (Norberg-Schulz 1996). It depends on the observerâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s mood, upbringing, psyche etc. (Rasmussen 2012). But it does not compromise that our reactions are towards the same world, which we could call towards the place itself or the work itself (Norberg-Schulz 1996). Thus the unravelling of the aesthetic language and significance can be difficult to grasp in the search of the communicative performance of light as taste and prejudice reside within every human being. But what can be discussed is the qualities and attributes that reside in the work itself (Hauxner 2009). The aesthetic aspects will in this thesis be referred to as the sensory qualities of light that affects the communication of the urban lightscape.

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK LIGHT IN HUMAN SCALE

Human senses The sense of sight is considered as one of our most important senses. It accounts for up to 5/6 of all the information we receive (Dansk Center for Lys n.d.). This thesis does not neglect that there are other senses than the sight, but sight is evidently crucial for the experience of urban lightscapes and urban spaces in general, as the eyes are the windows to the world we live in. The eyes see the world in images of brightness. Light enters the eye and strikes the retina, consisting of two photoreceptor cones (high light levelled receptors) and rods (low light levelled receptors), which creates a photochemical reaction that is sent to the brain via the optic nerve. Thus our images of the world arise by the brightness of shapes, colours, spaces, movements etc. and a stimuli is sent to the brain for interpreting what we see and thereby how we react to what we see, cf. the illustration of Visual Perception. (Moyer 2013) The iris involuntary controls the eyes reaction to light by protecting the eye in a movement of closing over the pupil, the black circular opening that allows light to enter to the retina, in bright light and in dim light exposing more pupil hence allowing more light to enter. The dim light adaptation of the eye is called scotopic vision and when adapting to bright light it is called photopic vision. When the eye shifts from darkness to a brightly lit space the light adaption begins and the eye shifts from the use of rods to the use of cones. The eyes initial response occurs within a minute and the full adaption happens within 7 to 12 minutes. However when the eye transitions a dark adaption moving from a bright into a dark space first using the cones subsequently having the rods take over takes 20 to 30 minutes for the eye to completely adapt. (Moyer 2013) A common example of experiencing a dark adaption is when we are sitting outside on a bright summer day and afterwards go inside, everything can suddenly be difficult to see and one might even get a bit disorientated in the beginning due to the shift in very different light situations. This is also what can

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK LIGHT IN HUMAN SCALE

THE HUMAN EYE

CORNEA OPTIC NERVE

PUPIL

FORVEA

IRIS RETINA

*The graphical information is based upon Moyer (2013)

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK LIGHT IN HUMAN SCALE

FIELD OF THE HUMAN VISION

50-55 degrees

10 degrees

70-80 degrees

*The graphical informations is based upon Gehl (2010)

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK LIGHT IN HUMAN SCALE

happen a dark night by walking through a bright-lit urban square into a dark street without lights. The dramatic shift in light situations affects the visibility and thereby the orientation and comfort. Even though our eyes are able to adapt to very different light situations, it can be a good idea to consider these aspects when designing urban lightscapes. The human eye is by its physicalities attracted to light and the brightest field of view (Moyer 2013). This can cause complications for eyes in certain situations resulting in glare. Glare conflicts the eye if large differences in luminance occur and exceed the threshold for what the eye is able to adapt to (Dansk Center for Lys n.d.). Hence this physicality of the eye has potential for directing and building a light composition, but it also has limitations to be aware of when designing for a human scale (Moyer 2013). The sense of sight and the position of the human eyes are developed to see clearly straight ahead. Our upward sight is within a 50-55 degree angle above the horizon, where our downward sight is extended to an angle of 70-80 degree below the horizon. The extended downward sight is i.a. because we often add an angle of 10 degrees by tilting our heads to see if there are any obstacles in our way. (Gehl 2010) This is among other things what makes the human being a linear, frontal and horizontally oriented mammal according to Gehl (2010). Human Mobility As linear, frontal and horizontally orientated mammals the human being is designed to walk and move around the world (Gehl 2010). The human being is per definition a homo viator (Norberg-Schulz 1996). In the urban scene the urban life and activities are composed by the movement of people, which unfolds in a myriad of improvisations (Rasmussen 2012). It can be argued that the activity of urban spaces are decreasing in the colder

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK LIGHT IN HUMAN SCALE

and darker times of the year, but the people and their urban activities does not hibernate just because the sun sets at 16.00 in the nordic winter months. People still have errands in the city. If the aim of architecture and thereby urban design is to design for people and their urban activities, the basis of the aim must be to design for life (Norberg-Schulz 1996). This can seem as an impossible task as urban activities consist of unexpected improvisations (Rasmussen 2012). But perhaps the answers does not only lie in functional and pragmatic solutions but more in an embracing design that lets the ‘life take place’ (Norberg-Schulz 1996). When we are walking around in the city we always have an aim whether it is to go home from work or if it is just to go for a walk, the walk itself being our aim. These functional and pragmatic urban activities are in a way separate uses of the urban space, but we also have a holistic use of urban spaces. (Norberg-Schulz 1996) The holistic use of urban spaces is what Norberg-Schulz (1996) calls ‘Stedsbruk’ (the use of place) and plays a part in understanding and unraveling the communicative meanings and qualities of urban lightscapes. When we are on our way or reaches our aim - we use the space; we arrive, we enter, we meet, we stay, we leave. We do not just use the institutions(School, office, stores etc.) surrounding the site nor do we just use the street to visit a store. But by using the street we let the life of the street ‘take place’ in the meeting with others and in the meeting of ‘the other’ while we are in movement. Furthermore when we arrive to a place we step from one place into another. This transition indicates an outer-inner relationship and is an fundamental action, when we define the identity of a place. (Norberg-Schulz 1996) This is thus to emphasize that people use the city by the mere act of being present - letting ‘life take place’, and the small experiences of aesthetic qualities and place identities (distinct figures and elements) along our route through the complexity of the city becomes important

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK LIGHT IN HUMAN SCALE

for our identification and orientation of the surroundings. In our urban activities we do not necessarily think of our surroundings, but that does not mean that the surroundings do not matter. If something unusual appears on our way, we open our eyes to the surroundings. It can be a pleasurable experience surprising us on our way, or it can be a discomfortable disturbance, because we naturally assume that the place is in ‘order’. (Norberg-Schulz 1996) “Enkelt sagt, må vi vite hvor vi er for at kunne finne frem. For at dette skal kunne skje, må omverdenen i tillegg til kjennetegn og landemerker omfatte veier som mulligjør orienteringen eller mere generelt, ha en fattbar romorganisasjon.” (Norberg-Schulz 1996)

To get around safely and efficiently in the urban spaces of the city it is clear that we must know where we are to find our way through. Orientation help us as homo viators to navigate through the complexity of the cityscape by structuring and identifying our surroundings. The nocturnal orthophoto of Berlin (next page) shows an example how a city is structured and can be identified by the urban lighting at a large scale. For anyone who has been in Berlin it is evident that the warm white light is what characterises the nocturnal ambience of the old East Berlin districts and that the area near Potsdamer Platz is more characterised by a myriad of bright lights. Just by looking at the orthophoto it communicates the story of Berlin with the distinct division of cool and warm white lighting characterising respectively West and East Berlin and the centre near Potsdamer Platz and Kurfurstendamm with the myriad of bright white lights and even the Tiergarten can be spotted as the large black spot central of the photo. Thus urban lighting holds a communicative performance of both a functional character such as orientational cues and of a more aesthetic character such as an identifiable ambience. A good orientation in smaller scaled urban spaces is more means that it has

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK LIGHT IN HUMAN SCALE

a legible spatial organisation, which is defined by identifiable and structural elements. (Lynch 1960, Norberg-Schulz 1996) If we cannot identify or read the navigational cues in the structural elements, we will find ourselves disorientated and lost, which can lead to discomfort or even a sense of terror as the american urban planner Kevin Lynch argues in his famous book ’The image of the city’ from 1960 (Lynch 1960). The result of disorientation is the mental state of alienation (Norberg-Schulz 1996). Hence a legible spatial organisation is fundamental not only for the human mobility, but also for the feeling of comfort and safety as well as to be an organiser of activities (Lynch 1960, Norberg-Schulz 1996). In Lynch’s above mentioned book he presents five structural elements through which people understand and mentally process the form of cities; paths, edges, districts, nodes and landmarks. These are to some extent familiar to what Norberg-Schulz calls the memory of distinct figures and landmarks. And by utilising these, urban designers can make more legible and psychologically satisfying places for the people who live and move in them. (Lynch 1960, Larice & MacDonald 2007)

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK LIGHT IN HUMAN SCALE

*Photography: Hadfield 2013

ANALYTICAL FRAMEWORK THE ANALYTICAL MODEL OF URBAN LIGHTSCAPES

his section of the thesis aims to explain the Analytical Model of Urban Lightscapes and tests the model through the analysis of 8 cases. Firstly the groundwork of the overall typology; context, morphology, syntax and communication of the Analytical Model of Urban Lightscapes will be explained, subsequently the content of each typology will be elaborated. Secondly follows a paragraph which contains the Multiple Case Study and the selection criterias for the cases. The Analytical Model of Urban Lightscapes has been used for analysing the case studies. The cases have contributed to the evolvement of the analytical model and will further be used in the discussion part of the thesis. ___________________________ The Analytical Model of Urban Lightscapes is formulated on the basis of ‘Drawing & Reading’ (cf. Methodic Framework), light terminology and urban theory (i.a. Appendix 2 & 5) as well as the interplay with the experienced phenomena from the selected cases. The outcome of the model is to gain an insight and understanding of how different light settings affect the spatial perception and the communicative performance of light showing its regulatory characteristics and aesthetic manners. An urban lightscape can be considered a ‘work’ of architecture in itself due to its ability to transform space, hence it demands a close reading of the architectural language to unravel the essence of light as a spatial modifier and communicator of meaning. The architectural language is articulated by the morphology (form) and syntax (composition) of the work in question (Hauxner 2009).

ANALYTICAL FRAMEWORK THE ANALYTICAL MODEL OF URBAN LIGHTSCAPES

Lighting is an essential element in the architectural language; it can alone by its morphology or in its compositional syntax change the meaning and form of space, when the nightfall settles in. By this the Analytical Model of Urban Lightscapes stresses that a light setting can be seen as an individual work of architecture and is what this thesis refers to as an urban lightscape. That being said, an urban lightscape can not be read autonomously, it has to be read in its context. Since a light setting is either dictated by or dictates the inner context being the functions and spatial elements of a given space. The outer context is also of great importance when it comes to unravelling the significance of an urban lightscape as it exists in relation to society, time and place (Hauxner 2009). The architectural language can be understood differently depending on the context it is read in. “What is unforeseeable is that works with complete different significances can have the same architectural language and conversely the same language can have different significances depending on their context.” (Hauxner 2009)

When reading a text it usually has something it wants to communicate; a message. Likewise an urban lightscape can communicate a ‘message’ by the means of the architectural language (morphology and syntax). Like any message it can be misunderstood if it is not read in the right context. Hence the topic communication of light is added to the Analytical Model of Urban Lightscapes. An architectural message can be to communicate an aesthetic experience, mood or atmosphere or it can be of a more regulative functional character such as path lighting or traffic lights. An expressive light setting can at a given place seem natural and obvious, but in another place seem overwhelming and synthetic, thus it demands a reading of the context to understand the choice of communication.

ANALYTICAL FRAMEWORK THE ANALYTICAL MODEL OF URBAN LIGHTSCAPES

ANALYTICAL MODEL OF

URBAN LIGHTSCAPES

BEA

LIG

PHO

OUTER

INNER

CONTEXT

FUNCTIONALITY AESTHETIC

LIG

RIN

MOR

TAX

ION

SIT

LOG

SYN

M CO

COMMUNICATION

ANALYTICAL FRAMEWORK THE ANALYTICAL MODEL OF URBAN LIGHTSCAPES

For analysing a work it can be useful to first enter the space of light(the work) without reservation to gain a holistic experience and obtain a sense of the communication (Hauxner 2009, Rasmussen 2012, Norberg-Schulz 1996), before deconstructing the space and making a close reading of the morphology and syntax to then put it into its context and analyse the communication. We need to look at a given lightscape as inhabitants to understand it as professionals, as we design cities for people. Professionals will however have a pre-understanding of the architectural world which can lead to subjective judgment and arbiter of taste. But as stated before taste is not the issue; it is the qualities which resides in the work. Hence it is important not to be critical when observing the architectural work and instead be open-minded in one’s questions of the work. (Hauxner 2009) As Hauxner puts it: “It is about perceiving what one did not know instead of substantiating what one knows.” (Hauxner 2009)

Without this holistic perception of space, significant communicative expressions can get lost in translation thus transformed into a mechanic description of components and how these ought to act in an overall conceptual idea, not emphasising their true appearance and communicative aspects. (Norberg-Schulz 1996) When the field observations and recordings are carried out, we enter the work and make an immediate holistic reading of the work, but set it aside while investigating the morphology, syntax and context for then at the end make an analytical synthesis of the communicative performance of light (Hauxner 2009). The four topics of the Analytical Model of Urban Lightscapes; Context, Morphology, Syntax and Communication, will in the following be elaborated.

ANALYTICAL FRAMEWORK THE ANALYTICAL MODEL OF URBAN LIGHTSCAPES

Context By analysing the morphology and syntax of an urban lightscape the architectural language is unravelled. But if we want to understand the significance of the work in question in this case the communication of the urban lightscape, we must pay attention to the context. (Hauxner 2009) As Hauxner puts it: “If the aim is to elucidate architectural, formal qualities the unravelling is the aim. If the aim is to understand the significance of the work it must be read in context.” (Hauxner 2009)

Since the Analytical Model of Urban Lightscapes focuses on the lighting element of architecture the contextual reading is divided into two; an outer and an inner reading. The outer context describes the time, role, scale and overall character of the site in its physical context. Besides the physical reading of the outer context a socio-functional reading is also of great relevance, explained by the main site function and general use of the site. (Hauxner 2009) The inner contextual reading also concerns the physical design of the site(seen in daylight) as it is the ‘target’ of the light setting. Hence an architectural reading of the site in daylight is needed to comprehend the transformative features of artificial light. Morphology Morphology originates from the greek ‘morph’ and ‘logo’ meaning ‘form’ and ‘study’, hence morphology is the study of form (Hauxner 2009) and in this analytical model: The study of form of light. The morphology of light is in the following comprehended by describing the characteristics of the individual fixtures in a light setting and their spatial interrelationships. The fixtures are constituted by the light source and light beam, while the characteristics concerns the

ANALYTICAL FRAMEWORK THE ANALYTICAL MODEL OF URBAN LIGHTSCAPES

REFERENCES PHO LOG Y

MPO

COMMUNICATION FUNCTIONALITY AESTHETIC

OUTER

ROLE

The role of the site in its physical context? - As part of... - As an extension of... - As a connection between... - As a contrast to... - As a transition between… - As a detachment of….

SCALE

The physical scale - s-m-l-xl

CHARACTER

The physical character - Urban - landscape - nature - Square, road, park, courtyard etc.

INNER CONTEXT

INNER

CONTEXT

FUNCTION

Main site function - Traffic, leisure, recreation or multi-functional etc. - Private - public

USE

General use of the site - Transit, leisure, walks, exercise, other activities - Intended use/current use

(Appendix: Stjernehjælperen 2006) (Hauxner 2009)

DESIGN

An architectural reading of the site in daylight - Elements: trees, benches etc. - Materials: pavements, stones, vegetation etc. - Composition: organisation of elements

(Appendix: Stjernehjælperen 2006) (Descottes & Ramos 2011) (Hauxner 2009) (Moyer 2013)

LES

LIG

G RU

URC

ERIN

LIG

ORD

BEAM

SITI

Time period - Historic or newly designed

TAX SYN

OUTER CONTEXT

TIME

ANNOTATION OF CHARACTERISTICS

MOR

CONTEXT

ANALYTICAL FRAMEWORK THE ANALYTICAL MODEL OF URBAN LIGHTSCAPES

structure and materiality of these two. The question is which parameters or features can depict the form of light, as light is a quantifiable element, but with an inherent tactile immateriality. As one of the main investigational topics for this thesis is the spatiality and perception of light, the material design of the fixtures and measurable parameters such as illuminance and luminance are of secondary importance, but will be taken into account in the description of respectively the visual appearance and effect of the light source and perceived luminance; brightness. The lighting fixture is naturally determined by its design, but in the nocturnal space it is the light source and light beam that are superior for the spatial perception. The type of fixture, whether it is a lamppost, a bollard or an embedded fixture, immediately indicates some of the characteristics of the light, such as height of the light source or if it is up- or downlight, but it is in the detailed characteristics we can get a closer reading of the morphology of light and thereby not only perceive the spatiality, but understand the spatial relationship and learn from it. The light source can be described by the type of source; LED, metal halide, fluorescent etc.. The type can of course be relevant due to economic and environmental issues, and with a technical background indicate something about the visual appearance of light. But for a designer it might not say much about the morphology in itself, so we add two perspectives of the light source to the investigation: the visual appearance of the source; e.g. is the source hidden or covered? And the visual effects of the light source; e.g. is the light source gleaming or tending to glare due to the height of the visible light source? Height of the light source is another characteristic of the emitted light that can greatly influence and regulate the effects of a light source as previously stated, but also the spatial composition. Another important feature of light is its colour, which within the white colour

ANALYTICAL FRAMEWORK THE ANALYTICAL MODEL OF URBAN LIGHTSCAPES

can range from warm orange tones to neutral white over to cool bluish tones or even be coloured(red, blue green etc.). In lighting terms it refers to the colour temperature (cf. the paragraph on The Basics of Light). The colour of light determines how the surroundings (the target) are rendered. By the colour rendering properties (cf. the paragraph on The Basics of Light) it can promote a vivid, a ‘realistic’ or a more dull perception of the surroundings. But the morphology of light cannot be fully comprehended without looking at the target of light and in a way light is ‘nothing’ or ‘immaterial’ or at least intangible without a surface, element or field of textures to make it visible (Dubuisson 2011, Corner 2011). The target of light is governed by the direction and distribution (Descottes & Ramos 2011). The emitted light is always directed and distributed onto something whether it is a haphazard or an intended object. The target of illumination can either be a solid such as a tree or a void such as a horizontal surface. The illuminated materiality and texture of the targeted surface or object can be exposed very differently depending on the direction, the colour rendering effects of light, and due to the choice of illumination; whether it is highlighted, spotlighted, brushed or diffuse. As mentioned the light beam is a distinct indicator of the morphology in the nocturnal space. One of the characteristics of the light beam is the brightness of the emitted light. By depicting the brightness one necessarily comments on the contrasts between light and darkness. Furthermore direction and distribution of light are also major determinants of the morphology of light as Descottes and Ramos (2011) puts it: “The form of light is governed by the principle of direction and distribution, which concerns the aim, shape, and beam characteristics of a light source.” (Descottes & Ramos 2011)

ANALYTICAL FRAMEWORK THE ANALYTICAL MODEL OF URBAN LIGHTSCAPES

MORPHOLOGY PHO LOG Y

MPO

LES

LIG

G RU

URC

ERIN

LIG

ORD

BEAM

SITI

MOR

TAX SYN

COMMUNICATION

LIGHT SOURCE

TYPE

FUNCTIONALITY AESTHETIC

OUTER

INNER

CONTEXT

ANNOTATION OF CHARACTERISTICS

REFERENCES

Type of fixture: - Lamppost, bollard, embedded fixture etc. Type of source: - LED, metal halide, flourescent etc. Appearance: -Hidden, covered, visible Effect: - Gleam, sparkle, glare or not visible

HEIGHT Distance from the light source to ground level

COLOUR

LIGHT BEAM

TARGET

Colour temperature: - Warm-neutral-cool white / coloured Colour rendering effect: - vivid, dull render

(Watanabe et al. 1998) (Descottes & Ramos 2011) (Moyer 2013) (Rasmussen 1957)

lluminatied objects: - Solids: e.g. trees, benches etc. - Voids: e.g. plane areas, pavements, paths etc. Illuminated materials and textures: - Organic: e.g. vegetation / Built: e.g. stones Choice of illumination - Spotlighted, highlighted, brushed, diffused

Watanabe et al. 1998) (Descottes & Ramos 2011) (Hauxner 2009) (Moyer 2013) (Rasmussen 1957)

DIRECTION/DISTRIBUTION

Direction: - Up, down or multi-directional Distribution: - Concentrated or diffuse / Narrow or wide Shape: - Blurred, geometrical, circular, shaped, gobos etc.

BRIGHTNESS/CONTRAST

Brightness - Low-medium-high Contrast - Soft gradient - sharp contrast to the surroundings Brightness contrast - “Camp fire effect”?

(Watanabe et al. 1998) (Descottes & Ramos 2011) (Moyer 2013) (Rasmussen 1957)

ANALYTICAL FRAMEWORK THE ANALYTICAL MODEL OF URBAN LIGHTSCAPES

Direction of light can be either up, down or multidirectional, whereas distribution can be described as concentrated on a narrow area or diffuse dispersed over a wide area. (Descottes & Ramos 2011) The shape of a light beam can be a diffuse blur or a sharply defined geometrical form and becomes visible when it hits a surface. A sharply defined shape of light can be saturated by equipping the light source with a gobo. A gobo is a stencil or template that can control the shape and colour of the emitted light into a desired shape illuminating a surface. (Appendix 4) The individual morphological features are of most use in conjunction with each other, however most easily analysed individually, to then form an understanding of the light composition as a whole. This in turn enables us to identify the spatial rules of the area. Syntax The order or rules behind the composition is in the Analytical Model of Urban Lightscapes partly following Hauxners ‘Syntax’ from ‘Drawing and Reading’. Syntax is borrowed from the linguistics concerning the position of words in sentences.(Hauxner 2009) In the morphology we deconstruct space to depict the individual component. Thereby getting a detailed understanding of their morphological effects on the space. As we perceive the world in space we cannot alone look at the morphological components, we have to reconstruct the composition to get an understanding of the spatial perception or spatial organisation as Lynch (1960) and Norberg-Schulz (1996) would prefer. Descottes and Ramos (2011) use the term density to comprehend the spatial composition of light. Density is according to Descottes and Ramos (2011)

ANALYTICAL FRAMEWORK THE ANALYTICAL MODEL OF URBAN LIGHTSCAPES

defined by the number of fixtures and their organisation within a given area, which together create rhythm and spatial hierarchies. (Descottes & Ramos 2011) During our case studies we have found that in a composition one can find different variations of fixture types(and thereby morphologies), organisations of fixtures which have different rhythms, hierarchies, spatialities. Hence we have in the Analytical Model of Urban Lightscapes depicted the term density into the categories; spatiality, variation, organisation, rhythm and hierarchy. The choice of composition and ordering rules leads to an explanation of the spatiality or spatial organisation. But before dissecting the spatial perception into the governing rules of what we experience, it can be beneficial to look at the space holistically. The three-dimensional spatiality is characterised by floor, wall and ceiling and as the artificial light takes over these are often affected; have the spatial features been enhanced, modified or transformed. Another interesting question that intrudes is: What governs our spatial perception? Is it morphological effects, rhythm, hierarchy etc.? And thereby leading to the communicative questions of orientation: is it a legible spatial organisation? Variation in a lighting composition concerns the number and variation of fixtures in a given area and has a great effect on the spatial perception as the variation also speaks of, which morphological characteristics are defining the urban space. The character of organisation can according to Descottes & Ramos (2011) be categorised into a linear, random or an organised pattern. A linear pattern occurs when the composition of fixtures is perceived as a single and continuous line of light. If the linear pattern of light replicates, the linear composition becomes a part of an organised pattern such as a grid. The organised pattern is controlled by a geometrical logic, where the perceived light forms a recognisable shape or pattern. If the individual positions of lighting fixtures overrules the

ANALYTICAL FRAMEWORK THE ANALYTICAL MODEL OF URBAN LIGHTSCAPES

REFERENCES PHO LOG Y

MPO

OUTER

(Watanabe et al. 1998) (Descottes & Ramos 2011) (Hauxner 2009) (Moyer 2013)

ORGANISATION

The organisational character - Linear, random, organised pattern, solitaire

(Descottes & Ramos 2011) (Rasmussen 1957)

RHYTHM

The rhythmicality - Regular, irregular or in combination - Continuous, syncopated, flowing etc.

