Retrofit for Energy Efficiency in Alaska by Marie Sheehan

Retrofit for Energy Efficiency in Alaska

An Analysis of Energy Efficiency Retrofit Measures for Single Family Homes in Fairbanks, Alaska Marie Sheehan M. Architecture & M.S. Sustainable Design

Project Statement Fairbanks, Alaska suffers from outdoor air pollution, including high concentrations of particulate matter, primarily caused by high residential space heating requirements during the severe winter conditions. Exhaust from heating devices such as wood stoves and oil boilers produce high concentrations of PM2.5 causing winter air pollution levels to exceed the 24 hour PM2.5 limit of 35Âľg/m3 set by the National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS). Through implementing retrofit measures to reduce fuel consumption for space heating, PM2.5 emissions may be reduced. These retrofit measures focus on reducing energy use as well as enhancing the architectural quality of the house. Combinations of different measures were considered for their architectural synergy and increased energy performance. Energy analysis was done through the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) EnergyPlus 8.1.0 and the architecture was explored through drawings of facades, plans, and construction details. The results of this study provide an index of retrofit options for Fairbanks homeowners that can benefit the quality of the space they live in, decrease their energy consumption and reduce their air pollution contribution.

Table of Contents Introduction Air Pollution Housing Base Case House Passive Measures Active Measures Individual Measures Comparison Combinations & Optimizations Conclusion Appendix i Climate Appendix ii Precedents Appendix iii Thesis Presentations

4 8 14 20 34 60 70 74 100 104 108 114

Introduction

Fairbanks, Alaska In the early 1900s, the Tanana Valley of central Alaska saw an influx of gold miners hoping to make their fortune. The various mining camps expanded until they merged together creating what is now the city of Fairbanks. As the gold was depleted from the area, the cityâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s growth dropped until the 1960s when oil was discovered nearby and brought a new resurgence. Modern day Fairbanks, nicknamed the Golden Heart City, is the third largest city in Alaska, however, is considerably smaller than most cities in the lower 48. It is economically sustained through tourism, military bases, and transportation through its international airport.

Fairbanks is the northernmost metropolitan area of the entire United States and its residents face some of the most extreme winter conditions. Fighting the low temperatures requires large amounts of energy and thus fuel. The exhaust from the stoves, boilers, and furnaces create air quality issues while high fuel prices can make heating expensive. The following research begins to explain the extent of the air quality problem and how residents can effectively reduce their contribution through retrofitting their homes.

Downtown Fairbanks

4 City of Fairbanks 1. Fairbanks International Airport 2. University of Alaska Fairbanks 3. Fort Wainwright Army Base 4. Single Family Residential Zoning 5. Industrial Zoning 6. Downtown 7. Chena River

1 5 7

Source: FNSB GIS

Methodology An outline of the process of this study is seen in Figure 0.1. It begins with the evaluation of the problem: Fairbanks air pollution. Understanding the severity of the pollution and how housing contributes to it informs the objective and types of solutions that residents can use. The overall objective is to reduce air pollution through reducing the space heating fuel consumption. This can be done through retrofitting old houses for energy efficiency using active and passive measures. The active measures focus on the mechanical solutions that increase the efficiency of the heating system. Passive measures are more architectural solutions that affect the design of the house, whether in plan or facade. They focus on reducing the overall heating demand.

Each of the measures is analyzed through an EnergyPlus model and evaluated on the architectural implications, annual energy use, and comfort defined by ASHRAE 55. A simple cost analysis is also included to give a better evaluation for homeowners. Although the energy model is theoretical, it can help assess the effectiveness of each strategy for Fairbanks homes. This process yields an index of different design options that residents can employ to reduce their energy consumption. Through combinations of strategies and widespread implementation, the reduction in home-heating exhaust will cause less air pollution problems for Fairbanks.

Figure 0.1|Methodology Overview 6

1. PROBLEM

PM 2.5

Air pollution caused by the exhaust from wood stoves and oil boilers reaches critical concentrations during the winter making the outdoor air harmful.

WOOD STOVE

BASEBOARD

PM 2.5 HEATING

OIL BOILER

Less PM 2.5 emitted

2. OBJECTIVE The aim is to reduce the amount of air pollution being emitted through increasing energy efficiency using active and passive retrofit measures.

Less PM 2.5 emitted

Same amount of heat required

EXISTING SYSTEM

ACTIVE RETROFIT

Less heat required

PASSIVE RETROFIT

3. ANALYSIS Through combinations of architectural sketches and energy simulation software, different retrofit measures are assessed in regards to their impact on the architecture, energy consumption, and comfort of the house.

ARCHITECTURE

ENERGY

COMFORT

4. GOAL This study provides an index of retrofit options for Fairbanks homeowners that can reduce their energy consumption and air pollution contribution

Air Pollution

Outdoor Air Quality in Fairbanks Alaskans are typically challenged with low temperatures, heavy snowfall, and hours of darkness during the long winter months. However, citizens of Fairbanks North Star Borough (FNSB) face an additional hazard of high levels of air pollution, especially particulate matter smaller than 2.5 micrometers (PM2.5). Periodically PM2.5 concentrations will spike creating a health risk for residents as well as enveloping the area in a sheet of smog. According to the American Lung Association, this has put Fairbanks as the 7th most polluted city in the U.S. for particulate matter.1 The particles are so fine that people breathe them into their lungs and absorb them into the blood stream. This leads to numerous health issues including respiratory disease, asthma, heart attacks and cardiac arrhythmia.2

Fairbanks pollution problem came to the forefront in 2009 when the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency tightened the National Ambient Air Quality Standards. These standards quantify the concentrations of certain criteria pollutants that pose a health risk when exposed to the population. The maximum allowable 24-hour PM2.5 concentration was lowered from 65 µg/m3 to 35 µg/m3 and the region of Fairbanks North Star Borough was labeled “non-attainment” for exceeding the new limit.3 The geographical “nonattainment” boundary can be seen in Figure 1.1 and Figure 1.2 shows the measured levels of PM2.5. The state of Alaska was required to implement a 5-year control plan by December 2014. However the plan has not impacted the pollution levels enough, which can mean possible federal involvement.

Figure 1.1|Non-attainment Boundary

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Road

Hig hw ay

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Sheep Creek Road

The boundary encompasses the Fairbanks North Star Borough including the cities of Fairbanks and North Pole.

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me Ro ad

sL oa pR oo d

Source: FNSB Air Quality Division

Chena Hot Springs Rd

Ste es e

Murp hy Do

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Airport Way

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Hig

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Ric h

R ger

Bad

Parks Highw ay

Nordale Road

a Ro

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Figure 1.2|PM2.5 Levels

Fairbanks North Star Borough EPA PM 25 NA BOUNDARY Approved December, 2008 EPA PM25 NA Boundary MPO Boundary

Source: Alaska Department of Environmental Conservation

ge rR

oa d

Tanana R ive r

速

Prepared by Fairbanks North Star Borough Department of Community Planning TD January 6, 2009

10 Miles

Particulate matter levels are closely monitored throughout the day for the cities of Fairbanks and North Pole, which are the two major metropolitan areas in the affected region. Like a weather forecast, the FNSB Air Quality Division reports the current and predicted concentration levels as well as cautionary statements recommending who should limit their outdoor exposure. Residents that are elderly, very young, or have existing respiratory issues are considered sensitive and are especially at risk.4

This has caused communities to become very concerned, not just about the overall PM2.5 concentrations but the proximity of the pollution to schools. During the winter months, an air-monitoring vehicle called a “sniffer” travels throughout the city of Fairbanks taking spot measurements to map out areas of high and low PM2.5 levels (Figure 1.3). These reports offer information about which areas are directly affected as well as insight of where the pollution is coming from.

State of the Air 2014. Publication. Chicago: American Lung Association, 2014. Davies, John, David Misiuk, PE, Ryan Colgan, and Nathan Wiltse. Reducing PM2.5 Emissions from Residential Heating Sources in the Fairbanks North Star Borough: Emission Estimates, Policy Options, and Recommendations. Publication. Fairbanks: Cold Climate Housing Research Center, 2009. Print 3. “PM2.5 and Fairbanks.” Air Quality - Particulate Matter. Alaska Department of Environmental Conservation, 2013. Web. 26 Mar. 2015. 4. “Air Quality Index.” FNSB Air Quality Division, Mar. 2015. Web. 27 Mar. 2015. <http://co.fairbanks.ak.us/airquality/>. 1. 2.

Jan. 8 2015 3:00PM Mostly “Good” day with high visibility. No atmospheric stratification.

Jan. 18 2015 3:01PM “Moderate” day with low visibility. The layer of smog indicates a temperature inversion.

Jan. 28, 2015 2:58PM “Moderate” to “Unhealthy” day with low visibility. A stack can be seen emitting exhaust above the temperature inversion.

Figure 1.3|Daily PM2.5 Monitoring Measurements and photos are taken daily throughout the winter to record the pollution over downtown Fairbanks. The webcam is located on the mountains to the North looking South. The maps are spot measurements taken by the sniffer vehicle to locate areas of unhealthy concentrations of particulate matter. Source: FNSB Air Quality Division

Sources of Pollution Immediately following the EPAâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s designation of Fairbanks North Star Borough as â&#x20AC;&#x153;nonattainmentâ&#x20AC;?, measurements and studies were conducted to determine the source of the particulate matter. Two factors affect the winter spike in 24-hour PM2.5 concentrations: temperature inversions and pollutant emissions. Fairbanks is located within the Tanana Valley, surrounded by mountains to the North, East, and West. This geographic condition subjects the area to temperature

inversions where warm air travels over the mountains trapping the cold air underneath (Figure 1.4). This prevents the air from mixing and leaving the valley, causing it hang over the city with anything emitted into it. Since the particulate matter emissions cannot escape, the PM2.5 concentrations rise above the limit designated by the EPA. The inversions can last for several days, trapping the smog over the region.

Figure 1.4|Temperature Inversion The winter cold and snow coverage prevent the valley from retaining heat making the city air temperature lower than the atmosphere temperature. The result is atmospheric stratification creating a barrier of smog trapping the pollutants over the city.

Warm Air Reflected Solar Energy

No Mixing Cold Air

The next concern is what is emitting PM2.5 to the trapped air when a temperature inversion occurs. Although power plants emit a significant amount of particulate matter, it must be noted that they are not a substantial source to the 24-hour levels in this case. The tall stacks rise above the temperature inversion emitting to the air above.5 Chemical mass balance modeling of Fairbanks winters 2009-2011 described in Ward et al. (Figure 1.5) identified wood smoke as the primary source and secondary sulfate as the second highest contributor to the PM2.5 24-hour concentrations.6 The wood smoke is most likely from residential wood combustion: houses using wood stoves for their space heating in winter. Secondary sulfate refers to emissions of sulfur dioxide (SO2), which interact with chemicals in the atmosphere to form particulate matter. Sulfur dioxide emissions are also directly related to residential space heating through the exhaust from fuel oil combustion.7 The final conclusion is that 84% of PM2.5 is a result of homes trying to stay warm during the winter. Fairbanks Air Quality Symposium Summary. Publication. Fairbanks: FNSB Air Quality Division, 2009. 6. Ward, Tony, Barbara Trost, Jim Conner, James Flanagan, and R.K.M. Jayanty. “Source Apportionment of PM2.5 in a Subarctic Airshed Fairbanks, Alaska.” Aerosol and Air Quality Research 12 (2012): 536-43. Print. 7. Ward, Tony, Barbara Trost, Jim Conner, James Flanagan, and R.K.M. Jayanty. “Source Apportionment of PM2.5 in a Subarctic Airshed Fairbanks, Alaska.” Aerosol and Air Quality Research 12 (2012): 536-43. Print. 5.

