THE VENETIAN WALLS OF NICOSIA PROTOTYPE OF EUROPEAN RENAISSANCE MILITARY ARCHITECTURE
Marios Kypridemos
Acknowledgements I would like to thank my supervisor Dr Martin Beattie for the time spent and support offered to me during the process of writing this dissertation. I would also like to thank the historian and author Mrs Anna Marangou, the architect Mr Diomedes Myrianthefs and the author Dr Christodoulos Hadjichristodoulou for their useful advice, guidance and assistance at the early stage of the writing.
Abstract Since their construction in 1567, the Venetian walls of Nicosia (Lefkosia) is a symbolic and significant monument for the capital of Cyprus, with great historical and architectural value. By analyzing that value through their investigation, you realise their importance and impact to Nicosia and the European Renaissance military architecture. This is the aim of the dissertation, which explores various aspects of the Venetian walls such as the decision and the preparation for their construction and their usage, the conceptual idea of the walls, the military architectural techniques that were adopted for their construction, the siege by the Ottoman Empire and their effectiveness against it. Furthermore, it investigates the human interference and interventions made to the walls since their construction until today as well as their future. Through the analysis of these aspects and the comparison of the Venetian walls with a fortification built earlier in 1561 (Candia walls) and a fortification built later in 1593 (fortress of Palmanova), one realises why the Venetian walls of Nicosia is a prototype for the European Renaissance military architecture.
Contents Chapter 1: Introduction
11
Chapter 2: History of the Venetian fortifications of Nicosia 2.1 Cyprus under the Republic of Venice 2.2 The decision for the fortification of the island 2.3 Giulio Savorgnano and the preparation for the construction of the walls
15 15 17 19
Chapter 3: The concept and construction of the Venetian walls 3.1 The conceptual idea 3.2 The military architectural construction of the walls
23 23 26
Chapter 4: The fortifications of Nicosia during the siege 4.1 The Ottoman siege (the walls in practise) 4.2 The causes for the fall of Nicosia and the effectiveness of the walls
29 29 32
Chapter 5: The Venetian walls after the siege 5.1 The human interference on the walls 5.2 The walls of Nicosia as prototype for subsequent European fortifications
35 35 39
Chapter 6: Conclusion
43
Bibliography
47
List of Illusstrations Cover image: Topographical map of Nicosia. Antreas Stylianou, The history of the cartography of Nicosia (Nicosia: Leventis Municipal Museum, 1989), p. 67
Chapter 1: Introduction Figure 1
The South part of the Venetian walls in 1971. [Online image] Available at: http://www.corbisimages.com/stock-photo/rights-managed/JB012386/aerialview-of-nicosia-cyprus [accessed 13 January 2016]
Figure 2
Aerial view of Nicosia and the Venetian walls. [Online image] Available at: http://www.topcyprus.net/info/cities/nicosia/venecianskie-ukrasheniya.html [accessed 13 January 2016]
Chapter 2: History of the Venetian fortifications of Nicosia Figure 3
Catherine Cornaro. Anna G. Marangou, Nicosia: The History of the City (Nicosia: Kasoulides and Son, 2009), p. 49
Figure 4
The Venetian lion of St Mark. Kevork K. Keshishian, Nicosia: Capital of Cyprus Then and Now, trans. by Kypros P. Psillides (Nicosia: Bookshop Moufflon, 1989), p. 71
Figure 5
Map of the fortification of Kyrenia. Chrysoyla Tzompanaki, Venetian Fortifications in Crete and Cyprus: Similarities of the War Monuments (Nicosia: Anastasios G. Leventis Foundation, 1998), p. 33
Figure 6
Map of the fortification of Famagusta. Chrysoyla Tzompanaki, Venetian Fortifications in Crete and Cyprus: Similarities of the War Monuments, p. 38
Figure 7
Map of the Candia walls. Chrysoyla Tzompanaki, Venetian Fortifications in Crete and Cyprus: Similarities of the War Monuments, p. 31
Figure 8
Map of the demolished buildings outside the Venetian walls. Anna G. Marangou, Nicosia: The History of the City, p. 108
Figure 9
Map of the Venetian and Lusignan walls of Nicosia. Kevork K. Keshishian, Nicosia: Capital of Cyprus Then and Now, p. 32
Chapter 3: The concept and construction of the Venetian walls Figure 10
Map of Nicosia with the names of the bastions. Anna G. Marangou, Nicosia: The History of the City, p. 106
Figure 11
The Kyrenia Gate. Nicholas Coureas and others, Historic Nicosia, ed. by D. Michaelides (Nicosia: Rimal Publications, 2012), p. 352
Figure 12
The Paphos Gate. Nicholas Coureas and others, Historic Nicosia, p. 205
Figure 13
The Famagusta Gate. Agni Petrides and others, Famagusta Gate (Nicosia: The Old Nicosia Association, 1988), p. 20
Figure 14
Porta Zorzi of the Candia walls in Crete. Agni Petrides and others, Famagusta Gate, p. 20
Figure 15
The design of the bastion used in Nicosia. Gianni M. Perbellini, The Fortress of Nicosia: Prototype of European Renaissance Military Architecture (Nicosia: Anastasios G. Leventis Foundation, 1994), p. 19
Figure 16
Original sketch by Giulio Savorgnano. Agni Petrides and others, Famagusta Gate, p. 11
Chapter 4: The fortifications of Nicosia during the siege Figure 17
Map representing the Ottoman siege. Antreas Stylianou, The history of the cartography of Nicosia, p. 35
Figure 18
The siege of Nicosia. Antreas Stylianou, The history of the cartography of Nicosia, p. 37
Figure 19
Plan of Nicosia with indications concerning the Ottoman siege. Antreas Stylianou, The history of the cartography of Nicosia, p. 52
Figure 20
Map of Nicosia showing the urban layout of the city. Danilo Demi, The walled city of Nicosia: Typology study (Nicosia: United Nations Development Programme, 1997), p. 40
Chapter 5: The Venetian walls after the siege Figure 21
The map of Nicosia made by Kitchener in 1882. Danilo Demi, The walled city of Nicosia: Typology study, p. 188
Figure 22
The Metaxas Square in 1950. Nicholas Coureas and others, Historic Nicosia, ed. by D. Michaelides, p. 344
Figure 23
The Paphos Gate today. Photograph, Author
Figure 24
The Kyrenia Gate today. Photograph, Author
Figure 25
Parade by British soldiers at the moat. Kevork K. Keshishian, Nicosia: Capital of Cyprus Then and Now, p. 85
Figure 26
Part of the Venetian walls collapsed. Despina Pilides and Euthimia Alpha, Fortified Cities: Past, Present and Future, Archaeologia Cypria, VI (Nicosia: Cultural Institution of Bank Cyprus, 2012), p. 139
Figure 27
Map of the Palmanova fortress. Anna G. Marangou, Nicosia: The History of the City, p. 131
Figure 28
The road system and layout of Nicosia and Palmanova. Kevork K. Keshishian, Nicosia: Capital of Cyprus Then and Now, p. 80
Figure 29
The bastion design of Nicosia and Palmanova. Gianni M. Perbellini, The Fortress of Nicosia: Prototype of European Renaissance Military Architecture, p. 19
Figure 30
Aerial view of the Palmanova fortress in Italy. [Online image] Available at: http://www.amusingplanet.com/2014/03/fortress-town-of-palmanova.html [accessed 16 January 2016]
Figure 31
Aerial view of the Neuf-Brisach fortress in France. [Online image] Available at: http://www.fotocommunity.de/pc/pc/display/13374979 [accessed 16 January 2016]
Chapter 6: Conclusion Figure 32
The reveal of the original part of the D’Avila bastion. Despina Pilides and Euthimia Alpha, Fortified Cities: Past, Present and Future, p. 165
Figure 33
The reveal of the Lusignan wall’s foundations at Paphos Gate. Photograph, Author
Figure 34
The construction of the new Eleftheria Square underway. Photograph, Author
Figure 35
The new Eleftheria Square by Zaha Hadid Architects. [Online image] Available at: http://www.zaha-hadid.com/masterplans/eleftheriasquare/?doing_wp_cron [accessed 11 January 2016]
Figure 36
The reformation of the moat by Zaha Hadid Architects. [Online image] Available at: http://www.zaha-hadid.com/masterplans/eleftheriasquare/?doing_wp_cron [accessed 11 January 2016]
Figure 37
The Famagusta Gate today. Photograph, Author
Figure 38
The Podocataro bastion. Photograph, Author
Figure 39
The moat between Constanza and Podocataro bastions. Photograph, Author
Chapter 1 Introduction