(Descottes & Ramos 2011) (Hauxner 2009) (Rasmussen 1957)

HIERARCHY

Horizontal hierarchy - Focus on the surfaces: paths, roads etc. Vertical hierarchy - Differences in heights - Relational distance between the light source and the human body - Perception of scale Colour hierarchy - Differences in colour temperature

(Descottes & Ramos 2011) (Gehl 2010) (Moyer 2013) (Rasmussen 1957)

INNER

CONTEXT

LES

LIG

G RU

URC

ERIN

LIG

ORD

BEAM

SITI

COMMUNICATION FUNCTIONALITY AESTHETIC

The variation of fixture types The number of fixtures

Hierarchical determinants - Intensity of light, light colour, height, brightness/ contrasts, densities, solely or in combination

TAX SYN

Three-dimensional perception of space - Floor, walls, ceiling - Singular or multiple spatial units Altered spatial perception from daylight to nocturnal light - Enhanced, obliterated, modified, transformed What are the governing/controlling factors? - Morphological effects - Ordering rules (see below)

VARIATION

ORDERING RULES

COMPOSITION

SPATIALITY

ANNOTATION OF CHARACTERISTICS

MOR

SYNTAX

ANALYTICAL FRAMEWORK THE ANALYTICAL MODEL OF URBAN LIGHTSCAPES

geometrical logic the perceived pattern of light becomes random. (Descottes & Ramos 2011) But a solitaire lighting fixture can also have a great influence on the spatial perception, as Rasmussen (2012) points out that the singular lighting element; the camp fire, can alone create an enclosed space as a cavity of light in the dark night (Rasmussen 2012). Hence the solitaire organisation is added as a supplement to define the categories of the organisational character. Though elements of architecture such as lighting fixtures are in their composition fixed, they are often perceived and described by rhythmical sequences as a ordering rule behind the composition or spatial understanding (Hauxner 2009, Rasmussen 2012, Descottes & Ramos 2011). According to Rasmussen (2012) a line can be perceived rhythmical if the experience of the line can be associated with the movement of ice-skating (Rasmussen 2012). Descottes & Ramos (2011) draws a parallel to the world of music to elaborate on the rhythmics of light: â&#x20AC;&#x153;Like the percussion section of an orchestra, the density of light in tandem with existing architectural patterns can establish the tempo of a space, giving a rhythm and movement to the overall architectural composition.â&#x20AC;? (Descottes & Ramos 2011)

In this context the density and organisation have an overall influence on the rhythmical perception. The repetition or sequences of lighting fixtures can in interaction with its surroundings generate different rhythms to organise a space. (Descottes & Ramos 2011) The rhythm of light can be described as regular continuous, irregular syncopated or in a combination creating a flowing motion. Rhythm can indicate different spatial dynamics as a continuous regular rhythm can link spaces together and by inferring a new rhythm or a syncope it can break the spaces in sequences. Besides density and organisation, the rhythm

ANALYTICAL FRAMEWORK THE ANALYTICAL MODEL OF URBAN LIGHTSCAPES

of light can further be influenced by the morphology of the individual lighting fixture, e.g. visible light sources shining a bright white light can create a fluctuating sparkle encouraging a swift motion. Hierarchy is another term of order to comprehend the composition and spatial perception. The hierarchy in a lighting composition is most often governed by the intensity of light, the colour of light, the height of the light sources, brightness/contrasts, the differences in densities, solely or in a combination. Based on our case recordings we found that a spatial hierarchy governed by light often focuses on either the horizontal surfaces, vertical surfaces and perception or by divisions of coloured light. The human eye is drawn to light (cf. the paragraphs on Light in a human scale), hence a natural hierarchy will occur when the eye is met by a variety of light intensities and brightnesses (Descottes & Ramos 2011). This can be expressed in a horizontal hierarchy, where the light is focused on the horizontal surfaces, such as paths, roads etc. Furthermore different heights of the light sources can articulate a vertical hierarchy or perception of scale, and thereby define the relational distance between the light source and the human body. In addition it can act as an indicator for the level of intimacy and publicness. (Descottes & Ramos 2011) As colour is an essential characteristic of light, a composition can also be governed by a hierarchy of colours. Thus the morphological and syntaxial elements of light have been explained and as stated in the beginning these form a communication of the architectural language which evoke an aesthetic or functional character of the site. Though these characteristics are not to be read as inconsistent and is often experienced in an interplay creating a communicative performance for the people present in the nocturnal city.

ANALYTICAL FRAMEWORK THE ANALYTICAL MODEL OF URBAN LIGHTSCAPES

Communication As stated before, urban spaces are shaped for people, shaped to live in and not just to see from the outside (Rasmussen 2012). Hence the communicative aspect of the architectural language become essential for the lived life, the human activities and people’s experience of the urban spaces. The purpose of architecture is thus to fulfil a function not necessarily of a pragmatic functional character, but it can also be of an aesthetic experiential character (Hauxner 2009, Norberg-Schulz 1996, Rasmussen 2012). Therefore municipalities or clients of the architectural field often have visions for the site in question that is based upon human values. For instance in the Lighting Masterplan of Copenhagen visions or as they present it focus areas like ‘a safe city’ or ‘a vibrant city’ are presented (cf. Appendix 6). They present both something of a regulatory functional and aesthetic experiential character. The communicative performance of light is often of a subjective nature as it reflects both the optical physiology of the recipient and psychological reactions reflected in the nervous system in the receiver’s brain (cf. The Basics of Light and Light in Human Scale). But the aim of this thesis is to gain a common standpoint by aiming to be as objective in the analysis as possible. Hence by analysing the context, morphology and syntax in an objective manner before we get to the more subjective character of communication we have aimed for the qualities which reside in the work and not the matter of taste that resides in us as human beings (Hauxner 2009, Norberg-Schulz 1996). The communicative aspects of an urban lightscape can be of a functional or aesthetic character, sometimes inextricably linked to each other. The functional communication concerns the regulative aspects of lighting. For instance safety lighting of a harbour edge to avoid injury (Moyer 2013). As artificial light settings clearly affects the spatial perception the orien-

ANALYTICAL FRAMEWORK THE ANALYTICAL MODEL OF URBAN LIGHTSCAPES

tation in nocturnal space alters. The orientation can be expanded, limited or directed and thereby regulated. A legible space demands a well-defined orientation fixated by e.g. luminous focal points or illuminated edges, which can promote a feeling of comfort, where disorientation can lead to confusion and become uncomfortable (Moyer 2013, Lynch 1960, Norberg-Schulz 1996). It can further enhance the narrative of a site by ordering and organising the luminous targets (Moyer 2013, Lynch 1960, Norberg-Schulz 1996). Light can guide one’s vision and thereby determine one’s navigation and aesthetic experience in nocturnal space by strengthen the navigational cues. “The combination of the eye admitting light and the brain interpreting this visual information provides cues and direction to people at night.” (Moyer 2013)

Just as a bike lane in daylight navigates and regulates pedestrians and cyclists from the car traffic, lighting can by its colour, height, rhythm, hierarchy etc. promote a navigational regulation. Some light settings focus on the functionality of the site stressing the regulative communication of light, where others focus more on the aesthetic communication to enhance the comfort, atmosphere and identity. An essential quality of light is that it can communicate the feeling of comfort in the nocturnal space by for instance making it possible to identify ‘the others’ (Moyer 2013). But large contrasts between dark and lit areas can create dark spots, which can become uncomfortable and feel unsafe, hence questions of comfort need to be asked and addressed. “If light changes in the space, a person’s feeling or reaction to the space will change.” (Moyer 2013)

ANALYTICAL FRAMEWORK THE ANALYTICAL MODEL OF URBAN LIGHTSCAPES

COMMUNICATION ANNOTATION OF CHARACTERISTICS PHO LOG Y

MPO

LES

LIG

G RU

URC

ERIN

LIG

ORD

BEAM

SITI

MOR

TAX SYN

COMMUNICATION

FUNCTIONALITY

SAFETY

The issue of safety in a nocturnal context - Visibility? - if not why? - Are e.g. elevated edges illuminated?

NAVIGATION

Where does the light lead? How and why? How does the syntaxial topics affect the navigation? What characterises the navigational cues? - Morphological effects, organisational characters, rhythm etc. - Guiding or confusing

ORIENTATION

Is the orientation altered in the nocturnal space? - Expanded, limited or directed What is the light orientated towards? - Nature, transit, activity etc. - Specific luminous focal points, illuminated edges Does the light setting promote a connection between the viewer and the site? - Detached or a part of.... How does the morphological, syntaxial, contextual features affect the orientation?

FUNCTIONALITY AESTHETIC

OUTER

REFERENCES

INNER

CONTEXT

AESTHETICS

COMFORT

The issue of comfort in a nocturnal context - Dark spots - large contrasts - Too much light - glare effects - ‘The others’ - is it possible to see/identify people coming towards you?

AMBIANCE

Atmosphere - Intimacy vs. publicness - Active - calm Mood setting - Dramatic, romantic, mystical, playful etc.

IDENTITY

What characterises the nocturnal site? - Functionality or aesthetics, or a combination? - A strong narrative to a lack of identity? Is the light setting enhancing the identity of the site, creating a new or does the identity fade in the nocturnal frame? How is the identity articulated in the nocturnal space? - Morphological, syntaxial, contextual and/or orientational features?

(Citelum 2014) (Descottes & Ramos 2011) (Lynch 1960) (Moyer 2013) (Norberg-Schulz 1996) (Watanabe et al. 1998)

(Citelum 2014) (Descottes & Ramos 2011) (Moyer 2013) (Norberg-Schulz 1996) (Rasmussen 2012)

ANALYTICAL FRAMEWORK THEANALYTICAL MODEL OF URBAN LIGHTSCAPES

As Moyer (2013) states above light settings can create new or transformed sceneries, which have the capability to create emotional qualities revealed in an atmosphere or mood setting. Atmosphere and mood are immaterial and subjective feelings, but atmosphere and moods of a place is according to Norberg-Schulz (1996) Rasmussen (2012) necessarily well connected to the physical surroundings unfolded by a specific ambience of the place. As written previously; the identification with our surroundings is according to Norberg-Schulz (1996) the immediate experience of an enclosing ambience; the atmosphere and mood of our surroundings. But by taking a closer look it is the identification of the specific form of the surroundings consolidated by distinctive features and sceneries. Just like the picture of the laughing child. By an immediate look at the picture, it can be difficult to hide a smile. But if we take a closer look, the sweetness of the picture might lie in the distinct ‘smiling’ features in the child’s face and the way the child is positioned with his hands on his tummy. “Oplever man et billede af en, der smiler eller ler, bliver man selv i godt humør, er det derimod en sørgende skikkelse, bliver man tragisk stemt.” (Rasmussen 2012)

The quote of Rasmussen (2012) and the picture of the laughing child from before shows, that what we see affect us, whether it is a picture or the surroundings we walk in. A mood setting can be described as dramatic, romantic, mystical, playful settings etc. Atmosphere and mood settings are often the buzz-words, when a new light setting is to be designed, hence we as urban designers need to depict these terms analytically to comprehend them and learn from them. Light can also provide visual character and identity to the urban spaces in the city (Descottes & Ramos 2011). Light can tell its own story or it can ‘highlight’ the narrative or character of the site and thereby it might reveal the identity of the place.

ANALYTICAL FRAMEWORK THE ANALYTICAL MODEL OF URBAN LIGHTSCAPES

ANALYTICAL FRAMEWORK MULTIPLE CASE STUDY

MULTIPLE

CASE STUDY

ANALYTICAL FRAMEWORK MULTIPLE CASE STUDY

he 9 cases selected for the investigation of urban lightscapes are geographically framed in the vicinity of Copenhagen. Six of the cases are located within the city districts, one in IshĂ¸j located within the Greater Copenhagen and two in MalmĂś, Sweden. The first criteria of selection is the topicality of the lightscapes we are investigating. By topicality we mean that they have a distinct lighting concept and have been implemented within the last 5 years (one from 2001 though). The newly implemented light settings are either singular lighting projects (e.g. IshĂ¸j Station square), or in connection to an urban design project where the artificial lighting is an important component for the design (e.g. Hyllie Plaza). We attach importance to topicality because the technology of light is in constant progress and the possibilities of urban lighting changes with it. A common factor for all selected cases is the nordic seasonal and circadian rhythm characterized by the long dark winter periods and the long bright summer nights (cf. the paragraph on The Basics of Light). The weather conditions often have a determining factor for the activities in public space. The light-poor seasons in Scandinavia are often cold and therefore the attractiveness for activity and recreation outdoor is waning compared to warmer and brighter seasons. But, since the nocturnal scenery already occurs around 16.00 and prolongs the night into the next forenoon at winter time, people can not totally neglect the urban spaces and sceneries by withdrawing to winter hibernation. People still have errands; getting to and from work, exercising, shopping or taking the kids to a playground etc., though a change of behavior in the urban public space is plausible. As this investigation value designing urban space for and with the human being in mind, the screening for selecting the cases is put forward by the questions of: Where do people go to or go through in the nocturnal urban scenery? What kind of errands and activities do people seek in the nocturnal city? Thus we have stressed the human mobility and selected the cases from a criteria of transit; places people transit through. Which means the urban form of the chosen case-sites all reflect some sort of connection or node people pass through.

ANALYTICAL FRAMEWORK MULTIPLE CASE STUDY

Another criteria for selecting the cases is the urban character of the site as we wanted the cases to have a variation in characters, but to the point where they are still comparable. The urban character is in this case-selection pictogrammatic defined by the degree of grey-green-blue characters at the chosen case-sites, e.g. urban square, green park, seafront, etc. The variations of character contributes to a broader range of lighting examples. The 9 cases are divided into one pilot case, one main case, five supplemental cases and two reference cases. The pilot case; Søerne, has been the assisting resource to develop the Analytical Model of Urban Lightscapes and the method on how to investigate urban lightscapes. The pilot case will be found in Appendix 7. The main case, Ishøj Station Square, was chosen due to the large difference from the pilot case, concerning both context and light settings to get a broader perspective on urban lighting and the usefulness of the produced Analytical Model of Urban Lightscapes. The five supplemental cases (Dania Park, Hyllie Plaza, Israels Plads, Nordvestparken og Søndermarken) adds to the collected knowledge to gain a solid foundation for the search of the communicative performance of urban lighting. The pilot case (Appendix 7), the main case and the supplemental cases thus differs in their level of analytical detail. In the analysis of the supplemental cases only the dominating morphological, syntaxial and communicative characteristics will be elaborated. The last cases; Amager Strandpark and Amager Fælled, are reference cases. The light setting of Amager Strand is only defined by the natural light and the contextual artificial gleam from the city. The case of Amager Fælled only concerns a bike path going through the northern part of the area. The artificial light setting is very discrete. These cases will not be analysed through the Analytical Model of Urban Lightscapes, but the cases will add to the discussion of the role of darkness in the city.

ANALYTICAL FRAMEWORK MULTIPLE CASE STUDY

CASE PILOT CASE

SØERNE (THE LAKES)

MAIN CASE

ISHØJ STATATION SQUARE

SUPPLEMENTAL CASES

DANIA PARK

HYLLIE PLAZA

ISRAELS PLADS

NORDVESTPARKEN

SØNDERMARKEN

REFERENCE CASES

AMAGER STRAND AMAGER FÆLLED

TOPICALITY

TRANSITION

CHARACTER

ANALYTICAL FRAMEWORK MULTIPLE CASE STUDY

MAIN CASE

ANALYTICAL FRAMEWORK MULTIPLE CASE STUDY

ISHØJ ST. SQUARE Context Ishøj Station is located in the suburban area of Copenhagen and is a central traffical node for both the residents and visitors of Ishøj. The S-train line connects Ishøj to the regional network of Greater Copenhagen and the bus terminal and crossing bike paths connects the local context. The activity of the station square is mainly characterised by transit, whether it is getting to or from work by train, cycling through, making errands at the city centre or visitors arriving at the station going to the art museum of Arken. The station square was renewed in 2012 and is characterised by a crossing bike path system in two levels dividing the square into two islands; 1. The bus terminal and, 2. A smaller and enclosed passageway defined by the building edges and the vegetation along the supporting walls of the access ramp, which in the following will be referred to as ‘the blue square’. *Photography (Daylight photo): Unknown n.d.

ANALYTICAL FRAMEWORK MULTIPLE CASE STUDY

Morphology Embedded fixture: The embedded fixture has a luminous area of 26 cm Ø with a diffuse uplight directed towards the trees at both squares. At the bus terminal the light is neutral to cool white, which gives the illuminated trees a vivid and natural rendering effect of the organic textures. At the ‘blue square’ the light source is equipped with coloured glass-filter, which determines the experienced blue colour range and renders the organic textures to a more calm and subdued artificial canopy of blue luminosity. The blue light sources in the ground tend to glare, but directs the vision to the illuminated treetops.

ANALYTICAL FRAMEWORK MULTIPLE CASE STUDY

EMBEDDED FIXTURE

1:50

ANALYTICAL FRAMEWORK MULTIPLE CASE STUDY

SPOTLIGHT (GOBO-RIPPLE EFFECT) 1:50

ANALYTICAL FRAMEWORK MULTIPLE CASE STUDY

Spotlight (Gobo-ripple effect): The gobo-spotlight consists of a 9 m tall pole to which 2-3 gobo-floodlights are mounted. The floodlights have a downwards direction - and due to the gobos - distributing concentrated sharp-defined circles of ripples in colours of blue and what was observed as a orange-white colour. The ripple effect is projected onto a rough and warm-coloured concrete and granite pavement which impacts the clearness and brightness of the ripples and alters the colour of the emitted white light to a more orange tone.

ANALYTICAL FRAMEWORK MULTIPLE CASE STUDY

Spotlight (Gobo-waves): This gobo-spotlight consists of a 7 m tall pole to which 2 floodlights are attached. The light is directed outwards onto the supporting wall of the access ramp with a sharply concentrated distribution of curvy lines of light symbolising waves. The curvy lines projected on the wall are coloured in blue and orange-white colours and are waving a bit due to wind that affects the tall fixtures.

ANALYTICAL FRAMEWORK MULTIPLE CASE STUDY

SPOTLIGHT (GOBO WAVE-EFFECT)

1:50

ANALYTICAL FRAMEWORK MULTIPLE CASE STUDY

LAMPPOST

Lamppost: The lamppost measures 4 m in height and has an indirect diffuse downlight dispersed over a wide area providing a soft and homogeneous illumination of the floor surface as the light beam is conically distributed, centred around the lamppost. The light source is metal halide shedding a neutral white colour. The lamppost is the dominating fixture in quantity of the station square and has a slight tendency to glare. It manages the functional light of the bus terminal, along the bike path and the street opposite the station square. 1:50

ANALYTICAL FRAMEWORK MULTIPLE CASE STUDY

BOLLARD / WALL- EMBEDDED FIXTURE

CEILING BRACKET

Wall-embedded fixture / Bollard: As the wall fixture and bollard resemble each other almost identically, they will be described together. The height of the light source is 90 cm with a light directed downward illuminating the bike path in a slightly diffuse distribution covering the floor of the ramp from wall to wall. The light source is metal halide with a colour matching the neutral white colour of the lampposts. At the station square the bollards and wall fixtures provide the functional lighting of the access ramp. Ceiling bracket: The bracket is a fluorescent tube used for lighting the bike sheds at the station square. It is suspended to the ceiling of the bike shed emitting a green light. The tube has a diffuse downlight widely distributed, but is cut off by the sides of the sheds and do therefore not affect the brightness outside the sheds. 1:50

ANALYTICAL FRAMEWORK MULTIPLE CASE STUDY

Syntax The overall composition of lights dictates a coloured hierarchy that underpins the spatial division and composition given in a daylight setting as outlined in the paragraph on Context. The light setting shows a variation in organisational characters which combined with other light parameters triggers and dictates the rhythmical and spatial experience of light. The coloured hierarchy of lights enhances the asymmetrical spatial division of the square as the light setting of the bus terminal has a strong visual impact on the overall layout of the site, cf. The Lighting Cross Section and Lighting Plan. Besides the dominating area size of the bus terminal other parameters affect its superior placement in the coloured and spatial hierarchy. The affecting parameters are in this case highly determined by the syntax; morphological characteristics, variation, organisation and colour hierarchy.

a THE BLUE SQUARE

ACCESS RAMP

LIGHTING CROSS SECTION: THE STATION SQUARE 0m

10 m

THE BUS TERMINAL

ANALYTICAL FRAMEWORK MULTIPLE CASE STUDY

EMBEDDED FIXTURE

B she ike Bik ds ep ath

SPOTLIGHT (GOBO-RIPPLE EFFECT) SPOTLIGHT (GOBO WAVE-EFFECT) LAMPPOST

line tati

rail

BUS TERMINAL

Ish

øj S

rain S-t

CEILING BRACKET

Acc

ep ath

B she ike ds

es ra

Bik

Ish

øj C ity

Ce nt

BOLLARD / WALL- EMBEDDED FIXTURE

BLUE SQUARE

2,4 km Arken - Museum of Modern art A

LIGHTING PLAN: THE STATION SQUARE 0m

25 m

50 m 1:1000

ANALYTICAL FRAMEWORK MULTIPLE CASE STUDY

CANOPY OF LIGHTS

The artificial canopy of light encloses the space by creating a visual ceiling

Illuminated trees breaks the ‘hard’ canopy of light into a softere and more material canopy

a SOFT FLOORING

The soft illuminated ground surface creates a homogenous and calm floor in contrast to the vivid canopy of lights

PRINCIPLE SECTION: THE BUS TERMINAL 0m

10 m

ANALYTICAL FRAMEWORK MULTIPLE CASE STUDY

Overlooking the bus terminal the ground surface is widely illuminated of the soft light cast by the many lampposts whereas the luminous heads of the lampposts create a gleaming canopy of white lights. Stepping inside the island of the bus terminal, illuminated trees occurs at the waiting area. The white illuminated trees acts as a counterpart to the hard artificial canopy of lights creating a soft and sensuous canopy over the waiting area, cf. Principle Section: The bus terminal. The lighting at the bus terminal is randomly organised, but randomly within a pattern of the exterior furnitures and functional structure of the bus terminal. The gleaming heads of the lampposts combined with the random organisation of lights at the bus terminal trigger an irregular but vivid rhythm above the eye level. This enhances an artificial canopy of lights acting as a roof cover of the square whereas the illuminated floor stays homogenous and calm, cf. Principle Section: The bus terminal. Along the bike path the lights have a linear organisation with a regular rhythm following the railway creating a soft illuminated path surface. Only when the bike path meet the station square the regular rhythm breaks in a syncope and integrates with the artificial canopy of the bus terminal, cf. The Lighting Plan of the station square on previous pages. The dominating light setting of the bus terminal in interplay with the bike path and with the contextual lighting encloses the blue square making it fade within the coloured hierarchy, cf. The Lighting Plan and Cross Section of the station square on previous page. The blue square is dominated by the colourised blue light from the illuminated trees and the ripple effect projected on the horizontal ground surface. But in contrast to the bright white lighting of the surroundings the blue light appears calm and subdued which makes it fade in the overview, cf. The Lighting Cross

ANALYTICAL FRAMEWORK MULTIPLE CASE STUDY

Section and The Lighting Plan of the station square on previous pages. This effect differs depending on the viewer’s point of location. The light setting of the blue square is composed by mainly two types of fixtures; the gobo-spotlight (ripple) with the direct concentrated downlight and the embedded fixture (blue) with diffuse uplight. The fixtures of the gobo-spotlight (ripple) have a linear organisation but the attached floodlights are directed in different angles projecting the gobos ‘randomly’. The embedded fixtures are overall randomly organised and differs in densities through the square. Though a pattern rule can be identified as the light fixtures are placed in connection to the solitary trees at the square. Overall the variation of lights at the blue square seems randomly organised, but within a cohesive pattern that follows the form of the square, cf. The Lighting Plan of the station square on previous pages. Standing inside the blue square the colourised light is visually superior to the surrounding lights, cf. Principle Section: The blue square. The gleaming effect of the blue spots embedded in the floor have a strong tendency to glare to an uncomfortable degree for the eye. But the eyes quickly manoeuvre to the illuminated trees creating a soft canopy where the tree textures emerge and the space becomes three-dimensional, cf. Sketch: Illuminated trees. While the eyes adapts from the glaring effect of the embedded blue spots the distinctive ripple effect emerges. The circles formed by the ripple effect stages the floor by illuminating the voids of the square in concentrated units, cf. Sketch: Ripple effect. The random placement of the circles overrules the division between the granite carpet and concrete pavement along the building transforming the daylight passageway into a nocturnal square of multiple spatial units. The cohesive pattern of lights forms a cloud of blue tinge but subdued as the interior light from an arcade shop facing the square is emitting magenta coloured light through the window out to square, cf. ‘Principle Section: The blue square’.

ANALYTICAL FRAMEWORK MULTIPLE CASE STUDY

Soft materilised canopy a A

Glare Circles of ripples staging the square

SKETCH: ILLUMINATED TREES

The illuminated trees creates a soft roofing of the blue square as a counterpart to the sharply defined floor.

SKETCH: RIPPLE EFFECT

The ripple effect projected onto the ground surface creates a sharply defined flooring of the blue square

Standing inside the square the colourised illumination becomes visual superior to the surrounding lights

Interior light from the arcade shop

PRINCIPLE SECTION: THE BLUE SQUARE 0m

10 m

ANALYTICAL FRAMEWORK MULTIPLE CASE STUDY

a A

Emphasised wall Soft floor A

PRINCIPLE SECTION: THE ACCESS RAMP a

Turning towards the bike ramp dividing the bus terminal from the blue square the fixtures change in height from 4 m lampposts to 90 cm bollards and wall fixtures positioned underneath the eye level. The change in height makes the sloping ramp towards the tunnel legible. The lights are linearly organised with a strict rhythm creating a soft and homogenous illuminated path surface, while the gobo-spotlight (waves) define the wall by projecting a homogenous pattern of crisp waves onto the wall along the ramp. The bike ramp becomes a three-dimensional space with a clearly defined floor and wall and appears as the only space within the area where the ceiling is the natural nocturnal sky. The high-ceilinged space is further reinforced by the below ground levelled access ramp.