Figure 1.5|Source Apportionment of PM2.5 Source: Ward et al.“Source Apportionment of PM2.5 in a Subarctic Airshed - Fairbanks, Alaska”

Housing

Typical Fairbanks House According to Alaska Economic Trends, 72% of Fairbanks housing is single-family detached homes.8 Although there are a variety of house styles within the city of Fairbanks, a common typology is a long rectangular footprint with one or two floors as seen in Figure 2.2. Typically the exterior has a wood or vinyl siding with roof shingles. The average size of the houses is

1,844 square feet according to the 2014 Alaska Housing Assessment.9 Figure 2.1 shows that most of the existing housing stock was built in the 1970s and 1980s which means that most of the houses may be in need of repairs and retrofitting. Houses built in the 1970s are the focus of this study.

Figure 2.1| Existing Housing by Decade Built

Source: Wiltse, N., Madden, D., Valentine, B., Stevens, V. (2014). 2013 Alaska Housing Assessment. Cold Climate Housing Research Center. Prepared for: Alaska Housing Finance Corporation

Figure 2.2| Single family houses throughout the downtown Fairbanks

PRIMARY HEATING SYSTEMS

Heating Systems Most houses in Fairbanks use a baseboard heating system with a oil boiler as their primary system.10 However, half of residents also use a secondary heating system, the most common being a wood stove. Figure 2.3 shows the heating system distribution with the houses this study focuses on highlighted in orange. Both of these systems contribute to the air pollution but the wood stove to a much larger extent. The exhaust from wood stove heating is much more concentrated with particulate matter such that it contributes to 70% of the PM2.5 pollution in the FNSB region.11 Wood is typically the more economical fuel so in times of high oil prices, PM2.5 concentrations increase by even more with the demand of wood.

SECONDARY HEATING SYSTEMS

Figure 2.3|Fairbanks Home Heating Statistics Source: Northern Economics Inc. 2013.

While oil is the most used, wood is second due to its cheaper price and the availability to gather it on oneâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s own. However, houses that use a wood stove as their secondary heater tend to use more energy on an annual MMBtu basis. This is due to the inefficiency of the wood burning devices. Wood also has the worst PM2.5 emission rate of all the fuels. While EPA certified stoves are more efficient and have less emissions, they still are one of the primary sources of the particulate matter pollution.

Figure 2.4|2015 Fuel Prices & Emissions

Source: FNSB Air Quality Division Fuel Comparison Calculator Oct.2015 Press-Kristensen, KĂĽre. Small Chimneys - Big Emissions (2013).

Figure 2.5|Wood Smoke Photo Credit: Loren Holmes

PM2.5 Emission Factor lb PM2.5/Btu

Energy Performance In general, Fairbanks houses use more energy annually than the national average.12 Most of the annual energy use goes toward space heating as seen in Table 2.1. When comparing the annual EUI of houses that utilize wood stoves and those than don’t, Figure 2.6, shows that

houses with wood stoves use 12% more energy. This increase in energy cost is presumably offset by the affordability of wood as fuel. Energy performance also decreases with the age of the home. Houses built before 2000 can use up to 50% more fuel to heat the same square footage.

Wiebold, Karinne. “Fairbanks’ Housing Market - Renting and Buying in Alaska’s Second-largest City.” Alaska Economic Trends. Alaska Department of Labor and Workforce Development, Aug. 2014. Web. 7 Mar. 2015. 9. Wiltse, N., Madden, D., Valentine, B., Stevens, V. (2014). 2014 Alaska Housing Assessment. Cold Climate Housing Research Center. Prepared for: Alaska Housing Finance Corporation 10. Natural Gas in the Fairbanks North Star Borough: Results from a Residential Household Survey. (2013 Nov). Northern Economics Inc. Prepared for Interior Gas Utility. 11. Ward et al. “Source Apportionment of PM2.5 in a Subarctic Airshed - Fairbanks, Alaska” 12. Wiltse, N., Madden, D., Valentine, B., Stevens, V. (2014). 2014 Alaska Housing Assessment. Cold Climate Housing Research Center. Prepared for: Alaska Housing Finance Corporation 8.

Figure 2.6|Site EUI of Houses With and Without Wood Stoves

Source: Appendix H Railbelt SE AK Bethel Residential Data (2012, April 30). Alaska Energy Authority End Use Study: 2012. WH Pacific.

Oil Boiler Only

12% INCREASE

Oil Boiler & Wood Stove

Table 2.1|Fairbanks North Star Borough: Annual Energy End Use by Decade Built

Source: Wiltse, N., Madden, D., Valentine, B., Stevens, V. (2014). 2013 Alaska Housing Assessment. Cold Climate Housing Research Center. Prepared for: Alaska Housing Finance Corporation

Current Residential Units by Year Built

Avg Sq. Feet

Avg. Annual Energy Use (MMBTU)

Space Heating (MMBTU)

DHW (MMBTU)

Electricity (MMBTU)

Avg EUI (kBtu/SF)

Overall

1,844

247

188

143

Pre-1940

1,846

301

251

182

1940 - 49

1,488

229

179

168

1950 - 59

1,637

267

213

173

1960 - 69

1,836

281

224

161

1970 - 79

1,948

278

221

152

1980 - 89

1,743

232

176

140

1990 - 99

2,091

238

167

120

2000 - 2004

1,801

193

136

113

2005 or Later

1,848

181

123

104

Figure 2.7|Fairbanks North Star Borough: Average Energy Use Per Square Foot by Decade Built

Source: Wiltse, N., Madden, D., Valentine, B., Stevens, V. (2014). 2013 Alaska Housing Assessment. Cold Climate Housing Research Center. Prepared for: Alaska Housing Finance Corporation

Base Case House

1970s Fairbanks House The base case house is entirely theoretical but meets the average characteristics of a 1970s house since a home of that age might be in need of improvements and that decade built the most houses as mentioned before in Figure 2.1. This base case house is the control to which the energy saving strategies are compared. Site & Surroundings Figure 3.1 shows the residential zones where houses such as the base case are built. The house itself has a 1125 SF foot print with similar houses to the left and right. The buildable area with setbacks are shown in Figure 3.2 in orange. Most retrofit options that require space have the most opportunity on the back of the house since there is limited area in the front or side yards. The base case house takes into account the neighboring buildings but no landscaping or trees that might shade the house. 20

Figure 3.1|Residential Zones With Houses Primarily Built Before 1980 Source: Census Tract 2010. Policy Maps.com. 2013.

10’

5’

20’

15’

Figure 3.2|Base Case Site with Property Lines & Zoning

Source: Chapter 18.22 Single-Family Residential Districts. Fairbanks North Star Borough Codes & Ordinances. 2015

House Design The design and layout are based on an existing house that is consistent with the observed typology as well as one used in the 1977 FNSB Energy Report.13 The construction, systems, and performance of the base case house match the values for a 1970s home described in the 2014 Alaska Housing Assessment as well account for use of a wood stove since those houses are contributing most to the air pollution.

Each floor is 850 square feet with an attached 275 square foot garage. Figure 3.3 shows a programmatic diagram with the kitchen in the rear, the living area toward the front of the house and the bedrooms along the side. Figures 3.5 and 3.6 show that the facade has strong horizontal element made by the siding and roof line but little other articulation.

KITCHEN

BEDROOM FRONT

GARAGE (NOT HEATED)

LIVING

Figure 3.3|First Floor Zones The zones denote areas of different occupancy and internal heat gain. Figure 3.4|Base Case House Floor Plans The 3 bedroom, 2 bath house consists of an entry floor and an in ground basement. The footprint for the first floor is 46’ x 25’ and the basement is 35’x25’.

KITCHEN

BEDROOM 1

ONE-CAR GARAGE

BATH 1 LIVING ROOM

BEDROOM 2

First Floor Plan MECH Figure 3.5|Reference House Front Elevation

BATH 2

Source:“Fairbanks Home For Sale.” 1028 Pedro St, Fairbanks, AK 99701. Zillow.com, 25 Aug. 2015. Web. 30 Aug. 2015.

BASEMENT

BEDROOM 3

Basement Plan 23

Figure 3.6|Base Case House Elevations

FRONT ELEVATION

RIGHT ELEVATION

LEFT ELEVATION

BACK ELEVATION

Construction & Systems Single family homes in Alaska are mostly wood stud construction. Current Alaskan construction methods call for 2x6 wall studs spaced 24â&#x20AC;? on center (o.c.).14 However, the base case house is assumed to have used construction methods of the 1970s in which 2x4 wall studs were used and they were spaced 16â&#x20AC;? o.c.15 The thermal bridging caused by this spacing and the degradation over time can explain for the higher assembly U-Values in the older homes - such as those values in Figure 3.7.

As mentioned before, the most common heating system is a baseboard heating with an oiler boiler. The base case also includes a secondary heating system of a wood stove using birch wood. Domestic hot water (DHW) will be assumed to use a storage tank heated by fuel oil since that is the more economic fuel choice for the region.16 The energy end use will match the performance in the 2014 Alaska Housing Assessment.

PM 2.5

BASEBOARD HEATING

PM 2.5

OIL BOILER

WOOD STOVE

Figure 3.7|1970s Assembly U-Values The wall section shows the total U assembly values of the construction for the base house. These values were supplied by the 2014 Alaska Housing Assessment for a house built in the 1970s. The 2012 Building Energy Efficiency Standard (BEES) is the currently adopted code for Alaskan residential construction and gives insulation values for the same construction components.

Roof Rafters U=0.03 2012 BEES U=0.02 2x4, 16â&#x20AC;? o.c. Above Grade Wall U=0.07 2012 BEES 0.04 Double Pane Glass Windows U=0.53 2012 BEES U=0.22

Above Grade Floor U=0.04 2012 BEES U=0.03

8â&#x20AC;? Concrete Foundation Wall with finished basement U=0.14 2012 BEES U=0.05

Figure 3.8|Base Case Space Heating System

Concrete slab U=0.33 2012 BEES U=0.07 27

Energy Model The model was created according to the Building America Simulation Protocols using the software BeOpt 2.4 for the initial modeling. The model was then adjusted in EnergyPlus for characteristics described

Figure 3.8|EnergyPlus Model of Base Case House

to make it more like the Fairbanks typical house. Its performance was compared to the 2014 Alaska Housing assessment to verify its accuracy.