The topic investigated in this dissertation is the Venetian walls of Nicosia (Lefkosia) that were built in 1567 and since then they are considered to be the most valuable monument of the capital of Cyprus. The walls were built around the city as part of the fortifications made in Nicosia during the Venetian domination (1489 – 1570) to face the forthcoming attack of the Ottoman Empire to the island. During the period of their existence until today, they were highly affected by the Ottoman siege, the expansion of the city, the human interference and interventions made to the walls and the ravages of time. Although the Venetian walls is a symbolic monument for Nicosia, their significance is not well known to the majority of the people and as the Professor of Architectural Archaeology Pietro Gazzola said: ‘The Venetian walls of Nicosia, unique for their kind, is a wonderful monument for which the Cypriots should be proud of. I am afraid that very few Cypriots realise their true value, and this is because until now, they have been studied very little’.1 Therefore, I have decided to make a research on the Venetian walls of Nicosia in order to acquaint their value through my dissertation. The way to achieve this is to prove the argument that the walls of Nicosia are the prototype of European Renaissance military architecture, through their detailed investigation since their construction. The research starts from the time that Cyprus was ceded to the Venetian Empire in 1489. It touches the preparation plans made for the fortification of Nicosia until today and any plans made for the walls. Emphasize in this research will be given in aspects that have to do or affect the walls of Nicosia. Initially a description is given on the background history of the walls explaining how the decision for their construction was taken and all the preparations that were made by the architect of the Venetian walls, Giulio Savorgnano, who arrived at the island for their construction. Subsequently, there will be an analysis of the concept and ideas of the architect behind the design of the walls and the military architectural techniques he incorporated, in order to ensure the effectiveness of the fortifications against the new war techniques of that time. There will also be an attempt to compare the Nicosia walls with the Candia walls, which were lastly designed by the same architect a few years earlier.
1
The Venetian Walls of Nicosia: Chandakas, Nicosia, Palmanova. A common ancestry, dir. by Dr Maro 11
Unfortunately the construction of the fortifications of Nicosia was terminated before they were entirely completed, by the Ottoman siege in 1570. Therefore, the walls of Nicosia were tested during this siege in real war conditions. Through the research of the different actions that took place during the siege, an examination of the actual effectiveness of the walls is done, summing up what worked well and what did not. The research goes on investigating the human interventions and preservations made to the walls through the following centuries until today. Moreover, there will be an analysis of the changes in the usage of the Nicosia walls and how they were affected by the expansion of the city and the Turkish invasion in the island in 1974. The main part of the dissertation will end by investigating how the Venetian walls of Nicosia became a prototype for the development of the fortifications until the eighteenth century, not only in the Venetian Empire but in the whole Europe. To support this statement, there will be an analysis and a comparison to the fortress of Palmanova, that was built later by Venetian architects including Savorgnano and is considered to be an improved version of the Nicosia walls. The dissertation will be completed by describing the discoveries of recent excavations in different parts of the walls and the planned reformation of the moat that is currently underway. Finally, my opinion is given on how we should treat the walls of Nicosia, which is based on my personal conclusions and knowledge that I received during my research.
Figure 1: Aerial view of the Constanza bastion and the South part of the Venetian walls in 1971.
12
Figure 2: Aerial view of Nicosia and the Venetian walls.
13
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Chapter 2 History of the Venetian Fortifications of Nicosia
2.1 Cyprus under the Republic of Venice Two of the existing empires in the Mediterranean during the fifteen century were the Republic of Venice (Venetian Empire) and the Lusignan Empire. The Lusignan Empire was originating from a noble family in Poitou (a province of Western France). It existed since the early tenth century when members of the family participated in the Crusades. During the following centuries, the Lusignans expanded by controlling and reigning the kingdoms of Jerusalem, Armenia and Cyprus (1192).2 The Venetian Empire was a state that had its origin in Venice (North-eastern Italy) and existed from the late seventh century until 1797. The Venetians were mainly following an economic and trading policy, but they also performed various wars in their history. During the fifteenth century, the Venetian Empire expanded in – Italy and along the Dalmatian coast. With the use of their powerful navy, the Venetians continued to expand towards the Easter Mediterranean, conquering different Greek islands such as Corfu and Crete. Cyprus was ceded officially from the Lusignans to the Republic of Venice in 1489 with the help of a fourteen-year-old woman, called Catherine Cornaro (Figure 3). Catherine was the daughter of Marco Cornaro, one of the Venetian leaders of that time. It was a fact that the former conquerors of Cyprus (the Lusignans) and the Venetians had a good relationship between them. So they both agreed for political purposes, to marry Catherine Cornaro with the latest Lusignan king of Cyprus, James II, provided that the Venetians would help the Lusignans in case Cyprus was under attack. Catherine married James II at Famagusta, in December 1471. Just two years later, James II died leaving behind a pregnant wife.3 The baby died as well just seven weeks after it was born making Catherine the Queen of Cyprus in Figure 3: Catherine Cornaro. 1474. For the next fifteen years, Catherine ruled the island. In The Queen of Cyprus from 1489 she abdicated from being the queen of Cyprus, transferring 1474 to 1489. the leadership of the island to the Republic of Venice, who at that time was considered as one of the biggest empires in the Mediterranean.4 2
The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica, ‘Lusignan Family’, Encyclopaedia Britannica Online <http://www.britannica.com/topic/Lusignan-family> [accessed 5 December 2015]. 3 Anna G. Marangou, Nicosia: The History of the City (Nicosia: Kasoulides and Son, 2009), p. 49. 4 Kevork K. Keshishian, Nicosia: Capital of Cyprus Then and Now, trans. by Kypros P. Psillides (Nicosia: Bookshop Moufflon, 1989), pp. 67-68. 15
Cyprus had a strategic and commercial importance during the Venetian domination, as it made trade easier with the Eastern Mediterranean. Also, the heavy taxation and the continuous exploitation of the islandâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s resources were generating significant income, which was enough not only to cover the costs of the administration of the island, but also to provide the surplus to the capital of the empire, Venice. On the other hand, the heavy taxation resulted in the poverty of the Cypriot residents, who had a difficult living compared to the Venetian residents, who they were in a much better economic condition. Thus, various revolts against the administration of the island took place. The revolts also resulted, by the fact that the Cypriots were forced to work several hours per day for the administration.5 Three Venetian commanders based in Nicosia ruled the island (the governor and two counsellors) and another commander based in Famagusta.6 During the Venetian domination, the island suffered from a series of ten earthquakes in 1490-1569. A positive note was that the population of the islandâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s capital, Nicosia, saw an enormous growth during the sixteenth century, peaking at 25,000 souls. Mainly this happened by the fact that many people from different Mediterranean or other Cypriot cities who visited Nicosia decided to move and live in the capital because it was wealthy and developing dramatically at that time.7
Figure 4: Symbol of the Venetian lion of St Mark inside the Venetian walls of Nicosia.