ANALYTICAL FRAMEWORK MULTIPLE CASE STUDY

100

Conflicting light

Tunnelview

PRINCIPLE SECTION: THE BIKE SHEDS

Inferior in the coloured hierarchy is the illuminated bike sheds next to the station building between the ground levelled bike path and the railway. Inside the bike sheds a straight line of fluorescent tubes is suspended to the ceiling filling the space with a strong green tinge. When the lights â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;switch onâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; the voids of the sheds transforms into green compartments. By looking through the sheds a rhythmic tunnel vision in the presence of a continuous green space appears. Outside the green light is slightly visible through the sides of the sheds but the white light emitted from the lampposts at the bike path and its gleaming light source makes the visual perception of the green light subside and fade out.

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The interior light of the station building and the facade lighting of the high-rise behind the station have a great influence on the visual and spatial perception, cf. Lighting Section: The station square and its context. The interior light from the station marks a strong focal point as the glass facade becomes a visual dominant vertical surface. The facade of the high-rise behind the station is illuminated by a conspicuous red coloured light and communicates a spatial understanding of the vast scale at the site. The colour composition is a defined palette of red, green, blue and white lights where white is dominant and subdues the blues and greens. It is only when the viewer steps inside the coloured space that the respective colour becomes dominant. A section cutting through the station square shows the asymmetrical division and spatial relationship between the bus terminal and the blue square. The artificial canopy of hard white lights eclipse the soft blue canopy of illuminated trees. The syntaxes of the lighting of the bus terminal and of the blue square are each others counterparts. The bus terminal is composed by a hard gleaming canopy of white lights dictating a vivid rhythm with a soft and homogenous illuminated floor surface opposed to the blue square composed by a soft blue and calm canopy of illuminated trees with a heterogenous illuminated floor of concentrated and sharp edged light.

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Facade lighting

Interior light from the station Soft canopy of illuminated trees

Sharply defined floor

Artificial canopy of lights

Soft illuminated floor

LIGHTING SECTION: THE STATION SQUARE AND ITS CONTEXT 0m 5m 10 m

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Communication The lighting concept of the station square can be categorised into two categories: 1. The functional lighting communicating safety, security and navigational guidance, 2. The effect lighting communicating a narrative of the site. Starting with the latter the idea is, according to a representative from ÅF lighting*, to implement the symbolic conception of green, blue and red light and thereby enhance local orientation and identification. The green light symbolises ‘earth’ indicating the gardens of the housing areas close to the station and the green recreational areas of Ishøj. The symbolic conception of the blue light symbolises ‘water’ which indicates the vicinity to the sea. And finally the red light makes the analogy of ‘fire’ symbolising the vibrant urban city centre of Ishøj. The layout of the colours; green, blue and red, in the lighting composition is therefore directed towards a respective destination. The green illuminated bike sheds points towards the housing and recreational areas. The red illuminated high-rise points to the city centre and the blue illuminated square and bike ramp with the projections of ripple effects and waves point towards the sea. Cf. Diagram: The conceptual idea. According to ÅF lighting the lighting concept is a part of an overall plan to promote and enhance the ‘axis of art’ in Ishøj and thereby the connection between the centre of Ishøj and Arken (the museum of modern art) located by the sea - a 20 minute walk from the station. Arken is an important cultural landmark for Ishøj and attracts many visitors to Ishøj. The lighting concept is therefore not only to communicate an internally narrative for the local identity but also promoting a public image of Ishøj and guidance for the visitors. The narrative is explicit outlined by playing with the symbolic conception of colours and the light images of waves and ripples emerging from the surfaces.

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uar e e sq blu The

bik

e sh

eds

The gre e

nb ike

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ISHØJ CITY CENTRE

The

red

fac

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HOUSING AND RECREATIONAL AREAS

2,4 KM ARKEN - MUSEUM OF MODERN ART

HOUSING AND RECREATIONAL AREAS

DIAGRAM: THE CONCEPTUAL IDEA

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Within the blue tinged illumination

Discomfortable Glare SKETCH: ILLUMINATED TREES

Circles of ripples staging the square

SKETCH: RIPPLE EFFECT

SKETCH: THE WAVES

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Conferred with the paragraph of syntax the functional lighting has a strong influence on the visual perception of the colourised light and thus the legibility of the narrative guidance fades. The functional lighting covers the main part of the station square to secure safety, orientation and navigational guidance for the people transitioning through. The gleaming canopy of white lights generate a vivid rhythm above eye level underpinning the intensity of activity at the bus terminal where the blue square invites to a more calm transit and even opens the possibility to make a stop to stay for while. The circles of ripples projected onto the floor surface stages the scenery of the small square. Though a choice is to be made; if one wishes to step inside the spotlighted area and become a part of it or if one would rather transition through it and thereby get an experience onthe-go. The blue illuminated square as a narrative guidance to Arken and the sea is a very short sequence of approximately 60m compared to the distance of 2,4 km pedestrian itinerary to Arken - according to google maps - but the coloured light conspicuously maintain a local identification. In nocturnal lightscapes green areas and vegetation appear dark if they are not illuminated. The green illuminated bike sheds are as written only slightly visible from the outside which conflicts the intended guidance towards the green vegetated areas. Hence even if the green light were more visual dominant the intended narrative might not have been more clear. The aesthetic experience of the blue square is explicitly playful with a given narrative. The illumination of the urban square seeks to reproduce landscape elements of water and sea and can be sensuous perceived like walking through a blueish cloud almost like being underwater. But this explicit artificial illumination can also lead to a detachment due to the discomfortable glare from the blue spots embedded to the floor, the staged spotlighting of the ripples where you have to make a choice or the synthetic experience of the illumination itself. *A representative of ÅF lighting gave in December 2014 at an event arranged by ‘Ungt Lys’ a presentation on different projects made by ÅF lighting including the overall conceptual idea behind the lighting design of Ishøj station square.

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SUPPLEMENTAL

CASES

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DANIA PARK Context TThe seafront in Dania Park is one of the large scale public spaces projected in connection with the establishment of the Bo01 district in 2001 in Västra Hamnen, Malmö. It is located close to Turning Torso; the new landmark of Malmö, and is a part of a continuous seafront system along the shoreline of Öresund facing towards Copenhagen. Dania Park has an urban character with a lack of vertical elements such as trees, but the flatness of the site is contrasted by the choice of terraces, balconies and platforms dropping down towards the sea. Between the seafront and the neighboring apartments a larger grassed area is laid out and creates a relational distance between semi-private and the public space of the seafront. The large vegetated area invites to recreational and leisure activities, while the seafront also offers a transitional link along the coastline between the Bo01 district and the city centre, where people go for a walk, practice exercise or enjoy the landscape in close connection to the sea. *Photography (Daylight photo): Unknown (1) n.d.

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Morphology Embedded fixture: The light source is a floodlight with a natural white colour. The fixture is embedded in the ground and has a diffuse uplight directed towards the stony walls making the wall a luminous object in itself and thereby removing the focus of the eye from the light source to the calm illumination of the objectified light. Due to the colour and direction of the emitted light the texture and natural colour of the stones appear naturally rendered. By the uplight from the embedded fixtures, the stony walls become bright attributes in themselves. Wall embedded fixture: The light source has a warm white colour mounted at a height of 0,4 m. The fixture is embedded in the wooden wall bordering the water. The light source is covered by a grating minimising the outward brightness of the source. The relatively low height of the fixture together with the grating provide a concentrated shed of light on the stony flooring. Bollard: The light source has a daylight white colour and is placed approx. one meter above ground at a distance of approx. 20 meters. In the design of the fixture the light source is hidden and has a two-sided shed of light. The bollard has a direct downlight and creates a concentrated distribution on the reddish gravelly flooring to one side and showcases the texture of the bush vegetation to the opposite side.

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EMBEDDED FIXTURE

WALL- EMBEDDED FIXTURE

BOLLARD

1:50

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SPOTLIGHT 1:200

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Spotlight: The spotlight fixture consists of 25 m tall pole fixture to which three floodlights are mounted at different heights approx. 18-23 m. The colour of the floodlights vary: two of the fixtures are natural white and illuminates the water, and one is illuminating the platform down to the water in a warm bright yellowish tinge. Hence the fixture is multi-directional and sheds a concentrated downlight.

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Syntax The luminous composition of the seafront in Dania Park both enhances and transforms the spatial perception in nocturnal light. As the seafront is composed by a variation of lighting fixtures, the grass area in-between the seafront and the apartments lays in darkness only affected by wall grazing lights and the interior lights from the apartments. The dark area creates a buffer between the private apartments and the public seafront modifying the spatial perception of a longer relational distance between private and public space. Standing at the seafront the bollards and the wall embedded fixtures marks both the floor and outline the walls of the rectangular space defining a clear linear frame vaguely transparent to the vegetated-side but closed off to the water-side. The linear space of the seafront is confronted by the transversal stony walls fringing the platforms to the water and thereby creating spaces within the space. As the stony walls are illuminated by the embedded fixtures the spatial units of the site are visually enhanced. The openings of the space towards the water are marked by the spotlights illuminating the platform in a soft yellowish tinge and with a white spotlight vaguely touching the lapping water. To the opposite side the apartment block generates a visual border of the space by the interior light from the buildings. The overall organisational character of the lighting fixtures is a linear pattern that follows the form of the space and thereby enhances the edges and the flooring of the water platforms. The organisation of lights generates a strong rhythmical experience of the seafront as the same sequence is multiplied three times. The bollards and the wall embedded fixtures create a downlight regular rhythmic along the rectangular edge where the illuminated stony walls together with the spotlights creates a break in the linearity and thereby marking both the end and the beginning of a spatial sequence.

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Wall grazing light Point of orientation

Interior lights from Apartments

The dark gap (grass area) Öresund Wall grazing light

Platform Stony walls

EMBEDDED FIXTURE WALL- EMBEDDED FIXTURE BOLLARD

The Seafront

SPOTLIGHT LIGHTING PLAN: DANIA PARK 0m

25 m

50 m 1:1000

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The linearly organised pattern of lights generates a regular rhythmical flow bringing a clear spatial order to the nocturnal site. The low lights below eye level ensure the the orientation towards the surroundings of the shoreline.

The textures and colours of the stony walls become almost tactile by the grazing lights

A swan near the shoreline hinted by the spotlight

The warm illuminated platform with the distant lights from the apartments softly and calmly guides the orientation towards the sea.

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Communication The seafront of Dania Park stands out as a luminous promenade slightly distant from the apartment blocks due to the dark grass area in-between. The dark gap provides an illusion of the seafront floating into the water, but anchored by the interior light from the apartments forming a visual border and calmly backing the viewers orientation towards the sea. If there were no visual border the seafront would seem detached from the ‘main land’ sailing alone in the dark waters hence the visual border generates a safe emotion as the lack of visibility can lead to disorientation and thereby anxiety as Lynch (1960) would argue. The organisational character and sequential rhythmic of the lighting fixtures provides clear navigational cues and safety lighting of the edges. The illuminated stony walls become visual focal points breaking the linearity of the seafront and thereby directs the orientation towards the sea connecting the pedestrian visually with Öresund. The platforms to the water are only slightly visible from the outside, but small openings in the stony walls evoke a curiosity to see what is behind as the warm illuminated platform appears. Inside the stony walls the platform turns into a broad staircase going into the water. The warm white colour illuminating the platform and staircase combined with the enclosed feeling from the walls fringing the platform generates an intimate calmness where the viewer becomes a participant engaged with the sea opposed to the more observing role at the seafront promenade. The subtle spotlight of the water lapping against the stones lying at the foot of the shoreline lets the tactile materiality of the site emerge and becomes a mood-setting feature. The staircases appear poetic and spectacular as the urbanity unfolds itself to one of nature’s wild elements.

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HYLLIE PLAZA Context Hyllie Plaza is a small urban square completed around 2010/11 centrally located in the new Malmรถ-quarter Hyllie. The quarter is still under construction and is slowly becoming an urban hub between Malmรถ and Copenhagen. The central location of the square links the train station, the shopping mall, Malmรถ Arena and the surrounding office-buildings. Hyllie Plaza acts as both a point of entrance and exit for the entire area where the activity of the square is very much characterised by the high intensity of people in transit. The surroundings are of a vast scale with monumental buildings such as Emporia (The shopping mall) and Malmรถ Arena, where Hyllie Plaza constitutes a balance by implementing a human scale with its hedges, trees and benches creating smaller spatial units within the square framed by 16 m tall light masts. The square thereby offers the opportunity to take a short rest from the pulsating outer context. *Photography (Daylight photo): Lindman, n.d.

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LIGHT STRIP

Morphology Light strip: The covered LED strip consists of multiple LEDs forming a consistent line of light. It is embedded in the floor at the foot of each bench on the square. The strip in itself is a bright luminous source creating a direct diffuse uplight in an yellow-orange tinge. The light from the strip reflects on the slanting wooden part of the benches generating an indirect diffuse outward luminosity, which makes the brightness of the strip more easy on the eye. Spotlight (from below): The light source is a floodlight partly hidden in the beech hedges approx. 1m above ground. As the light source is hidden the sharp uplight from below eye level does not conflict with the eye. The spotlight illuminates the trees from below in a warm white - yellowish tinge in a direct concentrated uplight showing off the texture from the beech trees.

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SPOTLIGHT (FROM BELOW)

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SPOTLIGHT (FROM ABOVE)

Spotlight (from above): A floodlight is attached to an approx. 8 m high pole fixture creating a direct downlight illumination of chosen trees in a cool natural white colour exposing their textual shadows on the ground. Mast: The mast measures approx. 16m and has LED lights mounted in several different heights from 4-16 meters directly shedding a cool-white diffuse downlight. The bright visible LEDs visually overrules the shed light. Hence the sources become luminous markings framing the square.

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MAST

1:100

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WIRES 1:100

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Wires: Between the masts a web of wires is stretched out and positioned 16 m above ground. The wires support the multiple chains of LEDs. The LEDs have an outward diffuse light, but mainly it is the sparkling sources which is experienced. The colour setting of the LEDs differs. The standard setting is a white sparkling nocturnal sky with different effects representing the budding spring, the hot summer, autumn rain and the cold winter which can be seen once per hour (Gram 2014).

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Syntax The spatial perception and visual appearance of Hyllie Plaza transforms when the nocturnal sky settles in. The LEDs of the masts define 11 strong vertical elements framing the square and in-between the wires becomes visible by a web of multiple LEDs imitating the nocturnal sky. The artificial night sky ceils off the square and together with the framing masts the space encloses. This generates a profound human scale and the vastness of the context disappears due to the enclosed space of lights. The cool white light emitted from the spotlights anchors the corners of the planting beds, textualising the floor with shadows of the trees and thereby indicating the transition into the spatial units of the square. The spatial units within the square are marked by the linear light strips and further enhanced by the light strips illumination of the benches. The organisational character of the composition can be defined by a pattern of â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;brokenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; lines following the form and structure of the elements of the square. The artificial sky of lights and the spotlighted corners of the planting beds dissolve the linearity and wrap the space as one. The human scale that is brought into the lighting scheme is further communicated by the illuminated trees to the illuminated benches and the light strips embedded in the floor hence creating a vertical layered hierarchy of illumination. The lighting scheme of Hyllie Plaza is very much characterised by the variety of light colours that is set into play. The light colours does not support the hierarchy but gathers the wholeness of the spatial and communicative experience.

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Malmรถ Arena

Emporia Shopping mall

Soft canopy of illuminated trees

Artificial night sky Office building Shadows of the trees

LIGHT STRIP

Warmly illuminated benches

SPOTLIGHT (FROM BELOW) SPOTLIGHT (FROM ABOVE) MAST

Hyllie Station

WIRES LIGHTING PLAN: HYLLIE PLAZA 0m

15 m

25 m 1:500

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The fairytale-like atmosphere is formed by a holistic myriad of textures, materials and colours.

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Communication When entering the square in nocturnal light it appears masked in a fairytale expression almost on the verge of an Alice-in-Wonderland-aesthetic, puncturing the vastness of the surroundings for a moment. Hyllie Plaza is a square that by the light setting transforms a partly characterless new urban site into a place of a strong aesthetic identity. The aesthetic experience is remarkable when coming from the overly bright and bustling train station. The nocturnal sky is pulled down and imitated by the web of multiple coloured LEDs curbing the bustling and busy activities from the train station and shopping mall. The narrative lighting scheme acts as a counterpart or an entrance hall to the attractions, enjoyments and leisure activities that can be found in the Malmรถ Arena and the popular shopping mall Emporia. Though the square is mainly used by people passing through the area to get from one place to another, the fairytale-like atmosphere can encourage to make a stop or just expose an experience on the go. The softly warm illuminated benches generate a calm atmosphere of intimacy without getting disturbed by glaring effects of the light source, as seen in other cases (e.g. Nordvestparken). Above the benches the illuminated trees unfolds. Some illuminated from above by an angled white floodlight casting the shadow of the tree-silhouette onto the ground and others illuminated from below in a warmer white colour, which creates a perceptible tactile vitality of the nocturnal space supporting the fairytale-like atmosphere.

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ISRAELS PLADS Context Israels Plads is a square located in the centre of Copenhagen in close vicinity to the bustling Nørreport Station. It is divided into two areas: the popular market square, ‘Torvehallerne’, and a newly designed urban square from 2014. The latter will be the primary focus of this case. The urban square is situated in-between the market square and the more calm green park ‘Ørstedsparken’. The urban square is elevated 30 cm above the surrounding ground and is situated on top of a parking basement. The flooring of the square winds in depressed areas and elevated slopes of stairs. The elements of the square are sporadic positioned and consists of solitaire trees surrounded by circular benches. Furthermore there are 3 entrance houses to the parking basement and a larger fenced area for sport activities. The field observations offered an insight into the sporadic activities of the square depending on the weekday, weather and time of the evening. The activity observed was mainly people walking through the square, kids playing and young people just hanging out. *Photography (Daylight photo): COBE, n.d.

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LIGHT STRIP

Morphology Spotlight: The spotlight fixture is an approx. 5-6 m high pole to which 2-3 floodlights are attached. The fixture has a multidirectional concentrated downlight shedding neutral soft white light targeted towards the floor surface or brushing an object on the square such as a ’small section’ of the benches. As the concentrated light illuminates circular spots on the surface floor the contrasting effects are well-defined, but in composition the brightness of the beams creates a gradient to the darker areas. Light strip: The light strip consists of multiple LEDs forming a consistent line of light. It is positioned in a height of 30 cm covered by the elevated edge of the square and thereby with a hidden light source only exposing the illuminated edge of ‘white’ light. The LED strip has an outward diffuse direction but the elevated urban floor makes it a downward direction and it is perceived more concentrated on the ground. The elevated edge makes the square appear as a flying carpet, which is even more distinct in nocturnal light due to the light strip.

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SPOTLIGHT

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Syntax A transformation of the urban square at Israels Plads appears when the darkness settles in and the artificial lights take over. At daytime the vertical staircases in the corners of the square are the dominating space provider thus the multi-levelled surface dictates the spatial perception. In nocturnal light the illumination of voids generates a horizontal spatial perception of the square making it appear wider. But as the light softly brushes the elements of the square the vertical perception of the space is set in motion. The inverted spatial perception in nocturnal light is further enhanced by the interior light from the entrance houses. At daytime they appear as transparent glass cases not attracting much attention. But at nighttime the interior light makes the houses appear as the most illuminated vertical elements on the square - acting as lamps in themselves. The light strip and the spotlights have two separate spatial functions and do not interfere with each others spatial features. The strip light frames the elevated square as a flying carpet whereas the spotlights play with the interaction between illuminated solids and voids on the square. For instance at the edge of Ă&#x2DC;rstedsparken a tree is illuminated as a luminous solid marking the edge between the urban square and the green park and next to it a void of grass encircled by trees is illuminated marking the transition from the urban square to the green park. The organisational character of the spotlights is a random pattern. Even though the light along the edges is randomly distributed they still enhance the framing of the square. The framing of the square is further stressed by the interior light from the entrance houses positioned linear to the edge. The random organisation creates an irregular rhythm yet the use of only one fixture type generates a calmness to the multi-directional light beams. The irregular rhythm breaks the linear urban paving overruling the guidelines in the pavement and thereby generating a smooth and calm flow in the illuminated surface. The condensed light spots create a clear distinction between light and dark

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Torvehallerne

Illuminated edge P-entrance house

Elevated staircase More densely illuminated centre line

Light brushing the stairs P-entrance house

Light brushing a bench

Elevated staircase

A solid of light P-entrance house A cavity of light

SPOTLIGHT LIGHT STRIP

Ă&#x2DC;rstedparken

LIGHTING PLAN: ISRAELS PLADS 0m

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50 m 1:1000

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Large brightness contrast effect. The spotlight is slightly hinting the staircase bringing a vertical dimension to the site.

The illuminated edge ‘‘lifting the flying carpet.

A group of boys ‘bathing in the spotlight’. The spotlight is just hinting a part of the circular bench.

A shadow of a tree texturelising the floor.

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areas. This contrast stages multiple scenes or spatialities contributing to the rhythmical presence of flow. The denseness of illuminated voids unifies in a slightly offset centreline of the square making it superior in the horizontal hierarchy.

Communication The urban square is by daytime aesthetically matching the urban character of the market square with the strict guidelines marked in the pavement, but when the sun goes down the lighting composition overrules the stringent pavements and dissolves into a rhythmical flow of ‘randomly’ positioned spotlights. The rhythmical flow continues a bit into the winding and sloping park and thereby the urban square transfers the organic flowing language into the square creating a stronger spatial connection to the park than to the market square in the nocturnal context. The densely illuminated ‘centreline’ communicates a clear navigation through the square though the randomness and rhythmicality of the spotlights come off as irregular the communication of the transitional flow is clear. As mentioned the seating arrangements are only partly lit conceding that the recreational use and longer stays decreases in the nocturnal time frame, which often also are colder especially in this nordic context. As mentioned in the syntax the spatial perception of the square alters in nocturnal light hence the orientation of the viewer alters from vertical to horizontal. The spotlight causes a focus on the horizontal surface, which leads the orientation towards the flooring of the square letting the viewer become more safely aware of how the terrain winds. The light strip framing the elevated square marks the step up to the square and functions not only as a part of the narrative of the flying carpet but also as a safety measure.

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NORDVESTPARKEN Context Nordvestparken is a newly designed community park from 2010 located in the multi-ethnic Northwest district of Copenhagen. The elongated park merges into Hulgårdsplads; a traffical node for the area, and marks the northern entrance to the park. From Hulgårdsplads a bike path winds through the park facilitating a short-cut route for pedestrians and cyclists towards Nørrebro station. As the park is framed by housing and apartment buildings, it is inviting local activities such as dog walking, kids playing or other recreational uses. The park consists of a variety of trees, striped light poles and star-shaped elements are spread randomly in the park; some sketched out in concrete and others elevated from the ground surface. In both ends of the park there are shallow man-made hills and in-between two water-beds depressed in the terrain. *Photography (Daylight photo): Heb 2013

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1:50

SPOTLIGHT

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LIGHT STRIP

Morphology Spotlight: The spotlight fixtures consist of a striped pole to which two-three floodlights are attached and vary in height from 5,5-9 m. The colour of the floodlights are white, red, green and blue conic distributed in a concentrated multi-directional downlight marking a sharp contrast between illuminated and non-illuminated areas. The white light is concentrated around the bike- and pedestrian paths, where the coloured lights illuminates the grassed surface, trees and the shallow hills in the park. Furthermore gobos are installed in front of some of the floodlights projecting star shaped light onto the ground. The gobos appear sporadically in the park. They mark nodes where paths meet and elements such as benches or the starshaped seating elements are placed in the park. Light strip: There are two matted LED strips each measuring 90m illuminating the edge of the water beds at ground level. The LEDs emit a bright blue colour with a direct diffuse uplight, but due to the matted light strip the brightness and illumination of the surroundings is minimized.

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Syntax Nordvestparken is by its colourful light setting a transformative space when the sun goes down even though it is mainly composed by one type of fixture; the spotlight. The spotlights randomly illuminate solids and voids creating many spatial experiences. The downlight illumination of the trees enhances their shape and makes them appear as a more solid element - almost like an artificial lego-tree - as opposed to an uplight illumination, where the texture of the branches become more visible and the silhouette of the tree becomes transparent. In this way the illuminated trees as spatial elements are more defined. The shallow hills are as well sporadically illuminated by the coloured spotlights and the edges of the water beds marked by a blue light strip all enhancing the terrain as a significant spatial provider. From the apartments edging the park the interior light shining through the windows creates a visual border to one side and on the other side of the park it is the white illuminated bike path that defines the border - in-between the colourful nocturnal landscape appears. The spotlight fixtures are randomly organised throughout the park creating an irregular rhythm and at times a dancing rhythm of colours. The emitted light becomes more dense near the bike path and here the light colour stays white. The denseness of lights combined with the colour composition create a spatial division affecting the relational distance from the private apartments to the public space of the park. The densely white illuminated bike path transits into the coloured illumination of the vegetated area having a lower brightness. Hence a coloured hierarchy is established. The number of the coloured light sources gradually wanes towards the apartments making a semi-public gap between the private apartments and the public park.