Figure 3.9|Base Case Energy Verification

The results of the baseline are shown below. It performs within a 10% margin of the 2014 Alaska Housing Assessment values of 1970s Fairbanks house. As expected, heating is the major energy load during the year taking up nearly 80% of the overall end

use. The base case with the wood stove increases the annual EUI by 8% and wood provides about 24% of the space heating load which is consistent with the Fairbanks 2012 Home Heating Survey which found wood stoves to supply 26% of heat.17

Monthly Heating Energy Use Heating is still required year round with but the load varies much with the season. The beginning of the year sees the highest heating loads.

Monthly DHW Usage Domestic Hot Water is relatively consistent throughout most of the year with little seasonal variation.

Monthly Electricity Usage Electricity usage sees a drop in the summer which is in part due to a reduced lighting load and partly due to a reduced heating load since electricity is required for the pumps.

Figure 3.11|Monthly Energy by End Use The winter months see the highest energy loads in all end uses so those are times of the year that should be focused on for reducing loads.

Figure 3.12|Base Case ASHRAE 55 Comfortable Hours as plotted on the Psychrometric Chart Green denotes the living zone on the first floor and blue denotes the entire basement.

Comfort The first floor of the base case house is comfortable 87% of the year while the basement is comfortable 93% of the year. The thermostat for the entire house is located on the first floor which accounts for the underheated hours in the basement.

Orientation Although orientation cannot be changed for existing houses, it’s effect on this typology is worth noting. The base case with 0º rotation has the front facade facing South. Figure 3.13 shows the change in EUI with the house rotated every 15º. The optimal orientation is at 240º clockwise. This

is due to the garage blocking the northern winds and all the facades with windows having direct solar exposure and thus solar heat gain at some point in the day. The change in EUI is minimal - from the best to the worst is 2 kBtu/sf/yr.

Figure 3.13|Effect on EUI due to Clockwise Rotation

Fison, Sue., Moore, Don,. Quisenberry, Cindy. (1977). Energy Costs, Consumption and Impacts in Fairbanks. Impact Information Center - Special Report No. 5. 14. Seifert, Rich. Alaska Residential Building Manual. 7th Ed. (2012). Cooperative Extension. University of Alaska Fairbanks. 15. Seifert, Rich. Alaska Residential Building Manual. 7th Ed. (2012). Cooperative Extension. University of Alaska Fairbanks. 16. Wiltse, N., Madden, D., Valentine, B., Stevens, V. (2014). 2014 Alaska Housing Assessment. Cold Climate Housing Research Center. Prepared for: Alaska Housing Finance Corporation 17. Di Genova, Frank., Dulla, Bob. Fairbanks 2012 Home Heating Survey (2012, Apr). Sierra Research. Memo to Cindy Heil, ADEC 13.

Passive Measures

Methodology The various passive strategies focus on allowing solar heat gain, blocking northern winds, and insulating the house. Some strategies are more effective for different orientations so they were evaluated for where they would be architecturally beneficial as well as where the most energy savings would occur. Several iterations of each measure were assessed to find an optimal strategy. Architectural implications were explored through sketches of the facade, section, and plan. Energy analysis, performed in EnergyPlus, looked at the end use, savings, and a simple payback analysis. Finally, comfort was considered in reference to ASHRAE 55 with 80% of the time comfortable being the acceptable limit.

Trombe Wall Sunroom Wood Storage Insulated Shutters Thermal Envelope Interior Remodel

Trombe Wall The trombe wall is a passive solar heat gain mechanism that can be added to the front facade since it does not require much space. It acts as a two zone heat gain system in that the heat is captured between the mass and the glazing and then gradually transferred to the occupied space via conduction. The iterations assessed were internal window options as well as shading options. Due to extended solar exposure of the summer, the trombe wall creates periods of over heating, so a shading device was required for comfort. The optimal case was a trombe wall with an internal window - for architectural purposes since there is no other fenestration in the living area - combined with movable louvers which could balance the energy savings and comfort.

INTERNAL WINDOW DOUBLE PANE GLASS 16â&#x20AC;? CONCRETE MASS WALL

Figure 4.1|Trombe Wall Section

6â&#x20AC;? GAP

Figure 4.2|Trombe Wall Addition to the Front The trombe wall protrudes from the facade creating its own distinct element. The lines pulled from the headers and the base maintain the horizontal datums while the vertical mullions continue a rhythm formed by the existing doors and window.

FRONT

Table 4.1|Trombe Wall Comparison

EUI

Base Case

Fixed Louvers

Movable louvers

Internal Window

No Internal Window

165.1

160.5

158.4

157.0

156.7

2.8%

4.1%

5.0%

5.1%

$5,665

$5,614

$5,573

$5,565

$133

$184

$225

$233

117.36

105.77

106.66

105.94

4.1%

6.2%

5.4%

6.0%

Reduction Annual Energy Cost

$5,798

Savings PM2.5 (lb) PM2.5 Reduction

Figure 4.3|Trombe Wall EUI Comparison The most energy effective strategy was the trombe wall with no internal window and no shading since it could transfer the most heat all year round. The trombe wall is a rather affordable retrofit option in that the payback period can be 10 years or less.

112.75

Figure 4.4|Trombe Wall Comfort vs EUI Movable louvers offer the most comfort for the most energy savings. For this reason it was considered the optimal solution. The option without an internal window has the lowest EUI but is also the most uncomfortable.

Figure 4.5|Trombe Wall With Movable Louvers Comfort

TROMBE WALL WITH MOVABLE LOUVERS

For the most part, the living zone is within the comfortable limits. The comfort issues that arise are over heating during the summer as well as humidity issues.

Sunroom If the orientation of the house is such that the front facade faces North rather than South, then a sun space in the backyard may be viable retrofit option. The sunroom is an addition onto the existing house, which has a high window to wall area ratio in order to maximize solar heat gain and heat the house passively. This space is also meant to be occupied so the comfort within the space is also a factor. The sunroom is also a two zone sun space that utilizes a 16” thermal mass to act as a heat transfer. Overheating within the sunroom is an issue so different shading options were considered. The optimal was a dormer with movable louvers. Villa Sari by ARRAK Architects in Finland was used as a precedent for the shading devices and sun space.

16” CONCRETE MASS WALL

8’ SUNROOM 3” LOUVERS SPACED 2”

Figure 4.6|Sunroom Section

FRONT

Figure 4.7|Sunroom Addition to the Rear As the slope of the roof extends from the original house, part of the roof or all of it can open up to allow for more solar heat gain. Louvers across the glazing are added to regulate the thermal comfort.

Table 4.2|Sunroom Comparison

EUI

180 Orientation

Fixed Louvers

Dormer +Movable Louvers

Movable Louvers

Direct Gain

164.6

163.8

161.6

161.1

0.5%

1.8%

1.9%

2.1%

$5,763

$5,704

$5,703

$5,687

$22

$81

$82

$97

107.57

105.47

109.65

3.5%

5.4%

1.6%

Reduction Annual Energy Cost

$5,785

Savings PM2.5 (lb) PM2.5 Reduction

Figure 4.8|Sunroom EUI Comparison The sunroom does offer some energy savings but not enough to make it a reason to retrofit. There is no reasonable payback period due to the cost of the addition and the small energy savings. A residentâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s motivation to adding a sunroom would be for the added space.

111.45

Figure 4.9|Sunroom Comfort vs EUI The sunroom makes the living area a more comfortable space however the sunroom itself is only comfortable less than a quarter of the year. The most comfortable option is the direct gain, but it is not really a viable solution due to summer temperatures reaching 115ยบ F. The optimal sunroom with movable louvers has a more reasonable temperature range but could still only be occupied seasonally.

SUNROOM WITH MOVABLE LOUVERS

Figure 4.10|Sunroom With Movable Louvers Comfort The sunroom suffers from periods of overheating in summer but is mostly underheated in winter. There is not enough solar exposure to collect enough heat for comfort.

Wood Storage An addition of wood storage on the north side of a house would help energy reduction in two ways: first it would buffer against the northern winter winds and second it would offer more thermal resistance. Birch logs have a thermal resistance of 12 ºF•ft2•hr/Btu. The options looked at were a storage system that only went up to the windows and another that filled the entire facade and framed the doors and windows. Ralph Erskine used this strategy for his house in Sweden. The storage acts as extra insulation along the north side of the house which receives little to no direct solar exposure.

EXISTING U = 0.07

NEW U = 0.034 (BIRCH WOOD LOGS R=12)

Figure 4.11|Wood Storage Section

WINTER WINDS

Figure 4.12|Wood Storage Addition The wood storage creates a new facade that is no longer regular horizontal lines of siding but varies with the size and amount of collected wood. It serves as a new facade element as well as functional storage space.

FRONT

Table 4.3|Wood Storage Comparison The savings are so marginal that it does not offer much air pollution reduction. However, if wood is stored for a proper amount of time, it emits less air pollution. That factor was not included within this study.

EUI

Base Case

Low Storage

Full Storage

165.1

164.1

163.4

0.6%

1.0%

$5,770

$5,750

$28

$48

112.73

112.72

0.0%

Reduction Annual Energy Cost

$5,798

Savings PM2.5 (lb) PM2.5 Reduction

Figure 4.13|Wood Storage EUI Comparison The energy savings are very small with the payback period up to 60 years. A resident would look to add this type of wood storage for the architectural aesthetic as well as the function over the energy savings.

112.75

Figure 4.14|Wood Storage Comfort vs EUI The storage has little effect on the comfort of the house and only offers energy savings potential.

Figure 4.15|Full Wood Storage Comfort

FULL WOOD STORAGE

Insulated Shutter Shutters can help prevent the heat loss during winter nights when there is no option of passive solar heat gain and the outside temperature drops. Different types of shutters were looked at for their insulation and their effect on the facade of the house: Shutters on a track (R=6 ºF•ft2•hr/Btu), automated shutters on a roll (R=2 ºF•ft2•hr/Btu), and hinged shutters (R=6 ºF•ft2•hr/Btu).18

TRACK INSULATED SHUTTER R=6

Garber-Slaght, Robbin. Craven, Colin. “Evaluating Window Insulation for Cold Climates.” (2012) Cold Climate Housing Research Center. Journal of Green Building Vol 7 No 3. 18.

Figure 4.16|Track Shutter Section

Figure 4.17|Track Shutters on the Front Facade

ANY ORIENTATION

Shutters add a dynamic element to the facades. The track shutter enhances the horizontal datum lines along the rail.

Table 4.4|Insulated Shutter Comparison EUI

Base Case

Hinged shutter

Roll shutter

Track shutters

165.1

162.6

160.7

1.5%

2.7%

$5,731

$5,730

$5,695

$67

$68

$102

107.76

108.03

107.73

4.4%

4.2%

4.5%

Reduction Annual Energy Cost

$5,798

Savings PM2.5 (lb) PM2.5 Reduction

Figure 4.18|Insulated Shutter EUI Comparison The shutters performance mostly correspond to the R-Value associated with they type. However the hinged shutter also acts as a shading device when it is not in use which blocks some of the passive solar heat gain. When solar exposure is limited in winter, the hinged shutter works against itself so not as much energy savings are achieved.