5
Despina Pilides and Euthimia Alpha, Fortified Cities: Past, Present and Future, Archaeologia Cypria, VI (Nicosia: Cultural Institution of Bank Cyprus, 2012), pp. 117-26 (pp. 118, 125). 6 Antros Pavlides, Cyprus Through the Centuries: Through the Writings of Foreign Visitors, 3 vols (Nicosia: Philokypros, 1993), p. 237. 7 Marangou, Nicosia: The History of the City, p. 104. 16
2.2 The Decision for the Fortification of the Island While Venice dominated in the Mediterranean, a new empire started to rise in Southeast Europe. It was the Ottoman Empire (also known as Turkish Empire) which was considered a serious threat by the Venetians, due to their expansive policy from the Western Asia towards the Mediterranean. That time was a development period for the Ottomans as they were growing economically, due to the control of trade routes between Asia and Europe. The fear of the Venetians was verified, when during the sixteenth century, the Ottomans started conquering the Venetian colonies one after another (Rhodes in 1522, Samos in 1550, Chios and Naxos in 1566). This fact made Cyprus a possible target, as it was the most exposed Venetian colony towards the Ottoman Empire. The rumours that the Ottomans were preparing to attack the island were increasing, and the Venetians decided to invest in new fortifications for the island. A supplementary reason was the fact that the existing fortifications could not cope with the new type of warfare, due to the invention of gunpowder and the use of firearms and cannons. Due to this, the Venetian military architects introduced a new system of the defensive fortifications of that time, and they were about to test this in the new fortifications of the island.8 For this purpose, they sent to the island several military architects and engineers to examine the technical possibilities of such a fortification and express their thoughts, on which cities should be fortified and how. One of the specialists who visited the island was Ascanio Savorgnano. He wrote a report about the defensive ways and fortification possibilities of the island. The report was later translated (1936) in Greek by Neoklis Kyriazis and today there are copies of it in various European libraries. Ιt is also worth mentioning that there was a copy of it in the Cyprological library in Famagusta, which was unfortunately destroyed during the Turkish invasion of the island in 1974. According to the report, Ascanio suggested fortifying only two or three places, so that in the case of war, people could gather in these places until they received reinforcements from the West. He also wrote information about the number of the residents of the island (about 180,000) and described the existing fortifications of the cities. For Nicosia, he mentioned that it had a flat land with a river and some mountains and hills around it. He also described the existing fortifications of Nicosia (the Lusignan walls), as circular shaped old walls with a perimeter of more than four miles and circular towers at different distances. However, he was against the new fortification of the capital, because of the difficulties that would arise if they had to change the existing Lusignan walls and also because the city was not close to the sea and as he claimed it would be difficult to be reinforced. 9 Specifically, Ascanio mentioned in his report: ‘[...] In the first instance considering Nicosia, seeing that this place does not lie on the sea nor in a situation in which it can be succoured, I am of the opinion that, even though it were in other respects suitable, the Most Serene Republic would be ill advised to fortify it. [...]’.10 8
Pilides and Alpha, pp. 118-19, 157. Marangou, Nicosia: The History of the City, p. 110-11. 10 Nicosia Municipality, ‘The Venetian Administration and the New Fortifications’, <http://www.nicosia.org.cy/en-GB/municipality/history/nicosia/new-fortress/> [accessed 6 December 2015]. 9
17
Eventually, the Republic of Venice decided to follow only one of the suggestions from Ascanioâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s report. That was to organise their defence in three places, and this was at the axis of Kyrenia-Nicosia-Famagusta, where the most fortifications took place. Specifically, Kyrenia, which had only 800 residents, was guarded by a small fort and some observation towers (Figure 5). On the other hand, Famagusta was better fortified by the existing Genovese walls (Figure 6) that they reinforced, and they also built a castle to strengthen the cityâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s defence. Finally, Nicosia had the current Lusignan walls that Ascanio was mentioning in his report.11 The final decision for the new fortification of Nicosia was not taken until the forthcoming Ottoman attack was very clear when Selim II claimed the new Sultan of the Ottoman Empire in 1567. Selim II was well known for his expansive policy. Therefore, the Republic of Venice assigned one of their best and most famous military architects, Giulio Savorgnano, the new fortification of Nicosia.12
Figure 5: Map of the fortification of Famagusta by Vincenzo Maria Coronelli.
Figure 6: Map of the fortification of Kyrenia.