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Hulg책rds Plads

A playground in the darkness Bike path

Bike path SPOTLIGHT

Water beds Apartments

LIGHT STRIP

Bike path

LIGHTING PLAN: NORDVESTPARKEN 0m

50 m

100 m 1:2000

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The marked water-beds

Like a Lego-tree

Sometimes it can be nice to be in the spotlight, but here the glaring effect of the spotlight is very uncomfortable for the eye, and the functionality of the bench becomes indifferent due to the glare.

The star-shaped and coloured spotlight add a playfullness to the site.

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Communication The colourful light setting in Nordvestparken is eye-catching as it deviates strongly from the surrounding streetlights. The transformation of the site is remarkable in nocturnal light, but the character of the site might not be as transformed as the light scheme more comes of as an enhancement of the playfulness given in the design of the park by its star-shaped elements and poetry printed in the pavement. The organisational randomness and variety of colours could be a reflection of the diversity characterising the multi-ethnic city district and thereby marks an identity for the community. The white densely illuminated bike path safely guides the cyclists and pedestrians through the area, but the high contrasts of the spotlighted area makes dark spots in the bordering vegetation. This is especially the case near the dark playground at HulgĂĽrdsplads. The uncertainty of what hides in the dark, can for some people feel uncomfortable and even a bit spooky. By spotlighting voids and solids in colourful compositions ones curiosity is raised to implicate and explore the park further. The illuminated trees adds to the playful layer as they transform into almost synthetic autonomous colourful â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;Legoâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;-objects. The randomness of the spots can at times be confusing or even seem misplaced e.g. a bench facing towards a spotlight becomes an uncomfortable seating option as the light is directed at the eye level of a sitting person and thereby not only is uncomfortable for the eye, but also evokes a feeling of being unwillingly staged in the spotlight. The light scheme of Nordvestparken generates a space with a strong nocturnal identity possessing a dramatic and expressive character. Hence the colourful, irregular rhythmical and randomly organised composition communicates a playful space with an element of fun, almost a carnival-like atmosphere speaking to the puerile souls.

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SØNDERMARKEN Context Søndermarken is a romantic garden from the 18th century and is located in extension of Frederiksberg Have on the edge of different city districts of Copenhagen and thereby providing a green connection between Frederiksberg, Vesterbro and Valby. The garden has lately been under a reconstruction altering the old park to i.a. facilitate a more contemporary use by implementing a new lighting scheme, new activity spots for exercising and the exercise concept of ‘Catch The Light Rabbit’. ‘Catch The Light Rabbit is a jogging route with built in interactive lights that shows the route through the park at a specific speed. At day time the park is a recreational area for the people of Copenhagen to walk their dog, have a picnic or play with their kids. Søndermarken is not completely transformed and still possesses the elements of a romantic garden with winding paths, small foreign buildings hidden in the park, wide fields of grass and dense vegetation structured around the central axis that leads to the castle of Frederiksberg. *Photography (Daylight photo): Cisternerne, n.d. & Rahbek, 2011

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Morphology Lamppost: The light source has a neutral white colour. It is placed 5m above ground having a direct downwards direction of the light beam with a diffuse distribution. In the design of the fixture the light source is placed to one side hence shedding the light in a forward direction. Furthermore the light source is hidden creating focus on the emitted light and thereby making it appear soft and calm when it is either reflected upon the path or the tree-trunks it is placed in-between. The light source renders the brownish gravel in a warm tone.

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LAMPPOST

1:50

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LAMPPOST (3-HEADED)

1:50

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BOLLARD

Lamppost (3-headed): Follows somewhat the same morphological tendencies as the lamppost above, however this fixture has three light sources attached in different heights to a centric pole creating a multi-directional downlight dispersed in a diffuse manner. The 3-headed lamppost is used solitary e.g. by the entrances or by the activity posts illuminating trees and fitness elements or by marking a cavity in the garden. Bollard: The light source has a daylight white colour and is placed approx. 1m above ground at a distance of approx. 20m between each bollard. The bollard has a direct downlight and creates a concentrated distribution on the ground illuminating the paths. The emitted light is in the shape of a skew conic beam almost imitating a fan on ground. The daylight white colour of the source renders the brownish gravel in a bright pale brown colour. The bollard has an embedded interactive LED strip as a part of the concept: â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;Catch The Rabbit. It can emit 6 different colours depending on the pace of the jogger.

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Syntax The new lighting scheme of Søndermarken is chastely composed by three types of lighting fixtures that supports the form of the romantic garden. The axial avenue in the centre of the garden is supported by a linear organisation of the lampposts placed in-between the rows of trees defining the axis to the illuminated Frederiksberg Castle. The openness of the central part of the garden makes the illuminated avenue a strong spatial unit in its relatively dark surroundings of dense vegetation. Standing at the avenue overviewing the garden an illuminated spot appears differing from the rest of the romantic light setting - a dark void is illuminated and almost cutting out a cavity in the dark space like Rasmussens (1957) campfire effect. Moving into the more dense vegetated areas of the garden the winding paths along the edge are homogeneously illuminated by the bollards. This generates a sharp contrast to the surrounding dark vegetation which then appears as dark walls enclosing the space. To stress the romantic roots of the garden small pavilions and statues ‘casually’ placed in the landscape is vaguely illuminated in the nocturnal space creating an additive spatial depth when noticed. But it is not only the ‘original’ romantic elements that is brought to attention in the nocturnal context, also the new activity posts are vaguely illuminated by the solitair 3-headed lamppost. The overall light setting is homogeneously presented with one deviant which therefore is very conspicuous. There is a distinct hierarchy at the garden with the linear axis in the centre of the garden as the most dominant due to its regal appearance and the higher lampposts. The low bollards follow next as they outline the encircling path system in the garden. The regular rhythmical flow of lights is only ‘disrupted’ or supplemented by the ‘casually’ placed illuminated objects. But when ‘Catch The Light Rabbit’ is initiated the steady rhythm is alternated and creates a colourful dynamic of the space yet still at a flashing rhythmic pace.

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The illuminated Frederiksberg Castle

LAMPPOST LAMPPOST (3-HEADED) BOLLARD

Activity spot Activity spot Illuminated bridge Illuminated house

Axis

The solitaire fixture - a cavity of light in the darkness

Activity spot

LIGHTING PLAN: SĂ&#x2DC;NDERMARKEN 0m

100 m

200 m 1:4000

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Catch the light rabbit

The lighting of the axis generating a steady rhythm and depth in the nocturnal park.

Catch the light rabbit

A cavity of light in the darkness

lluminated bridge surprising the vistor in the darkness

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Communication The aesthetic experience of the lighting composition supports the concept of the romantic garden by the axial lighting, illumination of the winding paths, luminous solids and voids discretely hidden as minor surprises, when strolling through the park. As the lighting mainly consists of path lighting the navigational cues in the nocturnal context are well-defined. In addition to the navigational cues the illuminated solids and voids appears as points of orientation. Furthermore the concept of â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;Catch The Light Rabbitâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; affects the stringent light setting and activates the nocturnal park by generating a sense of time and distance for the joggers. It creates an active ambience in the nocturnal park. The illuminated paths winding through the park have a distinct contrast to the dark and densely vegetated surroundings. The wide areas of darkness where no light is installed engenders an unsafe emotion by the lack of visibility and fear for what is hidden in the darkness. The narrative of the romantic garden in nocturnal light can be read from the axial avenue as the lights from the winding path is hinted in the distance. From here the lights appears as a smooth rhythmical movement winding through the wilderness of vegetation. The axis towards the illuminated Frederiksberg Castle is enhanced by the lampposts and the solitaire lighting fixture cutting out a cavity of light in the darkness evokes a curiosity like the hidden romantic elements such as the chinese pavilion.

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REFERENCE

CASES

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Strong glare Point of orientation

Laguna

Öresund

The city

AMAGER STRANDPARK 0m

400 m 1:16000

Amager Strandpark is a public beach park in Copenhagen. It is located on the island of Amager with seaside to Öresund and Malmö, Sweden in the horizon. The park is very popular for recreational use in the warm summer time. Amager Strandpark is a 2 km long artificial beach with a promenade winding through the area, thus it is also often used for exercising, dog-walking or just to go for a stroll. When the sun settles in, the park turns dark and the only light is the gleam from the city (except from a very bright spotlight, see picture). The darkness can for some be intimidating as one’s orientation is challenged by the lack of visibility, but for others it can be the beauty of the natural nocturnal light, which often is a rare sight within the city. Walking towards the beach we are met by a strong bright light, which makes it difficult for the eye to adapt to the darkness in the beginning. But slowly the eyes are adapting to the darkness, and we can begin to distinguish sand and grass from the promenade path.

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The path is winding in-between the sand dunes and helps the nocturnal orientation. When the path turns openings appear towards either the inner laguna or Ă&#x2013;resund, where the water reflects the gleam of the city or MalmĂś can be hinted in the far distance. The winding path and openings in the sand dunes generates a tranquil rhythmical experience through the park letting one not get totally lost in the darkness.

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rive

ille

Art

Islands Brygge Bike path DR Byen

200 m 1:8000

AMAGER FĂ&#x2020;LLED Amager FĂŚlled is a large protected natural resort located at the northwestern part of Amager, Copenhagen. There is not much artificial light installed, but in the northern part a well used bike path going through the park has had small solar-powered LEDs installed in the pavement. The LEDs does not provide a lighting of the surroundings, but in stead they act as small guiding dots along the bike path.

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The small LEDs can almost seem like stairs reflected from the night sky. The lights not only provide guidance through the area, but they provide a depth and a relational distance of the path and thereby also giving the cyclist a visual destination.

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DISCUSSION FROM ANALYSIS TO DESIGN

GUIDELINES

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he further investigation of the communicative performance of urban lighting is a reflective analytical discussion based upon the learning outcome of the analytical model and the multiple case study. The following discussion seeks to unravel how urban designers can use the analytical model as a toolset for creating lightscapes in the city with both the communicative performance and human scale in mind. The morphology and syntax is converted into parameters and principles respectively, which the urban designer can regulate and control in order to reach the aim of the desired communicative performance of the designed lightscape. The ensuing part contains reflections upon how the parameters and principles affect the communicative performance of urban lightscapes. Lastly the communication of light is conducted into a matrix to illustrate the most important considerations of the parameters and principles the urban designer needs to be aware of, in order to gain the desired communicative performance of the nocturnal urban space. ___________________________ The Analytical Model of Urban Lightscapes has been developed as an analytical tool for dissecting urban lighting schemes in order to understand the communicative performance of a lightscape, whether it is of a functional or aesthetic character providing guidance through the nocturnal city or an experience of a specific ambience stressed by the lighting. But the analytical model is not only a tool for analysing existing lightscapes, it

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can also act as a catalyst for the urban designer to create a communicative performance in their design of urban lightscapes. To illustrate this we will go back to the actual construction of the model. The triangular model consists of the four topics; context, morphology, syntax and communication. The bottom bar; context, can be seen as the foundation stone (cf. the Analytical Model of Urban Lightscapes) upon which the urban designer builds the lighting scheme. The context is often if not always given in advance when designing a new project and is essential to understand in order to generate a site specific and holistic lighting design of urban spaces. The context is therefore not something the urban designer can actively regulate by lighting. But as seen in the Multiple Case Study urban lighting can be used to enhance or transform the given context by the means of the morphology and syntax of light. Examples of light enhancements can be seen in both Dania Park and Søndermarken. The lighting of Dania Park underpins the physical context by enhancing the materiality of the site where the lighting of Søndermarken underpins the historical structures of the garden. Examples of where the urban lighting affects a transformation of the site or context can be seen in the cases of Ishøj Station Square, Hyllie, Israels Plads, Nordvestparken. But the transformations take a stand in the contextual topics e.g. use, function or design. At Ishøj Station Square where the site turns into a colour palette of spaces, the coloured light becomes a mean for communicating the contextual narrative of Ishøj and acts as a statement for the attractions Ishøj can offer its inhabitants and visitors; the city centre and the close vicinity to both green recreational areas and the sea, hence the red, the green and blue light. The communicative performance of urban lighting is in each analysed lighting scheme in some way or another linked to its specific context. And as stated in the chapter of the Analytical Model of Urban Lightscapes an urban lightscape can not be read autonomously, it has to be read in its context, which is also applicable when it comes to the design task.

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THE ANALYTICAL MODEL

OF URBAN LIGHTSCAPES

BEA

LIG

PHO

OUTER

INNER

CONTEXT

FUNCTIONALITY AESTHETIC

LIG

RIN

MOR

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SIT

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COMMUNICATION

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“What is unforeseeable is that works with complete different significances can have the same architectural language and conversely the same language can have different significances depending on their context.” (Hauxner 2009)

Many of the cases have morphological and syntaxial similarities, but with completely different spatial perceptions and significances or communicative performance. For instance the random organisation of spotlight fixtures recurs in both Nordvestparken and Israels plads, but with very different communication. To underpin how different design parameters and principles of urban lighting can affect the spatial perception and the communicative performance of the emitted light one new project site is chosen for further investigation in order to explore the different design parameters and principles in the same context. The new project site is Sønder Boulevard in Copenhagen as it resembles the case selection criterias of geography, transit and urban character except the topicality of urban lighting as it is only illuminated by the traditional street lights of Copenhagen. The project site will be further elaborated in the following paragraph In the Context of an Urban Lightscape. As the context is the foundation for designing urban lightscapes, the communication (the centre of the triangle) of the analytical model can be looked upon as the aim of the lightscape. Whether it is a question of fostering a larger degree of functional lighting with care for safety and guidance or it is more of an aesthetic character aiming to generate a specific ambience within a site. To reach these visions we have to further investigate the means and tools of urban lightscapes the urban designer can control, which is given by the morphological and syntaxial design parameters and principles: The building blocks of an urban lightscape. The morphology and syntax differs from the context as they are regulatory

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of nature (e.g. height, colour, direction etc.) and can be controlled by the urban designer. The topics within the morphology and syntax of the analytical model can be used as a help to understand which parameters need adjustments in a created lighting scheme and which principles need to be taken into account in order to generate a functional safe urban space with clear navigational and orientational cues as well as creating the desired comfort, ambience and identity of the nocturnal urban space: The communicative performance of urban lighting. Hence the morphological and syntaxial parameters and principles act as a toolset which the urban designer and landscape architect can use as a source of inspiration for how to create the desired communication of an urban lightscape. The building blocks are composed by the content of the morphology and syntax bars completing the triangle, as seen on the Analytical Model of Urban Lightscapes. Together the three bars of the triangle (context, morphology and syntax) affect the immaterial communication of the site, (the centre of the triangle) and are inextricably linked with each other. The following discussion will emphasise the morphological and syntaxial topics as they are the tools for reaching that aim. The content of the toolset will as indicated be formulated into different design parameters and principles. A parameter is something that can be adjusted as a contributing factor of significance to a particular correlation (e.g. height). A principle can be seen as a basic rule for organising or arranging elements in the particular correlation (e.g. hierarchy). The design parameters and principles will not be definitive answers or rules, as every rule has exceptions. Thus the parameters and principles are linked with considerations concerning the designerâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s choices and designing for the human scale in the search of the communicative performance of urban lighting.

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IN THE CONTEXT OF AN URBAN LIGHTSCAPE

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ontext is the foundation for designing urban lightscapes and is often given, when it comes to the task of urban lighting projects (e.g. Ishøj Station Square) or in a complete urban design renewal (e.g. Nordvestparken). From the case studies we see that the context of the sites has a great influence on the lighting concept and the communicative performance of urban lighting. Even though they at times differ in how the context is put into play. At Ishøj Station it is the overall context for what characterises the attractions of Ishøj, where in Nordvestparken it is more the socio-cultural context that is stressed in the lighting concept - ergo the outer context is giving the narrative. Opposed to the Malmö cases, where it is the inner and physical context that the urban lighting enhances, by illuminating the materialities, textures and providing a human scale to the surroundings. In order to discuss the learning outcome of this thesis, the project site of Sønder Boulevard is chosen to compare how different design parameters and principles affect the communicative performance of urban lighting. But before the design testing, it is important to stress the context of Sønder Boulevard. Sønder Boulevard is a traffical passage going through the city district Vesterbro in Copenhagen, where the central reserve was renewed by SLA Landscape Architects in 2007. Sønder Boulevard is centrally located between the central station in the inner city and extended to the Carlsberg district near Valby. Hence the boulevard is a popular transit for pedestrians, cyclists and car traffic. The boulevard is surrounded by urban apartment blocks, shops and cafes framing the medium scale of the site.

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The central reserve is a green urban park used for many different recreational purposes, like playing basketball, table tennis, people hanging out or walking their dogs. These activities is going on throughout the year, but especially in the summer period the place is bustling of people. The neighbouring buildings with its different functions at ground level such as kiosks, pubs, pizzerias and bakeries help to maintain the year round activity. The lighting of Sønder Boulevard is mainly characterised by the ‘Copenhagen Fixture’ targeting the road and some randomly placed spotlight fixtures in the southern end of the central reserve. The ‘Copenhagen Fixture’ is placed over the roads shedding a diffuse downlight from the height of approx. 6m. The long stretch of the boulevard has several pedestrian crossings, where the ‘Copenhagen Fixture’ illuminates the pedestrian crossings from a height of 4m in a warm yellowish tinge, cf. the Lighting Plan. Thus the focus of the illumination is of a functional safety matter leaving the central reserve in the dark, cf. the visualisation of the existing light setting. In the Lighting Masterplan of Copenhagen Sønder Boulevard is characterised by a well illuminated area near the central station, but with insufficient lighting of the green central reserve. Furthermore the plan suggests that Sønder Boulevard should provide a safe and comfortable urban space that can accommodate urban life and activities also after the sun has settled. (Citelum 2014) Today the construction of a new metro is taking up much of the space, but when it is finished it could be beneficial for the urban life to consider a new lighting of the central reserve. For the testing of design parameters and principles a part of Sønder Boulevard is extracted, cf. the Lighting Plan, and the testing will focus on the three-dimensional space given by the perspective photography from the site in order to understand the spatial perception and human scale of urban lightscapes.

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anegade

Skydeb

Point of view in the following visualisations rd

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Kru ‘COPENHAGEN’ FIXTURE

Before Metro-Construction

EXISTING LIGHTING: SØNDER BOULEVARD 0m

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50 m 1:1000

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*Photography: SLA, n.d. / The photography will be used as a base for the ensuing visualisations

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MORPHOLOGICAL DESIGN PARAMETERS

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he morphology of light in urban spaces has been studied through the Multiple Case Study and it can be stated that the morphology of light is governed by following parameters: The type, height, colour, direction, distribution, brightness, contrast and target of the individual fixture. All these parameters are inextricably linked with each other. But in order to make visually interesting and satisfying urban lightscapes, it is important to understand how each of these can affect our spatial perception and the communicative performance. In the Lighting Masterplan of Copenhagen there is a great focus on the fixture itself and how it can provide the desired communication in the nocturnal city. But a good and satisfiable urban lightscape cannot solely depend on the type of fixture. It is important to look at the target of light and how the morphology of light represent the target.

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Type & Target The discussion of type and target is inextricably linked when it comes to urban lighting as the type of fixture is the source of the emitted light, but it is the target of light that defines how we visually and spatially perceive our nocturnal surroundings. When planning and designing artificial lighting there is according to Corner (2011) generally a greater focus on the fixtures and light sources than on the illuminated target or space. â&#x20AC;&#x153;Unfortunately, many contemporary lighting schemes are all about the light not the space or the place, and most fail to evoke any poetic or imaginative affect. Contemporary lighting is often the overly bright, too white, and more about the fixture and light source than the illuminated object or space.â&#x20AC;? (corner 2011)

This focus on fixtures and light sources is to a large degree what is expressed in the Lighting Masterplan of Copenhagen where a big part of the masterplan concerns which types of fixtures are suitable for specific streets and urban spaces. For this the municipality has outlined some general guidelines for the choice of lighting in Copenhagen. The choices are based on analysis of urban typologies and street hierarchies and are put into practice by a listing of different fixtures. The description of the fixtures is only focused on the daylight appearance not the lighting nor the effect of the lighting, cf. Appendix 6. For instance the fixture choice for local streets in the old working-class districts is described as following: The design of the fixture has a classic and industrial appearance which must support the special atmosphere in the old working-class districts. Another example is the fixture suitable for urban squares: The fixture is a decorative element and a visible landmark of the urban structure and its neo-classical design supports the atmosphere. (Citelum 2014) These descriptions only speak of the

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TYPE & TARGET

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daylight appearance, but when the dark settles in the daylight appearance is irrelevant as it is the shed light and the target of the light that dominates our visual perception and thereby our reading and interpretation of the urban space. From the Multiple Case Study we see a variety of different fixture types that are used in the urban spaces. Especially the spotlight fixture seem to gain a footing in urban lightscapes, cf. the matrix of fixture types. Though the type of fixture can indicate some of the morphological characteristics of light, it cannot complete the story. The daylight appearance of a spotlight fixture can for instance be almost identical with other spotlight fixtures. But when the dark settles in and the light is turned on, their visual appearance and communicative performance can be of completely different significances depending on the morphology of the light, its composition and syntax and the specific context, cf. the matrix of fixture types and their emitted light. Thus the emitted light and the target of light is just as important. The latter statement by Corner (2011) mostly acts as a criticism of contemporary light schemes but perhaps by shifting the focus from the fixture and the source to instead making an effort of understanding the target of light and the space that light creates, we can evoke more ambient nocturnal urban spaces. The illuminated space is what the people we design for perceive and experience when darkness falls, not the fixture nor the light source. This point of view is supported by a conversation with lighting designer Vladan Paunovic from Rambøll. He explains that Rambøll places a great emphasis on a comprehensive analysis of the urban space (both in daylight and nocturnal light) subsequently choosing which ‘targets’ are to be illuminated for communicating the desired spatial and aesthetic experience of the nocturnal urban space best. The choice of fixtures is one of the last things in the design process according to Vladan Paunovic. The Lighting Masterplan of Copenhagen suggests that some of the cho-

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sen fixtures constitute landmarks that provide a recognisable and legible depiction of the urban structure, but it is unlikely that it is the fixture types we navigate by or attracts our attention. By day we navigate and orientate through the complexity of the cityscape by structuring and identifying our surroundings (Lynch 1960, Norberg-Schulz 1996). As written before Lynch (1960) and Norberg-Schulz (1996) both argue that a good orientation in urban space means that it has a legible spatial organisation, which is defined by identifiable and structural elements and is important for our feeling of comfort, but also of the aesthetic communication of a site, cf. Light in Human scale (Lynch 1960, Norberg-Schulz 1996). In the nocturnal city these well-known and distinct elements become dark and our primary source for navigational and orientational cues is light. It could be argued that if we cannot see the distinct elements that forms our daylight perception, we could just demand a more intensely illumination thereof. But the larger quantity of emitted light can however turn out not to be beneficial (Rasmussen 2012). Furthermore as the danish architect Sophus Frandsen writes; a light setting described by its lux is like describing a meal by its content of calories. This leads to another aspect of the importance of the target before the type of fixture, viz. the materiality and texture of the target. It can be important to consider the phycical properties of the target; its colour, texture and finish (cf. Basics of Light), because it can appear completely different depending on the morphological properties of the emitted light and thereby affect the tactile aesthetics of a lightscape. For instance as Rasmussen (2012) writes, if light is cast perpendicularly at a relief, there will be a minimum of shadows and thus will give a plastic effect, but if the light is just slightly angled the appearance will be markedly different (more on this under Direction and Distribution). But when it comes to the choice of fixtures in the design process it is important to be aware of the effect and appearance of the light source not only how the

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ISHØJ ST. SQUARE

DANIA PARK

HYLLIE PLAZA

EMBEDDED FIXTURE

LIGHT STRIP

BOLLARD

LAMPPOST

SPOTLIGHT Ceiling bracket

Mast Wall-embedded fixture Wires

OTHER

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ISRAELS PLADS

NORDVESTPARKEN

SØNDERMARKEN

MATRIX: Type of fixtures from the Multiple Case Study

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ISHØJ ST. SQUARE

EMBEDDED FIXTURE

LIGHT STRIP

BOLLARD

LAMPPOST

SPOTLIGHT

OTHER

DANIA PARK

HYLLIE PLAZA

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ISRAELS PLADS

NORDVESTPARKEN

SØNDERMARKEN

MATRIX: Differing morphologies of light from the Multiple Case Study

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fixture appears and matches the daylight composition. In Nordvestparken the fixtures are specially designed for the site with a characteristic striped pole, coloured spotlights and star-shaped gobos matching the playfulness of the design in both the day- and nocturnal timeframe. But the effect and appearance of the light source tend to cause a discomfortable glare at specific places of the park. For instance a bench is put in the spotlight, but when one is sitting down on the bench the glare of the spotlight is directly in eyeheight causing a very discomfortable glare blinding the eye. At the blue square of Ishøj Station Square this glare-tendency is also occurring from the embedded fixtures illuminating the trees and thereby undermining the intended visual appearance of the illuminated canopy of trees. Implementing an uncovered light source in the field of the human vision is a factor to be aware of - especially if the lighting scheme are to be glare-free. The case of Hyllie Plaza shows an example of how to integrate or cover the light source making the target visually appear stronger than the source. For instance the benches illuminated by a mat-covered light strip letting the wooden slank of the benches appear as a luminaire itself. The spotlights illuminating the trees from below are ‘hidden’ or integrated in the hedge and thereby shifting the focus away from the source to the target of the trees. Today the environmental issues of sustainability have a strong presence in the field of urban design as we have to take care of our urban and natural environments for future generations. Urban lighting can besides the functional and aesthetic qualities also induce problematic issues such as light pollution, loss of natural environments, overload of energy and resource consumption if it is not designed expedient. As such the topic of introducing new light sources in the cities with minimal energy consumption such as the LED is dominating the discussion of urban lighting today, which has been one of the main starting points

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for the Lighting Masterplan of Copenhagen. One problematic aspect of this may be the loss of the holistic approach to urban lighting where lighting exclusively will be designed based on the type of fixture and light source and thereby ignore the context and qualities of the site for creating aesthetic spatial experiences and identity in the nocturnal city. So it is important to be aware of the target of light, especially how the target and the surroundings are illuminated, because it is what governs the spatial perception and the communicative performance of light. If the urban designer is only concerned with the daylight appearance of the fixture and a more sustainable light source, the values and qualities of a lighting design can easily be lost. The two different matrixes infer that the fixture in itself does not ensure the spatial perception and communicative performance of light. The fixture in itself can ensure a functional light if one knows how many lux it disperses and multiply the number of fixtures until the wanted area is illuminated sufficiently, but the aesthetic performance and the quality of the emitted light can get lost, hence the communicative performance of light will be limited to merely a functional light setting.