112.75

Figure 4.19|Trombe Wall Comfort vs EUI The shutters increase the comfort slightly since they are retaining the heat in winter and blocking unwanted solar heat gain in summer. In summer, the sun is up for most of the day and night. Shutters on during the night can block the light for sleeping as well as the heat gain.

Figure 4.20|Track Insulated Shutters Comfort

TRACK INSULATED SHUTTERS

Envelope Increasing the thermal resistance in the walls and windows of the envelope decrease the heat loss in winter as well as tighten the house so that there is less infiltration as well. Without mechanical ventilation, this tightening makes the air stale and can make the space uncomfortably humid. A heat recovery ventilator is a type of mechanical ventilation that works more efficiently since part of the heat of the exhausted air is exchanged with the incoming air. It adds electrical energy to run it as well as space heating energy to reheat the incoming air. However, it makes the space much more comfortable with less humidity inside. The options looked at were reducing the infiltration with an HRV, without an HRV, increasing the resistance of just the windows, just the walls, and both.

EXISTING ADDED R20 INSULATION

U = 0.03

NEW

U = 0.018

EXISTING

6.7 @ ACH50

NEW

4 @ACH50

ADDED R15 RIGID INSULATION

EXISTING U = 0.53

NEW: GAS FILLED U = 0.18

EXISTING U = 0.07

NEW

U = 0.03

Figure 4.21|Wall Section with Added Insulation

Figure 4.22|Floor Plans with Rigid Insulation Added to the Inside

ANY ORIENTATION

Adding a layer of 4â&#x20AC;? R15 insulation to the inside of the house increases the thickness of the wall and will reduce the square footage slightly.

Table 4.5|Envelope Comparison The optimal case was replacing the windows and adding R15 insulation to the interior of the house. The envelope meets the Alaska Building Energy Efficiency Standards (BEES) so is closer to current housing energy performance.

EUI

Base Case

3@ACH50 with Heat Recovery Ventilation

3@ACH50 with no Mechanical Recovery Ventilation

Replace Windows

Add R15 to Walls

Replace Windows and add R15

165.1

162.6

158.9

156.2

124.6

115.8

1.5%

3.8%

5.4%

24.5%

29.9%

$5,707

$5,630

$5,554

$4,684

$4,444

$90

$168

$244

$1,114

$1,354

106.75

103.10

104.50

84.55

71.47

5.3%

8.6%

7.3%

25.0%

36.6%

Reduction Annual Energy Cost

$5,798

Savings PM2.5 (lb) PM2.5 Reduction

Figure 4.23|Envelope EUI Comparison Windows are a more costly retrofit than adding insulation to the interior of the house so they have a higher payback period. However, if both the windows and walls have better thermal performance, they can pay for themselves within 8 years. Both interior and exterior added insulation have similar energy performance but there may be more costs with adding insulation to the exterior due to the replacement of the siding as well.

112.75

Figure 4.24|Envelope Comfort vs EUI Replacing the windows and adding insulation to the wall shows the best energy performance by far, but the suffers in comfort. The HRV offers the most comfortable retrofit option. A combination of the two is the optimal retrofit.

Figure 4.25|Comfort for Envelope & HRV The added insulation and window replacement cause the living space to be overheated as well as humid. Adding the HRV reduces the humidity greatly in the space and increases the comfort. ADDED INSULATION AND WINDOW REPLACEMENT

SEALED WITH HEAT RECOVERY VENTILATION

Interior Remodel An interior remodel looks at moving the parts of the house that emit heat into the center so that the other spaces benefit from the internal heat gain. This creates a sort of central hearth of the home that the rest of the house revolves around. In the base case house, the kitchen has the most appliances and gives off the most heat during the day. Two program options were considered for this retrofit. The first option switches the kitchen and living spaces to centralize the kitchen. It is a less intensive remodel. The second option moves the bedrooms to the back of the house so that the living and dining room have more solar access - presumably where the residents would spend more of their time.

HEAT EMITTING ZONES MOVED TO THE INTERIOR

Figure 4.26|House Section

PROGRAM OPTION 1

PROGRAM OPTION 2

LIVING

BEDROOM

KITCHEN

GARAGE (NOT HEATED)

Figure 4.27|First Floor Plan for Program Option 1 & 2 The existing stairs to the basement were kept in both plans. With the small footprint, the optimal place for the kitchen seems to be next to the garage but centralized within the house. The rest of the program encompasses it to benefit from the internal heat gains.

FRONT

Table 4.6|Interior Remodel Comparison EUI

Base Case

Program Option 1

Program Option 2

165.1

164.7

163.6

0.3%

0.9%

$5,786

$5,754

$12

$44

Reduction Annual Energy Cost

$5,798

Savings PM2.5 (lb) PM2.5 Reduction

Figure 4.28|Interior Remodel EUI Comparison There is very little energy savings based on the different programs. This strategy would be better served in the initial design process since there is no reasonable payback period. The resident would do this interior remodel for the architectural benefits over the energy savings.

112.75

111.07

99.32

1.5%

11.9%

Figure 4.29|Interior Remodel Comfort vs EUI The living space does benefit from the heat given off from the kitchen to make it more comfortable.

Figure 4.30|Program Option 2 Comfort

Program Option 2

The kitchen zone has the most heat gains and so is susceptible to being overheated - especially since it is insulated by the rest of the program spaces. The living area maintains a comfortable temperature and humidity.

Active Measures

Methodology The active strategies seek to optimize energy performance through efficient use of systems as well as offsetting energy with renewable alternatives. The heating system was only modified in replacing the heating unit - not by changing fuel type of overall system. Incentives were included into the payback analysis of the wood stoves as well as the photovoltaic panels.

Upgrade Heaters

Active Solar

Upgrade Heaters The existing heating units were assumed to be 20-30 years old and in need of replacement. Figure 5.2 shows the old and new specifications of the boiler and the wood stove. The EPA has a list of certified wood stoves that was updated in October 2015. The newer stove complies with this list.

Figure 5.1|Wood Smoke EPA certified wood stoves have lower PM emissions. This can be visually noted through the opacity of the wood smoke. The clearer the wood smoke (25%) the less PM is being emitted.

EXISTING 30,000 Btu/hr 63% Eff. NEW 28,600 Btu/hr 80% Eff

EXISTING 100,000 Btu/hr 80% Eff. NEW 92,000 Btu/hr 88% Eff

Figure 5.2|Old and New Heaters

ANY ORIENTATION

The trombe wall protrudes from the facade creating its own distinct element. The lines pulled from the headers and the base maintain the horizontal datums while the vertical mullions continue a rhythm formed by the existing doors and window.

Table 5.1|Upgrade Heaters Comparison

EUI

Base Case

New Stove

New Boiler

165.1

157.7

155.0

148.1

4.5%

6.2%

10.3%

$5,602

$5,515

$5,333

$196

$282

$464

93.63

110.22

93.42

17.0%

2.2%

17.1%

Reduction Annual Energy Cost

$5,798

Savings PM2.5 (lb) PM2.5 Reduction

Figure 5.3|Upgrade Heaters EUI Comparison There is a push in Fairbanks to change out stoves to ones that are EPA certified to increase their efficiency and reduce the PM2.5 pollution. The payback period takes into account this change out incentive - to reimburse 75% of the cost of the new stove up to $3,000.19 2015 Changeout Programs. (2015 Dec). Wood Stove Changeout. Hearth Patio & Barbecue Association. <www.woodstovechangeout.org> 19.

112.75

Both

Figure 5.4|Upgrade Heaters Comfort vs EUI The comfort is maintained since only the energy efficiency is affected.

Figure 5.5|New Boiler and Stove Comfort

NEW BOILER AND STOVE

Active Solar Solar energy can offset some of the electrical energy load through the use of photovoltaic panels as well as the domestic hot water load through use solar thermal panels. However it must be noted that active solar will not decrease the air pollution emitted since it has no affect on space heating. It was still worth studying for its energy saving potential. Using the softwares PV-FChart and FChart, the panels were angled for yearly exposure. The solar thermal panel is a flat plate panel. An evacuated tube system is not as beneficial in the Fairbanks region since it tends to retain snow while the flat plate will give off heat, melting the snow and ensuring more exposure.20

PV Panel at 55ยบ

Solar Thermal Panel at 62ยบ Figure 5.6|Solar Panel Angles

2.3 kW PV System

Flat Panel Solar Thermal for Domestic Hot Water

Figure 5.7|Active Solar Panels on Front Roof The photovoltaic system has smaller panels but requires more of them while the solar thermal system has larger panels but fewer. FRONT

Table 5.2|Active Solar Comparison No PM2.5 reduction is seen because active solar only affects the electricity and domestic hot water end uses.

EUI

Base Case

PV Panels

Solar Thermal Panels

165.1

160.3

157.6

152.0

2.9%

4.5%

7.9%

$5,321

$5,645

$5,090

$477

$153

$708

112.75

0.0%

Reduction Annual Energy Cost

$5,798

Savings PM2.5 (lb) PM2.5 Reduction

Figure 5.8|Active Solar EUI Comparison The Solar Thermal system has more overall savings but still maintains a higher payback period. There is also an extra electric requirement for the pump. The photovoltaic panels cost analysis takes into account the 30% tax credit for a system installed before December 31, 2016.21 This makes them much more affordable with a payback period of 13 years. Solar Hot Water Heating. (2014 Mar). Cold Climate Housing Research Center. www.cchrc.org 21. Grunau, Bruno. Egan, Greg. Solar energy Feasibility Study: For a Typical On-Grid Residence in Fairbanks, AK. (2008 Nov). Remote Power Inc. 20.

112.75

Both

Figure 5.9|Monthly Electricity Usage: PV & Grid

MONTHLY ELECTRICITY: PV & GRID

Photovoltaics can account for about 27% of the electricity demand throughout the year.

Figure 5.10|Monthly DHW: Solar Panels & Heater

MONTHLY DOMESTIC HOTWATER: SOLAR PANEL & BOILER

Solar thermal panels cover 60% of the annual energy required for domestic hot water. The summer DHW needs are almost completely covered, with May entirely supplied by the solar thermal panels.

Individual Measures Comparison

Energy Comparison Figure 6.1 shows an EUI comparison of each measureâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s optimal strategy. The strategies that were more energy effective are also more cost effective with smaller payback periods. The best energy performance by far was the thermal envelope. It has the biggest energy impact and smallest payback period so residents looking to save energy should address their thermal envelope first and foremost.

Measures that were not as successful in terms of EUI serve the resident by other means, such as providing a function in the case of wood storage, or providing a different and/or additional architectural space in the cases of the interior retrofit and sunroom.