11
Pilides and Alpha, p. 119. Chrysoyla Tzompanaki, Venetian Fortifications in Crete and Cyprus: Similarities of the War Monuments (Nicosia: Anastasios G. Leventis Foundation, 1998), pp. 20-22. 12
18
2.3 Giulio Savorgnano and the Preparation for the Construction of the Walls Giulio Savorgnano was the Governor of Corfu and the General Commander of the artillery and the fortifications of the whole Venetian Empire. He was also the stepbrother of Ascanio Savorgnano, who had visited the island earlier. Giulio arrived in Cyprus in 1567 and worked on the design and construction of the Venetian walls of Nicosia. After his stay in Cyprus, he was sent to design more fortifications in other Venetian colonies such as the fortress of S. Nicolo del Lido in Venice (1571) and the fortress of Palmanova (1593).13 Bonaiuto Lorini, a friend and partner of Savorgnano but also a military architect, expressed his opinion about Savorgnano in 1597 in his book Delle Fortificationi: ‘Savorgnano, who was a man of a lively and understanding spirit, took shipping as soon as ever he had his dispatches. Scarcely was he arrived on the island, but began to surround it, and view those places which most needed to be fortified, with such an exact diligence as answered the good opinion the Senate had of him. [...] He thought, at first, to build new walls and raise new forts to the city of Nicosia, being the capital of the Kingdom, situated in the midst of the island and was then about four miles in compass. The Nobility made their usual residence there, the Richest of the inhabitants rendered her the most wealthy and important place in all the country. Had she been put in a capacity to sustain a siege, might have proved, because of its greatness most commodious for a retreat to the country-people in a time of war. Neither did the change, nor the difficulty of the enterprise, which had always deterred the preceding governors, discourage Savorgnano’.14 Giulio had previous experience in designing fortifications as he worked on the Candia walls in Crete in 1561 (figure 7). Candia was the capital of Crete and also an important commercial city for the Venetian Empire. Therefore, it was necessary to fortify it to protect the city and its harbour. For this reason, many military architects such as Michele Sanmicheli, Giano da Campofragoso and Giovanni Moro were called to design the Candia walls. They Figure 7: Map of the Candia walls by G. Corner. determined the triangular perimeter of the walls and their shape, which consisted seven pentagonal bastions connected by straight segments between them. However, Savorgnano was the last architect to work on the Candia walls, designing their final form some years before he arrived in Cyprus.15 13
Tzompanaki, pp. 17-22. Nicosia Municipality, ‘The New Fortifications by Giulio Savorgnano’, <http://www.nicosia.org.cy/en-GB/municipality/history/nicosia/new-walls/> [accessed 6 December 2015]. 15 Tzompanaki, pp. 13-18. 14
19
Before the beginning of the construction of the fortification of Nicosia, Giulio was in talks with the noblemen of Cyprus. The noblemen were eleven wealthy families living in Nicosia who were taking part in the leadership of the city. Eventually, they agreed to grant the construction of the walls as they were all residing in Nicosia and the fortification would protect their wealth. Giulio estimated the cost of the fortification up to 120,000 ducats, the total work time for the completion of the walls up to eight months, the total workforce of between 5000 and 6000 people and in case of war it could accommodate up to 130,000 soldiers.16 However, to be able to begin the construction, it was necessary to demolish all the buildings outside the proposed perimeter of the new walls (figure 8) and the existing Lusignan walls (figure 9). By doing this, he would be able to reuse their materials for the construction of the walls, while, in the case of war, the enemy would not be able to use these buildings to his advantage. Specifically, about 1800 houses, 80 churches, two monasteries and many gardens were demolished reducing the size of the city within the perimeter of the new walls, which was one-third of the perimeter of the demolished Lusignan walls. Lastly, they diverted the flow of the Pedieos River, which passed through the city, so that it would go around the new walls and would be used as a moat. After all, these preparations, the construction of the Venetian walls of Nicosia was finally ready to take place on 1 June 1567.16
Figure 8: Map showing approximately the churches, monasteries, houses and gardens that were demolished for the construction of the Venetian walls.
16
Marangou, Nicosia: The History of the City, pp. 112-14. 20
Figure 9: Map of the Venetian and Lusignan walls of Nicosia together with some major buildings by Kevork K. Keshishian..
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Chapter 3 The Concept and Construction of the Venetian Walls
3.1 The Conceptual Idea The dominant and most efficient defensive system against the artillery of the sixteenth century was called Fronte Bastionato, and it changed the form of the fortifications completely. Specifically, the high vertical walls were lowered notably, and their external side were tilted. In addition, the internal side of the circuit of the walls was reinforced with embankment fill. The fortified city was enclosed by the walls that had a symmetrical circular or polygon shape to be protected. Therefore, Giulio Savorgnano chose to follow this system of the fortifications of Nicosia as he did earlier with the walls of Candia Crete.17 The plan of the Venetian walls has a stellar geometric shape. It is a circular structure with three gates and eleven bastions placed in equal positions between them.18 Moreover, as George Jeffery (Curator of Ancient Monuments until 1935) claimed, the idea of Giulio Savorgnano for the walls of Nicosia is based on a perfect circle whose centre was the Cathedral Church of Hagia Sophia (figure 10).19 The original height of the walls is 12m, and the diameter of the circular shape is 1402m. Also, the perimeter of the walls is 3200m (without considering the bastions), and it covers a total land area of 1415km². The width of the moat that surrounds the walls is 80m.20 The eleven bastions are heart-shaped platforms, all alike, that allow the troops to move forward from their actual defensive line. Giulio Savorgnano created eleven bastions for the walls of Nicosia to correspond to the eleven administrative regions of Cyprus (except Nicosia) during the Venetian domination.21 The bastions were named after the eleven families who sponsored their construction as a recognition of their overall help. Specifically, seven of the bastions bear the names of Cypriot noblemen (Caraffa, Podocataro, Costanza, Dâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;Avila, Tripoli, Roccas and Flatro) while the rest four bear the names of Venetian officers (Mula, Quirini, Barbaro and Loredano). They all have about the same distance between them which is 280m and a perimeter of 325m (figure 10). In addition, each bastion could contain 2000 infantrymen and four artillery pieces.22 The first time that Giulio used bastions in his design was for the walls of Candia. Unlike in Nicosia, the Candia walls have only seven bastions and their size varies according to the alterations of the architects who worked 17
Tzompanaki, pp. 10-11, 22. Pilides and Alpha, p. 121. 19 Marangou, Nicosia: The History of the City, p. 107. 20 Keshishian, p. 69. 21 Pilides and Alpha, p. 121. 22 Marangou, Nicosia: The History of the City, pp. 115-16. 18
23
previously on their design, while the distance between them is not the same as it happens in Nicosia. Finally, the moat around the walls in Candia was dry, while in Nicosia was destined to be filled with water from Pedieos River but it was left unfinished, because of the early Ottomanâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s attack.23 Figure 10: Map of Nicosia with the names of the bastions by Vincenzo Maria Coronelli.
The gates of the walls were used to connect the inside with the outside of the walls. They were the most vulnerable points of the fortification and thus, similarly to the Candia walls, they were limited to three and well guarded. Furthermore, each gate was a place of presenting various Venetian symbols and messages for the residents, the enemies, the merchants and the travellers of the city. As a result of this, they have an imposing architecture. The gates housed various state officials and the guards while different important commercial activities were taking place there.24 The first and smallest gate was called Porta del Proveditore (now Kyrenia Gate) and got its name from the Venetian engineer and administrator of Nicosia, Francesco Barbaro. It is located on the North side of the walls. The circulation was achieved through an arched passageway with a flat roof and an internal ramp at each side (figure 11). The second gate was placed on the Southwest side of the walls and was called Porta di San Domenico (now Paphos Gate) due to the famous church of Saint Dominic who has been demolished where the gate stands. It was also known as the upper gate due to its altitude. It has an arched passageway as well, with a heavy double leaf wooden door. One room at each side of the gate was used by the guard and the armour (figure 12). The final and main gate was called Porta Giuliana (now Famagusta Gate) or Porta di Sotto (lower gate). It is located on the East side of the walls, and it is the most famous and beautiful gate of the walls (figure 13). It was named after its architect Giulio Savorgnano, who decided to repeat the design of the Candia wallâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s gate in Crete, called Porta Zorzi (figure 14), due to the time pressure. Therefore, the two gates were very similar when they were built. Porta Giuliana has a monumental look and consists of a central passageway with a magnificent dome and one room at each side which were used as barracks.25.