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Today the illumination of SĂ¸nder Boulevard only consists of an illumination of the abutting roads, additionally the pedestrian crossings are illuminated in a yellowish tinge; both providing road safety. The centre part remain dark even though the area is used throughout the year and also during night time, thus generating a focus on the road and not on the pedestrian central reserve.

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TYPE & TARGET: EXISTING LIGHTING

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Height Height is a parameter of urban lighting which influence the spatial perception and acts as an emotional conductor for the human relation to an urban space. The spatial relationship between the light source and our body determines how we interpret and explore our surroundings. (Descottes & Ramos 2011) When investigating how the height of the light source can evoke both emotion and alternate the spatial perception we can seek inspiration in the movement of the sun. Descottes and Ramos (2011) explains that people find a comfort in every sunset or sunrise where we use the horizon as a sort of time-boundary to which we measure the height of the sun. E.g. if the shadow - we cast is long we instantly know that it is either in the beginning of the day or at the end of the day. (Descottes & Ramos 2011) This explains that we interpret the light source due to its distance to our body. Descottes and Ramos (2011) states that the closer the light source is to our body the larger degree of intimacy we feel. Hence the height of the light source becomes an emotional conductor. If the light source is distant we may not notice it. On the other hand if the light source is nearby it becomes a reference to our surroundings and can even change the way we move about. The observations can be translated into a lighting scheme we instinctively understand. Light from below remind us of dusk and dawns where to light from a above recalls reminiscences of day time. (Descottes & Ramos 2011)

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HEIGHT Height of the light source

e.g. lamppost Field of the human vision

e.g. bollard

e.g. embedded fixture

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The latter mentioned statement is evident at Amager Fælled, cf. the Multiple Case Study; Amager Fælled. This lighting scheme demonstrates an appreciation of the darkness where the night sky is reflected in the ground in small lights acting as small guiding stars through Amager Fælled displaying a nightly ambience. The low lights and low level of illuminance generates a strong orientation towards the natural luminosity of the night sky. The concept is as Descottes and Ramos (2011) would state understood on a primitive level and does recall reminiscents of night time. Not all spaces in the city can bare to have that little amount of light installed due to functional requirements. But the aesthetic experience of the reflected nightsky is a concept which is also seen in the case of Hyllie Plaza. In this case a web of thousand small LEDs is installed at a height of 18m showcased as an artificial night sky generating a vivid roof of the plaza. The night sky at Hyllie acts more as a scale mediator of the surroundings than as a installation ment to create intimacy, due to the distance between human and the light sources. But the spatial feeling of being enclosed gives a feeling of comfort. The warm orange light coming from lightstrips below ground along the benches on the other hand create reminiscences of the colours of the sunset almost giving the impression of the sun emerges through cracks in the pavement hence the warm light from below creates the intimate feeling.

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In Dania park most of the light sources are placed below eye level, but this case also holds the tallest light source (18-23 m) of all the cases. The spotlight emitting yellow light upon the platforms down to the water and a daylight white light over the adjacent stones of the shoreline. The extreme height of the source (1823m) makes the source itself not easily identifiable. The platform appears to be luminous by its own power. This visual perception induces a calm and nightly ambience of the site that is omnipresent and easily understood inducing a feeling of intimacy. But standing on the platform looking towards land the height of the source is experienced and the alters the bodyâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s spatial relation to the site perceiving the vast scale of the space. Hence it can be stated that the height of the fixture reflects a great deal on the spatial perception due to the degree of intimacy we feel in relation to the source proximity to our body. In a lighting scheme the concept of light coming from below recalls reminiscing of sunset, and light from above recalls the situation of daytime. Furthermore it can be argued that fixtures below eye level induces the visual orientation towards the natural luminosity of the night sky. Thus the field of the human sight is an important consideration when designing urban lightscapes.

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The Municipality of Copenhagen often uses this fixture (Park View) in parks. It creates a great a safe and clear illumination with its wide distribution. The visible light sources of the lampposts can act as navigational cues through the area. But the height and the glare from of the light source can also conflict the orientation of the people. The natural nocturnal night sky and the surroundings can get vanished by the bright light sources.

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HEIGHT

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Lights in close vicinity to the human body creates another level of intimacy and induces the understanding of nighttime. The lowered lights does not conflict the field of human vision and can therefore generate a larger orientation towards the surroundings at SĂ¸nder Boulevard.

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HEIGHT

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Direction and Distribution The choices of direction and distribution of lights are essential parameters in a lighting scheme as they can affect and enhance the communicative performance of an urban lightscape in both a functional and aesthetic manner. As implied before, we see the tendency in the use of spotlights in the city. The cases of Israels Plads, Nordvestparken, IshĂ¸j Station, Dania Park and Hyllie Plaza all use the spotlight in their lighting compositions. In Dania Park and Hyllie Plaza the spotlights are integrated in a composition of other types of light, where Israels Plads and Nordvestparken use them as their primary fixture for defining the lightscape. The spotlight is characterised by a often narrow distribution of a concentrated light beam directly on to a place or a person. It lies in the word that the spotlight is effective to stress or mark something of importance; to put something in the spotlight. For instance in the case of Dania Park, where the spotlights concentrate a warmly illumination of platforms down to the water, and spotting the water lapping against the stones of shoreline, marking these as important features of the site. The spotlight often appears in the theatre or music world, and it could be argued that they originate from the performing arts. Hence they possess a clear communication of staging something or someone, in this case; the urban spaces of the city. At the urban square of Israels Plads the spotlights are staging the urban scene. But the scenes of the urban theatre is without a written manuscript for the actors - the play becomes improvisation by its visitors. For some it can be intimidating to step into the spotlight where others find it appealing e.g. as a group of young boys, we observed one evening, was standing in the spotlight performing different hiphop texts for each others.

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DIRECTION

Indirect Uplighting

Direct Downlighting

Multi Directional

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DISTRIBUTION

Concentrated Narrow Distribution

Diffuse Widely Distribution

Crisp shape

Diffuse shape

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Such a concentrated distribution of light naturally creates a larger brightness contrast effect (c.f the following on Brightness Contrast). At Søndermarken and Ishøj Station the different lamppost fixture shows a more diffuse and widely distribution of the lights. The lamppost fixtures at the bus terminal of Ishøj Station creates a more consistent and homogenous illuminated ground surface due to the gradients of the diffuse distributed light. The homogenous illumination generates a good visibility of the ground surface at the terminal, and ensures the safety by making small obstacles (like the kerbstone) visible. Hence the diffuse and widely distribution of light are often used for the functional lighting of urban spaces to ensure visibility and safety. The shapes of the light beam is another aspect of the distribution of light. They can both underpin the physical structure, e.g. the oval- shaped distribution of lights along the axis at Søndermarken stressing the linear flow, and affect the rhythmical experience of lights, e.g. the fan-shaped lights along the small paths of Søndermarken. Shapes of light can also be more explicit in their expression by adding gobos like the ripple and wave light projection in the case of Ishøj Station, stressing the narrative of the site. How light is directed and distributed towards the intended target can have great influence on the communicative performance of the urban lightscape. Rasmussen (2012) explains that it can be beneficial to look at history of the theatre and the way to illuminate the stage and the actors of the play. In older times the stage was illuminated from below by spotlights. When something is illuminated from below it turns the ‘visual reality’ upside down. What is usually in the shadows is caught by light while what is usually light casts shadows. “Det blev en konvention, at saadan var teaterbelysning, og det skabte straks en særlig stemning af scenens fortryllende og uvirkelige verden.” (Rasmussen 2012)

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In other words the up-lighting will cause the textures of the elements on the stage and the contours of the actors faces to be more distinguished and contrasting compared to a bathing spotlight where the actors faces are like glowing spots without the same distinct facial expressions. (Rasmussen 2012) The downlight effect can cause the form of the elements to be more distinct. These effects can also be seen in urban lightscapes and can be used as tools to enhance either form or textures of an object. In Nordvestparken the trees are illuminated from above and appear as solid spatial elements, where the form is accentuated. In Hyllie Plaza the trees are illuminated from above in a cool white and from below in a warm orange tone. Hence the nocturnal trees are standing as strong spatial solids, but at the same time the textures and structures of the trees, such as the leafs, branches and trunk, emerge. This example also indicates that the amount of light is not necessarily the governor of visibility and comfort, but it is the way the light is directed and distributed, which adds to a visually interesting urban lightscape.

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The choice of distribution and direction; diffuse, concentrated, narrow or wide or up or down light, is linked with the target of light and what it wants to communicate. Diffuse lighting widely distributed can be beneficial for the visibility and safety ensuring the functional communication. A concentrated distribution can be favourable for marking or highlighting something of importance or for making a visually interesting interplay of light and darkness, like the spotlights in Israels Plads. It can both guide oneâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s orientation towards something of importance and create an aesthetic experience. Additional considerations towards the feeling of comfort are however mandated, as great differences in brightness and contrast can cause confusion due to the eyes ability of light and dark adaption, cf. Light in Human Scale and the following on Brightness and Contrast. The uplight - downlight effect of objects can be beneficial to bring out some aesthetic qualities of the site, as uplight brings out the textures and fabrics and downlight brings out the form of the object. (cf. the Multiple Case Study; the trees of respectively IshĂ¸j and Nordvestparken)

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A downlight enhances the shape of the target and make them appear more solid.

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DIRECTION

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The uplight upon the trees enhances their textuality

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DIRECTION

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Brightness and Contrast Rasmussen (2012) gives off the example that if one looks at a protruding corner where two white walls meet in an edge. If both walls are evenly illuminated by each of their light source and adjusted so the two sides becomes exactly equal in brightness the edge disappears. Though it is still possible to barely notice the edge due to the intersection line of the walls but the remedy to read the corner is lost. (Rasmussen 2012) Though if one of the lights is weakened and create a significant difference in the illumination of the two walls a distinct edge will appear. On the contrary if the contrast between the two walls comes to a maximal a luminous wall meets a dark wall - the eye conflicts the two and the illuminated wall overrules the dark. The experienced brightness depends on three things; the total distribution of light, psychological and optical processes of the recipient and the physical properties of the surroundings (cf. Basics of Light). Contrast is defined by the juxtaposition of light with its counterpart darkness and is important to us in order to distinguish foreground from background and objects from space. Thus an area of high luminosity will appear bright if the surrounding area is only vaguely illuminated due to the contrast (Descottes & Ramos 2011). The spatial relationship between light and dark can be experienced through the campfire effect (cf. the Analytical Model of Urban Lightscapes; Organisation) in the case of SĂ¸ndermarken. A solitary lamppost is positioned in the middle of a dark vegetated area and walking inside the illuminated space the light almost carves out a bright illuminated space in the dark surroundings, due to the high contrast. This can both be of an aesthetic experience but can also create disorientation and be uncomfortable due to the lack of visibility into the great darkness. Moyer states that comfortable lighting for the eye is created by inducing a balance of brightness and ensuring gradients between dark and bright areas. As mentioned in the chapter; Light in Human Scale, the iris controls the amount

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BRIGHTNESS CONTRAST

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of light that enters the eye through the pupil by either contracting or expanding itself involuntarily. Even though the eye can adapt to a wide range of light levels it does not however respond that well to large changes in brightness in the field of view. (Moyer 2013) Hence dramatic changes in brightness levels should be used with constant care to lessen eye discomfort. On a morphological level the brightness of the lense of the light source needs to be regulated e.g. by covering the light source in order to direct attention towards the emitted light and not the source or the fixture itself. On a syntaxial level large change in brightness can cause a small discomfort as the eye shifts from one brightly lit focal point to another and there is no transition light in between them to act as a ‘brightness bridge’ constituting a smooth transition. (Moyer 2013) As earlier mentioned we see in many of our cases a trend of spotlighting the urban spaces of the city. The emitted light of a spotlight creates a large contrast between the bright and dark areas. The japanese novelist Tanizaki in an essay called “In Praise of Shadows” mentions the shadows and darkness as beautiful presents. Even though Tanizaki at times writes as a grumbling man - he even mentions himself as such - there is something mesmerizing in his way of talking about the beauty of shadows and darkness and that the aesthetics of japanese culture is the subtlety in their use of light and the enhanced use of shadow. He sees how some object and spaces is best seen and understood in the flicker of dim light due to its ability to render the textures, materials and shapes more nuanced. (Tanizaki 1933) This suggests that there is an interrelationship between light and dark. It is not lucrative only to turn up the quantity of light or only to spotlight and highlight the urban spaces. The juxtaposition of the two opposites light and dark generates an interesting tension field. As Corner states:

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“The art of light requires an appreciation of darkness, shadow and atmosphere, out of which light appears - a phenomenology of luminosity, not simply a practice of spotlighting.” (Corner 2011)

During the field recordings of the cases in Copenhagen and Malmö general observations of their differences in urban lightscapes have also been made. Copenhagen has been experienced as a generally dark city compared to Malmö. The lighting of Copenhagen is dominated by the traditional street light, where Malmö have a more varied urban lighting. The reference cases of Amager Strand and Amager Fælled shows a city with respect for the nature in a natural light setting with an appreciation of the darkness. In our reference case of Amager Strandpark no lights are installed. Amager Strandpark leads the spatial perception entirely up to the dark adaption of the eye with a little help from the gleam of the surrounding cityscape. To begin with the experience was quite uncomfortable and it was difficult to navigate, though after a while the brain remembers the rhythm of the constructed landscape and knows how to move about and what to expect after the next sand dune. The reference case of Amager Fælled has very little light installed; Only small guiding LED spots embedded in the ground acting as guiding stars. This subtle installation has a huge effect on the navigation and comfort. From Rasmussen’s (2012) anecdote about the protruding corner we can learn that small changes in contrast can create a more distinct depth perception, which can generate a more clear navigation in a space - perhaps also why we don’t see any spotlights over roads. From the solitary light source in Søndermarken we can learn that a bright spot in the darkness can create both a visually interesting spatial cavity but also generate a disorientation and be uncomfortable. By controlling the brightness we control both the spatial perception and the legibility of a site. By controlling the brightness contrast Tanizaki (1933) and Corner (2011) argues that we enhance the aesthetic qualities of the surroundings.

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The spotlight fixture in this case has a large brightness contrast due to its concentrated distribution. There are no gradients in the distributed light which can conflict the eye and be uncomfortable and create disorientation. The effect of the concentrated distribution have a clear reference to the stage light known from the performance arts and therefore it induces a feeling of being staged in the spotlight which can be uncomfortable for some while others revel in it.

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BRIGHTNESS CONTRAST

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If the distribution on the other hand is more wide and diffuse the surface is equally illuminated and the brightness contrast lowered. The brightness contrast can also be lowered by installing a larger variation of fixtures which will be elaborated and exemplified later on.

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BRIGHTNESS CONTRAST

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COLOUR

Warm white

Neutral white

Coloured

Cool white

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Colour Our circadian rhythms are governed by the daily cycle of light. The 180 degree arc movement of the sun presents earth in all sorts of shades and colours during the passing of daytime. We have internalised the colours and patterns of daylight so we are able to tell the time of day, month and year. Hence the colour of the light is inextricably linked to space and time. With artificial light we have the opportunity to transform the cycle of colours and introduce other times and forms of duration. (Descottes and Ramos 2011) The choice of colour has a psychological effect on how the space of the city is perceived thus creating a subjective experience. As explained in the Basics of Light colours can make an object or a space appear warmer or cooler and we can almost feel these adjectives, which is also why they act as dominant mood-setting factors. According to Rasmussen (2012) certain colours even have generally approved psychological effects such as red refers to something fiery and exciting where green is more calm. (Rasmussen 2012) Light colours alters how we perceive objects and their surroundings. It has the power to transform the familiar into an exsotic scenery, a bit like what happens in Nordvestparken. Every object obtains its perceived coloured appearance in part from the light it absorbs or reflects. Light colour can transform our perception of an object and its surroundings thus new spatial relationships can be experienced. (Descottes and Ramos 2011) In the cases of Nordvestparken and IshĂ¸j Station Square coloured light is used as a fundament for an explicit narrative. At IshĂ¸j Station Square the colour of the emitted light is used as a guidance to the different functions of the cities; the red illuminated building is the story of the vibrant city centre, the green light along the bikesheds points in the direction of the vegetated axis, the blue square with the ripple-spotlights points in the direction of the museum Arken and the

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sea. Hence the story told through the use of colours is of a functional character meant to guide the viewer in the direction of the different city functions. At Nordvest parken the colour of the light is used to evoke a playful atmosphere. The exclusive use of only coloured downlight tends to wash the textures and materialities out due to the low colour rendering properties of coloured light. Hence it can be argued that the colours of the emitted light tells the narrative of an almost circus-like expression and not the materialities and textures of the site. At Dania Parken and Hyllie Plaza the use of subtle colours comes off as a more poetic and implicit narrative. Both cases use colours to render specific materials on the site and stage the surroundings. At Dania Parken the reddish stony walls and the red gravel is illuminated by white light which renders the warm colours of the site perfectly. The materials of the site tells the nocturnal story due to both the way in which they are illuminated, but certainly also due to the choice of colour in the emitted light. Furthermore the warm yellow illuminated platforms become a welcoming invite to watch the windswept rugged sea from the front row. At Hyllie the warm orange light strips from below ground and the warm yellow coloured uplight of the trees generate a warm tactile ambience. The cool blueish downlight of the trees generates a textile shadow on the flooring which contrasts the orange light strips contributing to a vivid tactile flooring. The blue purple artificial night sky encloses the space and enacts a calm and nightly ambience. As seen in our cases coloured light create identity for a site. At a large urban scale, colour can also be used as a visual compass to orientate citizens by highlighting places of importance or, as the Municipality of Copenhagen, use the colour of light to stress legibility, comfort and atmosphere. Even though there is a focus on the daylight appearance of the fixtures in the Lighting Masterplan, a set of guidelines for the colour choices of the urban lighting is outlined. The

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masterplan operate with 3 types of colour; a daylight white (4000 K) and a neutral white (3500 K) to create overview and legibility of the urban street structure, and the final warm white (3000 K) for creating a sense of security, comfort and safety. (Citelum 2014) But the question is if the colour of light is enough to provide the desired legibility, comfort or atmosphere of the nocturnal city. Places like the red light district in e.g. Amsterdam has gotten the name from the red lights which used to be an symbol for brothels. Red Light districts we know from all over the world and they can often be identified by the excessive use of coloured neon light thus easily recognised in the nocturnal nightscape of a city. Istedgade can be argued to be the ‘Red Light District’ of the Copenhagen. ÅF Lighting have just created the new ‘Istedlampe’, which is a cylindrical shaped fixture placed central in the crossroads along Istedgade. The source of the lamp is covered and sheds a very diffuse light. The lamp radiate in all kinds of different colours. An engineer from ÅF Lighting* explained that the fixtures are meant to change colours during events and on a seasonal basis. But it can be argued whether the new coloured light change identity of the existing neon light along Istedgade. In an article from the Wall Street Journal a critique of the multi-colour lighting of New Yorks cityscape is put forward. The iconic Empire State Building has for a while been the only tower sticking out from the skyline with its coloured lights, but now many other skyscrapers of New York is using colourful light as well for the exterior facades, which makes the identities of each tower fade in a colour clash. The argument is that every tower becomes just another Empire State Building like everyone is showing up to the party in the same dress. (Morgan 2012) Using coloured light should therefore be considered carefully for the urban lightscape according to Lighting Designer, Vladan Paunovic, as colour holds a strong identity and communication. It is easy to say that I do

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not like that specific colour, it reminds of e.g. red light district. And if every urban lightscape in the city is colourised the otherwise strong identity would lose meaning and fade into a colour clash. Many cities experience this prevalence of coloured light in the city and it can be argued that at times it is at the expense of an already existing coloured identity. Making the existing coloured lightscapes more mainstream and standardised and thereby washing out the small cues of diversity in the city. Where to it can be added that when the eye sees one colour for an extended period of time the brain gets used to the given colour and the colour then appears more dull. But all studies show that the experience of colour is a subjective matter. (Descottes and Ramos 2011) It can be stated that colours in light can create identity and can be used as a tool to stage the surroundings both explicitly and implicitly. But when illuminating objects coloured light tend to wash out the textures and materials of those targets. The colour range from cool white to warm white renders the target of the illumination more natural. Colour rendering speaks of the quality of the emitted light. Hence the colour of the emitted light can be important in order to secure a readable rendering of the surroundings. Coloured light can also be good for orientation as it stands out, but the use of strong colours should be used carefully to avoid a city of colour clashes.

*A representative of ÅF lighting gave in December 2014 at an event arranged by ‘Ungt Lys’ a presentation on different projects made by ÅF lighting including a presentation of the new fixture at Istedgade, Copenhagen.

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The cool colours of the emitted light create a more vivid experience of the site. The cool colours interpret the surroundings in an active manner, but the emitted light can have a tendency to render the surroundings a bit harsh.

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COLOUR

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The warm white emitted light has as a more calm influence on the perceived space. The warm emitted light creates soft nuances in the target of the surroundings and can also act as an emotional conductor of comfort.

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COLOUR

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The multi-colours of the emitted light create a distinct identity and add an almost circus-like feel to SĂ¸nder Boulevard. The emitted light does not ensure a particular well defined rendering of the surroundings and becomes the narrative itself - not the materialities and textures.

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COLOUR

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DESIGN PARAMETERS TYPE & TARGET

HEIGHT

DIRECTION

CONSIDERATION:

DESIGN PARAMETER

• • •

Up Down Multi-directional

• •

Direct Indirect

It can be beneficial to consider the target of light before the type of fixture for creating a holistic urban lightscape. • •

Spatial elements Textures and materialities

Height of the light source: Low (e.g. embedded fixture) Medium (e.g. lamppost) High (e.g. spotlight)

Direction of the light beam:

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DISTRIBUTION

BRIGHTNESS CONTRAST

COLOUR

DESIGN PARAMETER

• •

• • •

Sharpness of the light beam: Concentrated Diffuse

Size of the light beam: • •

Narrow Wide

Shape of the light beam: • •

Geometrical Gobo

Brightness Contrast of the light: Low Medium High

Colour temperature: Warm Neutral Cool

Coloured light/filters: • •

RGB spectrum CMYK spectrum

Colour rendering index: •

1-100

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SYNTAXIAL

DESIGN PRINCIPLES

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he vision and the concepts for urban lighting in Copenhagen shows a desire to create more communicative lighting not only functional but also urban lighting that brings out the ambience of urban spaces. In addition to this, the Lighting Masterplan, underpins a special focus on the fixture itself and the design of this as mentioned. (Citelum 2014) The ambition of creating more aesthetic experiences and ambiences cannot solely depend on the fixture itself, but it has to be found in the syntax of the spatial composition of lights. “Det er velkjent at det ‘gode sted’ nettopp er karakterisert ved en uhåndgripelig stemning, et preg, som legger seg over alle ting; det har personlighet og sjel, sier vi. En omfattende stemning er ensbetydende med rommessig sammenhæng og enhetlig form, og dermed blir stedets ‘deler’ helhetsbestemt.” (Norberg-Schulz 1996)

So to reach the aim of such aesthetic communication in the nocturnal city it is important to create a holistic spatial composition of the emitted light. The following will investigate and discuss how different design principles can add to the communicative performance of light in a holistic urban lightscape.