Figure 6.1|Individual Measures EUI Comparison

Site EUI (kBtu/SF/yr)

BASELINE

INTERIOR RETROFIT

FULL FACADE WOOD STORAGE SUNROOM WITH MOVABLE LOUVERS INSULATED SHUTTERS ON A TRACK TROMBE WALL WITH MOVABLE LOUVERS

ACTIVE SOLAR

NEW HEATERS

THERMAL ENVELOPE

Payback Years

Comfort In general strategies maintained a reasonable comfort level that was above 80% of occupied hours. The envelope which has the best EUI is the most uncomfortable but in combination with a heat recovery ventilator, that discomfort may be offset.

Figure 6.2|Individual Measures Comfort vs EUI

The sunroom shows that the living space is the most comfortable but it does not show that comfort of the sunroom itself. The sunroom would be seasonal since it is only comfortable for about 20% of the year.

Air Pollution The PM2.5 emissions tend to correlate with the EUI reduction. The envelope which has the lowest EUI also has the lowest annual PM2.5 emissions. The exception, as mentioned before, is active solar since both photovoltaic panels and solar thermal panels only affect electricity and domestic hot water respectively.

Individually, most of the strategies will not show enough air pollution reduction to significantly address the PM2.5 issue, but in combination, there could be potentially much more savings.

Figure 6.3|Individual Measures Air Pollution Emissions vs EUI

Combinations & Optimizations

Combinations Through combining different individual measures, the architectural synergy creates more potential savings through a the overall design. These combinations are based completely on the conceptual analysis of how each strategy affects the house. They focus on the two concepts: Insulation - retaining the heat. And solar heat gain - allowing the sun to heat the house.

Combination 1: Thermal Wrap Combination 2: Solar Heat Gain Combination 3: Solar and Thermal Zones Optimization 1: Lowest EUI Optimization 2: Lowest Payback Period

Optimizations The optimizations are based completely on the technical analysis of each individual measure. The lowest EUI optimization seeks to combine every measure to see what the most savings can be. The optimization of the lowest payback is a more pragmatic combination of what residents entirely motivated by cost would likely choose to do. 74

Figure 7.1|Graphic Representation of Each Combination & Optimization

COMBINATION 2: SOLAR HEAT GAIN

COMBINATION 1: THERMAL WRAP

COMBINATION 3: SOLAR AND THERMAL ZONES

$ OPTIMIZATION 1: LOWEST EUI

OPTIMIZATION 2: LOWEST PAYBACK PERIOD 75

TROMBE WALL WITH MOVABLE LOUVERS

COMBINATION 1: THERMAL WRAP

SUNROOM WITH MOVABLE LOUVERS

FULL FACADE WOOD STORAGE

COMBINATION 2: SOLAR HEAT GAIN

INSULATED SHUTTERS ON A TRACK

THERMAL ENVELOPE COMBINATION 3: SOLAR AND THERMAL ZONES INTERIOR RETROFIT

NEW HEATERS

SOLAR PANELS 76

Figure 7.2|Individual Measures in Each Combination

OPTIMIZATION 1: LOWEST EUI

BASELINE

INTERIOR RETROFIT

FULL FACADE WOOD STORAGE SUNROOM WITH MOVABLE LOUVERS INSULATED SHUTTERS ON A TRACK

OPTIMIZATION 2: LOWEST PAYBACK PERIOD

ACTIVE SOLAR

TROMBE WALL WITH MOVABLE LOUVERS

NEW HEATERS

THERMAL ENVELOPE

Figure 7.3|Individual Measures in Each Optimization

Combination 1: Thermal Wrap This combinations focuses on insulation with a trombe wall to allow for some passive heat gain. The insulation is expressed in a thick envelope, or a wrap that covers the whole front and back facade. The louvers and track shutters are part of this thick skin to make it appear continuous. Figure 7.4|Combination 1 Section Diagram

• Trombe Wall • Thermal Envelope • Insulated Shutters • Wood Storage • New Heaters

Figure 7.5|Combination 1 Axon The thermal wrap appears as a thick envelope that is the added insulation. This wrap extends out to create the wood storage. The insulated shutters and trombe wall louvers are movable parts of the skin. The overall aesthetic is as if the house was enveloped in a thick insulated sweater.

FRONT

Figure 7.6|Combination 1 Plan The layout is retained from the original plan but is sandwiched by the wood storage and the trombe wall to allow heat into the house and then contain it.

Figure 7.7|Combination 1 Section & Elevations

Combination 2: Solar Heat Gain The individual measures chosen for this strategy were ones that primarily focused on collecting solar heat. The entire front facade is devoted to becoming a giant solar collector while the back facade is wood storage so that the heat is not lost to the northern winds. The interior remodel works to allow for more room for trombe walls to collect more solar heat.

• Trombe Wall • Photovoltaic Panels • Interior Retrofit • Wood Storage • New Heaters

Figure 7.8|Combination 2 Section Diagram

Figure 7.9|Combination 2 Axon The axon shows the rear of the house to show how the back facade is transformed by the wood storage facade. The new interior retrofit prevents semi-public rear access so the exterior porch creates the new threshold to the backyard.

FRONT

Figure 7.10|Combination 2 Plan The program option 2 allows for two trombe walls to heat the living space and the small dining space adjacent to the kitchen. Access to the backyard is moved to a small patio off the living room.

Figure 7.11|Combination 2 Section & Elevations The front facade is transformed into a giant solar collector. The threshold is emphasized as the gap between the trombe walls. The rear threshold is similarly treated as the gap between the wood storage.

Combination 3: Solar and Thermal Zones This combination looks to merge the two concepts of insulating and solar heat gain by creating two zones. The middle/hearth zone becomes the solar collector with panels and a sun room (the front facade faces North in this configuration). The middle zone is then sandwiched by the two thermally wrapped outer zones in oder to retain the heat.

• Sunroom • Solar Thermal Panels • Interior Retrofit • Thermal Envelope • New Heaters

Figure 7.12|Combination 3 Section Diagrams

FRONT

Figure 7.13|Combination 3 Axon The thermal zones are completely enveloped by a thick skin that covers those portions of the facade. The solar heat gain zone breaks out of the skin to gather heat into the house.

Figure 7.14|Combination 3 Plan The layout from program option 1 allows for the living area to be surrounded by heat gain zones. The bedroom and garage spaces become the thermal zones for the house.

Figure 7.15|Combination 3 Sections & Elevations The thermal zones are articulated by the roof shingle wrapping down around the wall. The solar zone has more glazing and the siding is exposed to articulate it is part of a different system.

Energy Comparison Overall, the optimizations performed better than the combinations which was expected due to the measures chosen for their energy performance. Of the combinations, Combination 3 performed the best with Combination 1 a close second. However, combination 3 has no reasonable payback period. Combination 2 did not achieve as much savings, probably due to not implementing any serious envelope measures. Figure 7.16|Overall EUI Comparison

The top line of Figure 7.16 shows actual benchmarks while the second line shows the energy model results of the combinations, optimizations, and the baseline. The lowest EUI achievable with these strategies was 95 kBtu/SF/yr and was not able to reach 50% of the baseline value or the national average which shows how hard it is to save energy in this region. However, the two optimizations do perform better than current newer Fairbanks houses so the strategies are effective.

Figure 7.17|Combinations and Optimizations EUI Comparison

Comfort Comparison All the combinations and optimizations exceeded the ASHRAE 55 comfort level of 80% occupied hours comfortable. The optimizations has the worst comfort but had the best performance. Both had a tendency to get overheated (Figure 7.18) probably due to the trombe wall. Figure 7.18 also shows which configurations used HRV since the humidity ratio is much lower. Combination 2 is the only one that didnâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t, and it can be seen on the psychrometric chart that the humidity is sometimes an issue.

Figure 7.18|Combinations and Optimizations Pyschrometric Chart Comfort Hours

COMBINATION 1: THERMAL WRAP

Figure 7.19 shows the EUI, Comfort, and the Payback years in the size of the bubble and number inside. There is no clear optimal design but Optimization 2 has lowest payback, a low EUI, and is still comfortable according to ASHRAE 55.

COMBINATION 2: SOLAR GAIN

COMBINATION 3: SOLAR & THERMAL ZONES

Figure 7.19|Combinations and Optimizations Comfort vs EUI vs Payback Years (size of bubble)

OPTIMIZATION 1: LOWEST EUI

OPTIMIZATION 2: LOWEST PAYBACK

Air Pollution Comparison The optimizations also see the lowest annual PM2.5 emissions. Among the combinations, Combination 1 and 3 have lowest emissions and Combination 2 only saw some reduction. There relate strongly with the EUI of each configuration as well.

The Optimization 2 which has the lowest payback period, an acceptable comfort level, and had significant energy and air pollution reduction would be the most likely to be implemented by typical residents.

Figure 7.20|Combinations and Optimizations Air Pollution Emissions vs EUI

100

101

Conclusion

Overall, a significant reduction in yearly emissions of particulate matter can be achieved through retrofitting existing homes for space heating energy efficiency. The best pollution reduction would be to cease using wood stoves. However, residents will continue to burn wood for its economy. In this case, reducing space heating energy has less impact but can be significant with effective strategies. Strategies that focus on insulating the house are more effective in energy reduction than those that rely on passive solar heat gain. Passive solar is very inconsistent due to the long summer days and long winter nights. Too much heat is delivered in summer and not enough in winter to keep an acceptable comfort throughout the year.

102

Less effective strategies can be combined architecturally to synergize and create an adapted design for the house. These combinations look at creating a new architecture that expresses the energy saving method on the form and the facade. To create more effective results, the envelope adapts to the change in conditions - through movable shutters to insulate during drops in temperature or retractable louvers to allow or block solar heat gain depending on the season. Using these strategies, residents seeking to modernize their house or lower their energy consumption can effectively reduce their air pollution contribution. With mass implementation, the winter air can become cleaner and healthier for the Fairbanks citizens.

PM2.5

Wood Stove

PM2.5

Removing the wood stove completely would have the biggest impact on air pollution reduction. However, residents will continue to burn wood for its economy. Energy reducing strategies have less impact but are a pollution reducing alternative.

$$$$

Thermal envelope shows highest performance and is more reliable for retrofitting options since it can be applied to any orientation and is consistent throughout the year.

BEST SOLAR STRATEGY VS BEST ENVELOPE STRATEGY

Site EUI (kBtu/SF/yr)

Thermal Performance

Baseline Trombe Wall Envelope & Movable Louvers

Solar Heat Gain & Thermal Comfort Solar heat gain strategies are difficult to maintain comfort due to extremes of solar exposure in summer and winter.

SUNROOM WITH REMOVABLE LOUVERS

Figure 8.1|Design Conclusions

103

Total Air Pollution As mentioned previously, Optimization 2: Lowest Payback Period would be most likely to be implemented by typical residents. Extrapolating from the average data, 25% of 1970s houses match the base case in

that they use oil boilers with wood stoves. If those houses were to all retrofit their houses with the strategies in Optimizations 2, the annual PM2.5 emissions could decrease by 63%.