23
Tzompanaki, pp. 18, 22. Pilides and Alpha, pp. 132-33. 25 The Venetian Walls of Nicosia: Chandakas, Nicosia, Palmanova. A common ancestry, dir. by Dr Maro Theodosiadou (Anadysis Films, 2010). 24
24
Figure 11: The Kyrenia Gate.
Figure 12: The Paphos Gate.
Figure 13: The Famagusta Gate.
Figure 14: Porta Zorzi of the Candia walls in Crete.
25
3.2 The Military Architectural Construction of the Walls The first thing Giulio Savorgnano did before the design and the construction of the walls was to view and analyse the site. He realised that the boroughs of Nicosia were covering an extensive area of nine miles, and the perimeter of the existing Lusignan walls was far too long to be guarded by the Venetian army while it was too close to the surrounding hills as well. Savorgnano knew that it would be easy for the enemy to hit the walls with its artillery from the nearby hills. Therefore, he kept the city and the perimeter of the new walls as far away as possible from the hills, so that the artillery shots of the enemy could not reach the walls or the city. To do this, he had to demolish, as mentioned before, many buildings along with the Lusignan walls so that the perimeter of the city could be reduced to 3 miles and surrounded by the new walls. It was also necessary to remove all the trees outside the walls, to provide a clear view of the defenders.26 Savorgnano used the same materials for the walls of Nicosia, as he used for the construction of the walls of Candia because they proved successful against the artillery. The walls consisted of embankment fill, whose outer side was clad and held by strong stonework masonry for half their height. The rest was just a grassy slope of 45 degrees that was used to absorb the enemy’s artillery fire, without causing any significant damage to the walls, as F. Basilicata mentioned. The embankment fill was obtained from the excavations of the moat and the stones from the demolished buildings and the old medieval walls. By binding the limestones with a premix of lime and soil, the construction of the stonework not only was costing less but also, its elasticity against the impact force of the enemy’s artillery was increased.27 Nothing has survived today from the upper part of the walls. However, we know that they existed, from a letter that was sent by Savorgnano to the Prince of Parma in 1584 where he gives his thoughts for the walls: ‘[...] I have always left uncovered by stone the upper half of walls, that part which protrudes above the level of the surrounding area. [...] In Nicosia, for example, where the upper part was made of earth, the walls were not destroyed, even though cannon shots were fired at it. [...]’.28 The pentagonal or heart-shaped bastions used by Savorgnano for the walls of Nicosia (figure 15) constitute an advanced form of the bastions invented by the military architect Michele Sanmicheli in the early sixteenth century, made for the walls of Verona. However, the bastions of the Nicosia walls were still in an experimental stage and contributed significantly to the evolution of the bastion’s form until the early nineteenth century that was the end of the 26
Figure 15: The design of the bastion that was used in Nicosia.
Gianni M. Perbellini, The Fortress of Nicosia: Prototype of European Renaissance Military Architecture (Nicosia: Anastasios G. Leventis Foundation, 1994), pp. 9-10. 27 Tzompanaki, pp. 24-25. 28 Agni Petrides and others, Famagusta Gate (Nicosia: The Old Nicosia Association, 1988), pp. 11-12. 26
bastion era.29 In the design of the Nicosia bastions, Savorgnano did not make use of the Piazza Bassa as he did with the walls of Candia because they proved of little use. The Piazza Bassa was an intermediate level between the bastion and the straight segment of the wall that connects the two bastions, called Cortina. The cannons were normally placed at the Piazza Bassa, but because Savorgnano did not use the Piazza Bassa in his bastionâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s design in Nicosia, he placed the cannons within the bastions themselves. Aside from this, the curved edges of the bastions gave more resistance to the walls against the enemy gunfire. Finally, the 280m distance between the bastions was determined by the range of the cannons. It is the perfect distance because the range of the cannons was about 270m and thus it could hit directly the enemy, without the danger of hitting the defenders on the opposite bastion.30 When Savorgnano was called back to Venice in December 1568 after his request for unclear reasons, the walls of Nicosia were unfinished. The responsibility for the construction of the walls was undertaken by the Governor of the island, Nicolo Dandolo. Unfortunately, Dandolo did not manage to finish the outer parts of the defensive system such as the moat and the counterscarp. Also, the military engineer and General, Leonardo Roncone, covered with stone only four of the bastions (Tripoli, Rocca, Mula and Quirini), before the construction of the walls was interrupted by the Ottoman attack in 1570.31
Figure 16: Original sketch by Giulio Savorgnano for the fortification of Nicosia.
29
Perbellini, p. 7. The Venetian Walls of Nicosia: Chandakas, Nicosia, Palmanova. A common ancestry, dir. by Dr Maro Theodosiadou (Anadysis Films, 2010). 31 Petrides and others, p. 10. 30
27
28
Chapter 4 The Fortifications of Nicosia during the Siege
4.1 The Ottoman Siege (The Walls in Practise) The attack of the Ottomans to Cyprus in 1570 is indisputably one of the most remarkable facts that happened to the island, as it changed its history and identity dramatically. Due to this, people (especially witnesses who lived and survived the siege) have written their experiences in books, describing in detail the tough days of the siege. Some of these are Fabriano Falchetti, Giovanni Sozomeno, Angelo Calepio and Angelo Gatto, who described the events that happened during the war. As a result of this, various sources refer and give plenty of information about the attack and siege of Nicosia by the Ottomans. Furthermore, as the war was in progress, there were different informative brochures printed across Europe in various languages, aiming to inform the people about the war in Cyprus. In addition, after the end of the war, there were also several maps printed representing the siege and attack of the Ottomans to the two most important cities of Cyprus, Nicosia and Famagusta. From these maps, we also get much information about the attack such as the position of the Ottoman troops outside the walls, the interior of the city and highlights of the different battles that took place. For Nicosia, the most popular maps are the maps of Giovanni Francesco Camocio in 1570, Balthasar Jenichen in 1570 (figure 17) and Simon Pinargenti in 1572-73 (figure 18).32
Figure 17: Map representing the Ottoman siege by Balthasar Jenichen in 1570.
32
Figure 18: The siege of Nicosia by Simon Pinargenti in 1572-73.