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Spatiality When the city turns dark it is the urban lighting that defines our spatial understanding. A lighting scheme can control our spatial perception by either creating a homogenous lighting of what we see in daylight, or as more often experienced; an enhancement or transformation of our daylight perception. The spatial perception in nocturnal urban space is altered by the morphological parameters of light and especially by the choice of their composition and syntax and the choice of illumination of the spatial targets; floor, wall and ceiling. An example of how our spatial perception alters with the light setting of a space is experienced at Israels Plads. The spatiality is by day defined by the vertical elements framing the square, such as the staircases folding and elevating the flooring in each end of the square. But by night the vertical spatial definition of the square is inverted by the horizontal spotlights guiding the eyes towards the flooring. The strict lines in the pavement become washed away by the random organisation of spotlights slightly changing the character of the square and a new experience is unfolded in the nocturnal city. The large brightness contrast effects created by the spotlights make the staircases fade away in the nocturnal vision. But occasionally the spotlights brush the benches or trees and the objects of the vertical space is faintly noticed. Through our years of studying landscape architecture and urban design, the lighting of a design has primarily been focused on adding an extra layer to the plan - creating a 2D lighting plan and thereby unintentionally having a special focus on the illumination of the horizontal surface. Urban lighting should according to lighting designer, Vladan Paunovic, not be seen as an extra layer added to architecture or urban design, due to urban lighting’s ability of ‘controlling’ the architecture. Thus urban lighting should be understood in 3D not only in 2D lighting plans.

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SPATIALITY

Ceiling

Walls

Floor

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A good example from our case studies where the nocturnal spatial perception becomes 3D is Hyllie Plaza, as the lighting clearly defines the floor, walls and ceiling of the urban space. This holistic and enclosing spatial composition marks a strong inner-outer relationship as it feels like one is actually stepping from one place into another either arriving from the station, the music hall or the shopping centre. The holistic spatial composition of the urban lightscape at Hyllie supports the special ambience and even creates an identity of the site. The enclosing ambience, as Norberg-Schulz (1996) might put it, is manifested by the holistic composition of the characteristic elements and materialities at the site; by illuminating the urban spaces in a more vertical manner the identity of a site can be enhanced. From the case studies we see that the level of illumination is often concerned with horizontal surfaces, which can drag our attention and orientation away from the surroundings making the nocturnal experience of our cities flat, only focusing on the ground we walk upon. So in order to make visually interesting and satisfying nocturnal urban spaces we must understand how people visually read and spatially perceive the city and turn to the theory of human mobility and sense of sight to gain knowledge on how we actually move, orientate and navigate in the city. Gehl (2010) states that people are horizontal mammals; that humans are linear, frontal and horizontal orientated cf. Light in Human Scale (Gehl 2010). Moyer (2013) on the other hand writes that humans are vertical animals and states that we see vertical surfaces before we see the horizontal (Moyer 2013) These two statements have led to some confusions on our part. In the following we will discuss these contradicting statements. A part of the investigation of urban lighting weâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;ve engaged in conversation with Vladan Paunovic, lighting designer at RambĂ¸ll. In the conversation these contradictory statements were explored. Paunovic explained that he recognised

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the conflict in his own work and especially in the work with landscape architects. The landscape architects Paunovic has worked with have a tendency for approaching lighting design horizontally. Ergo the emitted light is preferred to target the horizontal surfaces of the given site. This tendency might be due to the fact that the landscape architectâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s approach to landscape or urban design is often bound to horizontal surfaces e.g modelling the terrain, pavement materials etc. Another aspect that affects the discussion is that, according to Paunovic, the standard of safety lighting is exclusively concerned with the illumination of horizontal surfaces. If urban lighting only concerns the horizontal surfaces the spatial perception becomes flat and without depth, which affects our orientation further towards the flooring of the city and makes our nocturnal cities slightly less visually interesting. The theory of Gehl (2010) is quite plausible though; that our field of vision is more downwards than upwards and at best outwards searching for the horizon, cf. Light in Human Scale. But when the context is the city, then we are dealing with a vertical structure. A vertical structure that blocks the line of the horizon, but defines some of the key elements that we navigate by. For instance the edges and landmarks that defines our spatial understanding and communicate where we are in the city (Lynch 1960). Paunovic gave a concrete example of how dominant the vertical structure of the city can be in the field of the human vision. For a project in Sweden, RambĂ¸ll made an analysis which showed that 70-80 % in the field of vision consisted of vertical surfaces. This is one of the reasons why he in his lighting designs always thinks vertical before horizontal as they put a lot of emphasis on designing for the the human eye and field of view (unfortunately we were not able to get a hold of the analysis so we only have his word for it). By illuminating vertical structures of the urban spaces the orientation can be drawn towards the landmarks, edges or elements known from the daylight perception, which can both induce a recognition of the identity of the site and

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thereby a comfort, as it is a place we know or can easily read. But if urban lighting only concerns the horizontal surfaces the spatial perception becomes flat and without depth, which affects our orientation further towards the flooring of the city and makes our nocturnal cities slightly less visually interesting. In terms of safety in the city Paunovic states that he is of the belief that by ensuring comfort in a lighting design, the design has more or less taken care of the safety measures. But Moyer (2013) would argue otherwise; lighting should still provide an illumination of all obstacles (Moyer 2013) and by merely illuminating vertical surfaces the urban designer has no assurances that the right amount of safety precautions is handled. A vertical illumination of the nocturnal city can both accommodate the field of the human vision and induce comfort; but one must be open to the question of; is illumination of merely vertical structures enough to accommodate all safety measures in a city? It can be argued that a merely vertical illumination of the urban spaces can compromise the safety of pedestrians and cyclists. There lies an inherent comfortability in an enclosed space, like the experience at Hyllie Plaza, and this is where light shows its ambiguity. Ensuring comfort by urban lighting can for instance be to make the spatial boundaries visible to generate a zone of comfort. In Dania Park the lighting is focused on illumination of the vertical solids or edges (the illuminated bushes, wooden fence and the stony walls) defining the spatial compartments. As written in the case of Dania Park: The visual border and marking of the edges are calmly backing the viewerâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s orientation towards the sea. If there were no visual border the seafront would seem detached from the â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;main landâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; sailing alone in the dark waters hence the visual border generates a safe emotion of comfort as the lack of visibility can lead to disorientation and thereby anxiety as Lynch (1960) would argue. But light can also alone create an enclosed space. E.g. the earlier mentioned

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campfire-effect of the solitaire lighting in Søndermarken is a perfect example of how light solely can carve out a space in the darkness. This is kind of the same effect the spotlights have at Israels Plads. The square becomes a horizontally defined space with multiple spatial compartments carved out in the darkness. Outside the cavity of light the surroundings are filled with darkness, which for many can be intimidating to step into and away from the comfort-zone of light. The illumination of horizontal surface can, in spite of its ability to ensure safety, also contribute to a feeling of uncomfortability. For instance the path lighting in Søndermarken’s winding paths. Here one’s orientation is related to the horizontal level of illumination and the surroundings of the path becomes in way invisible as they stay dark. There is no longer a defining boundary of the space only the horizontal lighting to navigate by. The comfort zone is thereby restricted to inside versus outside the lighting of the path. By visually marking the borders of a space it can enclose a zone of comfort and still appreciate the darkness as opposed to the campfire-effect, where the zone of comfort is defined within the glow of light and outside it is the darkness and lack of visibility that rules. Thus it can be beneficial to look at both horizontal and vertical structures to induce a spatial understanding by urban lighting that is legible for both ensuring comfort and safety, but also for creating a visually interesting urban lightscape marking important elements in a holistic manner for the narrative or identity of the site. This spatial understanding can be further underpinned by a well-defined organisation of the urban lighting generating either a legible rhythmical experience or a spatial hierarchy.

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This composition of light only contains one fixture as we often see in the city of Copenhagen. It is only the horizontal surface which is in focus leaving the surrounding areas dark.

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SPATIALITY

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By illuminating more vertical and adding more fixtures in composition it can expose the spatial perception of floor wall and ceiling. In this case the floors and the walls are enhanced still having the natural nocturnal night sky as the ceiling.

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SPATIALITY

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VARIATION

Variation in direction

Variation in colour Variation in distribution

Variation in height

Variation in densities

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Variation Variation in an urban lightscapes concerns both the variation of fixture types, but also the variations of densities of the emitted light, which is closely connected to the organisational character of the lighting schemes. “The redundant use of one fixture type or lighting condition can easily provoke boredom, but a variation of densities can enliven an otherwise mundane space.” (Descottes & Ramos 2011)

From the Copenhagen case studies we see that several of the cases only have 1-2 fixture type that recurs in the lighting scheme rather than a composition of several. The cases in Malmö generally have a larger variation of fixtures. Ishøj Station Square stands out with the largest variation of fixture types, but are composed separately. Israels Plads, Nordvestparken and Søndermarken all have variants in the overall lighting scheme, but again they are all composed separately, cf. the lighting plans of the Multiple Case Study. The choice of only one fixture type can ensure a homogeneous lighting which often has a functional value as it can induce safety and visibility and thereby navigation, orientation. But the homogenous lighting can also as Descottes and Ramos (2011) writes lead to monotonous boredom. The reason for the choice of a few variants may be a financial gain in the purchase of the same fixture, but the study indicates that a variation of fixtures can have compositional and aesthetic benefits. There can perhaps equally be an aesthetic value in having the same design of light fixtures in daylight, as it creates a cohesiveness in the city and can make the citizens navigation and orientation within the city more clear. The choice of multiple fixtures in a composition seems to have a more aes-

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thetically experiential factor since the designer has to consider the physical and functional context of the site and decide where and how the different variants could be beneficially organised for achieving the desired communication. For instance in Dania Park and Hyllie Plaza in MalmĂś, we see several fixtures composed into a bigger cohesive composition, where the different materialities of the site is brought to life in the darkness, thereby enhancing the tactile narrative and identity of the sites, cf. the Multiple Case Study; Dania Park and Hyllie plaza. By using multiple fixtures in a lighting composition it does not necessarily compromise the functional communication. In fact the opposite is more likely; by using only one type of fixture the aesthetics of the site may be compressed to a redundant mundane urban lightscape. But there is another aspect to this, viz. the variation of densities of light, which is what characterises the lighting schemes of the copenhagen cases in the Multiple Case Study, and thereby does not necessarily bring out a redundant mundane urban lightscape due to differing densities of light inextricably linked with the organisational character. â&#x20AC;&#x153;We only need to look to the night sky and our Milky Way to be reminded that density variations are visually interesting. In the cluster of stars, we discover shapes and symbols, stories and myths that fuel the imagination.â&#x20AC;? (Descottes & Ramos 2011)

As Descottes and Ramos (2011) states, variation in densities of light can be visually interesting, where the redundant use of only one lighting condition (given by both the fixture type and the organisational character) can result in a monotonous visual and spatial perception which easily can create a humdrum and indifferent experience, where the communicative performance of the urban lighting may only concern the functional safety lighting. A rule of thumb is therefore according to Descottes and Ramos (2011):

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“(...) the juxtaposition of two or more different density types to convey hierarchies and spatial relationships within a given space”(Descottes & Ramos 2011)

Variation of densities in a lighting scheme can be used to form the communicative performance of the urban lightscape. Differing densities of light can signify places of greater or lesser importance (Descottes & Ramos 2011). For instance the same quantity of fixtures with different organisational character can completely change one’s understanding of the programmatic hierarchies (Descottes & Ramos 2011). But all this also depends on the choice of organisation. Variation as a design principle refers to the designers choice of variants in a lighting scheme concerning both the types of fixture and the variation of light densities with considerations to the target of light; which materialities and textures of the site can communicate the desired aesthetic, and which programmatic functions (e.g. places of significance like the platform down to water in Dania Park) should be enhanced by light to communicate a legible spatial perception for the orientation and navigation of the nocturnal site.

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The use of only one fixture can make the site appear flat and slightly less interesting due to the homogeneity in the emitted light.

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VARIATION

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By adding a larger variation of fixtures a greater depth of the space is exposed which creates an appealing ambience. Each fixture has its purpose; the lampposts on the side provide visibility, the embedded fixtures conduct safety and the bollards along the roads create transition zones for the eye.

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VARIATION

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Organisation The organisation together with the variation of fixtures has a great influence on the spatial perception of an area, as mentioned. The placement of fixtures in a composition count endless organisational characters but as an overall they can be described by: linear, random and organised pattern. (Descottes & Ramos 2011) Dania and SĂ¸ndermaken both have a linear organisation of fixtures. In Dania most of the lights follows the edge framing the rectangular space, both enhancing a clear navigation and spatial definition. The light enhances the illusion of walking on a tongue. The spotlight breaks the linear patterned organisation and the rhythm by noticing the platform down to the water moving the orientation from the firm rectangular space out towards the open sea. At SĂ¸ndermarken the bollards follows the winding paths and now and there an activity spot or pavilion is illuminated - once again like at Dania - breaking the linear organisation and altering the orientation of the viewer. When the spotlights are used they are often randomly organised with multiple directions just as in the cases of: Nordvestparken, Israels Plads and IshĂ¸j Station Square. Nordvestparken perhaps possesses the largest degree of random organisation of the emitted light - not to state the park is not functional organised, this is merely through the colour of the emitted light (cf. following paragraph on Hierarchy). The random organisation of the emitted light underpins the playful ambience and almost comes off as a childlike messiness. Probably many kids would find it aesthetically exciting. Along the bikepath a more dense yet still random organised line of light is emitted and acts as a more functional lighting for cyclists and pedestrians. At Israels Plads the spotlight fixtures are also randomly organised. The linear organised light strip along the elevated edge frames the random organisation which sheds a vivid ambience over the square.

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ORGANISATION

Linear

Pattern

Random

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In Hyllie Plaza the lighting follows the organised pattern of the linear structure of the elements at the square. At the end of the rectangular beds the spotlights shedding lights from above is installed illuminating the trees and in the opposite site of the trees spotlights from below textualizing the leafs and structures of the tree. Along the foot of every bench a linear light strip casts a warm orange light upon the bench which further reflects it upon the flooring. The square is â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;walledâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; by the masts and the ceiling is shown by the web of small LEDs. The organised pattern of the light makes the square appear as a whole consisting of small similar spatial compartments. The light setting almost gives the illusion of walking inside a fairytale room, due to both the variation of fixtures but definitely also how the emitted light is organised within the space. It can be stated that a linear organisation creates strong navigational cues and if the linear organisation is abrupt the orientation of the viewer can alter. A composition of a linear organisation can come off as a bit dull if there is no variation in fixtures. A random organisation on the other hand can generate a vivid ambience but can also become a bit messy thus create disorientation and be difficult to navigate through. An organised pattern can make a site appear as a whole using the structure of the elements on site.

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A linear organisation of fixtures has a strong navigational character and enhances the depth perception of the space.

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ORGANISATION

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SĂ¸nder Boulevard in itself is a linear space, but the path of the central recreational space has a strict geometrical angular expression. By emphasising the shape of the path the structural appearance of the design is underpinned.

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ORGANISATION

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By a random organisation of the emitted light the depth perception can become slightly flat and the spatial perception can become confusing. But the random organisation can also be of an experiential character using the spotlights as a guiding asset leading people to points of interest.

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ORGANISATION

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RHYTHM

Irregular

Syncope Regular

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Rhythm There is something mysterious about the stimulating effect of the rhythm. This is how Rasmussen expresses it in the book of Experiencing Architecture from 1957. Rhythm in architecture and urban design is borrowed from other art forms such as music or dance. From the art forms rhythm can be defined as something composed by movements connected to a time aspect. (Rasmussen 2012) The most tangible example of rhythm in a lighting scheme is found in the case of Søndermarken with its interactive lighting concept of ‘Catch the Light Rabbit’. The lighting concept has a very clear communicative performance as it not only guides and paces the jogger through the park, it also brings a vibrant dynamic to the site generating both a timeframe and a pulse of the site. As the interactive light is subtly integrated in the bollards and only flashes (if it is activated) in approximately 3 seconds per bollard, it does not seem to conflict the overall experience of the nocturnal romantic park. On the contrary, the lighting concept seem to enhance the expression of the characteristic winding paths through the park, which otherwise is mostly experienced in plan view because of the vast scale of the site. The interactive light is in a rapid development and new technologies make the possibilities for urban lighting in the city endless.

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Though there is only one example in the Multiple Case Study as it is not the focus of this thesis, light festivals and other light events shows that interactive lighting in urban spaces is moving forward as a strong mean for the communicative performance of nocturnal urban spaces*. But rhythm is not necessarily something that can only be experienced if it actively moves like the ‘Catch the Light Rabbit’. The homogeneity of Søndermarkens relatively linear organised lighting returns a regular rhythmical experience that links the spatial experience of the axis with the illuminated Castle of Frederiksberg creating a spatial depth of the nocturnal axis. The regular rhythmical experience enhances the park’s spatial structure and regal appearance and thereby its nocturnal legibility. The regular rhythm creates an order which can be beneficial for the legibility, safety and comfort of a site. Dania Park is a fine example of generating an order by a regular rhythmical experience of the lighting composition. It consists of three identical spatial sequences strongly underpinned by the organisation of lights. The rhythmical repetition together with the low heights of light stimulates a specific beat to the site bringing out a calmness of one’s movement through the area. This may be what Rasmussen (2012) refers to as the mystique of the stimulating effect of rhythm. It seems logical that the rhythm of lights; whether it is regular, irregular or a combination, affects the movements of the human being, which often is the case if it concerns the tempo. But the difference between the regular rhythms of Søndermarkens central axis and Dania Park is more concerned with the flow of movements they induce. “Det er imidlertid ikke nødvendigt at forlade de rektangulære former, der er saa naturlige og lette at anvende. Man kan godt bevæge sig i en fri rytme gennem rum, der selv er rektangulære og mellem skærme og vægge af ganske klare og regelmæssige former” (Rasmussen 2012)

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In Søndermarken it is likely to follow the stringent axis of light, where Dania Park induces a more fluent movement in-between the well-defined edges of the seafront though its regular and stringent rhythm of light. The differences could be a result of the differences in horizontal and vertical illumination plus the organisational character of respectively linear and linear patterned. Horizontal illumination directs the eye instinctively towards the lit surface (as in Søndermarken), where vertical illumination of edges can create a supporting frame for the urban space (as in Dania Park). These factors affect the comfort-zone for the human mobility, unless one wants to explore the space outside the illuminated areas. Hence the movement of dania park is of a more fluent character than at Søndermarken where the regular rhythm dictates one’s linear and uniform movement. Road and street lights are typically organised in a regular rhythmic density and thereby encourage an uniform movement. But if irregularities suddenly occurs the rhythmical flow is paused. This can lead to confusion because the ‘place is no longer in order’, thus the safety of street can be at risk. That being said irregularities or syncopes in a lighting scheme can also be beneficial for creating new orientations or for marking important nodes or a new spatial structure. “Differing rhythmic densities of light have the capacity to link or fracture spaces in sequence. An abrupt change in density will solicit a jump or pause, while the continuity of related densities will encourage uniform movement and experience.” (Descottes & Ramos 2011)

For instance the case of Ishøj Station Square where the bike path along the railway meets the bus terminal. The lighting of the bike path follows a strict regular rhythmical flow but dissolves with the meeting of the vivid and randomly organised lighting from the bus terminal. Although the cyclist may not knowingly think of the break in the rhythm of light, it is not implausible that the cyclist’s

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attention is sharpened because of this very rhythmical break. The vivid canopy of lights at the bus terminal can at first glance be a bit confusing, but as the flooring is homogenous illuminated, the vivid rhythmical experience of the artificial canopy underpins the communication of an active square, though it may not be intended. But such pools of the light needs consideration as it can confuse the eye and cause shifts of the iris opening size and thereby minimising the human comfort, cf. Light in Human Scale (Moyer 2013). Using rhythm as a design principle can be helpful, as it holds a communicative performance of e.g. order, navigation and comfort. For example, people move differently depending on whether you are walking on a beach, a park promenade or whether you are walking or cycling from a-b where people are more tending to whiz through (Rasmussen 2012). “Betragter vi det som bygningskunstens opgave at skabe rammen om menneskers liv, saa maa rummene være bestemt af, hvordan mennesker maatte tænkes at leve i dem og bevæge sig igennem dem.” (Rasmussen 2012)

Though this quote refers to the traditional architecture, it can be applicable for urban design as well. Hence, it is again important to consider the context of the site and its nocturnal use and function. There is a big difference in the communicative performance of the light setting at the bus terminal of Ishøj Station with the vivid canopy of lights supporting the activity of the square versus the seafront of Dania Park with the strict rhythmical sequences of low lights that provides a calmness and a comfort by its foreseeable spatial order. So to sum up: what can rhythm as a design principle of urban lighting benefit to? Rhythm can be used as a spatial mean to link (regular) or fragmented (irregularities) spaces. A regular light setting can link two different spaces together.

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Irregularities in a lighting composition can mark important nodes or new spatial structures. But irregularities such as pools of light can also cause confusion for the eye and minimise the human comfort. Furthermore rhythm can be an indicator for the human mobility as it can encourage specific movements by its stimulating effect, e.g. a vivid versus a calm rhythmical experience of light. Roughly said it can control one’s movement almost like in music and dance. By considering the rhythm of lights in the design of an urban lightscape, it can be a tool to reach a legible spatial order with clear orientational and navigational cues, and thereby enhance the safety and comfort of the nocturnal urban space. Furthermore it can induce a playful or tranquil ambience by the choice of vivid or calm rhythmical experiences.

* These observations of interactive lighting in the city are derived from the authors attendance of the lighting event in December 2014 arranged by ‘Ungt Lys’ and Kolding Light Festival December 2014.

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A regular rhythmic light setting can enhance the navigation and have a positive influence on safety.

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RHYTHM

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By creating a syncope in the light setting a break can be confirmed and act as an invite to, for instance like here, sit down for a while.

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RHYTHM

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Hierarchy A hierarchical system is defined by a relativistic rank order. Hierarchy in urban design is mainly concerned with the spatial relationships. Beyond the fundamentals of ensuring an adequate lighting in the cities, urban lighting can also create spatial hierarchies to ensure a visual identity of the city and its urban spaces (Descottes & Ramos 2011). Urban lighting can serve as an organiser of spatial structures and a conveyer of activities and programmatic functions providing a legible spatial hierarchy (Descottes & Ramos 2011, Lynch 1960). But how can a spatial hierarchy be defined in the context of lighting? From the wording it is evident that it is a three-dimensional term of the spatial perception, but from the case studies we see that the horizontal lighting alone also creates a sort of a hierarchy that defines spatial units and functions of lesser or greater importance. The public spaces of Copenhagen often only make use of a few fixtures in a lighting composition and is mainly concerned with illumination of horizontal surfaces, cf. the paragraph on Spatiality. Thereby the spatial hierarchy becomes horizontally orientated, but there is still a hierarchy of spatial division. SĂ¸ndermarken have for instance used three different fixtures, but for three different purposes with specific fixtures for specific purposes: the bollard is installed along the paths, the three headed lamppost is installed at the entrances, along the activity spots and one solitaire providing the beforementioned the campfire-effect. Lastly the lamppost is used only by the axial line to the Frederiksberg Castle. The use of the three fixtures in this composition generates a nocturnal spatial hierarchy and organises the park through its known romantic structure. Thereby urban lighting can be used to create a spatial hierarchy at a bigger scale leading

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HIERARCHY

Marking spatial elements or functions of importance

Adding a vertical dimension as a communicator of scale and intimacy

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the orientation of the viewer to the wanted functions; in this case by enhancing the known romantic structures, activity spots or elements of the romantic garden, like the bridge. While observing Israels Plads, the random organisation of the spotlights can come off as messy and be a bit disorientating but the more dense line of light in the center functions as a navigational cue. Hence in this case it is the rhythm of the fixtures, which influence the spatial hierarchy and thereby the communicative performance of the emitted light. Hyllie Plaza has as mentioned a large variation of fixtures targeting different elements of the square in a vertical hierarchy through different layers of lights. The flooring surface is illuminated by the orange light strips and the more cool coloured spotlights, these two together generates the horizontal lighting. The uplight and down lighting spotlights illuminating the trees act as a new layer in the light hierarchy whereto the last layer is the artificial night sky. The masts along the plaza, has multiple vertically placed LEDs installed which shed a â&#x20AC;&#x153;fill lightâ&#x20AC;? over the plaza. They make the transition of the different layers more soft to the eye. Thus transitioning the darkest and lightest areas of the site in multiple gradients. This layered hierarchy of light enhances the vertical dimension to the urban lightscape and becomes a three-dimensional spatial experience balancing the scale of the site. The holistic and legible spatial experience enhances the strong fairytale ambience due to the staging of the textures and materials of the surroundings. During the field recordings and registrations we found that there was another element of light which can govern the spatial hierarchy. Though colour as a term is a bit different than vertical and horizontal, the use of coloured light in the city has gained a footing in recent designed light settings and the colour of the light

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source does create a difference. Rasmussen (2012) describes colour as a spatial element, which can accentuate the segmentation and shape of a design. He states that by illuminating an object in a specific colour the object can come off as; lighter or heavier, close or distant, cool or warm which can evoke moods and emotions. In these adjectives lies an already relativistic rank order. In the Lighting Masterplan of Copenhagen different colour temperatures is used for creating a spatial or strategic hierarchy within the city. For regional roads a daylight white is chosen and for medium roads and paths for vulnerable road users a neutral white is chosen for creating an overview, visibility and legibility of the urban road structure. Smaller local streets have a more warm white colour to induce a feeling of comfort and safety. (Citelum 2014) This colour hierarchy can indicate the urban structure on a general level like the nightly orthophoto of Berlin marking the city centre by the gleaming bright white lights and the former east/west Berlin by its respectively warm light colours and cooler light colours. Colour hierarchies can also be seen in a smaller scale like in Ishøj and Nordvestparken. At Nordvestparken the dense line of white path lighting is the primary artery of the site. The white light is more distinctive to the human eye than the coloured lights of the site, and thus the coloured light creates a gap between the apartment buildings and the public path communicating a hierarchy of public to semi public to private areas. The coloured lighting itself brings out a spatial understanding for navigating in the community park, e.g. it is easy for the kids to say: let’s meet at the red or blue hill. At Ishøj Station Square colour is expressively used to define certain areas of importance for the navigational cues. But the coloured light fades in the hierarchy and thereby also the navigational cues, due to the brightly white lit bus terminal attracting the eyes towards the gleaming canopy of white lights.