Figure 8.2|Air Pollution Reduction with Widespread Implementation

104

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Appendix i: Climate

Average seasonal temperatures get as low as -20ยบF each year and can be much colder. Snowfall typically begins in October and lasts until May. On the other end of the spectrum, summers are quite mild with few days above 80ยบF. Skin dominated buildings such as detached homes do not need a cooling system. The combination of cold temperatures and snow covered landscape lead to the temperature inversions that compound the particulate matter concentrations. The low air temperatures are caught under the warmer air off the mountains and the white

106

snow reflects away the solar energy so it does not absorb and warm the air at the city level. The high latitude means that the solstices amounts of daylight are at extremes. The winter solstice experiences only 4 hours between sunrise and sunset while the summer solstice reaches 21 hours of day. The limited solar exposure makes solar thermal strategies more difficult for this region.

Figure A|Fairbanks Psychrometric Chart The pyschrometric chart shows hourly annual temperature and humidity for Fairbanks. Red dots indicate when the conditions are outside the thermal comfort zone and green indicates when conditions are comfortable and no heating or cooling is required. Few dots show conditions requiring cooling which concludes that only heating is required. Source: Climate Consultant

107

Figure B|Wind Diagram Winds are primarily from the North and South West. If possible obstructions such as landscaping should be placed in these relative directions in order to reduce the chill. Source: Climate Consultant

Figure C|Sun Path Diagram The high northern latitude creates long solar exposure in the summer and short solar exposure in the winter. In winter, the sun may only be up for four hours on the winter solstice. Solar energy is not a consistent source for the winter months so may not be a reliable alternative energy. Source: Gaisma.com

108

2014

Figure D|Dry Bulb Temperatures

LOCAL CLIMATOLOGICAL DATA 65ยบF in summer. Without taking humidity into account, it shows that heating is the main priority for houses ANNUAL SUMMARY WITH COMPARATIVE DATA Temperatures typically reach -20ยบF in winter and only

while passive strategies can be used for cooling when ISSN 0197-9728 needed.

FAIRBANKS, ALASKA (PAFA)

109

Appendix ii: Precedents

Cold Climate Precedents Locations for precedents with similar climates were based on the Kรถppen-Geiger world map. Fairbanks is classified as DFC - Snowy, fully humid, and cool summers climate. Other countries that has similar classifications were Sweden and Finland so those countries were referenced for possible cold climate strategies.

Figure A|Kรถppen Geiger Map Source: Kรถppen Geiger

110

University of Alaska Fairbanks Sustainable Village 2012 Student housing for the University of Alaska. It tests out different cold climate active strategies such as solar thermal and radiant floor heating in Fairbanks, AK. Architecturally it is organized such that the glazing faces south with no glazing facing north. Source: University of Alaska. http://www.uaf.edu/sustainability/sustainable-village/

111

Box House Ralph Erskine 1942 Sweden The box house is an example of cold climate passive design. The small footprint tries to reduce heat loss through the envelope. The wood storage on the north side acts as an extra layer of insulation. The windows face south and west. Erskine preferred warmer mornings so was taking advantage of the solar heat gain. The programmatic layout of the house is very simple with two main spaces and a hearth in the middle. Storage was pressed against the north facade, again to insulate and to take advantage of the long wall without glazing. The kitchen and hearth have little glazing so that the heat will radiate to the rest of the house when in use. Source: Alvarado, Paula.“The Box: Ralph Erskine’s Precursory Tiny House in the Swedish Woods”.http://www.treehugger.com/green-architecture/box-ralph-erskinesprecursory-tiny-house-swedish-woods.html

112

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Villa Sari ARRAK Architects 2000 Finland Villa Sari also utilizes passive strategies for a cold climate. Itâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s built into the side of a hill to buffer the northern facade against wind. The glazing faces southward to maximize solar heat gain. It utilizes a sunroom and louvered shading to bring in sun only during the summer. The kitchen and the sauna both have no glazing in order to retain the heat produced inside the house. Source: Arrak Architects. http://www.arrak.com/pages/villa_sari/30s_villa_sari.htm

114

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Appendix iii: Thesis Presentations Thesis 1 Spring 2015 Instructor: Bethan Llewellyn Yen I formulated a problem statement and did background research into the Fairbanks climate, air pollution issue, housing and construction, as well as some precedent analysis. I began developing the base case for my energy model.

Over the summer, I visited Alaska to meet with people from the Cold Climate Housing Research Center. I gathered more resources as well as drove to different neighborhoods to take observation data.

Thesis 2 Fall 2015 Instructors: Ann Cederna & Hyojin Kim I clarified my project statement and finished verifying my energy model for my base case. I continued my research into more specific measures and began my architectural analysis of them through sketches. I conducted technical analysis of my energy saving measures with my energy model and compared the energy, comfort, and payback period of each one.

116

I then compared all the individual measures and developed combinations and optimizations. I repeated the process of architectural studies and technical analysis. The last stage was compiling the information into a graphical format.

Reducing Air Pollution Through High Performance Homes DESIGN ANALYSIS Windows to the South With few - no obstructions Golds

Buffer North/North-East Winds with obstructions such as landscape

tream Road

High

way

Sheep Creek Road

Road

Chena Hot Springs Rd

Dome

Stee

Murphy

Effects: •Respiratory issues (gets into lungs) •Cardiac problems •Smog •Erosion

Road

p Road

Colle

Road

Airport Way

Nordale Road

Roa

r Road Badge

Parks Highway

ve Ri

Chen

ge Rid

na Che

a Pum

Can originate from two processes: primary sources (direct emissions) or secondary sources (it is formed in the atmosphere from other gases)

Che

Fairbanks was labeled Non-Attainment by the EPA for 24 hour concentrations of PM2.5 reaching greater than 35 µg/m3

Loop

PARTICULATE MATTER

Fairbanks, Alaska suffers from outdoor air quality issues due to the residential space heating required to stay warm during the extreme winter conditions. High concentrations of particulate matter are exhausted to the atmosphere from wood stoves and oil furnaces, which are economical fuels for many single-family detached homes. The concentrations have exceeded the National Ambient Air Quality Standards making the outdoor air harmful to humans and the environment. The pollutants can be mitigated through retrofit options for existing homes as well as a prototype design to guide new construction. These options seek to optimizes energy use as well as integrate the heating system to reduce the harmful exhaust.

er's Farm

PROBLEM STATEMENT

Rich ard

son Hig

hwa y

Bad ger

FAIRBANKS NORTH STAR BOROUGH, ALASKA

Roa d

Sources were modeled through taking air samples and comparing concentrations to source profiles designated by the EPA.

City of Fairbanks •Second largest city in Alaska •Surrounded by mountains on the Northeast, North, & West sides •North of the Tanana River

Fairbanks North Star Borough EPA PM 25 NA BOUNDARY Approved December, 2008 EPA PM25 NA Boundary MPO Boundary

Compact footprint to reduce perimeter heat loss and infiltration

Prepared by Fairbanks North Star Borough Department of Community Planning TD January 6, 2009

SOURCE: AK DEPARTMENT OF ENVIRONMENTAL CONSERVATION

Tanana R iver

“Arctic Entry” Mudroom-like space to reduce infiltration

10 Miles

Locate program so activity spaces receive solar heat and secondary spaces/unconditioned buffer from winds

Jan. 28, 2015 2:58PM “Moderate” to “Unhealthy” day with low visibility. A stack can be seen emitting exhaust above the temperature inversion.

Bath

Garage

Bedroom

Mech

Climate •Annual HDD65 = 13,980 •Annual CDD65 = 74 •Climate Zone 8 •Winter Solstice = 4 hrs of daylight •Summer Solstice = 21 hrs of daylight •Topography causes temperature inversions during the winter

Jan. 18 2015 3:01PM “Moderate” day with low visibility. The layer of smog indicates a temperature inversion.

Storage

Buffer

Jan. 8 2015 3:00PM Mostly “Good” day with high visibility. No atmospheric stratification.

Bedroom

Kitchen

Living

Passive heating

Conclusions •Skin dominated buildings do not need cooling •Solar strategies are best used for summer •Temperature inversions trap air making the city more susceptible to pollution 1mi

PERFORMANCE STRATEGIES

2mi

Population: 32,000 64ºN, 147ºW

CITY OF FAIRBANKS

Replace with more efficient windows

Reduce Exhaust

TEMPERATURE INVERSION

HEAT REFLECTED OFF THE SNOW

Retrofit

Reduce Loads

CLIMATE

WARM AIR

Change to less pollutant heating system

More efficient heating system

Wood storage

Seal building & reduce infiltration

Add insulation

Different Construction Method (Vacuum Insulated Panels)

Passive solar heating

Add heat recovery ventilation

Optimize layout

Optimize orientation

Active thermal mass system

NEW CONSTRUCTION CASE STUDIES SOURCE: FNSB AIR QUALITY DIVISION

COOL AIR

Habitat for Humanity has a prototype house for Juneau Alaska in which is 1,190 SF.

Wood Smoke •Primary source •Amount of PM2.5 depends on moisture content of wood •Surveys correlated use of wood stoves and heaters with areas in the non-attainment zone •Cheaper alternative to other fuel sources •70% of smoke can enter interior of home creating IEQ problems as well

SOURCE: CLIMATE CONSULTANT

Strategies: Compact Floor Area Piping/Duct Work kept to minimum Use a Heat Recover Ventilation

Oil-fired Furnace •Secondary source from sulfates H2SO4 PM2.5 (ammonium sulfate) •Emits SO2 NH3 •Most common fuel type

SOURCE: ALASKA CLIMATE RESEARCH CENTER

Conclusions •Wood heaters should be exchanged for another economical heating source since they have the most concentrated emissions •Cannot just change fuel source but must optimize energy use as well

20’ Obstruction 50’ away from point

CURRENT HOUSING

University of Alaska Fairbanks created 4 prototype houses used for student housing in which they tested out different strategies. The houses are 1,600 SF

PRELIMINARY ENERGY MODEL 72% of homes are single-family detached houses Average house size: 1,844 SF Average Energy: 143 kBtu/SF Annually Average Ventilation: <6 ACH @ 50 Pascals 65% do not have continuous ventilation system

After 1987

1978-1985

~2,700 SF

NW House

SW House

NE House

SE House

Equest Model •30’x60’ (1,800 SF) •Single Floor •Based on simple house typology found in problem region •Modeled based on 1980s data Conclusions •Infiltration = Major Source of Energy Loss •More insulation

Conclusions: •Older houses are using more energy due to less efficient systems and leaky construction: Retrofit options should target those areas •Homes are built very tightly making them more susceptible to IEQ issues: Mechanical ventilation required with heat recovery

Strategies: Compact Floor Area Pile foundations vs Foam Raft Use a Heat Recovery Ventilation Use of Solar thermal collectors Radiant Floor distribution

INSULATION 1980s (Modeled) IECC

~1,700 SF

CEILING R=34 R=49

After 2 years of measurement, the NW has performed best using 43 million Btus annually

! !"#"F% G>77H-*C%&0:1% ! B1)02)*3!IJ,$/!G.J0$M!! !