Marangou, Nicosia: The History of the City, p. 122. 29
The war was made clear when in late March 1570, the Sultan of the Ottoman Empire, Selim II, sent a letter to the Governor of Cyprus. Selim II threatened the Venetians to surrender and cede the island to him, or else he would attack and conquer the island himself, as he did. The Venetians denied surrendering and in 4th of May, Cyprus was officially in a war with the Ottoman Empire. During the following weeks, the Venetians tried to do some last works on the walls, fill the moat of the old Lusignan walls with earth, remove the ruins from the demolished buildings and collect enough food inside the city. In 2nd of July 1570, the commander of the Ottoman army, Lala Mustafa, arrived in Larnaca with 100,000 men, heading towards Nicosia without facing any resistance by the Venetians, as they were gathered and waiting for them inside their fortified cities, Nicosia and Famagusta. The Ottomans decided to attack Nicosia first because the Venetians walls were not finished by that time.33 In 26th of July, the Ottomans arrived outside Nicosia and the Venetian walls. Lala Mustafa installed his army on the hills, South of Nicosia and they started building towers made by earth just behind the bastions Podocataro, Costanza and Dâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;Avila. At the same time, the Venetians equipped the residents with weapons and divided them into groups, setting the eleven noblemen who donated for the construction of the Venetian walls as leaders for each group. The men who fought for the Venetians against the Ottomans according to the estimations were about 12,000. Before Lala Mustafa held his first attack, he was moving with his cavalry around the walls exploring them to figure out the position of the defenders and the vulnerable parts of the walls. During the night, the Ottomans were making forts from where they used to hit the Venetian walls and the buildings inside the city with their cannons. They built their first fort on the hill of Santa Marina, 300 paces away from the Podocataro bastion but the distance was too far away from the walls and the damage made was not enough. Therefore, they built three more forts in the hills of Saint George, Margarita and Mandia. Mustafa soon realised that the damage was still not enough, and he decided to change his strategy by building trenches near the Venetian walls. However, nor this tactic helped much and thus the besiegers stopped the cannon shots towards the walls and the city. They continued the siege by moving closer and sapping the walls while they were doing several attacks at the same time with their numerous troops. The Venetians responded with 2,000 troops attacking the Ottomans outside the walls making them withdraw their forces in two parts of the walls. Both sides suffered many losses during these battles while the walls of Nicosia were badly damaged by that time. The Ottomans started again to bombard the walls and the city with their cannons continuously while they were pushing towards the walls. According to the siege, Angelo Calepio wrote: â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;Day and night they were opening fire with firearms of any kind and very often with cannons. Especially in Sundays, they were aiming our churches. Many were dying every day, the hospitals were full of wounded people, and only four hundred soldiers remained healthy. [...]â&#x20AC;&#x2122;.34 33 34
Pilides and Alpha, pp. 126-27. Marangou, Nicosia: The History of the City, pp. 123-26. 30
Eventually, after seven weeks of siege and many battles, the Ottomans managed to break the defence of the Venetians, on 9th September 1570. Specifically, the Ottomans conquered the moat of the Venetian walls in the 2nd of August and during the following days, they invaded the Venetian walls. In the 9th of September, they managed to get on the Podocataro bastion and then, they conquered Nicosia killing and plundering the city for three days. According to the estimations, the people who died in this war were up to 20,000. Some residents were captured as prisoners or sold as slaves by the Ottomans and some managed to escape. Nicosia was heavily damaged by this attack, as many buildings were partly or wholly destroyed. Cyprus was completely under the Ottoman Empire after nearly a year, in August 1571, when the Ottomans conquered the last city of the island, Famagusta.35
Figure 19: Plan of Nicosia with indications concerning the Ottoman siege by George Jeffery in 1907.
35
Marangou, Nicosia: The History of the City, pp. 127-28. 31
4.2 The Causes for the fall of Nicosia and the Effectiveness of the Walls There are numerous reasons why the Venetians lost the battle of Nicosia against the Ottoman Empire. However, not all of them have to do with the Venetian fortifications of the city. Probably, the most significant fact that gave an important advantage to the besiegers was the number and experience of troops each side had. The 100,000 Ottomans were too much for the 12,000 defenders of Nicosia, who were not enough to defend their walls. The defenders of Nicosia were composed of 1,500 Venetian soldiers; 3,500 trained local farmers and the rest were just inexperienced residents. On top of this, unlike the Ottomans, the two leaders of the Nicosiaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s defenders (Nicolo Dandolo and Eugenios Sigklitikos) were also inexperienced and unable to lead their troops properly. In Addition, there was a rivalry between the local defenders and the Venetian soldiers, because the latest were accused that they were not taking part in some battles and that they were hiding supplies for themselves. As a result of this, in the 20th of August, the local defenders of the city revolted against the leadership and twenty days later the Ottomans conquered Nicosia.36 The Venetian walls of Nicosia were tested during the Ottoman siege, even if they were not completely finished by that time. The siege proved that the policy of the maximum result for the minimum cost that the Venetians followed for the construction of the Venetian walls was ineffective. The most important problem of the walls regarding the design was the lack of a road network that would connect the layout of the city and the bastions between them. Savorgnano used an entirely abstract concept for the planning of the circular wall and the eleven bastions without considering the existing urban layout of the city (figure 20). As a result, many obstacles were created that reduced the mobility of the troops along and towards the perimeter of the wall or the bastions. Another fact that proved against the defenders was that the moat was not deep enough, and there was no counterscarp. Due to this, the Ottomans were able to move earth from the hills nearby to fill the moat and with the use of ladders to climb to the wall. They also diverted the flow of the River Pedieos to prevent the replenishment of the moat. If the moat were constructed properly, it would have kept the besiegers away from the walls.37 On the other hand, the design of the walls of Nicosia had some good aspects. The fact that the walls were thick, made of earth and the lack of stone from the upper part of the walls made it impossible for the Ottomans to damage significantly or create any openings in the walls because the impact of the enemy cannonballs was cushioned by the surface of the walls. The military architect and friend of Savorgnano, Bonaiuto Lorini, defended the design of the Venetian walls of Nicosia in his book Delle Fortificationi (1597): â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;As for the defence fortifications of Nicosia, I have to say that it was a modern fort with embrasures well suited for its defence. The fort of Nicosia, as I saw it finished two months before the Turks attacked, was very well designed. With 36 37
Pilides and Alpha, pp. 127-28. Perbellini, pp. 7, 10-11. 32
admiration, I saw that it was the best possible work that, according to my opinion, could be done. [...] If, in this fort, there was the appropriate for its size, the number of defenders, it was not going to be lost. I will not say anything more other than the fort of Nicosia was the best-designed fort I ever saw, built in an orderly manner and in such a short timeâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;.38
Figure 20: Map of Nicosia by Francesco Valegio showing approximately the urban layout of the city a few years after the Ottoman siege.