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A spatial hierarchy induced by lighting consist of both vertical and horizontal illumination, but through the case studies we have experienced that the spatial light hierarchies is often predominating the horizontal surfaces, which can cause a flatness of the spatial perception and a downwards orientation neglecting the surroundings. A spatial hierarchy based on horizontal lighting often have an eye for inducing safety as the light shows you where you are walking. Variation in lighting fixtures (e.g. differing heights or gradients in brightness level) can induce spatial hierarchies both within the same area, e.g. Hyllie Plaza, but also in a larger urban scale generating a hierarchical spatial subdivision of urban spaces, e.g. SĂ¸ndermarken. Coloured light can also be used as a tool for creating spatial hierarchies but one must be aware of the eyeâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s attraction towards the brightest field of view often caused by white rather than coloured light.

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As the site appears today there already exists a spatial hierarchy noticing the pedestrian crossings in a yellow tinge. Furthermore the illumination of only the road creates an understanding of a car dominating urban space. The space along SĂ¸nder Boulevard is of great use all year round thus the central reserve for the pedestrians and cyclists need the same attention as the roadscape.

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HIERARCHY: EXISTING LIGHTING

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The same concept of using the colour of the emitted light can be implied thus creating a warm comfortable centre path enclosed by low lights. The texturalized trees create a tactile identification of the targets enhancing the ambience and act as a transition zone to the road illumination. In this case the height, colour, direction and distribution of the emitted light affect the created spatial hierarchy.

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HIERARCHY

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DESIGN PRINCIPLES SPATIALITY

VARIATION

CONSIDERATION:

DESIGN PRINCIPLE

For a legible spatial perception it can be beneficial to think of urban lighting as a three-dimensional creator of space. • •

Horisontal dimension Vertical dimension

• • •

Floor Walls Ceiling

Variation: •

Variation of fixtures and their density

Variations: • Height • Direction • Distribution • Brightness contrast • Colour

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ORGANISATION

RHYTHM

HIERARCHY

DESIGN PRINCIPLE

• • • •

• • •

Organisational character: Linear Pattern Random Solitaire

Rhytmic character: Regular Irregular Combination

Spatial hierarchy:

Vertical dimension Horisontal dimension Combination

Hierarchical means: • Variation in height • Variation in direction • Variation in distribution • Variation in brightness contrast • Variation in colour • Variation in densities

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COMMUNICATIVE PERFORMANCE OF URBAN LIGHTING

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s explained in the introduction the city can be seen as a theater where the urban spaces presents a variety of different sceneries in which the daily life unfolds. The role of the stage-manager in the urban theater is often the role of the architect or urban designer (Rasmussen 1957). Thus urban designers have - like a stage-manager for the scene - the responsibility for the urban lightscapes. The work of urban lightscapes are often met by programmed visions from the municipality or other customers. The visions often request a communicative performance of both aesthetic and functional characters (like the 6 lighting concepts from the Lighting Masterplan of Copenhagen, sketched out in the introduction, cf. Appendix 6). Eg. an urban lightscape which has to induce a safe and comfortable navigation or stage the space in a specific ambience which characterises the site. In the following considerations regarding the communicative performance will be presented, which the urban designer can use as guidelines in the design of urban lightscapes. These guidelines should not be seen as definitive rules as every rule has an exception. They act more as a guide to parameters and principles the urban designer can use in the design of a communicative urban lightscape. The creation of the considerations are first and foremost rooted in designing for the human scale and subsequently the desire to think urban lighting as a three-dimensional creator of space.

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Safety When speaking of safety in the city it is always a good consideration to have the level of needed functional lighting in mind. If the contextual surroundings and the site itself calls for a functional lightscape, e.g. a matter of road safety, the light source is often positioned at a relatively great height shedding a widely diffuse distribution of downward directed light in a linear organisation creating a regular rhythm to generate a homogeneous illumination that will not distract the driver but ensure visibility and orientation at all times. If the site is more concerned with the vulnerable road users such as cyclists and pedestrians, the height, distribution, direction, organisation and rhythm of the light sources do not need the same safety precautions; and a more aesthetic approach can be implemented as long as the target of light is still a consideration to secure that obstacles are safely illuminated. Hence the horizontal surface might need illumination to the extent needed. On the other hand illuminating the vertical spatiality of the city can modify the orientation and generate a more legible city inducing the navigational cues and in that way serve as a safety precaution. Thus the spatial hierarchy can both be with an emphasis on the horizontal surfaces and on the vertical surfaces, but regarding safety it is often desirable to illuminate horizontal surfaces in the city which calls of a downward direction of the light. In continuation hereof the choice of distribution is important if the desired lightscape calls for a great attention to safety measures. A wide distribution of the emitted light must be used to avoid large differences between light and dark areas. This leads to one of the main considerations regarding safety; controlling the contrast between the bright and the dark areas. A large contrast can confuse the light-dark adaptation of the eye and thereby create disorientation and jeopardise the safety. Therefore it can be a consideration of the urban designer to add a fill light or a transitional light to make gradients from the light to the dark

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areas, which can be done by a larger variation of fixtures. A steady rhythm can be important regarding safety in order to maintain a homogeneous shed light and not create dark patches which can induce disorientation. Irregularities in the rhythm can also act as a mean to achieve safety measures. For instance by a pedestrian crossing another colour of emitted light can be installed to make both the driver and the pedestrian aware of the needed safety precautions. As coloured light also can create confusion it is important to consider if a change in colour does accomplish its aim of inducing safety and act as a legible tool.

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MOST GOVERNING PARAMETERS & PRINCIPLES HEIGHT

DISTRIBUTION

RHYTHM

HIERARCHY

BRIGHTNESS CONTRAST

To induce safety in the nocturnal urban space a high light source widely distributed can be beneficial in order to compromise the brightness contrast and illuminate all the edges and obstacles. Further a steady regular rhythm conducted in a spatial hierarchy is beneficial. In this case a hierarchy ranging from low lights at the pedestrian path to high lights by the road traffic.

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SAFETY

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Orientation A linear organisation of light with a steady rhythm can lead the orientation in the linear direction, and if the line is abrupt by an irregularity new points of orientations can be acknowledged. With randomly organised emitted light the viewer can become disorientated, especially if the fixtures is above eye level since the bright field of view can be compromised. A concentrated distribution of the emitted light can also be beneficial to establish clear orientation e.g. a spotlight can generate an interesting interplay between light and dark, staging or highlighting a target of importance. A good orientation needs a legible spatial organisation, which is often defined by identifiable structural elements. Illumination of the cityâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s vertical spatiality such as landmarks or iconic buildings can govern the orientation of the people. In large scale city planning or in smaller square and parks a spatial hierarchy can be created by a larger luminosity of the wanted focus areas, adding a variation of different light densities. Furthermore altering the colour of the emitted light can add to the spatial orientation e.g. like the Municipality of Copenhagen have created a road hierarchy through the colours of: warm white, neutral white and daylight white light. As mentioned regarding safety large contrasts between light and dark can compromise the safety due to disorientation so in order to secure a clear orientation the considerations of adding fill light or transitioning light can be installed to achieve a clear legibility of the nocturnal urban space. Additionally the colour of the emitted light can be important to secure the legible rendering of the surroundings. If the light source have a high Ra-value the surroundings will be more true to how they appear in daylight. Thus the rendering properties of the emitted light and the surroundings have a huge impact on the legibility of the space. If the surroundings are illuminated by coloured light (blue, green, red etc.) the illuminated target, can appear washed out and faded but it can be

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beneficial to illuminate a figurative structure or landmark in a colour as it often differs from the surroundings. The height of the light source is important to avoid disorientation; an uncovered light source is almost never placed in the height of eye level due to the glare from the source. It can be argued that a light source placed below eye level can create a stronger orientation towards the surroundings and the natural luminosity of the night sky because there is no strong interference between the eye and night sky. Thus the field of the human sight and wanted orientation is a consideration the urban designer need to be aware of.

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MOST GOVERNING PARAMETERS & PRINCIPLES TYPE & TARGET

HEIGHT

SPATIALITY

RHYTHM

HIERARCHY

To induce the orientation in the nocturnal urban space the eye must not be conflicted by the height of the light source, thus the path lighting is at a low height. Illuminated targets can act as orientational cues in this case it is the trees which further brings spatiality to the site and acts as transition from the low path illumination to the high road illumination thus a spatial hierarchy is established.

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ORIENTATION

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Navigation A light setting consisting of only one fixture variation can induce an even and homogenous lighting beneficial for the visibility and thereby navigational value. But a larger variation of different fixtures does not necessarily compromise the functional matter of navigation. Creating a variation of different densities of emitted light can create a spatial hierarchy within an area which creates a workable navigation towards the areas of interest. Another important consideration can be to smoothen out the brightness contrast allowing the eyes to adjust making a more comfortable navigation through the area. Regarding the spatiality it can be beneficial to create visual boundaries of an area and mark the entrances or exits to induce the navigational in- and outflow. The colour of the emitted light can also act as a navigational cue, for instance it can regulate different road-users by different nuances of white light colours e.g. through the arterial path of a site. Though coloured light (blue, green, red etc.) is to be used with precaution as its rendering abilities is quite low and therefore compromise the visibility and the navigation. Additionally a consideration of the target and its rendering properties has to be made to make sure it renders and underpins the legible spatial perception of the area to ensure a safe, comfortable navigation through the nocturnal area. Rhythm is also an important conductor of navigation. Light organised in a strong line with a steady rhythm generates clear navigational cues. This regularity has a functional point of origin. Rhythm can be an indicator for human mobility due to its ability to encourage specific movements through an area.; it has stimulating effects if the emitted light has a calm or vivid rhythm. By adjusting the height of the light source one can underpin the desired rhythm; a low light source recalls reminiscing of the calm dusks and dawns where light from above recalls reminiscing of the more vivid daytime and thereby induce the desired tempo of navigation. The rhythm of light can roughly control the way in which people move about almost like in music or dance.

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MOST GOVERNING PARAMETERS & PRINCIPLES BRIGHTNESS CONTRAST

COLOUR

RHYTHM

HIERARCHY

To ensure a clear navigation in the nocturnal urban space a low brightness contrast is often to prefer as well as ensuring the emitted light renders the surroundings in a positive manner. Here the lampposts generate a steady regular rhythm and create a spatial hierarchy between the road and the central reserve. Furthermore the bright sources of the lampposts act as navigational cues.

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NAVIGATION

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Comfort Lighting can influence our emotions both positive and negative and one of the noble tasks of the urban designer is to create urban spaces where people are comfortable. It is not the amount of emitted light which controls our feeling of comfort, but the way we choose to illuminate the target of the emitted light that plays a great role. Take e.g. a spotlight which is known from the performance arts where it is used to stage something or someone due to it concentrated distribution. But it is not all wandering people who find themselves pleased with being staged. A city is for many different lives - also for the people living in the shadows. A spotlight can also evoke the comfort in its illumination of familiar targets. The spatial framework of the area can conveniently be noticed by light as the human recipient finds comfort in visual boundaries such as roof, walls and floor. A legible spatial orientation with illuminated targets such as well-known elements can affect our feeling of comfort positively. It is crucial however to avoid glare e.g by covering the light source and avoid large differences in brightness contrast. The campfire effect of a solitary lamp or a cluster organisation of lighting in a dark context can make the dark surroundings appear more dark and evoke a fear of the unknown. Hence a spatial hierarchy of transitional lights is preferred e.g. by a variation of different fixtures shedding a light with different gradients thus lowering the contrast between the darkest and the brightest field. The parameter of height further tells the story of how we are emotionally affected by light. The closer the light source is to the recipient the larger degree of intimacy we feel. Hence an urban lightscape with low height of light sources will optimise the emotion of comfort. Irregularities in the rhythm of light, e.g. strong pools of light, can cause confusion and minimise the human comfort whereas a steady and rhythmic light composition can create orientational and navigational cues and thereby enhance the comfort of the people wandering the

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nocturnal urban space. Whereto the colours of the light can also act as an emotional conductor. The warm colours of white emitted light are often combined with something friendly and cozy, whereas a more cool colour of white light can be perceived as a fresh and vibrant. The warm tone of light can evoke a comfortable atmosphere.

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MOST GOVERNING PARAMETERS & PRINCIPLES HEIGHT

BRIGHTNESS CONTRAST

SPATIALITY

HIERARCHY

COLOUR

Comfort is a more subjective matter, but it can be beneficial to keep the lights at a low height as it induces a feeling of intimacy thus in this case the path illumination and the bollards along the road is kept at a low height. Furthermore the control of the brightness contrast is important in order not to create confusion, which can lead to anxiety, so a light source at a greater height is installed illuminating the surface in a diffuse manner. In this case a spatial hierarchy is created: The path is illuminated to ensure visibility and the bollards along the road act as a transitional light to the high light sources illuminating the road and the central reserve.

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COMFORT

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Ambience As mentioned in the latter urban lightscapes contains opportunities to alternate the spatial perception and the communicative performance of urban spaces in nocturnal light, but light can also induce new durations of time. So a main consideration regarding the ambience of the nocturnal lightscape is if the emitted light is of an explicit or an implicit character which is often a matter of how the target is illuminated. Hence how the objects, elements and structures on site can be illuminated in order to achieve the desired ambience? A downward directed light showcases the spatiality of the illuminated targets of the site and an upward directed light would be preferred if the wanted ambience is more concerned with showcasing the materials and textures on site. A note must be added in the downlight illumination in which the refined structures of the target often appears washed out. A concentrated distribution of the emitted light can highlight or spotlight voids and thereby evoke a staging ambience of the site; setting the scene for where the urban life can unfold, whereas a more diffuse distribution creates visibility and has a more functional character. This can however also create a holistic ambiance of a homogeneous illuminated space. A large contrast between the brightest field of view and the darkest field of view can evoke a playful ambiance - a place to be staged and a place to hide. But it can be argued that by generating more shadows between the brightest and darkest fields, a more nuanced and textualized ambience can be conducted. Though there might be a cohesive aesthetic over similar fixtures in daylight. Using a larger variation of fixtures in a lighting composition can prove to be an aesthetic value for the nocturnal urban space and create more visually interesting nocturnal illuminated urban spaces. A variation of multiple fixture types can induce the ambience of a site since the designer has to take the physical and functional aspects of the site into his/her considerations, whereto the organisation of the different fixtures becomes important to achieve the desired

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ambience of either enhancing the design of the site through an organised pattern or staging the linearity of e.g. a waterfront. If the lighting is only concerned with horizontal lighting the site can lack depth and can become slightly less visually interesting which can be counteracted by illuminating vertical structures, giving a visual depth to the space. This can also entail a spatial hierarchy from the most illuminated areas to the in-between shadows and then to the darkest field, where the different sections are of an ambience telling their own story but work together as a whole and generate a rhythm. The rhythm of the emitted light can be of importance in the creation of both a vivid or calm ambiance. In the circadian rhythm gives cues to how we can alternate the height and colours of the light source to stress or transform the nocturnal duration; light from below recalls reminiscing of the sun has set and is understood by the human being on a primitive level as dusk and dawn. Light from below is also in close proximity to the human body thus it induces an intimate feeling. Light from great height is often perceived as the sun on the sky. Humans have internalised the colours of the warm sunsets and the cool mornings which can be translated into the lightscape to trigger the wanted ambience. Coloured lights (blue, green, red etc.) often have a psychological meaning and can evoke a special ambience like calm and tranquil (green) or exotic and fiery (red). Though working with colours in a light setting the designer should consider that each human experience colours different and is to be regarded as highly subjective and the ambience experienced by different people might differ radically.

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MOST GOVERNING PARAMETERS & PRINCIPLES TYPE & TARGET

HEIGHT

COLOUR

VARIATION

RHYTHM

HIERARCHY

To evoke a special ambience it can be beneficial to consider the target of the emitted light. In this case the primary focus have been ensuring spatiality in an emotional stimulating manner. The colours of the light varies being warm and at a low height along the path generating a feeling of comfort and intimacy. The green areas have been staged by an uplight evoking the textures and acting as a transition to the high light sources over the road. Thus the spatial hierarchy is established through the variation of different fixtures differing in colour and height. The rhythm of the light underpins the concept of the design by its regularity along the geometrical shaped path and has a syncope inviting people to take a brief halt.

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AMBIENCE

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Identity Artificial light can alternate the identity of a space in the nocturnal city, as it can induce new durations, alternate the spatial perception and the communicative performance of the sites daytime identity. Thus one of the primary considerations regarding the identity of a site in the nocturnal city is to consider if light itself should be the nocturnal identifier of the site staging an explicit narrative concerned the emitted light or if the light is a tool to present an implicit storytelling of the surrounding targets? One of the primary identity creators of light is colour, as coloured light often evoke our emotions as mentioned. These colours can in themselves induce a strong explicit narrative of the site in the nocturnal city. Within the different colour temperatures the warm tones of the white light often evoke a feeling of something friendly whereas the more cool colours evoke a more perky identity. The white lights often also have higher rendering properties of the surroundings and can induce a more implicit staging of the target. To create identity of a site the direction of light can also be an important parameter in the consideration; how the target of light is presented. An up-light shows off the site characteristics by enhancing the textures of the illuminated target, enhancing the existing identity of the targeted characteristics of the surroundings, whereas a downlight brings out the shape of the illuminated target thereby inducing spatiality and creates identity through the composition of the illuminated targets. The parameter of height can also evoke a special identity; by illuminating a target from a certain height the shadows become long or short whereto a concentrated distribution of light can highlight a target of characteristically importance and induce the identity of the site. Gobos can also be an efficient tool as they come in the desired shape and colour creating a distinct explicit narrative. A variation of both fixture types and light densities can also be used with con-

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siderations to the target of the emitted light; which programmatic functions and which textures and materials should be enhanced to communicate the legible identification of the site. A pattern organisation of the fixtures which follows the structure of the site elements can create a strong identity of the site, as it can comes off as a holistic spatial order. Hence a more vertical spatial hierarchy can be useful to establish the identifiable desired guidance of the nocturnal urban spaces. By illuminating vertical structures of the site, we can induce the identity of the spatial elements people know from daylight. Merely a horizontal illumination do not ensure the identity of a site as it often is the figurative characteristics and landmarks in which we identify a space. Lastly the contrast between dark and light areas can create an interesting interplay which can stage the space and generate staging identity in itself, but it can also be argued that by diminishing the brightness contrast the textures and the materialities of the site will be promoted more.

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MOST GOVERNING PARAMETERS & PRINCIPLES TYPE & TARGET

DIRECTION

SPATIALITY

ORGANISATION

COLOUR

By uplighting and downlighting the trees the spatial figures and textures emerges. The uplight of the trees and the path illumination has a more warm yellowish tinge telling a story of nighttime - the sun has set. The lights from above have a more neutral white colour framing the walls of the space and melting the grassed areas and the illuminated path into one cohesive wide space. Bollards are installed in-between the lampposts creating a transitional light between the high light sources furthermore they enhance the borders of the space and create a dynamic in the linear organisation. The nocturnal identity of SĂ¸nder Boulevard is enhanced through illumination of the characteristic materialities and textures.

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IDENTITY

URBAN LIGHTSCAPE CONCLUSION

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CONCLUSION

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ighting gives the urban designer the opportunity to enrich the spatiality and communicative performance of the urban spaces when the night settles in. When designing urban lightscapes in modern society there is a tendency to focus on the fixture and not on the target of the emitted light, which can lead to a merely functional illumination of the urban spaces. Cities today meet requests to be of a more aesthetic experiential and engaging character. By altering the focus to the targets of the context, a more aesthetic experience can be designed through the use of lighting and without compromising the functional abilities of the emitted light. This thesis has investigated how the urban designer can navigate within the field of urban lighting with consideration to the people residing in the city. The Analytical Model of Urban Lightscapes is a tool for analysing existing lighting in its urban context in order to understand which morphological elements and syntaxial compositions that governs the communicative performance of the lighting scheme. The morphology and syntax of urban lightscapes are the controlling features of lighting in order to achieve the aim; the communicative performance. The morphology and syntax of the produced Analytical Model of Urban Lightscapes can be transformed into different parameters and principles, which is of a regulatory or controllable size the urban designer can use as a set of tools to shape urban lightscapes in the nocturnal city in order to achieve an aesthetically pleasing communicative performance. The context of a site is often given in advance and the desired communicative performance is often explicitly or implicitly narrated in the program for the assignment. A lightscape does not necessarily consist of a solely functional character or aesthetic quality; frequently a lighting scheme is desired to induce both. Urban lighting can be a creative tool to ensure the design meets or exceeds the latter mentioned expectations in the nocturnal city, creating spaces within spaces and places in the night.

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We have demonstrated that the urban designer often needs to consider which communicative assets to emphasise and which to compromise on in the nocturnal urban space, and that achieving the right balance can greatly improve the experienced space and the inhabited places in our cities, even after the sun has set. In continuation of Dubussionâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s quote from the introduction: Light is nothing in the nocturnal city as it is a fleeting immaterial size we often experience unnoticed and take for granted. Light is everything as it alone brings spatiality and communicative performance into our nocturnal urban spaces. Lighting stages the urban nocturnal scenery of the urban spaces where we can let our daily lives unfold. Urban lightscapes has the possibility to structure our guidance, evoke our emotions as well as stimulate our senses thus creating new nocturnal experiences of the urban spaces with respect to the ambience and the identity of the site.