RETROFIT CASE STUDIES

~1,400 SF

Part of a study done by U.S. DOE looking into Cold Climate Deep Energy Retrofits in Massachusetts Built in 1953 1868 SF

WINDOW R=0.27 U=0.35

Fairbanks North Star Borough: Average Energy Use Per Square Foot by Decade Built 200 160

WALL R=18 R=21

140

1996 Google Maps

120 100 80

1930

1940

1950

1960

FLOOR R=25 R=38

1970

1980

1990

2000

2010

2020

Decade Built

QVWF!

QBTXT!)AP!"/3.-("/0!A5%!<'6%2%/A!

Added insulation to Roof, exterior of Wall, and floor.

40 0 1920

Increased efficiency of systems

60 20

E'&%!

N,,#'8!A$5#!B1)0.M! ?0''#!N#$5M! !

180 EUI (kBtus/year/SF)

1956-1968

! C0>D"%'HRE'!"%W"%1"#(01'\0..?D"G'-*3%'

Replaced Windows Reduced infiltration with membrane

CRAWL SPACE ! C0>D"%'NQE'Z;#31'0&+"%)%&1*.')#/%.0&>'"%6D.16'(#"'1=%'\0..?D"G'-*3%' Saw 23% savings in Energy Reduction

SOURCE: 2014 ALASKA HOUSING ASSESSMENT

1I'".'<.%!%.%3A$"3"A9!-6%!)$*2!<%)*$%!'/(!')A%$!A5%!$%A$*)"A!"6!0$'&5%(!!"/!H"0-$%!NQ>!J*/A5.9! "/3$%2%/A'.!-6%!('A'!*)!(%."I%$%(!)-%.6!c&%..%A6B!*".B!'/(!&$*&'/%d!;%$%!/*A!'I'".'<.%h!*/.9!A*A'.! -6%!('A'!;%$%!'I'".'<.%!)*$!A5%!3'.3-.'A"*/6!"/!4'<.%!W>!,%3'-6%!*)!A5%!6;"A35!)$*2!*".!A*!'"$! 6*-$3%!5%'A!&-2&!5%'A"/0B!%.%3A$"3"A9!-6%!'3A-'..9!"/3$%'6%(!')A%$!A5%!$%A$*)"A!)$*2!OBWOG!A*! QQBGWT!\U5S9$>!!

! !

! NO!

C0>D"%'HYE'!#61W"%1"#(01'\0..?D"G'-*3%''

45%!&$*_%3A!A%'2!)*$!A5"6!D'A"*/'.!R$"(!@8:!3*/6"6A%(!*)!?9/%$09!E*/6A$-3A"*/!'6!A5%!3*/A$'3A*$! '/(!U".6*/!,$*6>!Z%'A"/0!t!1"$!E*/("A"*/"/0!'6!A5%!Z^1E!3*/A$'3A*$B!;"A5!,?E!'3A"/0!'6!'! 3*/6-.A'/A>!! !

NW!

! C0>D"%'NHE'!"%W'*&/'3#61W"%1"#(01')#&1=.G'%.%+1"0+01G'D6%'(#"'1=%'\0..?D"G'-*3%' '

OO!

117

Fairbanks, Alaska

Retrofit for Energy Efficiency in Alaska

Existing Houses FAIRBANKS The Golden Heart City Largest City in Interior Alaska Population: 32,324

Analysis of Energy Efficiency Retrofit Measures for Single Family Homes in Fairbanks, Alaska

Baseline House

AGE & ENERGY PERFORMANCE

SPACE HEATING SYSTEMS

Most of the existing housing stock was constructed pre-1990s with the greatest amount built in the 1970s. These older homes have worse energy performance due to wear, outdated construction standards and old appliances.

Most houses use a boiler with baseboard heating as their primary heating system. However, wood stoves are a popular secondary system to supplement space heating due to fuel prices.

City Area: 33 sq mi Less than 120 mi south of the Arctic Circle Local Economy: mining, transportation, tourism, & military

PRIMARY HEATING SYSTEMS

NOTABLE SITES University of Alaska Fairbanks

Marie Hunnell Sheehan M.Arch & MSSD

Fairbanks North Star Borough: Average Energy Use Per Square Foot by Decade Built

Downtown

200 180

Fort Wainwright Army Base

160 EUI (kBtus/year/SF)

Fairbanks International Airport

Fairbanks, Alaska suffers from outdoor air pollution, including high concentrations of particulate matter, primarily caused by high residential space heating requirements during the severe winter conditions. Exhaust from heating devices such as wood stoves and oil boilers produce high concentrations of PM2.5 causing winter air pollution levels to exceed the 24 hour PM2.5 limit of 35µg/m3 set by the National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS). Through implementing retrofit measures to reduce fuel consumption for space heating, PM2.5 emissions may be reduced. These retrofit measures focus on reducing energy use as well as enhancing the architectural quality of the house. Combinations of different measures were considered for their architectural synergy and increased energy performance. Energy analysis was done through the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) EnergyPlus 8.1.0 and the architecture was explored through drawings of facades, plans, and construction details. The results of this study are expected to provide an index of retrofit options for Fairbanks homeowners that can benefit the quality of the space they live in, decrease their energy consumption and reduce their air pollution contribution.

140 120 100 80 60 40 20 0 1920

1930

1940

1950

1960

1970

1980

1990

2000

2010

2020

Decade Built

SECONDARY HEATING SYSTEMS

SOURCE: 2014 ALASKA HOUSING ASSESSMENT

Methodology

SOURCE: NORTHERN ECONOMICS INC. 2013

EXISTING HOUSING TYPOLOGY PROBLEM

ZONES:

KITCHE

PM 2.5

Air pollution caused by the exhaust from wood stoves and oil boilers reaches critical concentrations during the winter making the outdoor air harmful.

BEDRO

GARAGE (NOT HEATED) WOOD STOVE

BASEBOARD HEATING

LIVING

PM 2.5

OIL BOILER

OBJECTIVE

2014

To reduce the amount of air pollution being emitted through increasing energy efficiency using active and passive retrofit measures.

Less PM 2.5 emitted

Same amount of heat required

EXISTING SYSTEM

ACTIVE RETROFIT

LOCAL CLIMATOLOGICAL DATA ANNUAL SUMMARY WITH COMPARATIVE DATA

Less PM 2.5 emitted

Less heat required

PASSIVE RETROFIT

FAIRBANKS, ALASKA (PAFA)

Climate

FUEL COMPARISON

2014

LOCAL CLIMATOLOGICAL DATA ANNUAL SUMMARY WITH COMPARATIVE DATA FAIRBANKS, ALASKA (PAFA)

ANALYSIS

ISSN 0197-9728

While oil is the most used, wood is second due to its cheaper price and the availability to gather it on one’s own. However, houses that use a wood stove as their secondary heater tend to use more energy on an annual MMBtu basis. This is due to the inefficiency of the wood burning devices. Wood also has the worst PM2.5 emission rate of all the fuels. While EPA certified stoves are more efficient and have less emissions, they still are one of the primary sources of the particulate matter pollution.

ISSN 0197-9728

ENERGY

Using combinations of architectural sketches and energy simulation software to test out different retrofit measures and assessing their impact on the architecture, energy consumption, and comfort of the house.

FUEL PRICES AND EMISSIONS

ARCHITECTURE

I CERTIFY THAT THIS IS AN OFFICIAL PUBLICATION OF THE NATIONAL OCEANIC AND ATMOSPHERIC ADMINISTRATION, AND IS COMPILED FROM RECORDS ON FILE AT THE NATIONAL CLIMATIC DATA CENTER. NATIONAL NATIONAL OCEANIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL SATELLITE, DATA ATMOSPHERIC ADMINISTRATION AND INFORMATION SERVICE

GOAL To provide an index of retrofit options for Fairbanks homeowners that can reduce their energy consumption and air pollution contribution

SITE EUI OF HOUSES WITH AND WITHOUT WOOD STOVES

COMFORT

NATIONAL CLIMATIC DATA CENTER ASHEVILLE, NORTH CAROLINA

DIRECTOR NATIONAL CLIMATIC DATA CENTER

MPH 35+ 35 24 16 13 10 7 4 1

12% INCREASE

WINTER

NATIONAL CLIMATIC DATA CENTER ASHEVILLE, NORTH CAROLINA

SPRING

DIRECTOR NATIONAL CLIMATIC DATA CENTER

SUMMER

FALL

SUN PATH PM2.5 Emission Factor lb PM2.5/Btu Oil Boiler Only

Fairbanks Air Pollution Fairbanks was labeled NonAttainment by the EPA for 24 hour concentrations of PM2.5 reaching greater than 35 µg/m3

Precedents University of Alaska, Sustainable Village Fairbanks AK

Oil Boiler & Wood Stove

1970s House Specifications Box House, Ralph Erskine Sweden

Villa Sari, Arrak Architects Pori, Finland

SITE

ENVELOPE

Residential Zones where houses were primarily constructed before 1980

Roof Rafters U=0.03

Effects: •Respiratory issues •Cardiac problems •Smog •Erosion

2x4, 16” o.c. Above Grade Wall U=0.07

Can originate from two processes: primary sources (direct emissions) or secondary sources (it is formed in the atmosphere from other gases)

Double Pane Glass Windows U=0.53

Above Grade Floor U=0.41

Property lines overlaid with zoning Jan. 8 2015 3:00PM Mostly “Good” day with high visibility. No atmospheric stratification.

10’

8” Concrete Foundation Wall with finished basement U=0.14 BASELINE

5’

Concrete slab U=0.33

20’

Jan. 28, 2015 2:58PM “Moderate” to “Unhealthy” day with low visibility. A stack can be seen emitting exhaust above the temperature inversion.

15’

118

15’

Baseline House

Passive Measures TROMBE WALL

SPACE HEATING SYSTEMS

SUNROOM

WOOD STORAGE

INSULATED SHUTTERS

THERMAL ENVELOPE

ADDITION TO THE BACK

INCREASE RESISTANCE & REDUCE INFILTRATION

Most houses use a boiler with baseboard heating as their primary heating system. However, wood stoves are a popular secondary system to supplement space heating due to fuel prices.