38
Marangou, Nicosia: The History of the City, pp. 116-17. 33
34
Chapter 5 The Venetian Walls after the Siege
5.1 The Human Interference on the Walls Nicosia lost the identity of a glamorous and multitudinous city when the Ottoman Empire took up the possession of the island. Nicosia was a remote, forgotten and unimportant city for the Ottomans, whose Empire started to decline, having economic and administrative problems. For these reasons, the actions that the Ottomans took to repair the Venetian Walls of Nicosia were minimal. Just after they conquered Nicosia, they roughly and partly repaired the walls. Moreover, they added stones to the upper part of the walls, which were left uncovered by Giulio Savorgnano. Finally, they added embrasures in some places of the walls. Despite the efforts by the Ottomans to repair the walls, the travellers who visited Nicosia during the Ottoman domination, described the walls of Nicosia being in a bad condition and damaged in different places. According to the travellers, the moat was filled with earth and was used as a place for the residents to throw their rubbish or to have their animals grazing. Also, some bastions were used as graveyards. The three gates continued to be the only way people could enter the city, and they were open during the sunrise and closed at the sunset. The rooms of the gates were mainly used as storages. The interventions made by the Ottomans to the gates were minimal as well. Initially, they added a stone slab with the monogram of the Sultan Mahmud II at the top of each gate, and later they built a room on top of the Kyrenia Gate to be used by their army. In general, the Ottomans were not caring for the preservation of the walls at all. However, the walls of Nicosia during the three centuries of the Ottoman domination were still an impressing attraction for the city.39 With the Convention of Istanbul between the Ottomans and the British in 1878, Cyprus was ceded to the Great Britain and on 12th July 1878, the British flag was raised in Nicosia.40 Since the beginning of the British rule, Nicosia started to expand residentially outside the walls. The first buildings were built outside the Paphos Gate and during the first decades of the 20th century, the residential expansion increased even more. Due to the excessive expansion of Nicosia outside the walls, the three gates were not enough to satisfy the circulation needs of the people in and out of the walls. As a result of this, the British Government made some openings in the walls to facilitate the people. At first, they built a narrow wooden bridge above the moat next to the Dâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; Avila bastion, which can be seen on the map of the city made by Kitchener in 1882 (figure 21). Later in 1930, the bridge was replaced by a wider stone bridge with arches. Finally in 1939, the city mayor Themistoklis Dervis,
39 40
Pilides and Alpha, pp. 130-35. Keshishian, p. 91. 35
decided to widen further the bridge. For this purpose, it was necessary to demolish the Eastern part of the Dâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; Avila bastion and rebuilt it 20 feet away from its original position, using the same materials. The bridge was called Metaxas Square (it was renamed to Eleftheria Square in 1974) and was the main entrance to the city inside the walls (figure 22). To create road access to other parts of the walls as well, the Government decided to remove entirely parts of the walls adjacent to the Paphos Gate (figure 23) and Kyrenia Gate (figure 24) in 1931. With the creation of these openings, the use of the three original gates of the Venetian walls was changed. The interior part of Paphos Gate was used as a parking, Famagusta Gate was used for different events, and Kyrenia Gate became a single monument.41
Figure 21: The map of Nicosia made by Kitchener in 1882 showing the first buildings built outside the walls and the wooden bridge built next to the Dâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;Avila bastion (labelled as Limassol Gate).
41
Pilides and Alpha, pp. 136-39, 159-61, 168-70, 173. 36
Figure 22: The Metaxas Square in 1950 (renamed to Eleftheria Square in 1974).
Figure 23: The Paphos Gate today and the opening made to the wall next to the gate for easier access to the city.
Figure 24: The Kyrenia Gate today at the Turkish occupied side of Cyprus and the openings made to the wall at both sides of the gate. 37
During the British rule, the person who was caring the most about the walls of Nicosia was the Curator of Ancient Monuments George Jeffery. As an architect, Jeffery knew the significance of the Venetian walls and thus he was constantly complaining about the wrong interventions made to the walls, but without any positive response in most of the times. However, he managed to do some works that helped to improve the condition of the walls. During the 1910s and 1920s, he took care of the embellishment of the moat and the preservation of the bastions, by creating green areas. With his responsibility, the Famagusta Gate was preserved, too. In 1935, the Venetian walls of Nicosia were declared as an Ancient Monument Table A in an attempt to become more considerable by the people. During 193739, the walls were entirely preserved by filling the missing parts of the walls with stones, clearing the moat and creating staircases in some places of the walls to improve the access to the city inside the walls. From then onwards, the government continued doing small periodic maintenance to keep the walls in a good condition.42 Due to the expansion of Nicosia, the Venetian walls of Nicosia lost their defensive identity that changed over time during the British rule. The walls became a symbolic monument for the city, and thus, they are present on the logo of the Nicosia Municipality. By that time, the bastions and the moat were used for various events like parades (figure 25) and different athletic, army and police activities. The moat outside the Famagusta and Kyrenia Gates was used as animal markets. In other parts of the moat, they planted trees and built football or tennis courts, parking places and playgrounds. Different buildings were constructed on the bastions as well. Specifically, at the Caraffa Bastion a stable for the residentâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s animals was built, at the Flatro Bastion a football court, at the Tripoli and Constanza bastions parking places and the Quirini, Barbaro and Loredano bastions, rope manufacturing factories. In 1930, at the Dâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;Avila bastion a cabaret was built and the same building, five years later was the house for the APOEL sports club. In 1944, the municipal services were transferred at the Dâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;Avila bastion and in 1952 the base of the city's mayor. The walls of Nicosia during the British rule were a nice place for the residents to have a walk and enjoy the beautiful views of the city.43
Figure 25: Parade by British soldiers at the moat between Roccas and Mula bastions in 1937. 42 43
Pilides and Alpha, pp. 20-22, 138, 142, 177. Pilides and Alpha, pp. 140-42. 38
Figure 26: Part of the Venetian walls collapsed in 1940.
After the transmission of the sovereignty of the island to the newly founded Democracy of Cyprus in 1960, the interference on the Venetian walls was still the same both regarding usage and preservation. However, after the Turkish invasion of Cyprus in 1974, Nicosia and the Venetian walls were divided, making Nicosia the last divided capital in Europe and about half of the Venetian walls are now part of the Turkish occupied side. Specifically, Kyrenia Gate and the bastions Roccas, Mula, Quirini, Barbaro, Loredano and part of the Flatro Bastion are located on the Turkish side. This part of the Venetian walls is visible in a worse condition today, as it is hard for the Cypriot Government to preserve them and the Turkish are not looking after them.
5.2 The Walls of Nicosia as Prototype for Subsequent European Fortifications The Venetian walls of Nicosia proved to be critical for the development of the fortifications during the two following centuries after the Ottoman siege in 1570, not only for Venice but the rest of Europe too. The fact that the walls of Nicosia were tested against one of the most powerful and professional armies of that time made them a determinative and significant example for the study of the bastions, the defensive fortifications and other techniques against the artillery. The fall of Nicosia revealed the disadvantages for this type of fortifications, which were identified and taken into consideration by various military architects for the design of later fortifications. The first who did this was Giulio Savorgnano himself, in collaboration with another architect called Storza-Pallavicino, for the fortress of S. Nicolo del Lido in Venice (1571). This time, Savorgnano had the chance to avoid the most significant disadvantage of the Nicosia walls, the road system. He organised a perfect and simple road system for the fortress of S. Nicolo del Lido, that was corresponding to the bastions of the walls. Subsequently, other Venetian military architects such as De Marchi, Lorini and Scamozzi followed the same defensive system for their fortification designs, having as an example the walls of Nicosia.44 The walls of Nicosia were used as a reference for the most perfected for its type, fortification design of the Venetian Empire, as well. This is the Palmanova fortress in Northern Italy (figures 27 and 30), which was designed by Giulio Savorgnano in collaboration with Lorini and Scamozzi in 1593. The Venetians wanted to build this fortress especially as a defence against the Ottoman Empire. Savorgnano used the same stellar shape with three gates as he did for the walls of Nicosia, with the difference that now he was working on an empty and flat ground without any obstacles, and thus he organised a perfect road system that was designed in relation to the bastions.45 The road system is consisted by straight radial roads, intersecting each other and located around a central plaza and six other smaller squares (figure 28). Eventually, the fortress of Palmanova was never tested under any attack and it remains until today a peaceful fortress and monument of the Northern Italy. 46 44
Perbellini, p. 11. Marangou, Nicosia: The History of the City, p. 131. 46 Pilides and Alpha, p. 129. 45
39
Figure 27: Map of the Palmanova fortress by J. Janssonium in 1657.