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REFERENCES

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Literature Cannata, Fillipo (2006): It’s all about evoking emotion - Innovation Stories. Phillips. Web: January 15, 2015. Available at: http://www.lighting.philips.co.uk/lightcommunity/trends/innovation_stories/filippo_cannata.wpd Citelum (2014). Belysningsmasterplan for København. Prepared by Citelum in cooperation with UiWE design bureau for the Municaipality of Copenhagen. Corner, James (2011). Light and landscape. In Descottes, Hervé, and Ramos, Cecilia (2011): Architectural Lighting : Designing with Light and Space. New York, NY, USA: Princeton Architectural Press. ProQuest ebrary. Web: December 9, 2014. Descottes, Hervé, and Ramos, Cecilia (2011). Architectural Lighting : Designing with Light and Space. New York, NY, USA: Princeton Architectural Press. ProQuest ebrary. Web: December 9, 2014. DMI (2008): Så meget kan solen skinne. Dansk Meteorologisk Institut. Web: May 28, 2015. Available at: http://www.dmi.dk/nyheder/arkiv/nyheder-2008/saa-meget-kan-solen-skinne/ DMI (2012): Daglængden dykker under ti timer. Dansk Meteorologisk Institut. Web: February 8, 2015.Available at: http://www.dmi.dk/nyheder/arkiv/nyheder-2012/daglaengden-dykker-under-ti-timer/ Dubuisson, Sylvain (2011). Sensations of Light. In Descottes, Hervé, and Ramos, Cecilia (2011): Architectural Lighting : Designing with Light and Space. New York, NY, USA: Princeton Architectural Press. ProQuest ebrary. Web: December 9, 2014. Gehl, Jan (2010). Cities for people. 2010. Washington: Island Press. Gram, Dorte (2014): Lys i Malmø in Lys. Dansk Center for Lys. 26. årgang nr. 1, marts 2014. Web: February 16, 2015. Available at: http://www.centerforlys.dk/lys/pdflys/LYS-1-14.pdf Hauxner, Malene (2003). Drawing and Reading in Open to the Sky. Copenhagen: The Danish Architectural Press, 2003, pp. 22-25 Hauxner, Malene (2009): Drawing and Reading. unpublished paper. Copenhagen: University of Copenhagen, 2009. Københavns Kommune (2007). Natten i byens lys - forslag til en belysningsstrategi for København. Københavns Kommune, Teknik- og Miljøforvaltningen. Larice, Michael & MacDonald, Elizabeth (2007): The Urban Design Reader. London: Routledge

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Lynch, Kevin (1960). The Image of the Environment and The City Image and Its Elements from The Image of the City. In Larice, M. & E. Macdonald (2007) (eds.) The Urban Design Reader. London: Routledge, pp. 153-166. Morgan, Richard (2012). Bright Lights, Big City in Color Clash. Wall Street Journal, Eastern Edition, New York, N.Y., 5. March 2012. ProQuest ebrary. Web: 08.01.2015. Moyer, Jannet Lennex (2013). The Landscape Lighting Book. 3rd edition John Wiley & Sons, Inc, Hobroken, New Jersey. Norberg-Schulz, Christian (1996): Stedskunst. Oslo: Gyldendal Norsk Forlag. Rasmussen, Steen Eiler (2012): Om at opleve arkitektur. First edition 1957. Aarhus: Archi Tegn. Rambøll (a) (n.d.): Urban Lighting. Denmark: Rambøll. Web: January 7, 2015. Available at: http://lightingdesign.ramboll.com/portfolio/urban-lighting Rambøll (b) (n.d.): Ramboll Lighting. Denmark: Rambøll. Samson, Kristine (2010). Det performativt æstetiske byrum. Ph.d.-afhandling, JUUL|FROST Arkitekter, Institut for Miljø, Samfund og Rumlig Forandring, Roskilde Universitet. Tanizaki Jun’ichiro (2015). In Praise of Shadows. Translated by Harper, Thomas J. and Seidensticker, Edward G. English translation, Foreword and afterword, 1977. Web: 7. Januar 2015. http://rum1.aarch.dk/uploads/media/tanizaki-in_praise_of_shadows_01.pdf Thacher, David (2006). The Normative Case Study. American Journal of Sociology 111/6: 1631–1676. Watanabe, Yasuo & ASL Landscape Design Institute, Otsuki (1998). Landscape Lighting Design Book. Verlag Georg D.W. Callwey, München, Germany and ALS Landscape Design Institute, Inc., Tokyo, Japan www Gyldendal (2014): Perception. Web: May 28, 2015. Available at: http://www.denstoredanske.dk/Krop%2c_psyke_og_sundhed/Psykologi/Psykologiske_termer/ perception# Dansk Center for Lys (n.d.): Lys & menneske. Dansk Center for Lys. Web: May 28, 2015. Available at: http://lysviden.dk/lys-og-menneske/emne/perception/artikler/kontrast-og-blaending/ Dansk Center for Lys (1) (n.d.): Lysstyrke. Dansk Center for Lys. Web: June 10, 2015. Available at: http://www.lysviden.dk/grundviden/emne/lysstyrke/artikler/introduktion/

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Dansk Center for Lys (2) (n.d.): Lysstrøm. Dansk Center for Lys. Web: June 10, 2015. Available at: http://www.lysviden.dk/grundviden/emne/lysstroem/artikler/introduktion/ Dansk Center for Lys (3) (n.d.): Lysets bestanddele. Dansk Center for Lys. Web: June 10, 2015. Available at: http://www.lysviden.dk/grundviden/emne/lysets-bestanddele/illustrationer/ Kattler, Poul (n.d.):Gode lystekniske bilag. Web: June 2, 2015. Available at: http://kattler.dk/ lystekniske-bilag.html Photos Cisternerne (n.d.). Web: June 14, 2015. Available at: http://www.cisternerne.dk/besog-cisternerne/find-vej.html Cobe (n.d.). Web: June 14, 2015. Available at: raels-square-cobe.html

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SLA (n.d.): Web: June 18, 2015. Availible at: http://www.dac.dk/en/dac-life/copenhagen-x-gallery/cases/soender-boulevard/ Hadfield, Chris (2013). Nasa. Web: June 14, 2015. Available at: http://www.theguardian.com/ world/shortcuts/2013/apr/21/astronaut-chris-hadfield-berlin-divide Heb (2013). Web: June 14, 2015. Available at: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Nordvestparken_02.jpg Nicolai, Cheryl Jacobs (2008). Web: June 14, 2015. Available at: http://jpgmag.com/photos/416496 Rahbek, Thomas (2011). Web: June 14, 2015. Available at: http://nordeafonden.dk/liv-og-lysi-s%C3%B8ndermarken-f%C3%B8rste-etape-indviet Unknown (n.d.). Web: June 15, 2015. Available at: http://112ishoj.dk/ny-side/ Unknown (1) (n.d.). Web: June 15, 2015. Available at: http://forum.airways.cz/viewtopic. php?f=42&t=7766 Østergaard, Mikkel (2014). Scanpix. Web: June 15, 2015. Available at: http://www.biologifaget. dk/natur/natur-i-byen/biodiversitet-i-byen/ Lindman, Åke Eson (n.d.). Web: June 15, 2015. Available at: http://www.landezine.com/index. php/2014/02/hyllie-plaza-by-thorbjorn-andersson-with-sweco-architects/hyllie_plaza-by-thorbjorn_andersson-with-sweco_architects-01/

URBAN LIGHTSCAPE APPENDIX 1

APPENDIX 1

Appendix 1 is the schematic recordings of the different cases conducted at the given sites. The schemes are arranged in chronological sequence of the Pilot Case; Søerne and Main Case; Ishøj Station Square and the Supplemental Cases; Dania Park, Hyllie Plaza, Israels Plads, Norvestparken and Søndermarken.

URBAN LIGHTSCAPE APPENDIX 1

PILOT CASE Søerne

Light source

Lamppost

Illuminance

Luminance

Colour

Height

Density

Direction & Distribution

Flouressent light

Low

Natural White

3,5m

Linear

Direct Downlight Diffuse

Bollard

LED

Medium

Daylight cool white

Linear

Direct Downlight Concentrated

Planetarium bollard

LED

Medium

White & Orange

Linear

Direct Downlight Concentrated

Syncope bollard

LED

Low

Green

Linear

Direct Outwards Diffuse

Ishøj Station Embedded fixtures

Light source

Luminance

Colour

Height

Density

Direction & Distribution

Metal halide

Low

Blue & green

Random

Indirect/direct Uplight Consentrated

Gobo projector (Ripple)

Floodlight

Low

Blue, Orange & white

Random

Direct Downlight Concentrated

Gobo projector (wave)

Floodlight

Low

White & Orange

Linear

Direct Outwards Concentrated

Lamppost

LED

Medium

Cool white

Organised/Random

Direct Downlight Diffuse

MAIN CASE Illuminance

URBAN LIGHTSCAPE APPENDIX 1

SUPPLEMENTAL CASES DaniaParken Embedded fixtures

Light source

Luminance

Colour

Height

Density

Direction & Distribution

Floodlight

High

White

Linear

Indirect Uplight Consentrated

Embedded fixtures (wall) Spotlight

LED

High

Warm white

0,4m

Linear

Direct Downlight Concentrated

Floodlight

High

White & Orange

18-23m

Linear

Direct Downlight Concentrated

Garden lights

LED

High

White

Linear

Direct Downlight Concentrated

Luminance

Colour

Height

Density

Direction & Distribution

Hyllie Square Light source

Illuminance

Bench Light

Covered LED strip

Medium

Yellow-Orange

Linear

Indirect & direct Uplight Difffuse

Spotlight -from below

Floodlight

High

Warm yellow

0,5m

Linear - Random lightbeam

Indirect Uplight Concentrated

Spotlight -from above

Floodlight

High

Cool white

8-10m

Linear - Random lightbeam

Direct Downlight Concentrated

Mast

LED

Medium

Cool white

3-18m

Linear

Direct Downlight Diffuse

Wires

LED chains

Low

Blue, white, violet, magenta

15m

Random

Direct Outwards Diffuse

URBAN LIGHTSCAPE APPENDIX 1

Israelsplads Spotlight

Light source

Illuminance

Luminance

Colour

Height

Density

Direction & Distribution

Floodlight

High

White

5-6m

Random

Multidirectinal Downlight Concentrated

LED strip

Multiple LED

Low

White

0,3m

Squared

Direct Out/downwards Diffuse

Nordvestparken Star Light

Light source

Luminance

Colour

Height

Density

Direction & Distribution

Covered LED strip

Medium

Yellow-Orange

Linear

Multidirectional downlight Concentrated

Spotlight

Floodlight

High

Cool white, blue, green, red & yellow

3-8m

Random

Multidirectinal Downlight Concentrated

Blue circles

LED

Low

Blue

Circular

Direct Outwards Diffuse

Søndermarken Lamppost

Light source

Luminance

Colour

Height

Density

Direction & Distribution

LED

Low

Daylight white

Linear

Direct Downlight Diffuse

Bollard

LED

Medium

Daylight white

Linear

Direct Downlight Concentrated

Tripple Lamppost

LED

Medium

Daylight white

4,5-5m

Linear

Direct Downlight Diffuse

‘Catch the hare’

LED strip

Low

Green, red, white, blue, mangenta, violet

0,2-0,5m

Linear

Direct Outwards Diffuse

Illuminance

URBAN LIGHTSCAPE APPENDIX 2

APPENDIX 2

Appendix 2 is the registration table presented by Descottes and Ramos (2011), which has influenced the case recordings and site registrations of this thesis.

URBAN LIGHTSCAPE APPENDIX 2

URBAN LIGHTSCAPE APPENDIX 3

APPENDIX 3 Appendix 3 is the interview guide for the Rambøll meeting.

URBAN LIGHTSCAPE APPENDIX 3

URBAN LIGHTSCAPE APPENDIX 4

APPENDIX 4

Appendix 4 is the detailed informations of our main case; Ishøj Station Square, we were able to collect from the municipality of Ishøj and ÅF Lighting. The content is i.a. a detailed lighting plan with specific informations on the fixture types, light sources, colour temperatures, and gobos etc that were used for the lighting scheme.

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URBAN LIGHTSCAPE APPENDIX 5

APPENDIX 5

Appendix 5 is an analytical tool (StjernehjĂŚlperen) for analysing landscape architecture and urban design. It was developed by teachers from the bachelor study of landscape architecture for the course Plan & Design at Life (now Science Faculty), the University of Copenhagen. The analytical model of light has drawn inspiration from this analytical tool.

URBAN LIGHTSCAPE APPENDIX 5

URBAN LIGHTSCAPE APPENDIX 6

APPENDIX 6

Appendix 6 is matrixes over the content of the Lighting Masterplan of Copenhagen. We have used the matrix as a tool for analysing and getting an overview of the content. The Lighting Masterplan is developed by Citelum and the full version can be commissioned from the Municipality of Copenhagen.

URBAN LIGHTSCAPE APPENDIX 6

URBAN LIGHTSCAPE APPENDIX 7

APPENDIX 7

Appendix 7 is the pilot case; SĂ¸erne (the lakes). The pilot case has been the assisting resource to develop the Analytical Model of Urban Lightscapes.

URBAN LIGHTSCAPE APPENDIX 7

URBAN LIGHTSCAPE ANALYTICAL FRAMEWORK MULTIPLE 7CASE STUDY APPENDIX

THE LAKES

ANALYTICAL URBANFRAMEWORK LIGHTSCAPE MULTIPLE CASE APPENDIX STUDY7

Context The lakes(Søerne) in Copenhagen are one of the largest green spaces in the inner city of Copenhagen and consists of the three lakes Sankt Jørgens Sø, Peblinge Sø and Sortedams Sø fringed by pedestrian paths and some places a bike lane. They are a popular area for recreation and exercise connecting the different city districts in Copenhagen and located in close vicinity to the city centre. A walk around all three lakes amounts to a stretch of approx. 6 km. Due to the geographical location and linkage abilities of the different city districts the paths of the lakes are used for transit both by cyclists and pedestrians. The terrain of the outer context surrounding the lakes is low-lying at Sankt Jørgens Sø (southern lake) and high-lying at Sortedams Sø (northern lake). It can in relation to the scale perception of the space be seen as the tip of the scale figuratively speaking cf. the principle diagram of the terrain. Furthermore the vegetation differs both in volume and pruning depending on the individual lake.

*Photography (Daylight photo): Østergaard 2004

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Morphology Lamppost: The source is fluorescent light with a neutral white colour and radiating a dim yellow glow. It is placed 3,5m above ground having a direct downlight with a diffuse distribution over a wide area. The light source has a tendency to glare creating a small discomfort for the eye when looking directly into the light, which also makes it appear as a strong vertical object. The lamppost is the main fixture illuminating the paths along the lakes.

ANALYTICAL URBANFRAMEWORK LIGHTSCAPE MULTIPLE CASE APPENDIX STUDY7

LAMPPOST

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BOLLARD

BOLLARD (PLANETARIUM)

BOLLARD (SYNCOPE)

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Bollard: The light source has a daylight white colour and is placed approx. 1m above ground. It has a direct downlight and creates a concentrated distribution on the ground illuminating the paths. In the design of the fixture the light source is covered creating focus on the emitted bright light. All the paths consist of light beige gravel which the daylight white colour of the light perfectly renders creating a warm luminous path of the reflected light. The shape of the light beam can be described as a butterfly with luminous wings and a narrow shadowed body in the middle. Bollard (Planetarium): The light source has a daylight white colour positioned about 1m above ground. The light beam is reflected upon the lamellae of the fixture and subsequently down on the ground creating an indirect downlight illuminating the path. Due to the height and high illuminance the light source generates a very concentrated distribution of the light. The light source is hidden behind lamellae of the fixture which reject glare hence creating a soft brightness. Bollard (Syncope): The light source has a bright green colour and measures approx. 1m in height. The light is reflected in the same way as the Planetarium bollard down on the lamellae but in this case not directed down on the ground but more outwards in the space. Hence this fact combined with the low brightness creates a very diffuse dim light beam. There exists only two on the whole stretch along the lakes.

URBAN LIGHTSCAPE APPENDIX 7

Syntax The principle plan on the opposite side shows where the different fixtures are mounted along the lakes. The principle light plan on this side reenacts the morphology and syntax of the light in plan view. The lakes are often perceived as one cohesive space but as the context and design of the individual lake differ noticeable they will in the following be analysed separately. The lakes can be seen as a loop with multiple loops and linear stretches. Hence each lake is subdivided into several cohesive stretches. The primary focus will be the axial lighting in a recreational area in relation to variation, organisation and rhythm. The lighting at Sankt Jørgens Sø is composed by three different fixtures: the lamppost, the planetarium bollard and the syncope bollard. The rhythm is clear and divided into four different stretches: Vester Søgade, Planetarium, Gammel Kongevej and Svineryggen. Each stretch has a clear regular rhythm but overall each stretch is different. Stretch I, on the principle plan, along Vester Søgade, only relies on light from the surrounding apartments and the low-lying road. The vegetation has multiple trunks and can be described as wild in comparison to the remaining vegetation along the lakes evoking an enclosed corridor. There are small open-

oga erbr Øs t

URBAN LIGHTSCAPE APPENDIX 7

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LAMPPOST BOLLARD BOLLARD (PLANETARIUM) BOLLARD (SYNCOPE)

Vester Søgade

SANKT JØR GENS SØ

Svineryggen

Frederiksberg

BOUNDARY OF CITY DISTRICTS

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PRINCIPLE SECTION OF THE DARK STRETCH AT VESTERSØGADE

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URBAN LIGHTSCAPE APPENDIX 7

ings - windows - in the vegetation towards the lake and Svineryggen, which generates a strong depth perception. The darkness is constant which makes the dark adaption (cf. Light in Human Scale) easy on the visual perception. At the Planetarium, stretch II, the light is placed between the path and the lake following the urban edge of the lake. The light illuminates the asphalted path and the small stairs down to the water sustaining the focus on the horizontal surface. Given as the light source is lower than eye level the light do not have the capacity to overrule the surroundings and works as a transition to the dark stretch along Vester Søgade and the more illuminated stretch along Gammel Kongevej. The distance of approx. 8m between each fixture generates a rhythmic linear organisation between condensed light and shadow. The lamppost is the dominating fixture at Sankt Jørgens Sø due to its morphological characteristics. However the placement of the fixture differs. Along “Gammel Kongevej”, cf. stretch III, the lampposts are placed between the border of Gammel Kongevej and the path next to the lake creating a wall of termination for Sankt Jørgens Sø, where the viewer finds oneself inside the space of the lakes. Along Svineryggen, Stretch IV, the lampposts are placed with a 22m distance and are organised in a strong line between the lake and the path. This organisational structure combined with the height of the light source and the glare tendency the fixtures constitute a strong vertical element only interrupted by the green syncope. The branches of the tree vegetation are pruned in the same height as the light source. Thereby the light sources and the tree vegetation appear as a ceiling of the space. The syncope is placed by a fixed pontoon in the water to one side and a small urban hub to the other side hence marking a change in the urban flow meanwhile creating a pause in the strict rhythm of the lampposts. There are only two fixtures and due to their morphology this area appears darker the rest of the stretch.

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STRETCH II

STRETCH III PRINCIPLE PLAN 1:15.000

VISUALIZATION OF STRETCH I SHOWING THE SYNTAX

URBAN LIGHTSCAPE APPENDIX 7

The lighting of Peblinge Sø consists of two different fixtures; the lamppost and the bollard. There is not one overall rhythm even though the bollard is used along all the paths the variation of the fixtures differs generating three separate rhythmical and spatial stretches: Peblinge Dossering, Gyldenløvesgade and Nørre Søgade. By Peblinge Dossering, cf. stretch I on the principle plan, both fixtures are used. The lamppost is placed along the bike path and the bollards along the pedestrian path. The distance between the fixtures are governed by the exterior furnitures such as benches and vegetation but has an approx. distance of 2025m. The two different lights are organised in a zigzagged pattern as shown on the visualisation and on the principle plan. Together they create the most illuminated stretch along all the lakes. The path running along Nørre Søgade, stretch II, has the bollard mounted for every 14m in a linear line along the edge of the path towards the road. The organisation of the fixtures are only governed by the distance in-between. Due to the butterfly shaped light beam exposing itself from the bollards and the strict composition of the fixtures the rhythm of the light generates a strong and strict flow perceived in the illuminated and shadowed areas on the ground. Along Gyldenløvesgade, stretch III, the bollard is mounted for approx. every 22m and the placement of the fixture is primarily governed by the exterior furnitures along the edge of the path. The distance between the fixtures come off as quite large due to the relatively low height of the light source consequently creates a small distribution area. Though the stretch is at same terrain level as the surroundings the exterior furnitures such as Søpavillionen and vegetation disregards most of light inflow from the road hence generating a relatively dark space along the path.

URBAN LIGHTSCAPE APPENDIX 7

The lighting at Sortedams Sø is also composed by two different fixtures, the lamppost and the bollard. The lake is the largest of the three and can be perceived as consisting of two parts due to the division at Fredens Bro, a north and a south situated part. The overall rhythm is irregular consisting of five different stretches: Sortedams Dossering, Østerbrogade, the northern part of Øster Søgade, the southern part of Øster Søgade and finally a stretch along Fredens Bro. The light setting along Sortedams Dossering, cf. stretch I on the principle plan, is somewhat the same at both the northern and the southern part. Both parts have an irregular rhythm starting with a long pause in the light only using light from the surrounding roads subsequently introducing the park fixture. The context governs the introduction of the lampposts. When the neighbouring context is a road the ‘Copenhagen fixture’ is the primary light source and when the roads change into a bike and pedestrian path the lamppost is the only light along the lakes. When introduced the fixtures are placed at a gap of 22m and due to the high-lying surrounding terrain the light source is about 3-5m from eye level which reflects a great deal on how the scale of the space is perceived. The perceived spatial scale performs larger. The section along Øster Søgade is divided at Fredens Bro into two different light compositions. The southern part of Øster Søgade, stretch IV, is identical to of the stretch along Nørre Søgade at Peblinge Sø with a firm strict rhythmical flow of the bollards dynamic light beam. The stretch closest to Østerbrogade, section III, has no light installed only slight illuminated by the surroundings

TERRAIN

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similar to the stretch along Vester Søgade. At the whole stretch the headlights of the cars are at eye level, which at the dark northern part plays a great deal. Due to their blinding glare the eye has difficulties alternately adapting to dark and light. Along the southern part the strict strong rhythm of the bollards become the focus and attentively leads the focus on to the path. Along Fredens Bro, section V, the repetition of the bollards used along Gyldenløvsgade reoccurs though in this space the light from the surroundings has a greater impact. As the surrounding terrain is higher than the pedestrian path hence the scale once again is perceived larger. Furthermore there is no vegetation so the light inflow from the surroundings have a greater impact. The distance between the bollards measures 22m and are governed only by distance.

URBAN LIGHTSCAPE APPENDIX 7

Communication When comparing the morphology of the fixture with the syntax of the light the communication of the space can be comprehended. The position of a fixture in a space affects the experience and spatial relationship enormously. Especially in this case if the light source is higher than eye level. Furthermore the rhythm and density of the fixtures have an impact on the navigational communication. In this section the primary focus will be on the navigating and orientational communication of the light composition. Furthermore the focus will be on how the functional light setting affects the viewerâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s experience of being included or detached from nature. Some of the light compositions are more or less repeated at different lakes but yet the expression, mood and character differs along with the context.

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Especially along Vester Søgade and the northern part of Øster Søgade the ‘lack of light’ generates two different spaces. These areas are widely different in terms of vegetation and terrain which impact the experience enormously. The dark stretch at Sankt Jørgens Sø can be described as the wilderness of the lakes. The dark path of Vester Søgade invites pedestrians and cyclists to the road due to the lack of light, but if one dares to walk the path the experience will be orientated towards the natural light shining through the ‘windows’ and ‘skylights’ of the vegetation. The darkness evokes the feeling of standing inside a dark apartment VISUALIZATION OF THE WINDOWS ALONG VESTER SØGADE

URBAN LIGHTSCAPE APPENDIX 7

PRINCIPLE SECTION ALONG THE NORTHERN PART OF ØSTER SØGADE

looking outside on the city lights linking the viewer understandingly closer to the surroundings, generating a close connection to nature in the city. The lack of light generates a feeling of becoming an observer of the “other” citizens but it also generate a fear of meeting the “other” because of the missing visibility. The denseness of the vegetation and the fact of no light become uncomfortable and it can be discussed whether or not it is at the expense of comfort and safety. Along the northern part of Øster Søgade the bank makes it impossible for the light to hit the path and therefore the edge of the lake becomes almost impossible to see. The sharp head lights from the cars are at eye level which makes it difficult for the eye to readjust to the darkness. The orientation at this stretch is not towards the lake as much as it is towards the road due the eyes attraction towards light (cf. Light in Human Scale). Furthermore it can be argued that the lack of light compromises the safety along this stretch.

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VISUALIZATION OF THE STRONG STRICT FLOW

In a continuation hereof along the stretch ’Strict firm flow’ the navigation is strong due to the organisation of the fixtures. Their syntax has a clear aesthetic communication but they also generate a function of safety noticing the edge of the lake in the shape of a romantic light setting as a smooth transition to the landscape and comfortably leading the orientation towards the path, lake and night sky. At the ‘most illuminated’ area the bollards are introduced between the bike path and the pedestrian path with orientation towards last-mentioned. Moving at the pedestrian path the recognition is towards the low bollards due to the sharp and

URBAN LIGHTSCAPE APPENDIX 7

VISUALIZATION OF THE MOST ILLUMINATED STRETCH

concentrated distribution of the ‘butterfly’ light beam. Along this stretch the light from the lampposts are also a contributing factor to the luminous space. Even though this is the most illuminated space along all the lakes there is not a feeling of too much light, it still comes off very subtle. At the ‘link’ areas the distance between the bollards is still short enough to perceive them as a soft hint of guidance linking and closing the loops. The low luminous does however generate a strong orientation towards the surrounding space hence linking the viewer to the nature and maintains a safe and secure activity.

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At the ‘northern end node’ the structure of the canopy and height of the lamppost create a space of its own, which possesses a strong transitional corridor. Yet on the path which faces towards the lake and at the ‘southern end node’ the orientation of the viewer is towards the lake and night sky due to the position of the lamppost is not blocking the view. Though compared to the ‘pause’ stretch along Sortedam Dossering where the lamppost also is installed away from the path and lake the light shed is to faint to illuminate the path due to the distance between path and light source. Hence the space appears dark and the lack of visibility generates an unsafe emotion.

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PRINCIPLE SECTION SHOWING THE NORTHERN END NODE

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PRINCIPLE SECTION SHOWING THE SYNCOPE

Along the â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;transitionâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; stretch the lamppost is linear organised placed with a 22m distance and together with height of the source this creates a strong vertical element tending to segregate pedestrians on the path from the lake. The same goes for the space along the bike path at Peblinge Dossering but here the viewer is about one meter above water level and has a greater distance to the water which only increase the division between the viewer and nature emphasising transitional flow. At both stretches the angle of the human vision is 60 degrees over eye level and the glare of the lamppost stops the sight from reaching the night sky hence further defining a strong transition corridor only interfered by the syncope. The syncope is acknowledging an urban hub. This break generates a shift in focus, alters the depth perception and link the viewer to new orientations once again connecting the viewer with nature even though the placement is in-between viewer and nature. The same orientation occurs when the light is subtlety introduced at the planetarium. Even though the lakes often are perceived as one space the difference in their composition, function and aesthetics diverge noticeable and when the same light composition is repeated at two different lakes the perception and expression of the space is altered due to transformation in the context. Hence light is not an element that solely governs the functional or the aesthetic communication of an urban space, it depends deeply on the context in which it is placed. It is not a matter of good or bad lighting it is a matter of understanding the surroundings in which they are inserted.