PRIMARY HEATING SYSTEMS

PROGR OPTION

WINTER WINDS

GAR (NOT

FRONT

SECONDARY HEATING SYSTEMS

ANY ORIENTATION

KITC

BEDR

FRONT

LIVIN EXISTING

SOURCE: NORTHERN ECONOMICS INC. 2013

U = 0.03

ADDED R20 INSULATION

ZONES:

U = 0.018

EXISTING

KITCHEN

EXISTING

6.7 @ ACH50 U = 0.07

8’ SUNROOM

16” CONCRETE MASS WALL

6” GAP

3” LOUVERS SPACED 2”

EUI Reduction

EUI PM2.5 (lb)

Baseline (No Wood Stove) 152.2

Baseline (With Wood Stove) 165.1

No Data

2.70

112.75

Annual Energy Cost Savings PM2.5 (lb) PM2.5 Reduction

Base Case 165.1

$5,798

112.75

Fixed Louvers 160.5 2.8%

Movable louvers 158.4 4.1%

60"x18" Internal Window 157.0 5.0%

No Internal Window 156.7 5.1%

$5,599.63 $5,586.34 $5,573.91 $5,566.20 $198.12

$211.41

$223.84

$231.56

106.27

108.05

106.66

105.94

5.8%

4.2%

5.4%

6.0%

EUI Reduction Annual Energy Cost Savings PM2.5 (lb) PM2.5 Reduction

180 Orientation 164.6

Fixed Louvers 163.8 0.5%

Dormer +Movable Louvers 161.6 1.8%

Movable Louvers 161.6 1.9%

Direct Gain 161.1 2.1%

$5,785

$5,763

$5,704

$5,703

$5,687

$22

$81

$82

$97

107.57

105.47

109.65

3.5%

5.4%

1.6%

111.45

NEW: GAS FILLED

4 @ACH50

U = 0.18 EXISTING

U = 0.07 NEW

U = 0.034

U = 0.03

(BIRCH WOOD LOGS R=12)

EUI Reduction Annual Energy Cost Savings PM2.5 (lb) PM2.5 Reduction

Base Case 165.1

$5,798

112.75

Low Storage Full Storage 164.1 163.4 0.6% 1.0% $5,770

$5,750

$28

$48

112.73

112.72

0.0%

Base Case Added Insulation (h-ft2-F/Btu) EUI Reduction Annual Energy Cost Savings PM2.5 (lb) PM2.5 Reduction

SITE EUI OF HOUSES WITH AND WITHOUT WOOD STOVES

Hinged shutter

Roll shutter

3@ACH50 with Heat Recovery Ventilation 162.6 1.5%

3@ACH50 with no Mechanical Recovery Ventilation 158.9 3.8%

Replace Windows 156.2 5.4%

Add R15 to Walls 124.6 24.5%

Replace Windows and add R15 115.8 29.9%

$5,798

$5,707

$5,630

$5,554

$4,684

$4,444

$90

$168

$244

$1,114

$1,354

112.75

106.75

103.10

104.50

84.55

71.47

5.3%

8.6%

7.3%

25.0%

36.6%

Track shutters

165.1

162.6 1.5%

160.7 2.7%

EUI Reduction

$5,798

$5,731

$5,730

$5,695

$67

$68

$102

Annual Energy Cost Savings

112.75

107.76

108.03

107.73

4.4%

4.2%

4.5%

PM2.5 (lb) PM2.5 Reduction

Base Case 165.1

12% INCREASE

Oil Boiler Only

Oil Boiler & Wood Stove

ENVELOPE Roof Rafters U=0.03

2x4, 16” o.c. Above Grade Wall U=0.07

Double Pane Glass Windows U=0.53

ADDED INSULATION AND WINDOW REPLACEMENT

Above Grade Floor U=0.41

8” Concrete Foundation Wall with finished basement U=0.14 BASELINE

TROMBE WALL WITH MOVABLE LOUVERS

SUNROOM WITH MOVABLE LOUVERS

PROGR OPTION

U = 0.53

NEW

ADDED R15 RIGID INSULATION

NEW

LIVING

2014 Alaska Housing Assessment 1970s House 152.0

TRACK INSULATED SHUTTER R=6

EXISTING

16” CONCRETE MASS WALL

INTERNAL WINDOW DOUBLE PANE GLASS BEDROOM

GARAGE (NOT HEATED)

NEW

FULL WOOD STORAGE

TRACK INSULATED SHUTTERS

SEALED WITH HEAT RECOVERY VENTILATION

Concrete slab U=0.33

119

Active Measures INSULATED SHUTTERS

THERMAL ENVELOPE

INTERIOR REMODEL

Individual Measures Summary

UPDATE HEATERS

ACTIVE SOLAR

Combinations

ARCHITECTURAL SYNERGIES

INCREASE RESISTANCE & REDUCE INFILTRATION

COMBINATION 1: THERMAL WRAP TROMBE WALL WITH MOVABLE LOUVERS

COMBINATION 1: THERMAL WRAP

EXISTING

30,000 Btu/hr 63% Eff.

SUNROOM WITH MOVABLE LOUVERS

NEW

HEAT EMITTING ZONES MOVED TO THE INTERIOR

28,600 Btu/hr 80% Eff

2.3 kW PV System

EXISTING

100,000 Btu/hr 80% Eff. NEW

PROGRAM OPTION 1

92,000 Btu/hr 88% Eff

FULL FACADE WOOD STORAGE COMBINATION 2: SOLAR HEAT GAIN

INSULATED SHUTTERS ON A TRACK

Flat Panel Solar Thermal for Domestic Hot Water GARAGE (NOT HEATED)

ANY ORIENTATION

FRONT

ANY ORIENTATION

KITCHEN

BEDROOM

THERMAL ENVELOPE

FRONT

LIVING

FRONT

COMBINATION 3: SOLAR AND THERMAL ZONES

EXISTING

U = 0.03

ADDED R20 INSULATION

NEW

U = 0.018

EXISTING

6.7 @ ACH50 TRACK INSULATED SHUTTER R=6

NEW: GAS FILLED

4 @ACH50

U = 0.18

ADDED R15 RIGID INSULATION

INTERIOR RETROFIT

PROGRAM OPTION 2

U = 0.53

NEW

Solar Thermal Panel at 62º

PV Panel at 55º

EXISTING

U = 0.07 NEW

U = 0.03

NEW HEATERS

COMBINATION 2: SOLAR GAIN

• Trombe Wall • Photovoltaic Panels • Interior Retrofit • Wood Storage • New Heaters

SOLAR PANELS

Hinged shutter

Roll shutter

Track shutters

162.6 1.5%

160.7 2.7%

$5,731

$5,730

$5,695

$67

$68

$102

107.76

108.03

107.73

4.4%

4.2%

4.5%

EUI Reduction Annual Energy Cost Savings PM2.5 (lb) PM2.5 Reduction

Base Case 165.1

$5,798

112.75

3@ACH50 with Heat Recovery Ventilation 162.6 1.5%

3@ACH50 with no Mechanical Recovery Ventilation 158.9 3.8%

Replace Windows 156.2 5.4%

Add R15 to Walls 124.6 24.5%

Replace Windows and add R15 115.8 29.9%

$5,707

$5,630

$5,554

$4,684

$4,444

$90

$168

$244

$1,114

$1,354

106.75

103.10

104.50

84.55

71.47

5.3%

8.6%

7.3%

25.0%

36.6%

EUI Reduction Annual Energy Cost Savings PM2.5 (lb) PM2.5 Reduction

Base Case 165.1

Program Option 1 164.7 0.3%

Program Option 2 163.6 0.9%

$5,798

$5,786

$5,754

$12

$44

112.75

111.07

99.32

1.5%

11.9%

EUI Reduction Annual Energy Cost Savings PM2.5 (lb) PM2.5 Reduction

Base Case 165.1

Low Storage Full Storage 164.1 163.4 0.6% 1.0%

$5,798

$5,769.66 $5,750.10

112.75

$28.09

$47.66

112.73

112.72

0.0%

EUI Reduction Annual Energy Cost Savings PM2.5 (lb) PM2.5 Reduction

Base Case 165.1

PV Panels 160.3 2.9%

Solar Thermal Panels 157.6 4.5%

Both 152.0 7.9%

$5,798

$5,321

$5,645

$5,090

$477

$153

$708

112.75

0.0%

112.75

BASELINE

OPTIMIZATION 1: LOWEST EUI

INTERIOR RETROFIT

FULL FACADE WOOD STORAGE

FRONT

SUNROOM WITH MOVABLE LOUVERS

INSULATED SHUTTERS ON A TRACK

OPTIMIZATION 2: LOWEST PAYBACK PERIOD ACTIVE SOLAR

TROMBE WALL WITH MOVABLE LOUVERS

NEW HEATERS

THERMAL ENVELOPE

COMBINATION 3: SOLAR AND THERMAL ZONES

MONTHLY ELECTRICITY: PV & GRID

• Sunroom • Solar Thermal Panels • Interior Retrofit • Thermal Envelope • New Heaters

ADDED INSULATION AND WINDOW REPLACEMENT

FRONT

MONTHLY DOMESTIC HOTWATER: SOLAR PANEL & BOILER TRACK INSULATED SHUTTERS

SEALED WITH HEAT RECOVERY VENTILATION

120

MOVED BEDROOMS TO THE REAR

NEW BOILER AND STOVE

ations

Combinations & Optimizations Performance

Conclusions

COMBINATION 1: THERMAL WRAP

NATION 1: THERMAL WRAP

• Trombe Wall • Thermal Envelope • Insulated Shutters • Wood Storage • New Heaters

COMBINATION 2: SOLAR GAIN • Trombe Wall • Photovoltaic Panels • Interior Retrofit • Wood Storage • New Heaters

COMBINATION 3: SOLAR & THERMAL ZONES • Sunroom • Solar Thermal Panels • Interior Retrofit • Thermal Envelope • New Heaters

OPTIMIZATION 1: LOWEST EUI • Trombe Wall • Thermal Envelope • Insulated Shutters • Wood Storage • New Heaters • PV Panels • Solar Thermal Panels • Interior Retrofit

FRONT

OPTIMIZATION 2: LOWEST PAYBACK • Trombe Wall • Thermal Envelope • PV Panels • New Heaters

Effective Strategies WOOD STOVE Removing the wood stove completely would have the biggest impact on air pollution reduction. However, residents will continue to burn wood for its economy. Energy reducing strategies have less impact but are a pollution reducing alternative.

NATION 2: SOLAR GAIN

• Trombe Wall • Photovoltaic Panels • Interior Retrofit • Wood Storage • New Heaters

PM 2.5

$ PM 2.5

$$$$

OPTIMIZATION 2: LOWEST PAYBACK

THERMAL PERFORMANCE

BEST SOLAR STRATEGY VS BEST ENVELOPE STRATEGY

Thermal envelope shows highest performance and is more reliable for retrofitting options since it can be applied to any orientation and is consistent throughout the year.

FRONT

SOLAR & COMFORT OPTIMIZATION 1: LOWEST EUI

COMBINATION 3: SOLAR & THERMAL ZONES

Solar heat gain strategies are difficult to maintain comfort due to extremes of solar exposure in summer and winter.

SUNROOM WITH REMOVABLE LOUVERS

TOTAL AIR POLLUTION

NATION 3: SOLAR AND THERMAL ZONES

Applying the Optimization 2: Lowest Payback to the 1970s houses that use wood stoves will result in 63% reduction in yearly PM2.5 emissions. COMBINATION 2: SOLAR GAIN

COMBINATION 1: THERMAL WRAP

• Sunroom • Solar Thermal Panels • Interior Retrofit • Thermal Envelope • New Heaters

FRONT

121

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Image Credits

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