Figure 28: Comparison of the road system and layout between the Venetian walls of Nicosia (left) and the fortress of Palmanova (right).
Figure 29: Comparison of the bastion design used for the walls of Nicosia (bottom) and for the fortress of Palmanova (top). 40
The same fortification type of a stellar city with bastions that was used by Savorgnano in Nicosia was also utilised in the rest of Europe beyond the Venetian territories, until the end of the eighteenth century. This was because this type of fortification proved to be an excellent defence against artillery attacks and sieges.47 It was adopted and adapted by different German, Dutch, French and other theorists for the fortresses of various European cities. Like Groningen (Netherlands), Jaromer (Czech Republic), Elsinore (Denmark), Neuf-Brisach (France, figure 31), Nove Zamky (Slovakia), Pamplona (Spain), Essex (England) and many more. The Venetian walls of Nicosia were a distinctive and significant study model for the development of the fortifications and defensive techniques of that time, making them a great prototype of the European military architecture.48
Figure 30: Aerial view of the Palmanova fortress in Italy built in 1593.
Figure 31: Aerial view of the Neuf-Brisach fortress in France built in 1697. 47 48
Pilides and Alpha, p. 129. Perbellini, p. 12. 41
42
Chapter 6 Conclusion
Today, four and a half centuries after the construction of the Venetian walls of Nicosia, they are still a distinctive monument. Even if they have been highly affected since their construction, they are maintaining their sensational look and importance. However, their future is uncertain, and it lies in the hands of the people and anyone who is responsible for their maintenance. Therefore, we should promote and support any project that aims to highlight the significance of the Venetian walls to the people, so that they behave with the befitting respect to them. Just like this dissertation, that through the investigation of the Venetian walls, proves their enormous impact, not only to Nicosia and its residents but to the whole Europe and its Renaissance military architecture. We should also preserve the Venetian walls in the best possible condition and show them off by doing different interventions that will only be beneficial for the monument. During the last few years, a series of archaeological excavations are taking place in specific parts of the moat in order to investigate further the Venetian walls. In 2008, excavations started to take place next to the D’Avila bastion, due to the forthcoming planned reformation of the moat and the Eleftheria Square. The excavations revealed part of the straight segment (cortina) of the walls between the D’Avila and Figure 33: The reveal of the original part of the Tripoli bastions, the full segment (neck) that D’Avila bastion that was demolished in 1939 and rebuilt. connects the D’Avila bastion with the perimeter of the walls and the foundations of the original part of the D’Avila bastion that was demolished in 1939 and rebuilt nearby (figure 32), in order to widen the Eleftheria Square.49 In addition, the last couple of years, excavations are taking place at Paphos Gate as well. Part of the Lusignan wall’s foundations that was demolished in order to build the Venetian walls was revealed (figure 33). These excavations are important for the confirmation and enrichment of our knowledge Figure 32: The foundations of the Lusignan walls regarding the walls of Nicosia. that were revealed outside the Paphos Gate during recent excavations.
49
Pilides and Alpha, p. 165. 43
Significant impact on the walls will be the reformation of the moat and Eleftheria Square, which was won after a contest by Zaha Hadid Architects and is already under construction (figure 34). After the excavation at the D’Avila bastion, the project was adjusted so that it would not affect the discoveries negatively. The project aims to the creation of an urban park and a modern square-bridge that will Figure 34: The construction of the new Eleftheria Square and the reformation of the moat by Zaha facilitate the circulation of the people Hadid Architects underway. towards the historical centre of the city 50 (figures 35 and 36). It is for sure a big step for the future of the Venetian walls. For now, there are different views whether this will be beneficial for the monument or not, but we will have to wait until the project is complete in order to come to correct conclusions. It is essential that we maintain the historical and monumental identity of the Venetian walls of Nicosia as it is the most symbolic monument of the capital of Cyprus and a prototype of the European Renaissance military architecture. To achieve this, the further study and appropriate treatment of the Nicosia walls as an indivisible whole is necessary. Figure 35: The modern-square bridge (new Eleftheria Square) designed by Zaha Hadid Architects.
Figure 36: The entire reformation of the moat designed by Zaha Hadid Architects.
50
Elina Stamatiou, ‘Christos Passas of Zaha Hadid Architects reveals the new Eleftheria Square’, Sell & Build, (2011) <http://www.sellandbuild.com/interview/5355#sthash.ceeUIbKP.dpuf> [accessed 11 January 2016]. 44
Figure 37: The Famagusta Gate today is used for different events.
Figure 38: The Podocataro bastion with the Liberty monument.
Figure 39: The moat between Constanza and Podocataro bastions.
45
46
Bibliography Arkan, Merve, ‘The 1570-1 conquest of Cyprus on Italian siege maps of Nicosia and Famagusta’, The Portolan, (2015), pp. 7-18 Coldstream, Nicola, Nicosia – Gothic city to Venetian fortress (Nicosia: Anastasios G. Leventis Foundation, 1993) Coureas, Nicholas, and others, Historic Nicosia, ed. by D. Michaelides (Nicosia: Rimal Publications, 2012), pp. 204-11 Demi, Danilo, The walled city of Nicosia: Typology study (Nicosia: United Nations Development Programme, 1997), pp. 23-44 Enlart, Camille, Gothic art and the Renaissance in Cyprus, ed. and trans. by David Hunt, 2 vols (Paris: Ernest Leroux, 1899), pp. 387-90 Great Encyclopaedia of Cyprus, vol. 3 (Nicosia: Philokypros, 1985), pp. 199-212 Hadjigavriel, Loukia L., The walls of Nicosia (Nicosia: Leventis Municipal Museum, 1995), pp. 7-16 Iacovou, Maria, and Dimitra Papanicola-Mpakirtzi, Byzantine Medieval Cyprus (Nicosia: Cultural Institution of Bank Cyprus, 1997), pp. 167-86 Keshishian, Kevork K., Nicosia: Capital of Cyprus Then and Now, trans. by Kypros P. Psillides (Nicosia: Bookshop Moufflon, 1989), pp. 60-95 Mallinson, William, Cyprus: A Historical overview, trans. by Danai Deli (Nicosia: Republic of Cyprus, 2008), pp. 14-15 Marangou, Anna G., Nicosia: A special capital (Nicosia: Leventis Municipal Museum, 1995), pp. 40-61 —— Nicosia: The History of the City (Nicosia: Kasoulides and Son, 2009), pp. 48-53, 91-131
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Marios Kypridemos - 130231006 ARC 3060 - Dissertation in Architectural Studies Newcastle University 2015-2016 Word count: 8417 48